29122	----	Mammals Obtained by Dr. Curt von Wedel from the Barrier Beach of Tamaulipas, Mexico BY E. RAYMOND HALL University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 4, pp. 33-47, 1 figure in text October 1, 1951 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 4, pp. 33-47, 1 figure in text October 1, 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE, KANSAS PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1951 23-7414 Mammals Obtained by Dr. Curt von Wedel from the Barrier Beach of Tamaulipas, Mexico BY E. RAYMOND HALL What species of mammals occur on the "coastal island", barrier beach, of Tamaulipas? Are the closest relatives of these mammals on Padre and Mustang islands of Texas, instead of on the mainland of Tamaulipas, or are the mammals on the barrier beach distinct from all others? These were questions that Dr. von Wedel of Oklahoma City and I asked ourselves in March of 1950 when we were in southern Texas. With the aim in mind of answering these questions, Dr. von Wedel arranged round-trip transportation, by air, for the two of us between Brownsville, Texas, and Boca Jesús María. The latter place is a "pass", tidal inlet, through the long barrier beach. The waters of the Gulf of Mexico and of the lagoon behind the beach flow back and forth with the changing tides through the inlet. We arrived at Boca Jesús María on March 18, 1950, and left on March 22, 1950. Our headquarters there were in one of the four one-story buildings immediately north of the inlet. This place is approximately 89-1/2 miles south, and 10 miles west, of Matamoros, Mexico. Most of our collecting was done on the sand dunes one and one-half miles north of the buildings but on the evening of March 20 we made a round-trip, by boat of course, to the sand dunes on the south side of the inlet to set traps; these traps, and the _Dipodomys_ that were caught in them, were picked up the following morning. At the time of our visit, the part of the barrier beach south of the tidal inlet was connected with the mainland. The connection was far to the southward, according to our pilot, Mr. Kagy of Brownsville, and also according to the testimony of the Mexicans at the fishing camp where we stayed on the north side of the inlet. The barrier beach which lay to the north of the inlet extended sixty-odd miles northward to the delta of the Río Grande and had, we were told, eight "passes," including Paso Jesús María. At the time of our visit, however, only three of these tidal inlets were open, it was said; the five others were thought to be filled in with sand, which permitted terrestrial animals to move from one part of the beach to another. Dr. von Wedel and I saw two tidal inlets that were open when we were being flown back to Brownsville. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Diagram of physiographic features of the barrier beach of Tamaulipas. Top view looking down, as from an airplane, on the beach. Bottom view is profile.] The long, low, sandy island, technically a barrier beach, irrespective of tide varied in width from a quarter of a mile to as much as a mile and was separated from the mainland by the Laguna Madre, which was four miles wide opposite our trapping station. To the northward the width of the lagoon gradually increased until, at a place thirty miles north of our trapping station, the lagoon was almost 20 miles wide. The island was perhaps four feet above high tide. Superimposed on this, in places, there were sand dunes, technically barchans, so arranged that the end of one touched the end of the next. The tops of some were as much as 20 feet above high tides and the chain of these connected-dunes on which we trapped was approximately a mile long. Incipient tidal inlets were frequent; they were where storm-driven waves of high tides had broken across the island between the adjacent ends of two dunes. The windward side of a dune was toward the Gulf and the slope of that side was gentler than that on the leeward side. According to the cycle described by Davis (Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, 22:303-332, 1896) and recently figured on page 364 by Lobeck (Geomorphology, 1st ed., xii + 731 pp., 1939, McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc., New York) the barrier beach concerned was in the early part of the "Middle Youth Stage". Typically, on the center of the area in the lee of a dune there was a patch of plum brush, almost five feet tall and so dense that a person could not penetrate it. A belt of grass, 20 to 100 feet wide, surrounded the plum brush. The grass was approximately 20 inches high. Outside the area of grass, there were widely-spaced xerophitic shrubs which grew also on the dunes. The diagram (fig. 1) shows these prominent features as a person might see them if he looked directly down from an airplane. We obtained specimens of the spotted ground squirrel (_Citellus spilosoma_), Ord kangaroo rat (_Dipodomys ordii_), hispid cotton rat (_Sigmodon hispidus_) and black-tailed jack rabbit (_Lepus californicus_). Tracks and other sign of the coyote (_Canis latrans_) were seen. So far as we could ascertain, by our own investigations and from our Mexican hosts at the fishing camp, no other kinds of native mammals lived on the island. The ground squirrel and kangaroo rat were found by us on only the sandy areas where there were xerophitic shrubs. The cotton rat was found only in the grass. The jack rabbit and coyote ranged over the whole of the island excepting the areas of plum brush in which we saw no sign of any mammal. To answer the second of our initial questions: The affinities of the mammals of the barrier beach of Tamaulipas are approximately equally divided between those of the mainland and those of Padre Island. The ground squirrel is indistinguishable from the subspecies which occurs both on the mainland and Padre Island to the northward; the other three kinds of mammals of which we obtained specimens prove to be subspecifically distinct from any previously named kinds and seem to be confined to the off-shore beach. Accounts of these four mammals and of a previously unnamed subspecies of kangaroo rat on Mustang Island, Texas, follow. Citellus spilosoma annectens (Merriam) Spotted Ground Squirrel 1893. _Spermophilus spilosoma annectens_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 8:132, December 28, type from "The Tanks," 12 mi. from Point Isabel, Padre Island, Texas. 1904. [_Citellus spilosoma_] _annectens_, Trouessart, Catalogus Mammalium ..., p. 340. Thirteen specimens (Nos. 35441-35453) were collected. All are from the north side of the tidal inlet. Although the ground squirrels were easily trapped, it was difficult to obtain a perfect skin because the gulls (_Larus_ sp.) pulled the skin off of the distal part of the tail as soon as a squirrel was secured in a trap. The specimens seem not to differ from Texan specimens from the type locality and Mustang Island. Dipodomys ordii parvabullatus new subspecies Ord Kangaroo Rat _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin, No. 35454, Mus. Nat. Hist. Univ. Kansas, from island, 88 miles south and 10 miles west of Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico; obtained 19 March 1950 by E.R. Hall and Curt von Wedel; original No. 6778 E.R. Hall. _Range._--Islands along coast of Tamaulipas, Mexico. _Diagnosis._--Size small (see measurements). Color pale; entire dorsal surface Light Ochraceous-Buff (Capitalized color terms according to Ridgway: Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D.C., 1912), purest on sides and flanks, upper parts lightly suffused with black; cheeks white; plantar surfaces of hind feet, dorsal and ventral stripe of tail, and anterior face of ear brownish. Skull small; auditory bullae smaller (actually and relative to remainder of skull) than in any other known kind of _Dipodomys_, excepting the one from Mustang Island, Texas (named beyond) in which the breadth is approximately the same; rostrum and interorbital region narrow. _Comparisons._--From _Dipodomys ordii sennetti_ (Allen), of the mainland of Texas, _D. o. parvabullatus_ differs in: Color paler on pigmented areas; white areas more extensive; skull smaller, in all parts measured, except the nasals which are slightly longer. From _Dipodomys ordii compactus_ of Padre Island, Texas, _D. o. parvabullatus_ differs in: Tail and hind foot shorter; skull smaller in all parts measured, especially so in breadth across maxillary processes of zygomatic arches. _Remarks._--_D. o. parvabullatus_ resembles _D. o. sennetti_ in external proportions and _D. o. compactus_ in cranial proportions. No difference was detected between specimens from the two sides of the tidal inlet 89 miles south of Matamoros. Only one of the 14 specimens is of the light color phase (upper parts Cartridge Buff). This pale specimen is from the north side of the inlet. The brownish stripe on the ventral side of the tail is absent on the distal two-fifths of the tail and the specimens are uniform in this respect. On the occlusal surfaces of the cheek-teeth, the enamel surrounding the dentine is incomplete on both the lingual and labial sides of the teeth of five individuals and is incomplete on the labial side of some of the teeth of a sixth specimen. In the snap traps, all of which were baited with rolled oats, more than twice as many land crabs as kangaroo rats were taken. Judging from tracks in the sand, land crabs greatly outnumbered kangaroo rats. The parietal bones in two of the 13 skulls are much eroded by some parasite (seemingly nematode worms) and in one of these two specimens the roof of the left tympanic cavity is perforated. As regards life-zones, the occurrence of _Dipodomys ordii_ in the lower part of the Lower Sonoran Life-zone on the off-shore beach 88 and 90 miles south of Matamoros is low zonally and perhaps is at or near the zonal margin of the range of the species. The crabs and worms conceivably are two of the environmental features inhospitable to the rats. _Specimens examined._--Total, 14, all from Tamaulipas, Mexico, as follows: 88 mi. S and 10 mi. W Matamoros, 7; 90 mi. S and 10 mi. W Matamoros, 7. When Setzer (Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 1:473-573, December 27, 1949) reviewed the subspecies of _Dipodomys ordii_ he lacked specimens of _Dipodomys ordii compactus_ from the type locality or from anywhere else on Padre Island. He used as representative of _D. o. compactus_ specimens from Mustang Island, Texas, the island next northeast of Padre Island. Through the courtesy of Mr. Stanley P. Young, Dr. Hartley H.T. Jackson and Miss Viola S. Schantz, of the United States Biological Surveys Collection, I have examined topotypes of _D. o. compactus_ from Padre Island. This examination discloses that the kangaroo rats on Padre Island and Mustang Island are significantly different. Those from Mustang Island may be named and described as follows: MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETERS) OF ADULT MALES OF FOUR SUBSPECIES OF DIPODOMYS ORDII Key: A Total length F Breadth across maxillary arches B Length of tail G Width of rostrum C Length of hind foot H Length of nasals D Greatest length of skull I Least interorbital width E Greatest breadth across bullae J Basilar length ---------------------------------------------------------------------- _D. o. largus_, type locality (K.U.) A B C D E F G H I J Mean (9) 226 117 35.8 36.3 21.5 19.2 3.6 13.7 12.6 23.2 Maximum 241 128 37 37.2 22.0 19.9 3.7 14.2 13.9 23.9 Minimum 212 105 35 35.2 20.7 18.6 3.5 13.5 11.6 22.3 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- _D. o. compactus_, type locality (U.S.N.M.) A B C D E F G H I J Mean (10) 230 126 37.7 36.6 22.1 20.0 3.8 14.0 12.5 23.8 Maximum 241 135 40 37.8 23.2 21.4 4.0 14.5 13.1 24.4 Minimum 208 118 35 35.5 21.6 19.2 3.6 13.1 11.3 23.1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- _D. o. parvabullatus_, type locality and 2 mi. S of same (K.U.) A B C D E F G H I J Mean (7) 216 111 35.9 36.4 21.7 19.6 3.6 13.8 12.1 23.0 Maximum 222 113 37 36.9 22.1 20.7 3.8 14.2 12.5 23.5 Minimum 210 109 34 35.9 21.3 19.1 3.3 13.4 11.6 22.1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- _D. o. sennetti_, 2 mi. S Riviera, Texas (after Setzer, op. cit. :565) A B C D E F G H I J Mean (5) 218 112 35.8 37.2 23.4 20.1 4.0 13.6 13.1 24.2 Maximum 222 115 38 38.2 24.1 20.7 4.3 14.4 13.2 24.6 Minimum 208 104 34 36.3 23.0 19.4 3.8 13.0 12.6 23.8 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Dipodomys ordii largus new subspecies Ord Kangaroo Rat _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin, No. 27234, Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas, from Mustang Island, 14 mi. SW Port Aransas, Aransas County, Texas; obtained 30 June 1948 by W.K. Clark; original No. 543. _Range._--Known from Mustang Island only. _Diagnosis._--Size medium (see measurements). Color pale, and as described for _D. o. parvabullatus_. Skull small; auditory bullae (actually and relative to remainder of skull) smaller than in any other known kind of _Dipodomys_, except _D. o. parvabullatus_ in which breadth across bullae is approximately the same; notably narrow across maxillary processes of zygomatic arches. _Comparisons._--From _Dipodomys ordii sennetti_ (J.A. Allen) of the mainland, _D. o. largus_ differs in: Color paler on pigmented areas; white areas more extensive; skull averaging smaller except in basilar length and length of nasals which are approximately the same as in _D. o. sennetti_. From _Dipodomys ordii compactus_ True of Padre Island, _D. o. largus_ differs in: Body longer; tail shorter; skull narrower across tympanic bullae and across maxillary processes of zygomatic arches; nasals shorter. From _Dipodomys ordii parvabullatus_ of the coastal island south of Padre Island, along the gulf coast of Tamaulipas, _D. o. largus_ differs in: Body and tail longer; basilar length of skull averaging less; breadth across maxillary processes of zygomatic arches greater; premaxillae not extending so far behind nasals. _Remarks._--_D. o. largus_ resembles _D. o. compactus_ in external proportions and _D. o. parvabullatus_ in cranial proportions. The degree of difference between _D. o. compactus_ and _D. o. largus_ is less than between _D. o. compactus_ and _D. o. parvabullatus_. To me, the three subspecies mentioned in the preceding sentence are indistinguishable in color. Two of the eleven specimens of _D. o. largus_ are of the light color phase (upper parts Cartridge Buff) whereas all but two of the eleven specimens of _D. o. compactus_ are of the light color phase. Each of the cheek-teeth of the upper jaw of _D. o. largus_ has a complete ring of enamel around the dentine of the occlusal surface, as described by Setzer (Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 1:517, December 27, 1949) for _D. o. compactus_. The upper dentitions of ten specimens of _D. o. compactus_ examined by me in this respect reveal a total of only five teeth (in four individual animals) that have the enamel ring incomplete; one premolar and three molars are incomplete on the lingual side and one molar is incomplete on the labial side. Two specimens from Bagdad, Tamaulipas, in the delta of the Río Grande (Nos. 116485 and 11487, U.S.N.M., Biol. Surv. Coll.), are referred to _D. o. compactus_ on basis of long body and long tail. The specimens, both Light Ochraceous-Buff, are so young that not all of the enamel is worn off the crowns of the cheek-teeth. Specimens of _D. o. compactus_, _D. o. parvabullatus_ and _D. o. sennetti_ of comparable age are not available, and it, therefore, is impossible to know whether size and shape of the skull in the population at Bagdad are the same as they are in _D. o. compactus_ of Padre Island. _Specimens examined._--Total, 11, all from Texas. Aransas County: Mustang Island, 14 mi. SW Port Aransas. Sigmodon hispidus solus new subspecies Hispid Cotton Rat _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; No. 35468, Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas; from island, 88 mi. S and 10 mi. W Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico; 22 March 1950; obtained by E.R. Hall and Curt von Wedel; original No. 6806 E.R. Hall. _Range._--Known from the type locality only but probably occurring on most of the chain of islands off the coast of Tamaulipas. _Diagnosis._--Small; hind foot short; rostrum broad. _Comparison._--From its nearest relative, geographically and morphologically, _Sigmodon hispidus berlandieri_ Baird of the adjacent mainland, _S. h. solus_ differs in smaller size, and a rostrum that is broader in relation to the length of the skull. _Remarks._--On the last night of our stay on the island, traps set in grass approximately 20 inches high, yielded one pair of _Sigmodon_. The color is lighter than in the average of specimens from the mainland (for instance those from Victoria and Soto la Marina) but can be matched by selected specimens. In animals of equal age, the hind foot and basilar length are shorter in _S. h. solus_ than in _berlandieri_. The broadening of the rostrum, which occurs with advanced age, is attained in _solus_ when the skull is yet short; the maximum breadth of the rostrum in the adults is more, instead of less, than a fourth of the basilar length. _Measurements._--The following measurements are of specimens in which the occlusal face of each molar tooth is worn flat. The first measurement is of the holotype followed by the corresponding measurement of a male of _T. b. berlandieri_, No. 116466 from Camargo, Tamaulipas, in parentheses. The third measurement is that of the female from the type locality of _S. h. solus_ and it is followed by the corresponding measurement of a female of _T. b. berlandieri_, No. 116462 from Camargo, Tamaulipas. Total length, 266 (298),--(293); length of tail, 113 (135),--(137); length of head and body, 153 (163), 155 (156); length of hind foot, 30 (35), 30 (33); basilar length of Hensel, 28.2 (28.9); 27.9 (29.0); zygomatic breadth, 19.5 (--), 19.0 (20.8); mastoidal breadth, 13.9 (14.4), 13.9 (14.8); greatest breadth of rostrum, 7.2 (7.3), 7.8 (7.2); length of nasals, 14.6 (14.1), 13.4 (14.2); crown length of upper molar teeth, 6.3 (6.1), 6.3 (5.9). _Specimens examined._--Two from the type locality. Lepus californicus curti new subspecies Black-tailed Jack Rabbit _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin, No. 35470, Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas; from island, 88 miles south and 10 miles west of Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico; obtained 19 March 1950 by E.R. Hall; original No. 6783. _Range._--Islands along coast of Tamaulipas, Mexico. _Diagnosis._--Color pale; size small; ears short; tympanic bullae small. _Comparisons._--From _Lepus californicus merriami_ Mearns (specimens from Fort Clark, Brownsville and intermediate localities), _L. c. curti_ differs in paler color, lesser size except ear that is of almost same length and except interorbital breadth that is approximately same in the two subspecies; tympanic bullae notably smaller. From _Lepus californicus altamirae_ Nelson, _L. c. curti_ differs in having the black patch on the nape less definitely divided by a median, longitudinal band of buffy color, and lesser size. Exception is to be made for the ear and tympanic bullae, which are of approximately the same size in the two subspecies. _Remarks._--The subspecific part of the name _Lepus californicus curti_ is proposed in honor of Dr. Curt von Wedel who shared the pleasure of collecting on the islands where this handsome hare lives. The specimens of _L. c. curti_ are all females, which, in the genus _Lepus_, average larger than the males. Comparison of the measurements recorded below with those in the account by Nelson (N. Amer. Fauna, 29:129, 1909) may not reveal the full measure of difference in size between _L. c. curti_ and other subspecies because Nelson (_op. cit._) pooled males and females in obtaining the average measurements that he records. For example, he used three males and two females of _Lepus altamirae_ in obtaining an average (_op. cit._:117). The specimens of _L. c. curti_ here recorded are thought to be of full size inasmuch as the degree of fusion of bones in the skull, and the density of the cranial bones indicate full adulthood for each specimen. Reproductive-wise, there is no question as to adulthood; each of the four females was pregnant. One specimen had two embryos (each 30 millimeters long in crown-rump measurement) and each of the other specimens contained one embryo. These three embryos were 55, 60, and 105 mm. long. Three of our specimens, including the holotype, were obtained north of the eighth pass and the other specimen, No. 35473, was obtained a few hundred yards south of the pass. Because the part of the barrier beach south of the pass was connected to the mainland, it is likely that the newly named subspecies occurs also on the adjacent mainland; however, we have examined no specimens of _Lepus californicus_ from the opposite mainland except from Matamoros, ninety miles to the north, and from Altamira, approximately one hundred and fifty miles south of our collecting locality. A specimen from Matamoros, Tamaulipas, and several from Brownsville, Texas, in size of auditory bullae, larger overall size and darker color clearly are _L. c. merriami_ and not _L. c. curti_. The small tympanic bullae of the specimens from Padre Island were commented upon by Nelson (_op. cit._:149) who found smallness of bullae to characterize many of the specimens from the eastern part of the geographic range of _L. c. merriami_. In the northeastern part of the geographic range of _L. c. merriami_, as Nelson pointed out, the small size of the tympanic bullae was one of several evidences of intergradation there with _Lepus californicus melanotis_, the subspecies next adjacent to the north. In the light of present information, it seems that the smallness of the tympanic bullae in the specimens (3) from Padre Island may be an independent development--an adaptation to environmental conditions that reaches its fullest development on the same chain of islands eighty-odd miles southward of Matamoros. The specimens from Padre Island, although possessing small bullae, in other features, for example, larger size of other parts, are _merriami_. The four specimens of _L. c. curti_ are in worn winter pelage and the new pelage is coming in on the thighs. Most of the specimens (6) of the _L. c. altamirae_ are in the same condition of pelage. In color and color pattern, the two subspecies are, to me, indistinguishable except that the black patch on the nape is less widely and less definitely separated into two parts by a median, longitudinal, band of buffy color. _Lepus californicus altamirae_ was named by Nelson (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:109, May 18, 1904) as a black-tailed jack rabbit, _Lepus merriami altamirae_, but was later transferred by Nelson (N. Amer. Fauna, 29:124, 1909) to the white-sided section of the genus and arranged as a full species, _Lepus altamirae_. In making this transfer, Nelson (_op. cit._:125) wrote that in "This well marked species ... the lack of a black patch on the posterior half of the ear at the tip and the white flanks (somewhat obscured in some of the original specimens) are strong characters which place it in the _callotis_ group." "Posterior half of ears white without any trace of black at tip", was the way Nelson (_op. cit._:124) described the ears in _L. altamirae_. My examination of the original series including the type, reveals that the ears do have some black at the tip of the posterior half in three of the specimens, some brown in one other specimen, and only a dusky tinge in two others. In the four specimens of _L. c. curti_ the tip of the ear is faintly brownish in one animal and dusky in three. The extent of the white flanks seems to be identical in the two series. Fortunately they are in the same pelage and same stage of molt on the hind legs. The one difference that I can detect is in the coloration of the nape. In each of the specimens of _L. altamirae_ the coloration is as described by Nelson (_op. cit._:124): "nape with two lateral black bands extending back from base of ears, and separated by a median band of buffy." In _L. c. curti_ the nape is all black in one specimen and the median band of buffy is present in the other three but is narrower and more dusky than in _L. altamirae_. Since the characters (color of tip of ear and extent of white on the flank) relied upon by Nelson for placing _L. altamirae_ in the _callotis_ group are duplicated in the _californicus_ group, in _L. c. curti_, there is reason for questioning whether _altamirae_ is correctly placed, taxonomically, in the _L. callotis_ group. Cursory examination of skulls of the _callotis_ group and the _californicus_ group indicates that the prepalatal spine (the part of the palate which extends anteriorly toward the vomer) is longer in _L. californicus_ than in _L. callotis_, _L. gaillardi_ and _L. alleni_. In this feature, _L. altamirae_ agrees with _Lepus californicus_ and differs from members of the _Lepus callotis_ group. Furthermore, the newly named _L. c. curti_, in color of ear and color of nape, is intermediate between _L. altamirae_ and _L. c. merriami_. Consequently, _Lepus merriami altamirae_ Nelson, it seems, should stand as _Lepus californicus altamirae_. Mention should be made here of the view of Shamel (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:25-26, May 12, 1942) that the _californicus_ group should be divided into two groups (each group possibly amounting to something more than a species and something less than a subgenus) on the basis of a white rump and complex infolding of the enamel layer of the front of the first upper incisor _versus_ a dark rump and simple infolding of the mentioned layer of enamel. He placed _Lepus californicus merriami_ Mearns, among other subspecies, in a group different from the one in which he placed several other subspecies of _Lepus californicus_. Specimens (skulls with accompanying skins) of the species _Lepus californicus_ in the Biological Surveys Collection of the United States National Museum, representative of a gradual transition from the dark rump and simple fold in the enamel to the white rump and complex fold in the enamel are as follows: _L. c. deserticola_, No. 29733/41808, Paharanagat Valley, Nevada; Nos. 117463 and 156744, Beals Spring, Arizona. _L. c. texianus_, No. 24635/32031, Springerville, Arizona; No. 97453, Roswell, New Mexico; No. 118751, Toyah, Texas; No. 118749, Valentine, Texas; and No. 108700, Terlingua Creek, Texas. In the continuously distributed species _Lepus californicus_, along the northwest to southeast line provided by the localities of occurrence listed immediately above, there is a gradual transition from one kind of fold to the other kind and from one color of rump to the other color. It is clear that Shamel (_op. cit._) was in error in his conclusions; the kinds of black-tailed jack rabbits to which Shamel (_op. cit._) applied the name _Macrotolagus_ should stand as given below. Correct names: _Lepus alleni alleni_ Mearns _Lepus alleni palitans_ Bangs _Lepus alleni tiburonensis_ Townsend _Lepus gaillardi gaillardi_ Mearns _Lepus gaillardi battyi_ J.A. Allen _Lepus callotis_ Wagler _Lepus flavigularis_ Wagner _Lepus californicus altamirae_ Nelson _Lepus californicus melanotis_ Mearns _Lepus californicus merriami_ Mearns _Lepus californicus asellus_ Miller _Lepus californicus festinus_ Nelson _Lepus californicus texianus_ Waterhouse MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETERS) OF ADULTS OF TWO SUBSPECIES OF LEPUS CALIFORNICUS Key: A Total length G Breadth of rostrum above premolars B Tail-vertebrae H Depth of rostrum in front of premolars C Hind foot I Interorbital breadth D Ear from notch in dried skin J Parietal breadth E Basilar length K Diameter of bulla F Length of nasals -------------------------------------------------------------------------- _L. c. curti_, type locality (K.U.) A B C D E F G H I J K [Female] 35470 565 55 125 115 72.0 37.1 25.9 21.2 27.4 29.8 13.5 [Female] 35471 566 57 122 122 72.8 39.0 25.5 22.0 26.2 29.2 13.9 [Female] 35472 520 50 115 105 69.5 38.6 26.0 19.0 24.4 30.2 13.5 [Female] 35473 587 53 124 118 72.0 40.9 26.7 22.2 27.4 29.0 13.0 Average 560 54 122 115 71.6 38.9 26.0 21.1 26.4 29.6 13.5 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- _L. c. altamirae_, type locality (U.S.N.M., Biol. Surv. Coll.) A B C D E F G H I J K [Male] 93691 605 96 137 112 76.5 44.5 26.6 24.6 .... 32.0 13.0 [Female] 93692 595 71 137 114 77.1 42.5 26.3 23.1 27.0 29.5 13.4 [Male] 93693 590 93 137 110 77.8 43.8 27.6 22.5 27.2 30.7 14.2 [Female] 93694 605 70 142 118 78.0 45.9 26.8 23.4 28.7 32.0 14.3 [Male] 92982 556 59 136 114 75.9 46.5 26.1 22.3 25.8 .... 14.0 Average 590 78 138 114 77.1 44.6 26.7 23.2 27.2 31.1 13.8 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. In each specimen of _L. c. curti_ the length of the ear measured from the notch when the animal was in the flesh was eight millimeters more than in the dried skin. The cranial measurements given above are taken, in so far as possible, in the same way that the measurements recorded by Nelson in his North American Fauna (No. 29, 1909) were taken. In that publication he records mostly average measurements but he records also some measurements of individual specimens. Two of these specimens are the holotypes of _Sylvilagus mansuetus_ Nelson and Romerolagus nelsoni Merriam. By attempting to duplicate Nelson's measurements on these specimens, the following opinions were formed. "Basilar length" is basilar length of Hensel and the anterior point probably was the posterior border of the alveolus of incisor two. There is some evidence of lack of consistency with respect to the anterior control point. "Length of nasals" is the overall length, of the two nasal bones, but in _Romerolagus_ the shorter (right) nasal alone seems to have been measured. "Breadth of rostrum above premolars" is easily duplicated in _Lepus_ but in _Sylvilagus_ the control points are difficult to find. Two other persons and I obtained three different measurements, all different from Nelson's measurements, and we thought that Nelson would have obtained different measurements by measuring the same specimen of _Sylvilagus_ at different times. "Depth of rostrum in front of premolars" seems to have been taken perpendicular to the inferior longitudinal line of the rostrum, approximately one-half millimeter anterior to the alveolus of the anteriormost cheek tooth. "Interorbital breadth" was taken across the supraorbital processes, at the narrowest place, but _not_ from the notches medial to the antorbital projections of the supraorbital processes. "Parietal breadth" is the breadth, across the braincase, taken approximately half way between the squamosal root of the zygoma and the external auditory meatus, where there is a lateral bulge in the squamosal bone. On each side of the skull, the calipers rest on the squamosal bone, not on the parietal bone. "Diameter of bullae" excludes the paroccipital process and was taken from the anteriormost part of a tympanic bulla, posterolaterally to the part of that same bulla, that is exposed at the lateral side of the base of the paroccipital process. _Specimens examined._--Total, four, all from Tamaulipas, Mexico, as follows: 88 mi. S and 10 mi. W Matamoros, 3; 90 mi. S and 10 mi. W Matamoros, 1. _Transmitted February 20, 1951._ 23-7414 
24388	----	None 
29141	----	Transcriber's Note. The layout of the column headings in the table at the end of this text has been changed for ease of reading. Otherwise the text remains unchanged. Two New Pocket Gophers from Wyoming and Colorado BY E. RAYMOND HALL and H. GORDON MONTAGUE University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 3, pp. 25-32 February 28, 1951 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Edward H. Taylor, A. Byron Leonard, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 3, pp. 25-32 February 28, 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1951 23-6627 Two New Pocket Gophers from Wyoming and Colorado BY E. RAYMOND HALL AND H. GORDON MONTAGUE In the academic year of 1947-48 Montague studied the geographic variation in _Thomomys talpoides_ of Wyoming. His study was based upon materials then in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. Publication of the results was purposely delayed until previously reported specimens from certain adjacent areas, especially in Colorado, could be examined. In the autumn of 1950 one of us, Hall, was able to examine the specimens from Colorado; also, the specimens from Wyoming accumulated in the past two seasons of field work in Wyoming were examined by Hall. A result of these studies is the recognition of two heretofore unnamed subspecies of the northern pocket gopher in southeastern Wyoming. Grateful acknowledgment is made of the opportunity to study the Coloradon specimens in the Biological Surveys Collection of the United States National Museum, and of the financial assistance from the Kansas University Endowment Association which permitted the field work in Wyoming. Descriptions and names for the two new subspecies are given below: =Thomomys talpoides rostralis= new subspecies _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin, no. 17096 Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas; from 1 mi. E Laramie, 7164 ft., Albany County, Wyoming; obtained on July 16, 1945, by C. Howard Westman; original no. 320. _Range._--Southern Wyoming and south in the mountains of Colorado to the Arkansas River but not including the Colorado River drainage except in Grand County and part of Routt County. _Diagnosis._--Size medium (see measurements); upper parts ranging from between Cinnamon-Rufous and Hazel (capitalized terms are of Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912) in the eastern part of the range to between Argus Brown and Brussels Brown in the western part of the range; sides Cinnamon-Rufous; throat whitish; remainder of under-parts whitish, in many specimens tipped with Ochraceous-Buff; feet and tail whitish; rostrum long; nasals ordinarily truncate posteriorly; temporal ridges nearly parallel; interpterygoid space broadly V-shaped. _Comparisons._--From _Thomomys talpoides clusius_ (topotypes), _T. t. rostralis_ differs in: Body longer; color more reddish (lighter with less brownish and more ochraceous); rostrum both longer and broader, actually and also in relation to length of the skull; skull broader interorbitally; upper molariform tooth-row longer; tympanic bullae less inflated. For comparison with _T. t. attenuatus_ to the east, see the account of that subspecies. From _Thomomys talpoides macrotis_ (topotypes) to the southeast, _T. t. rostralis_ differs in: Body shorter; upper parts slightly more ochraceous and less grayish; skull averaging smaller in all measurements except that interorbital region is broader and rostrum and upper molariform tooth-row are longer; nasals truncate versus emarginate, and consistently shorter; basilar length consistently less in specimens of equal age; mastoidal breadth less in 16 of 17 specimens of _rostralis_; temporal ridges parallel instead of divergent posteriorly; exposed parts of upper incisors shorter; tympanic bullae more angular antero-laterally. From _Thomomys talpoides fossor_ (specimens from Rico, Silverton, Hermit and Pagosa Springs, all in Colorado), the subspecies to the southward, _T. t. rostralis_ differs in: Longer body; lighter color of upper parts; nasals truncate rather than rounded posteriorly; temporal ridges more nearly parallel (less divergent posteriorly); rostrum longer (averaging longer and broader); skull wider across zygomatic arches in 11 of 12 specimens of _rostralis._ _Remarks._--Geographic variation is evident in the material examined. In the initial study, one of us, Montague, separated the material from the Medicine Bow Range in Wyoming as a subspecies different from that at Laramie and the adjoining mountains to the eastward because of the darker color of the western animals and the smaller size of males. Acquisition of more material from still farther west (Sierra Madre) in Wyoming and the examination of material in the United States Biological Surveys Collection from Colorado discloses that there is a cline of increasing intensity of color from the geographic range of _T. t. cheyennensis_ at Pine Bluffs, Wyoming, westward to the eastern side of the Sierra Madre at a locality three miles east and five miles north of Savery, Wyoming. A further deterrent to setting apart the animals of the Medicine Bow Mountains as a separate subspecies is the large size of males from the North Platte River Valley southeast of Saratoga. The males from the valley of the North Platte are intermediate in size between those from the Medicine Bow Mountains and those from the Laramie River Valley. Females from the same places are available in longer series and show less variation. If there is a difference in size in the females, those from the mountains are larger than those from lower elevations on either side. The examination that one of us, Hall, has made of the related materials from Colorado reveals, as we supposed would be the case, that a large area formerly assigned to the geographic range of _Thomomys talpoides fossor_ is to be assigned to the geographic range of the newly named _Thomomys talpoides rostralis._ It should be added that, at this writing, the lack of ideally complete material from southwestern Colorado leaves some doubt as to the range of variation properly to be included within the geographic range of _T. t. fossor._ Consequently, study of a larger number of specimens from more localities in Colorado may show that the boundary between the geographic ranges of _T. t. fossor_ and _T. t. rostralis_ should be shifted from where we have tentatively placed it. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 168. Unless otherwise indicated, those from Colorado are in the United States National Museum, Biological Surveys Collection, and those from Wyoming are in the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas. =Colorado.= _Routt Co._: Hahns Peak, 2; Hayden, 1. _Jackson Co._ Pearle, North Park, 9000 ft., 2; Canadian Creek, North Park, 6; 5 mi. E Canadian Creek, 1; Rabbit Ear Mts., Arapaho Pass, 5. _Larimer Co._: Elkhorn, 7000 ft., 1; Estes Park, 7. _Grand Co._: Coulter, 4. _Boulder Co._: Longs Peak, 3; Gold Hill (the skin only; skull does not belong), 1; 3 mi. S Ward, 9000 ft., 10 (K. U.); 5 mi. W Boulder, 7. _Gilpin Co._: Blackhawk (U. S. N. M.), 2. _Jefferson Co._: Golden, 1; Golden foothills, 7300 ft., 1. _Park Co._: Como, South Park, 9800 ft., 1. _El Paso Co._: Cascade, 1 (too young for certain sub-specific identification). =Wyoming.= _Carbon County_: 13 mi. E and 6 mi. S Saratoga, 8500 ft., 1; 14 mi. E and 6 mi. S Saratoga, 8800 ft., 1; 7 mi. S and 11 mi. E Saratoga, 5; 8 mi. S and 6 mi. E Saratoga, 10; 10 mi. N and 14 mi. E Encampment, 8000 ft., 2; 10 mi. N and 16 mi. E Encampment, 8000 ft., 1; 8 mi. N and 16 mi. E Encampment, 8400 ft., 10. _Albany Co._: 2-1/4 mi. ESE Browns Peak, 10300 ft., 7; 3 mi. ESE Browns Peak 10000 ft., 5; 2 mi. S Browns Peak, 10600 ft., 7; 3 mi. S Browns Peak, 1; 2 mi. E and 1/2 mi. S Medicine Bow Peak, 10800 ft., 2; 5 mi. N Laramie, 7200 ft., 1; 1 mi. E Laramie, 7164 ft., 18; Laramie Mts., 10 mi. E Laramie (8500 ft., 2; 9000 ft., 1), 3 (U. S. B. S.); 5-1/2 mi. ESE Laramie, 8500 ft., 4; 8 mi. E and 4 mi. S Laramie, 8600 ft., 5; 8 mi. E and 6 mi. S Laramie, 8500 ft., 1; 15 mi. SE Laramie, Pole Mtn., 8200 ft., 3 (U. S. B. S.); 1 mi. SSE Pole Mtn., (8250 ft., 4; 8350 ft., 6), 10; 1 mi. S Pole Mtn., 8350 ft., 2; 2 mi. SW Pole Mtn., 8300 ft., 6; 2-1/2 mi. S Pole Mtn., 8340 ft., 1; 3 mi. S Pole Mtn., 1; Woods P. O., 2 (U. S. N. M.); Fort Russell, 1 (U. S. N. M.); Sherman, 2 (U. S. N. M.). _Additional records._--Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 39:101, 112, November 15, 1915) has recorded the following specimens, which on geographic grounds, would presumably be referable to _Thomomys talpoides rostralis._ COLORADO: Estes Park (referred by Bailey, p. 101, to _T. t. clusius_), 1; Colorado City, 1; Colorado Springs, 2-1/2 mi. N, 6000 ft., 1; Colorado Springs, east of Palmer Park, 1; Montgomery, 3; Nederland, 4; Teller County Divide, 1. These specimens have not been examined by us. =Thomomys talpoides attenuatus= new subspecies _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin, no. 15095 Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas; from 3-1/2 mi. W Horse Creek Post Office, 7000 ft., Laramie County, Wyoming; obtained on July 16, 1945, by Henry W. Setzer; original no. 629. _Range._--Southeastern Wyoming from Niobrara County south into Weld County, Colorado. _Diagnosis._--Size small; color pale (whitish); skull smooth and, relative to its length, slender; rostrum relatively long; nasals truncate posteriorly; middle parts of zygomatic arches straight; temporal ridges low and more widely separated in middle extent than at anterior or posterior ends; tympanic bullae rounded and moderately inflated; interpterygoid space V-shaped. _Comparisons._--From _Thomomys talpoides bullatus_ (topotypes) to the northward, _T. t. attenuatus_ differs in smaller size, lighter (less brownish, more whitish) color, smaller and slenderer skull. In detail, some cranial features diagnostic of _attenuatus,_ when compared with _bullatus,_ are: Anterolateral angle of zygoma less nearly a right angle; temporal ridges bowed outward at middle, instead of straight, and farther apart posteriorly than anteriorly instead of nearly parallel; sides of basioccipital nearly straight instead of concave. From _Thomomys talpoides cheyennensis_ (holotype and Wyoming specimens from: Pine Bluff; 1 mi. W Pine Bluffs, 5000 ft.; 12 mi. N and 1/2 mi. W Pine Bluffs) to the eastward, _T. t. attenuatus_ differs in smaller size throughout and more slender skull. The two subspecies are indistinguishable in color. From _Thomomys talpoides macrotis_ (topotypes) to the southward, _T. t. attenuatus_ differs in smaller size, slightly lighter (less brownish and more whitish) color, smaller and slenderer skull. From _Thomomys talpoides rostralis_ (specimens from the type locality) to the westward, _T. t. attenuatus_ differs in smaller size; lighter (grayer, less brownish) color, smaller and less angular skull. From _Thomomys talpoides clusius_ (topotypes) to the northwestward, _T. t. attenuatus_ differs in shorter body, slightly grayer color, less width across mastoid region of skull, smaller tympanic bullae, and more obtuse anterolateral angle on zygoma. _Remarks._--This subspecies is of smaller size than any of the geographically adjoining subspecies. Intergradation with _T. t. cheyennensis_ is shown by specimens from two miles south and nine and one-half miles east of Cheyenne, Wyoming. Intergradation with _T. t. bullatus_ or _T. t. clusius_ or both is suggested by the larger size of the specimen from five miles southwest of Wheatland, Wyoming. Although large, this skull has the slender proportions of _attenuatus_ to which the specimen is tentatively referred. Although the specimens from Avalo, Colorado, are typical _attenuatus,_ the specimen from Pawnee Buttes, Colorado, is somewhat larger than typical _attenuatus_ and suggests intergradation with the subspecies to the southward, for example, at Flagler, Colorado. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 44, and unless otherwise indicated in the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas. =Wyoming.= _Niobrara County_: 10 mi. N Hatcreek Post Office, 5300 ft., 1. _Platte Co._: 5 mi. SW Wheatland, 1 (U. S. B. S.). _Goshen Co._: Little Bear Creek, 20 mi. SE Chugwater, 1 (U. S. B. S.). _Laramie Co._: 5 mi. W and 1 mi. N Horse Creek P. O., 7200 ft., 1; 3-1/2 mi. W Horse Creek P. O., 7000 ft., 6; 2-1/5 mi. W Horse Creek P. O., 6600 ft., 1; 2 mi. W Horse Creek P. O., 6600 ft., 2; Horse Creek 6500 ft., 1; 3 mi. E Horse Creek P. O., 6400 ft., 5; 6 mi. W Islay, 2 (U. S. B. S.); 2 mi. S and 1/2 mi. E Pine Bluffs, 5200 ft., 1; 7 mi. W Cheyenne, 6500 ft., 1; Cheyenne, 7 (U. S. N. M.); 1 mi. S and 4-1/2 mi. E Cheyenne, 5200 ft., 1; 2 mi. S and 9-1/2 mi. E Cheyenne, 5200 ft., 3; Arcola, 5200 ft., 4. =Colorado.= _Weld Co._: Pawnee Buttes, 5300 ft., 1 (U. S. B. S.). _Logan Co._: Chimney Canyon, 10 mi. NE Avalo, 5100 ft., 5 (U. S. B. S.). _Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence. Transmitted January 15, 1951._ TABLE 1. MEASUREMENTS, IN MILLIMETERS, OF TWO SUBSPECIES OF THOMOMYS TALPOIDES. ______________________________________________________________________ Column A Catalogue number or number of averaged individuals Column B Sex Column C Total length Column D Length of tail Column E Basilar length Column F Length of hind foot Column G Zygomatic breadth Column H Least interorbital constriction Column I Mastoidal breadth Column J Length of nasals Column K Breadth of rostrum Column L Length of rostrum Column M Alveolar length if maxilliary tooth-row A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M _T. t. rostralis,_ from type locality 17092 |Male |220|56 |28 |33.2|23.7|6.4 |19.5|15.5|8.1 |17.5| 8.2 17095 |Male |228|68 |30 |33.3| - |6.5 |18.8|15.0|7.4 |17.3| 7.3 17091 |Male |212|56 |27 |33.0|22.8|6.5 |18.7|14.2|8.5 |16.2| 7.6 Average|Male |220|60 |28.3|33.2|23.2|6.5 |19.0|14.9|8.0 |17.0| 7.7 9 av. |Female|214|56 |27.1|31.6|22.4|6.5 |18.5|14.4|7.8 |16.8| 7.9 min. |Female|198|45 |25 |30.0|20.7|6.2 |17.7|13.2|7.4 |15.4| 7.1 max. |Female|230|72 |28.5|33.5|23.3|7.0 |19.8|14.9|8.1 |17.7| 8.4 _T. t. attenuatus,_ from type locality 15095 |Male |202|61 |26 |30.1|21.2|6.6 |18.2|13.6|7.3 |16.0| 7.0 15094 |Male |189|56 |24 |29.7|20.1|5.7 |17.2|12.4|7.2 |14.8| 6.9 from 2-1/2 mi. W Horse Creek P. O., 6600 ft. 15100 |Male |196|58 |27 |30.2|21.7|6.1 |18.4|14.5|7.5 |16.3| 7.0 3 av. |Male |196|58 |25.7|30.0|21.0|6.1 |17.9|13.5|7.3 |15.7| 7.0 from type locality 15096 |Female|203|59 |26 |30.0| - |6.1 |18.0|14.1|7.3 |16.3| 6.8 15098 |Female|192|69 |26 |28.8|19.8|5.5 |17.2|12.0|6.7 |14.7| 7.3 Horse Creek, 6500 ft. 15103 |Female|181|58 |25 |29.6|19.5|5.9 |16.3|13.0|6.9 |15.2| 7.0 3 mi. E Horse Creek P. O., 6400 ft. 15107 |Female|190|54 |27 |30.5|20.5|6.0 |17.9|13.5|7.3 |16.4| 6.8 15106 |Female|192|55 |26 |30.8|21.5|6.5 |18.2|12.7|7.6 |15.5| 7.0 5 av. |Female|192|59 |26 |29.9|20.3|6.0 |17.5|13.1|7.2 |15.6| 7.0 
23576	----	Quadrupeds, what they are and where found, by Captain Mayne Reid. ________________________________________________________________________ This is a fairly short book, but it certainly hits the spot, for its aim is to inform young people about the four-legged animals of our planet, and this it does very competently. Of course there is no reason why young ladies should not read this book: I am sure they would enjoy this just as much Reid's target readership, which was boys. There are 24 chapters, each dealing with a kind of animal. Sometimes an animal genus is given two chapters, for instance domestic dogs, and wild dogs. One grouse: the phrase "well-known" occurs over forty times. Would the "well-known" fact be well-known to the book's intended readership? Probably not. There are a score of very nice illustrations, most showing numerous animals of that chapter's genus. ________________________________________________________________________ QUADRUPEDS, WHAT THEY ARE AND WHERE FOUND, BY CAPTAIN MAYNE REID. PREFACE. I have been called upon to write illustrative sketches to a series of engravings, designed by an eminent artist. In performing my part of the work I have thrown the _Mammalia_ into twenty-four groups--corresponding more or less to the picture designs--and have dwelt chiefly on the geographical distribution of the animals. The _Cetaceae_ and _Vespertilionidae_ are properly omitted. In the groups given there is no attempt made at any very scientific arrangement. The sketches are purely of a popular character, even the scientific nomenclature being avoided. It is hoped, however, that they may prove of service to the zoological tyro, and form as it were his first stepping-stone to a higher order of classification. In reality, notwithstanding the prodigious _speculations_ of learned anatomists, no truly good arrangement of the _Mammalia_ has yet been arrived at; the deficiency arising from the fact that, as yet, no true zoologist has had the opportunity of a sufficiently extended observation of the natural habits of animals. Now, however, that the great agent--steam--has as it were "brought the ends of the earth together," the opportunity is no longer wanting; and it is to be hoped that a better classification may soon be obtained. Who knows but that some ardent young zoologist, who has taken his first lessons from this little book, may be the man to supply the desideratum? Who knows? Such a result would be a proud triumph for the author of these monographic sketches. Mayne Reid. CHAPTER ONE. MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD. The great family of the Monkeys, or the "Monkey tribe," as it is usually called, is divided by naturalists into two large groups--the "Monkeys of the Old World," or those that inhabit Africa, Asia, and the Asiatic islands; and the "Monkeys of the New World," or those that belong to America. This classification is neither scientific nor natural, but as it serves to simplify the study of these quadrupeds--or _quadrumana_, as they are termed--it is here retained. Moreover, as there is no genus of monkey, nor even a species, common to both hemispheres, such a division can do no harm. The number of species of these animals, both in the Old and New Worlds, is so great, that to give a particular description of each would fill a large volume. It will be only possible in this sketch to point out the countries they inhabit, and to say a word or two of the more remarkable kinds. In point of precedence, the great _Ourang-outang_ contests the palm with the _Chimpanzee_. Both these creatures often attain the size of an ordinary man, and individuals of both have been captured exceeding this size; while, at the same time, in muscular strength, one of them is supposed to equal seven or eight men. It is remarkable how little is known of the habits of either. This is accounted for by the fact that they both inhabit regions still unexplored by civilised man, dwelling in thick impenetrable forests, where even the savage himself rarely penetrates. Although many exaggerated stories are told of these great satyr apes, and many of these are only "sailors' yarns," yet it is easy to believe that animals approaching in structure, and even in intelligence, to man himself, must possess habits of the most singular kind. There is little more known of them than there was hundreds of years ago--indeed, we might say thousands of years; for it is evident that the Carthaginians came into contact with the chimpanzee on the western coast of Africa, and through them the Romans became acquainted with it; and no doubt it was this animal that gave origin to most of their stories of satyrs and wild men of the woods. The chimpanzee is found only in the forests of tropical Africa--more especially along the west coast, the banks of the Gaboon, and other rivers. The ourang-outang is exclusively Asiatic--inhabiting Borneo, Sumatra, the peninsula of Malacca, Cochin China, and several others of the large Oriental islands. Of the ourang-outang there are two species--perhaps three--differing very little, except in point of size and colour. A group of large tail-less apes, usually denominated _Gibbons_, or Long-armed Apes, come next in order. These are neither so large nor human-like as the ourang or the chimpanzee; nevertheless, they are capable of walking upon their hind legs, after the manner of bipeds. They are all long-armed apes, and generally use their fore-arms in walking, but more to assist them in clinging to the branches of trees, and swinging themselves from one to the other. The gibbons are all Asiatic monkeys, and inhabit the same countries with the ourang, viz., the tropical forests of India and the Indian Archipelago. There are at least a dozen species of them, nearly half of which are found in the Island of Sumatra alone. The _Proboscis_ monkeys follow the gibbons. These are also long-armed apes, but with tails and sharp proboscis-like snouts, from which their name is derived. Only two species are known--both belonging to the great Island of Borneo, so rich in varieties of these human-like mammalia. One of the species of proboscis monkeys has also been observed in Cochin China. Another large tribe of Asiatic apes, containing in all nearly twenty different species, has been constituted into a genus called _Semnopithecus_. These also inhabit the Indian continent and the great islands; but they are not so exclusively tropical in their habits, since several of the species extend their range northward to Nepaul, and other districts among the Himalaya Mountains. It is a species, or more than one, of these ugly apes that is venerated by the Hindus; and they are permitted to live without molestation in the sacred groves and temples, though they often prove most troublesome protegees to their fanatical benefactors. In Africa, the representatives of this last-mentioned tribe are found in the _Colobus_ monkeys. Of these there are about a dozen species; and from several of them are obtained the long-haired monkey skins of commerce. They are all tropical animals, and inhabit the middle zone of Africa--their range extending from Abyssinia to the shores of the Atlantic. Another very large tribe, containing in all as many as thirty species, and belonging exclusively to Africa, are the _Guenons_. They are closely allied to the colobus monkeys, but yet sufficiently different from them in habits and conformation to be classed into a separate genus. Most of the guenons inhabit the central regions of Africa; but they are not exclusively tropical, since several kinds belong to Kaffraria, and that region indefinitely called the Cape of Good Hope. The _Macaco_ apes constitute another genus, which forms the link between the guenons and the baboons, or dog-headed monkeys. They are neither exclusively African nor Asiatic monkeys, since species of macacoes are found in both these continents. They are usually subdivided into the macacoes with long tails, and those with short tails; and there is one species which wants this appendage altogether. This is the Magot-- perhaps the most noted of all the macacoes, since it was the earliest known to European nations, and is, in fact, the only species that is indigenous to Europe. It is the magot that inhabits the Rock of Gibraltar. Much has been written as to whether this monkey is really indigenous to Europe--some naturalists alleging that it reached Gibraltar from Africa, where it is also common. But it is not generally known that, on European ground, the magot is not confined solely to the Gibraltar Rock. It is also found in other parts of the south of Spain; and, it is likely enough, has existed there long enough to claim the character of a native. In the chain of natural affinities, the _Baboons_, or dog-headed monkeys, stand next to the macacoes. These are more of a quadruped form than any yet mentioned; and, both in a moral and physical sense, they are certainly the ugliest of animals. The hideous Drills and Mandrills, so well-known in our menageries, belong to this genus; as also the Chacma, or great dog-monkey of the Cape. There are, in all, seven or eight species of baboons, and most of them inhabit Africa. One of the most singular of them, the Hamadryas, extends its range into Arabia; while another, the Black Baboon, is an inhabitant of the Philippine Isles. With the baboons we close our list of the Monkeys of the Old World; but, in order to complete the account of these quadruped mammalia, it is necessary to find a place for those strange creatures usually known as Lemurs. These are usually grouped by themselves, and in a classification succeed the American monkeys--to some of which they have a greater resemblance than to those of the Old World; but, as they are all exclusively inhabitants of the latter, they may appropriately be noticed here. The _Lemurs_ are animals having very much the appearance and habits of monkeys, but with long snouts or muzzles, resembling that of the fox. Hence they are sometimes called fox-apes. There are many kinds of them, however; and, although classed in a group called lemurs, they differ exceedingly from one another, some of them having the appearance of foxes, others more resembling squirrels, and still others like flying squirrels--being possessed of a similar wing-like appendage, and capable, like them, of extended flight. They are known under different appellations, as Makis, Indris, Loris, Galagos, Tarsiers, Ay-ays, etcetera, and naturalists have subdivided them into a great number of genera. They are found both in Africa and Asia; but by far the greater number of them, as the Makis and Ay-ays, belong to the Island of Madagascar. The last are not to be confounded with an animal bearing the same name--the ay-ay of America. The latter is the singular creature known as the sloth, of which there are several distinct species, all inhabitants of the great forests of tropical America. Of the lemurs, at least thirty different kinds are known, more than half of which belong to the Island of Madagascar. A few species are found on the west coast of Africa: and the others inhabit the Oriental islands-- Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, Timor, Mindanao, and the Philippine Archipelago. CHAPTER TWO. MONKEYS OF THE NEW WORLD. The Monkeys of America differ in many respects from those of the Old World. In general they are smaller--none of the species being quite so large as the baboons. Their bodies and limbs are also more slender and spider-like; and their whole conformation seems intended to adapt them for dwelling in the great virgin forests of the New World. There is one particular in which they differ most remarkably from their congeners of the Old World; that is, in having _prehensile_ tails. With these they are enabled to suspend themselves from the branches of trees, or swing their bodies from one to the other; and this prehensile power is far greater than could be obtained by any clutch of the hand. So great is it, that even after the animal has died from the effect of a shot or other wound, its tail will still remain hooped around the branch; and if the body is not taken down by the hunter, it will hang there till released by the decay of the tail! Not all the monkeys of America possess this prehensile power of tail. Some are entirely without it, and approach nearer to certain kinds in the Old World; while there are a few species that very closely resemble the lemurs. These differences have led to a classification of the American monkeys; and they have been thrown into three groups, though it may be remarked that these groups are not very natural. They are as follow:--The _Sapajous_, whose tails are not only prehensile, but naked underneath, and tubercled near the tips; the _Sajoas_, who possess the prehensile power, but have hairy tails; and the _Sajouins_, whose tails are _not_ prehensile. For want of a better, this classification may be adopted. The Sapajous are subdivided into three genera, of which the Howlers form one. They are so denominated from their habit of assembling in troops, and uttering the most terrible howlings, so loud that the forest is filled with their sonorous voices. Their cries can be heard at a half-league's distance, and produce upon a stranger unaccustomed to such sounds a very disagreeable impression. The unusual strength of voice is accounted for by a peculiar drum-like construction of the _os hyoides_, common to all the genera of Sapajous, but more developed in some than in others; and those in whom the voice is loudest constitute the genus of _Alouatles_, or Howlers. Of the true howlers there are about a dozen species known to naturalists. Most of them are denizens of the tropical forests of Guiana and Brazil; but some species are not so tropical in their habits, since one or two extend the kingdom of the monkeys into Mexico on the north, and southward to Paraguay. Closely allied to the last, are the _Ateles_, or Spider monkeys. These derive their generic name from their singular spider-like appearance-- caused by their disproportionately long and slender limbs, and the great length of their tails. None equal them in the prehensile power of the caudal appendage; and it is of them that that curious story is related-- the story of the Monkeys' Bridge--where it is told how they pass over a stream: a number of the strongest joining their bodies together by means of their long tails, and thus forming a bridge, by which the whole troop are enabled to cross. Of the spider monkeys there are about a dozen species; but three of these have been taken to form one of the three genera into which, as already stated, the Sapajous are divided. These three differ very little from the other spider monkeys, except in being covered with a soft, woolly hair; and, furthermore, in being much more rare than the others; at all events, they are more rarely seen, as they dwell only in the thickest forests, far remote from the habitations of man. The third and last genus of the Sapajous is that termed _Lagothrix_. They are small monkeys, covered also with soft woolly hair; and their habitat is along the banks of rivers. They have a strange habit, not observable among their congeners, of collecting in small troops, and rolling or "clewing" themselves up together. This they do in cold weather, or on the approach of a storm. They summon each other by means of signals and cries; and selecting the convenient bifurcation of some tree, they there form the singular group. The jaguar and other beasts of prey take advantage of this habit, and often make victims of the whole _tableau vivant_! There are three species already described, all denizens of the Brazilian forests. The Sajous form the second group of the American monkeys. These have also prehensile tails; but the power is not so highly-developed in them as in the Sapajous, nor are their tails naked. Moreover, the bodies of the Sajous are more robust, and their limbs of stouter make. The Sajous are well-tempered creatures, and easily domesticated. Some of the species are favourite pets--on account of their pleasing manners, and the docility of their nature. The old males, however, scarcely deserve this reputation, as they will bite freely enough when provoked. They are not subdivided; but permitted to constitute a single genus, of which there are nearly twenty species--all of them inhabiting equatorial America. The Sajouins form the third group; but as the name merely signifies those monkeys that have not the power of suspending themselves by the tail, it can hardly be considered a natural group, since there are very varied and numerous genera who lack this power. The group of Sajouins must therefore be subdivided into several lesser groups. First of all we have the true Sajouins; and of these the _Saimiri_ or _Titi_ is the most distinguished species. This pretty little creature is about equal in size to a squirrel, and possesses all the playful disposition of the latter. Its childlike innocence of countenance, as well as its pleasing and graceful manners, render it a favourite pet wherever it can be obtained. Its rich robe of yellowish-grey, mixed with green, adds to the attraction of its presence. There are several species of Sajouins, known as the Widow monkey, the Moloch, the Mitred monkey, and the Black-handed Sajouin--all of them dwellers in the tropical regions of America. The Doroucouli is another small species, that in the nocturnal forest often alarms the traveller by its singular cry; and an allied species of Doroucouli constitutes, with the one above-mentioned, a second genus of the Sajouins. The _Sakis_ form of themselves another and somewhat extensive family of the Sajouins. There are a dozen species of them in all; and they possess the peculiarity of being insect-eaters. They are fond of honey, too; and are often seen ranging the woods, in little troops of ten or twelve, in search of the nests of the wild bees, which they plunder of their luscious stores. The _Ouistitis_ also constitute a genus. These, like the Saimiris, are beautiful little creatures--many of the species not being larger than squirrels, and marked with the most lively colours: as bright red and orange. There are many different kinds of small squirrels known by this name, or by its abbreviation--Titi--some of them belonging to the group of Saimiris, and others to the Ouistitis, properly so called. Last of all come the little Tamunus; some of which, in beauty of colours, in playfulness of disposition, and other amiable qualities, need not yield either to the Saimiris or Ouistitis. They are equally prized as pets; and among their Creole owners have equally applied to them the endearing appellation of Titi-titi. Quadrupeds, what they are and where found--by Captain Mayne Reid CHAPTER THREE. BEARS. In the days of Linnaeus--that is, a century and a half ago--it was supposed there was only one kind of Bear in existence--the common Brown bear of Europe. It is true that Linnaeus before his death had heard of the great Polar bear, but he had never seen one, and was not certain of its being a distinct species. Not only has the Polar bear proved to be a very different animal from his brown congener, but other species have turned up in remote quarters of the globe: until the list of these interesting quadrupeds has been extended to the number of at least a dozen distinct species--differing not only in size, shape, and colour, but also in many more essential characteristics. Bears have been found in North America, and others in South America; some in Asia, and still others in the islands of the Indian Archipelago; entirely unlike the brown bear of Europe, as they are to one another. As the _Brown bear_ is the oldest of the family known to naturalists, I shall give him the precedence in this little monograph. It is a misnomer to call him the brown bear of Europe, since he is even more common in many parts of Asia--especially throughout Asiatic Russia and Kamtschatka. But he is also met with in most European countries, where there are extensive ranges of mountains. In the mountains of Hungary and Transylvania--as well as in those of Russia, Sweden, and Norway--the brown bear is found. He is also met with as far south as the Alps--and even the Pyrenees, and Asturias, mountains of Spain; but the bear of these last-mentioned localities differs considerably from the real brown bear of the northern regions; and most probably is a different species. Again, in North America--in a very remote and sterile region lying to the westward of Hudson's Bay, and known as the Barren Grounds--a large brown bear has been observed by travellers and traders of the Fur Company, supposed to be identical with the European bear. This, however, is a doubtful point; and in all likelihood the bear of the Barren Grounds is a new species, only found in that desolate region. The brown bear is of solitary habits. During the summer season he roams about, growing fat upon roots, fruits, seeds, and wild honey--when he can procure it. At the approach of winter this animal has the singular habit of returning to his den, and there remaining dormant or torpid throughout the season of cold. During this prolonged slumber he takes no sustenance of any kind; and although exceedingly fat when going to rest, he comes forth in the spring-time as thin as a skeleton. The den is usually a cave or hollow tree; or, failing this, a _lair_, which the animal constructs for himself out of branches, lining it snugly with leaves and moss. The brown bear is a long-lived animal. Individuals have been known of the age of fifty years. The cubs when first born are not much larger than the puppies of a mastiff. The people of Kamtschatka hunt this species with great assiduity, and obtain from it many of the comforts and necessaries of life. The skins are used for their beds and coverlets, for their caps, gloves, and boots. They manufacture from it harness for their dogs. From the intestines they make masks for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the sun; and they also use the latter stretched over their windows as a substitute for glass. The flesh and fat are among the most esteemed dainties of a Kamtschatkan _cuisine_. Even the shoulder-blades are used as sickles for cutting grass. The Laplanders, also--of whose cold country the brown bear is an inhabitant--have a great esteem for this animal. They regard its prowess as something wonderful, alleging that it has the strength of ten men, and the sense of twelve! The name for it, in their language, signifies the dog of God. The _White_, or _Polar bear_, is, perhaps, the most interesting of the whole family: not so much on account of his superior size--since the brown and the grizzly are sometimes as large as he--but rather from his singular habits, and the many odd stories told about him, dining the last fifty years, by whalers and Arctic explorers. To describe the appearance of the Polar bear would be superfluous. Everybody has seen either a living individual in a menagerie, or a stuffed skin of one in a museum; and the long, low, tail-less body--with outstretched neck and sharp projecting snout--covered with a thick coat of white hair, renders it impossible to mistake the Polar bear for any other animal. This quadruped is more of a _sea_ than _land_ animal. Sometimes, it is true, he wanders inland for fifty miles or so; but this he does in following the course of some river or marshy inlet, where he finds fish. His usual haunts are along the icy shores of the Arctic Ocean, and the numerous ice-bound islands of the great Polar Sea. There he roams about over the frozen banks, or floats upon icebergs and drifts; or, if need be, takes to the open water, where he can swim with almost the facility of a fish. A proof of his natatory powers is found in the fact that Arctic voyagers have observed him swimming about in the open sea full twenty miles from the nearest land! He is equally expert as a diver; and uses this art for the purpose of capturing various kinds of marine animals, upon which he subsists. In regard to food, the Polar bear differs altogether from his congeners. He is almost wholly carnivorous in his habits. Indeed, were it otherwise, he could not exist in his icy kingdom--in many parts of which not a trace of vegetation is to be found. Fish of many kinds, birds, and their eggs, and four-footed beasts--when he can lay his claws upon them--all are welcome to his palate. Nor will he disdain to feast upon the carcass of the great whale--when chance, or the whale fishermen, leaves such a provender in his way. The seal is a particular favourite with him, and he hunts this creature with skill and assiduity. When he perceives the seal basking upon a ledge of ice, he slips quietly into the water, and swims to leeward of his intended victim. He approaches by frequent short dives--so calculating his distance, that at the last he comes up close to the spot where the seal is lying. Should the victim attempt to escape, by rolling into the water, it falls into the bear's clutches: if, on the contrary, it lies still, the bear makes a powerful spring, seizes it on the ice, and then kills and devours it at his leisure. In swimming, the Polar bear not only moves rapidly through the water, but is also capable of darting forward in such a way as to seize a fish before it can escape beyond reach. On the land, also, he can move with rapidity--his slouching trot being almost as fast as the gallop of a horse. Individuals have been shot that weighed as much as 1600 pounds! Polar bears are found along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, both in Asia and America. They do not go to sleep in winter--that is, the males do not. The females with young, however, bury themselves in the snow-- having formed a lair--and there remain until they bring forth their young. The cubs are often captured in these snow caves, which the Esquimaux discover by means of dogs trained for this peculiar purpose. The _Grizzly bear_ next merits attention. This formidable animal was, for a long time, supposed to be a variety either of the brown bear of Europe or the black bear of America; but his greater ferocity, so often and fatally experienced by travellers, drew the attention of naturalists upon him, when it was discovered that he was altogether distinct from either of the two. His name is usually coupled with that of the Rocky Mountains of America--for it is chiefly in the defiles and valleys of this stupendous chain that he makes his home. He wanders, however, far eastward over the prairies, and also to the Californian Mountains on the west; and in a latitudinal direction from the borders of Texas on the south, northward as far, it is supposed, as the shores of the Arctic Sea. At all events, a bear somewhat like him, if not identically the same, has been seen on the banks of the great Mackenzie River, near its mouth. Perhaps it may be the brown bear of the Barren Grounds, already noticed; and which last is, in many respects--in size and colour especially--very similar to the grizzly. The grizzly bear is certainly the most ferocious of his tribe--even exceeding, in this unamiable quality, his white cousin of the icy north; and many a melancholy tale of trapper and Indian hunter attests his dangerous prowess. He is both carnivorous and frugivorous--will dig for roots and eat fruits when within his reach; but not being a tree-climber, he has to content himself with such berries as grow upon the humbler bushes. Indeed, it is a fortunate circumstance that the fierce animal is unable to ascend a tree. Many a traveller and hunter have found a neighbouring tree the readiest means of saving their lives, when pursued by this ferocious assailant. Another circumstance is also in favour of those pursued by the grizzly bear. In the region where he dwells, but few persons ever go afoot; and although the bear can overtake a pedestrian, his speed is no match for that of the friendly horse. It is almost hopeless to think of killing a grizzly bear by a single bullet. There the deadly rifle is no longer deadly--unless when the shot is given in a mortal part; and to take sure aim from the saddle, with a horse dancing in affright, is a feat which even the most skilful marksman cannot always accomplish. As many as a dozen bullets have been fired into the body of a grizzly bear, without killing him outright. The strength of this animal equals his ferocity. He pulls the huge buffalo, a thousand pounds in weight, to the ground; and then drags its carcass to some cave or crevice among the rocks, or to a hole which he has dug to receive it. To this place he repairs from time to time, till the exhausted store compels him to go in search of a new victim. Many an incident can be related--and on the best authority too--where man has been the victim of the grizzly bear; and the Indians esteem the killing of one of these animals a feat equal to that of taking the scalp of a human enemy. One of the proudest ornaments of a savage chief is a necklace of bears' claws: only to be worn by those who have themselves killed the animals from which they have been taken. The _Black_, or _American bear_, is one of the best known of the family; and on account of his clean smooth head, tapering muzzle, and rich black fur, he is also one of the best looking of bears. He is found throughout the whole of the United States territory--from the Canadas to the Gulf of Mexico--and westward to the shores of the Pacific. He is sometimes met with in the same neighbourhood with the grizzly, but not often: since their haunts are essentially unlike--the black bear being a denizen of the heavy-timbered forest, while the other frequents the grassy hills or coppice-openings of the prairies and mountain valleys. The black bear is a tree-climber; and ascends the loftiest trees in search of the honey of the wild bees, or to make his lair in some cavernous hollow of the trunks. His food is usually fruits and roots, but he is also fond of young corn, and often commits serious depredations on the maize plantation. In the backwood settlements, where clearings are apart from each other, the black bear is still occasionally met with; and the chase of this animal is one of the most favourite pastimes of the backwoods' hunter, whether amateur or professional. Generally there is little peril in the pursuit--unless when the bear is wounded and enraged, and the hunter chooses to risk himself at close quarters. There are varieties in colour. Some with white throats, and some of a cinnamon brown, have been observed; but the colour of the species is usually jet black; and on this account the skins are much prized for military and other purposes. The _Spectacled bear_ is a native of South America, and frequents the forests upon the declivities of the Andes. This was long supposed to be a variety of the black bear, but later observations prove it to be a different species. Its habits are very similar to the last, to which it is also similar in shape. In colour it differs essentially. It is black, but with a buff snout, and buff rings round the eyes, which give it that appearance whence it derives its trivial name. Its throat and breast are whitish. There is at least one other species of black bear indigenous to South America, inhabiting the tropical forests; but very little is known of it--further than that it is one of the smallest of the tribe. We now reach the Asiatic bears, properly so called; and we have only space to say a word about each. The _Siberian bear_ is thought to be only a variety of the brown bear of Europe, differing slightly in colour. In the former there is a broad band, or collar, of white passing over the neck and meeting upon the breast. It is, as its name implies, an inhabitant of Siberia. The _Thibet bear_ is a dweller among the Himalayas--in Sylhet and Nepaul. Its general colour is black, with a white mark, shaped like the letter Y; so placed that the shank of the letter is upon its breast, and the forks running up the front of its shoulders. It is not carnivorous, and, generally, its disposition is harmless and playful. It is easily tamed. The _Sloth bear_ is another Indian species having this peculiar marking on the breast and shoulders. This animal is one of the oddest of creatures. Its short limbs and depressed head, with the long shaggy hair surmounting its back like a bullock, give it the appearance of being deformed. On this account it was the favourite of the Indian jugglers, who, depending on its ugliness as a source of attraction, trained it to a variety of tricks. It is therefore sometimes known as the jugglers' bear (_Ours jongleur_). It has also a peculiar prehensile power in its lips; and this, with its general shaggy mien, led to the belief of its being a species of sloth--hence its common name. The _Malayan bear_ is another black species, with a marking on the breast. This mark is of a semi-lunar shape, and whitish; but the colour of the muzzle is buff-yellow. This is a very handsome species, subsisting on vegetable diet; and very injurious to the plantations of young cocoa trees, of the shoots of which it is very fond. It is also a honey eater; and roams about in quest of the hives of the indigenous bees. It is a native of Malacca, Sumatra, and others of the East Indian islands. The _Isabella bear_ is so called from its colour--being of that fulvous white known as Isabella colour. It is another of the species belonging to the great range of the Himalayas, and is found in the mountains of Nepaul. Sometimes it is observed of nearly a white colour; which led to the mistaken belief that Polar bears existed in the Himalayas. The _Syrian bear_ is a species found in the mountainous parts of Asia Minor. It is of a fulvous-brown colour, sometimes approaching to yellowish white. It is partly carnivorous, but feeds also on fruits; and is most remarkable as being the species first mentioned in books-- that is, it is the bear of the Bible. The _Bornean bear_ is the last to be mentioned, though it is certainly one of the most beautiful, if not the most beautiful, of the genus. This beauty arises from its peculiar markings, especially from the large patch of rich orange colour upon the breast. It is a native of the great Island of Borneo, and little is known of its habits; but it is supposed to resemble the Malayan bear in these, as it does in many other respects. In Africa there are no bears. CHAPTER FOUR. BADGERS. The Badger is a silent, solitary, carnivorous creature, having his representative, in some form or other, in almost every part of the world; though nowhere either numerous in species or plentiful in individuals. In Europe he appears in two forms, the _Glutton and common Badger_; in North America in three, viz., _Wolverene, American_, and _Mexican Badgers_; and, indeed, we might say a fourth belongs to that continent, for the _Racoon_ is as near being a badger, both in appearance and habits, as he is to being anything else. For convenience, therefore, let us class him in this group: he will certainly be more at home in it than among the _bears_--where most of the naturalists have placed him. In South America we find another form of badger in the _Coati mondi_, of which there are several varieties; and there, too, the racoon appears of a species distinct from those of the north. Some writers class the coati with the civets, but the creature has far more of the habits and appearance of a badger than of a civet cat; and therefore, whatever the anatomists may say, we shall consider the coati a badger. But a truer form of the badger than either of the above, exists in South America--extending over nearly the whole of that continent. This is the _Grison_, which, in appearance and habits, somewhat resembles the wolverene. It also is found in two or three varieties--according to the part of the country it inhabits. The _Taira_ is another South American species of badger-like animal, though usually referred to the weasels. In Africa, the badger appears in the _Ratel_, or honey badger, common from Senegal to the Cape. In Asia, in its northern zone, we have the _European badger and Glutton_; and in the south, the _Indian badger_; while in the Himalaya chain dwells another animal, closely allied to the badgers, called the _Wha_ or _Panda_. In Java, we find still another species, the _Nientek_; and in the other large Asiatic islands there are several kinds of animals that approach very near to badgers in their forms and habits, but which are usually classed either with the weasels or civets. We shall now give some details respecting the different animals of this family; among which the Glutton, in point of size, as well as for other reasons, deserves precedence. The _Glutton_ is the Rosomak of the Russians, in whose country he is chiefly found--along high northern latitudes, both in Europe and Asia. He is supposed to be identical with the wolverene of North America; and if this be so, his range extends all round the Arctic zone of the globe: since the wolverene is found throughout the whole extent of the Hudson's Bay territory. There are good reasons to believe, however, that the two species differ considerably from each other--just as the European badger does from his American cousins. It was the writer Olaus Magnus who gave such celebrity to this animal, by telling a very great "story" about the creature--which, at a time when people were little studied in natural history, was readily believed. Olaus's report was, that whenever the glutton killed an animal, he was in the habit of feeding on the carcass till his belly became swelled out and tight as a drum; that then he would pass between two trees growing close together--to press the swelling inwards and ease himself--after which he would return to the carcass, again fill himself, and then back again to the trees, and so on, till he had eaten every morsel of the dead animal, whatever might have been its size! All this, of course, was mere fable; but it is not without some foundation in fact: for the Rosomak is, in reality, one of the greatest _gluttons_ among carnivorous animals. So, too, is his cousin, the wolverene of America; as the fur trappers have had sad reasons to know--whenever the creature has come upon a store of their provisions. The name of Glutton, therefore, though based upon Olaus Magnus's exaggeration, is not so inappropriate. The glutton and wolverene are, in fact, very like the common badger in their habits; except that being much larger and stronger animals, they prey upon larger game. The reindeer, and other large quadrupeds, are often the victims of both; and it is even said that they can overcome the great elk; but this is not confirmed by the observations of any trustworthy traveller. The young of the elk, or a disabled old one, may occasionally succumb to them, but not an elk in full vigour, nor yet a reindeer, except when they can surprise the latter asleep. Their game is usually the smaller quadrupeds; and in the fur countries no animal is a greater pest to the trapper than the wolverene or glutton. A single individual will in one night visit a whole line of traps, and rob them of the captured animals--whether they be polar hares, white or blue foxes, martens, or ermine weasels. It is this creature that is usually represented lying in wait upon the limb of a tree, and springing upon deer as they pass underneath: but this story of its habits wants confirmation. The fur of the wolverene is one of the _staple_ articles of trade of the Hudson's Bay Company; though it is more prized among the Russians than with us--who esteem it in value as next to the ermine. The _Common_, or _European badger_, need not be here described, since it is familiar to all. The same may be said of the two American badgers, and also that of India, all three of which are very similar in habits and appearance to the common kind. But the _African badger_, or _Ratel_, merits a word or two. It is about the size of the true badger, and ordinarily lives on small game, as badgers do; but, in addition to this, it is fond of varying its diet with a little honey. This it procures from the nests of wild bees, common throughout the whole of Africa. The account given of the mode in which it finds these nests would be incredible, were it not that we have the testimony of reverend missionaries to confirm it. It is as follows:--In Africa there is a bird--a species of cuckoo--known as the Indicator bird, or honey guide. This little creature hops from tree to tree, itself apparently in search of the bees' nests. While doing so, it utters a shrill cry; and these cries are repeated until the honey hive is found. The ratel lies in wait for this bird; and, on hearing the cry, makes towards it, and keeps following its flights till the bees' nest is found. Should this prove to be in a tree and out of reach--for the ratel is not a climber--the animal vents his chagrin by tearing at the trunk with his teeth, as if he had hopes of felling the tree. The scratches thus made on the bark serve as a guide to certain other creatures, who are also fond of honey, viz., the Kaffir hunters and Bushmen. Should the bees' nest prove to be on the ground, or under it, the ratel soon unearths the treasure with his strong claws, and takes possession of it, regardless of the stings of the bees, against which his thick skin defends him. The _Orison_ inhabits the forests of South America, from Guiana to Paraguay. It is quite as ferocious as any of the tribe; but its smaller size hinders it from attacking large animals, and its victims are birds, agoutis, and other small rodents--against all of which it wages a war of extermination. When surprised by the hunters and their dogs, it will battle furiously till life is extinct: all the while emitting a strong disagreeable smell, after the manner of the weasels and polecats. The _Racoon_, which we have grouped with the badgers, is both a North and South American animal; dwelling in dense forests, and making its lair in the hollow of a tree. This animal is a good tree-climber, and usually takes refuge among the higher branches when pursued. It is nocturnal in its habits, but in deep shady woods it may be seen prowling about in the daylight, in search of birds and their eggs, small rodents, fish, or frogs, all of which it eats indifferently. There are several distinct species. The _Coati_ is exclusively South American. This, unlike the racoon, sleeps at night, and prowls during the day. It is also an expert tree-climber, and has a peculiarity in this respect; viz., it descends a tree _head foremost_, which no other animal of its order can do. It is equally as fierce and carnivorous as any of the badgers; and its prey, as with the _racoon_, consists of birds, their eggs, and small quadrupeds. It feeds also upon insects; and will turn over the earth with its long proboscis-like snout. When drinking it laps like the dog. In eating, it uses its fore-paws to carry the food to its mouth, though not as squirrels and monkeys do. On the contrary, it first divides the flesh, or whatever it may be, into small morsels, and then raises these to its mouth by impaling them on its claws as on a fork! It is not a solitary animal, but prefers the society of its companions, and usually goes about in troops or gangs. Its lair, like the racoon, is the hollow of a tree. The _Panda_ of the East Indies is an animal of very similar habits. It is found chiefly along the banks of streams that descend from the mountains; and subsists upon small quadrupeds and birds--which it is able to follow to the tops of the tallest trees. Its name of Qua, or Oua, or Wha, is derived from the cry which it utters, and repeats very often; and which is well represented by any of the syllables above written. CHAPTER FIVE. WEASELS, OTTERS AND CIVETS. Fortunate it is that the quadrupeds composing this group are all animals of small dimensions. Were they equal in size to lions and tigers, the human race would be in danger of total extirpation: for it is well-known that weasels are the most ferocious and bloodthirsty creatures upon the earth. None of them, however, much exceed the size of the ordinary cat: unless we include the gluttons and wolverenes among the weasels, as naturalists sometimes do, notwithstanding that these animals differ altogether from them. The _civets_, it is true, are not usually classed with the weasels, but form a group of themselves; however, they are much more nearly related to weasels than the gluttons; and where, as in the present case, it is desirable to divide the mammalia into large groups, they will stand very well together. In truth, the civets are much nearer in resemblance to weasels than the otters are; and these two last are generally classed together--the otters being neither more nor less than water weasels. We shall first consider the true _Weasels_: that is, the Weasels, Stoats, Ferrets, Polecats, and Martens. The habits of most of the species are well-known; and all resemble each other in the exceeding ferocity of their disposition. It will only be necessary to say a word about their geographical distribution, and to speak of a few of the more noted kinds. In Great Britain, five species are natives: the Pine and Beech Martens, the Stoat, the Common Weasel (which is the type of the family), and the Polecat. The Ferret is not indigenous to the country, but has been introduced from Africa, and is trained, as is well-known, for the pursuit of the rabbit--which it can follow into the very innermost recesses of its burrow. The English species of weasels are also common to other countries of Europe and Asia. In the high northern latitudes of the Old World, we find a very celebrated species--celebrated for a long time on account of its valuable fur--the Sable. The sable is a true marten: a tree-climber, and one of the most sanguinary of weasels. An account of its habits, and of the mode of hunting it, forms one of the most interesting chapters in natural history. An allied species inhabits the Hudson's Bay territory, known as the American sable, and another, belonging to the Japanese islands, is called the Japan sable. The Ermine is a species equally famous; and for a like reason--the value of its beautiful white fur, so long an article of commerce. The ermine is neither more nor less than a stoat in winter dress; but there are several varieties of it--some that turn to brown in summer, while another kind retains its snow-white covering throughout all the year. The ermine is common to Europe, Asia, and North America. The Pekan is a larger species, belonging to North America, and semi-aquatic in its habits; while the Vison, or Mink, is a large black weasel that inhabits the borders of rivers in Canada and the United States, where it preys upon fish and aquatic reptiles. In North America there is also a very large Pine marten, so called from its habit of dwelling in the pine forests--where it climbs the trees in pursuit of birds and squirrels. This is among the largest of the weasel tribe. In California, a new species has been described under the name of the Yellow-cheeked weasel, and in Mexico another, the Black--faced; so that North America has its full complement of these sanguinary quadrupeds. Nor is the southern division of that continent without its weasels, as there is one species or more in New Granada, one in Guiana, and two or three in Chili and Peru. In India, there is the White-cheeked weasel, Hodgson's and Horsefield's weasels; and in Nepaul, the Nepaul weasel, and the Cathia. Further north in Asia, there is, in Siberia, the Vomela, the Chorok, and the Altai weasel of the Altai Mountains; and no doubt need exist that animals of the weasel tribe are to be found everywhere. Indeed, if we regard as weasels the various carnivorous quadrupeds of the glutton and badger family, which have been described elsewhere in these sketches-- including the strange Teledu or Stinkard of Java, the Helietis of India and China, the Taira and Grison of Brazil, the Ratel or honey badger of Africa, the Zorille of the Cape, the Zorilla or Maikel of Patagonia, the Sand bear of India, and the numerous varieties of the celebrated Polecat, or Skunk, of North and South America--we may well say that there are weasels, or their representatives, in every hole and corner of the earth. With regard to the Polecats of America, they form a sort of link between the weasels and civets; and although there was long supposed to be but one kind--as in the case of the opossum--it is now ascertained that there are several distinct species, with an endless list of varieties. The _Water Weasels_, or _Otters_, are not so numerous either in species or individuals--though there are at least a dozen of them in all, and they are widely distributed over the world. In Britain, there is but one--the Common or European otter; and in North America, a very similar species was supposed, until recently, to be the only one inhabiting that continent. The rivers of California, however, have presented us with a second, known as the Californian otter; and the singular Sea otter, whose beautiful fur is so prized under the name of Sea otter, is also an animal inhabiting the coasts of California--as it does most part of the western seaboard of the American continent. The Grey otter is a South African animal, and in India we have the Wargul; while in the rivers of Nepaul--a country so rich in mammalia-- there is the Golden brown otter. China, in common with other Indo-Chinese countries, possesses the Chinese otter; and South America has the Brazilian Contra, and in all probability several other species. With regard to the _Civet-Weasels_--or Civet Cats, as they are commonly called--there is a still greater variety, both in genera and species: so many, indeed, that, as already stated, they have been arranged in a family by themselves. They may be regarded, however, as large weasels, distinguished from the others by their having a sort of pouch or gland under the tail, in which is secreted an unctuous and highly odorous substance. This, in some species, as in the true civets, is relished as a perfume or scent, while in others it is an extremely disagreeable odour. The true civet is a native of North Africa; where it is kept in a tame state, for the purpose of obtaining from it the well-known perfume of commerce. An allied species, the Rasse, belongs to Java--and is there also kept in cages for the same purpose--while in Asia--from Arabia to Malabar, and among the Malays and Arabs of Borneo, Macassar, and other islands of the Indian Archipelago--still another species of civet affords a similar perfumed substance. The Aard Wolf (earth wolf) of South Africa is usually classed among the civets, but with very slight reason. It is far more like the hyena; and is certainly nothing else than a hyena. The Delundung of Java is a creature that bears a resemblance to the civets; and may be regarded as forming a link between these and the true cats. The Genets constitute a division of the civet-weasel tribe; and one of which there are numerous species. They are usually pretty spotted creatures, with immensely long tails; and but for their cruel and sanguinary habits would, no doubt, be favourites. They exist in South Europe; and, under different forms and appellations, extend over all Africa to Madagascar and the Cape--as well as through the countries of Southern Asia and the Asiatic islands. The Ichneumons claim our attention next. These are celebrated animals, on account of the strange and fabulous tales related of the species known as the Egyptian ichneumon, which, among the people of Egypt, is domesticated, and was once held as a sacred animal. Besides the Egyptian ichneumon, there are several other species in Africa--one belonging to Abyssinia, and no less than six to the countries near the Cape. The Garangan of Java is an ichneumon; and so also are the Mongoos and Nyula of Nepaul; while in the Malay peninsula is a species known as the Malacca ichneumon. The Paradoxure is usually classed with the civets, though it wants the perfumed pouch; and the Suricate or Meer-cat, of the Cape colonists, takes its station in this group. A badger-like animal of Madagascar, the Mangu, is also regarded as a civet: so, too, are the Coatis of the New World, though these last are evidently of much nearer kin to the badgers. Perhaps the curious creature known as the Potto, or Kinkajou, has more pretensions to a place among the civets: at all events, it deserves one in the general group of the weasels. CHAPTER SIX. TAME DOGS. Perhaps of all other animals the dog has been the earliest and most constant companion of man. His swiftness and strength, but more especially his highly-developed power of smelling, have made him a powerful ally against the other animals; and these qualities must have attracted the attention of man at an early period--particularly in those times when the chase was, perhaps, the only pursuit of mankind. No animal is more widely distributed over the earth. He has followed man everywhere; and wherever human society exists, there this constant and faithful attendant may be found--devoted to his master, adopting his manners, distinguishing and defending his property, and remaining attached to him even after death. It is a question among naturalists as to what was the parent stock of the dog. Some allege that he has sprung from the wolf; others that he is a descendant of the jackal; while not a few believe that there were true wild dogs, from which the present domesticated race had their origin. These ideas are mere speculations, and not very reasonable ones either. It would not be difficult to show, that different kinds of dogs have sprung from different kinds of animals--that is, animals of the same great family--from wolves, foxes, jackals, zerdas, and even hyenas. This can be proved from the fact, that domesticated breeds among savage tribes, both in Asia and America, are undoubtedly the descendants of wolves and jackals: such, for instance, as the Esquimaux dog of the Arctic regions, the Dingo of Australia, the Indian dogs of North America--of which there are several varieties--and also one or two kinds existing in Mexico and South America. Naturalists deny that there are any true dogs living in a wild state. This is simply an unreasonable assertion. Wild dogs of several species are to be met with in Asia and America; and if it be asserted that these originally came from a domesticated stock, the same cannot be said of the hunting dog of Southern Africa--which is neither more nor less than a _wild hound_. Perhaps none of the animals that have submitted to the conquest of man have branched off into a greater number of varieties than this one. There are more kinds than either of horses or oxen. We shall not, therefore, attempt a description of each; but limit ourselves to speak of those breeds that are the most remarkable--or rather those with which the reader is supposed to be least familiar. To describe such varieties as the spaniel, the greyhound, the mastiff, or the terrier, would not add much to the knowledge which the English reader already possesses. One of the most remarkable of dogs is the huge mastiff of Tibet. He is long-haired, and usually of a jet black colour. He is quite a match in size for either the Newfoundland or San Bernard breeds, and not unlike one or the other--for it may be remarked, that these in many points resemble each other. The Tibet dog, as his name implies, is the property of the Tibetians: especially the Bhootees--the same people who own that curious species of cattle, the _Yak_, or grunting ox, and who reside on the northern slopes of the Himalaya mountains. It may be inferred, therefore, that the Tibet dog affects a cold climate; and such is in reality the case. He cannot bear heat; and does not thrive, even in the kingdom of Nepaul. Attempts to introduce the breed into England have resulted in failure: the animals brought hither having died shortly after their arrival. The masters of these dogs--the Bhootees, or Bhoteas, are a singular race, of a ruddy copper colour, rather short in stature, but of excellent disposition. Their clothing consists of furs and woollen cloths, adapted to the cold climate which they inhabit. The men till the ground, and keep yaks and sheep, and sometimes come down into the warm plains to trade--penetrating even to Calcutta. The women remain at home, their only protectors being these great dogs, who watch faithfully over their villages and encampments, and fly fiercely at any stranger who may approach them. It is said that they are especially hostile to people who have a _white_ face; but this disposition is also characteristic of the dogs belonging to the American Indians--and perhaps those possessed by all savages with a coloured skin. The Dingo, or dog of Australia, is an animal domesticated among the aborigines of that country. He is a dog of wolf-like shape, who does not bark, but utters only a mournful howling. He is used by the wretched natives both for the chase and as an article of food; and is a fierce and voracious creature--not hesitating to launch himself on the larger kinds of animals. He is especially employed in hunting the kangaroo; and sometimes terrible combats occur between the dingo and the larger species of kangaroos--resulting always in the death of the latter. The San Bernard dog, supposed to be a cross between the mastiff and shepherd's dog, is too celebrated to require a description here. His sagacity in discovering travellers amid the Alpine snows, and guiding them upon their path, is the quality upon which the fame of this dog has been founded; but it may be remarked that many of the feats attributed to him have their origin in the fertile fancies of Parisian writers. The Esquimaux dog is another celebrated variety. He is an animal with a fox-like face and thick coat of whitish hair, generally tinged with yellow. He is to the Esquimaux a most valuable companion: trained to draw their sledges over the surface of the snow, and enabling them to make long and rapid journeys--without which these singular people would be ofttimes in danger of perishing amid the inhospitable regions they inhabit. The Indians of North America possess two or three varieties of domesticated dogs, evidently derived from the wolves of that region. Indeed, the common Indian dogs, found among the Sioux and other northern tribes, bear so close a resemblance to the large American wolf, that they are often taken for this animal, and in consequence shot, or otherwise killed by mistake. The Indians use them for carrying burdens: their tents and tent poles being transported by these animals on long journeys across the prairies. Their flesh is a favourite article of the savage _cuisine_; but it is too costly to be used as an every-day food; and is only served up on grand festive occasions. Like the dogs of Tibet, these Indian wolf dogs have the greatest antipathy to a white skin; so much so, that even a friend in that guise can rarely obtain either their confidence or friendship. A smaller kind than the common one is found among certain tribes, and appears to have derived its origin from the prairie wolf--the jackal of America--while the Hare Indians of the Rocky Mountains possess a third variety; and it is known that still another exists among the tribes of Russian America. This last is short-haired and smooth-coated: therefore differing altogether from the Indian dogs of the prairies. In Mexico, there are two or three native dogs: found there on the arrival of Europeans. One is the _Alco_--a dog remarkable for a curious hunch or protuberance upon the back and shoulders, a thick short neck, and small pointed muzzle. He is thinly covered with long hair, of a yellowish colour. Another singular variety is the dog of Chihuahua and this is, perhaps, the smallest of all canine creatures. Full-grown specimens have been seen, whose dimensions did not exceed those of the common rat; and a singular fact, well authenticated, is, that this dog, when transported from Chihuahua to any other place--even to the city of Mexico itself-- invariably becomes larger, or degenerates, as the Mexicans have it! There is also in Mexico a hairless dog. It is, no doubt, the same as that known by the name of Turkish dog; since this variety came originally from Spanish America. In South America, there are several species of native dogs, found among the savages of the Orinoco and Amazon. They are small animals, usually of a whitish colour: but their owners follow the curious practice of dyeing them with annatto, indigo, and other brilliant dyes, for the purpose of rendering them more ornamental! We can only find space to say that there are many other varieties of domesticated dogs, almost unknown beyond the countries in which they are found. Such are the _Quao_ of Rhamgur, the Sumatran dog, the _Poull_ of New Ireland, the dogs of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego--those of the South Sea Islands; and the _Waht_ that inhabits some of the ranges of the Himalayas. It is reasonable to suppose that there is not a nation upon earth, hardly a tribe--civilised or savage--that does not possess some variety of the canine race differing from all the others. CHAPTER SEVEN. WILD DOGS. By _Wild Dogs_, we mean not only several sorts of true dogs, that in different parts of the world are found living in a wild state; but also Wolves, Foxes, Jackals, Hyenas, and Fennecs--for all these are but dogs in a state of nature. First, we shall speak of the true dogs living in a wild state--that is, apart from the society of man. It is not necessary here to go into the often-debated question, as to whether dogs were originally wolves, or what species of wolf the dog is descended from. This is all mere speculation, and answers no purpose. It is just as likely that wolves sprang from dogs, as that dogs came from wolves; and every one may perceive that two breeds of the dog species are often far more unlike each other--both in appearance and habits--than a dog is to a wolf itself. Again, foxes differ only from wolves in point of size; and a small wolf is in reality a fox, while a large fox may be equally regarded as a wolf. Furthermore, the jackal is nothing else than another form of the same animal--the wolf or dog, whichever you choose to term it; and the hyenas but a still _uglier_ shape of the same carnivorous creature. With regard to the true wild dogs--which are not regarded as wolves--we find them existing in various parts of the world. They usually live in communities, and have the habit of hounds--that is, they hunt in packs. Whether they were originally dogs in a domesticated state, and have since seceded from the society of man, is a question which naturalists are unable to agree upon. In India there are two or three kinds of wild dogs living thus. One in the Deccan--called Kolsun by the Mahratta people--is a reddish-coloured animal, nearly as large as the common European wolf. It dwells in the forests, far remote from the villages--and of course lives by preying upon other animals--just as wolves and foxes do. Again, in the forests of the Himalaya mountains there is another species of wild dog, different from that of the Deccan. It is usually known as the wild dog of Nepaul, from its being found in many parts of that kingdom. A large community of these animals is often met with in the mountain forests-- living in caves, or at the bottoms of cliffs, where there are deep crevices among the boulders of loose rocks, that afford them a secure asylum when pursued by their enemies. In these places the dogs sleep, and bring forth their young; and the puppies are taught to be exceedingly wary, and not stray far from their dens during the absence of the mothers. Indeed, so cunning do they become when only a few days old, that it is difficult to capture one of them outside its impenetrable lodging-place. During many hours the old ones are abroad, in pursuit of the animals upon whose flesh they subsist; and, as already stated, these dogs follow their game not singly, but in bands or packs. In this way, instinct teaches them that they will have a better chance of success; since they are more able to head the pursued animal, turn it in different directions, and at length run it to the ground. A curious fact is related of the cunning of these wild dogs. It is stated that when in pursuit of the larger animals--such as stags and large antelopes that inhabit the same district--instead of running them down at once, the dogs manoeuvre so as to guide the game to their breeding place, before giving the final _coup_ to the chase! The object of this is to bring the carcass within reach of their young; which, were it killed at a great distance off, would be obviously impossible. Such a habit as this would prove them possessed of something more than instinct; but for all that, it may be true. A fact seems to confirm it: the fact that a large quantity of bones is always observed in the immediate neighbourhood of the breeding places--some of these being of such a size as to preclude the belief that they could have been carried thither by the dogs themselves. In Ramghur there is a wild dog called Quao, or Quaw, which lives in communities, just as those of Nepaul; and still another kind inhabits the forests of the Island of Sumatra. None of these kinds are to be confounded with the half-wild dogs of India, called pariah dogs; since the latter, although not owned by individuals, dwell in the villages, and of course associate with man. Besides, the pariahs are of no particular breed--there being several sorts of pariah dogs. They are merely _outcast curs_, without owners, that pick up a living as they best can. Passing from India to the tropical countries of America, we find another sort of wild dog in the forests of Guiana, known as the Koupara, or Crab-dog. It is not certain whether these dogs are indigenous to Guiana, or the progeny of some domestic variety introduced by the colonists. They dwell in small troops or families, of six or seven individuals each, and their food is furnished by the _pacas, agoutis_, and other small rodent animals of tropical America. They also find sustenance in several kinds of crabs, which they adroitly capture upon the banks of the rivers; and it is from their habit of feeding upon these they have derived the name of crab-dogs. They are easily tamed; and when crossed with other breeds, a variety is produced which is esteemed by the natives as the very best kind for the hunting of the agoutis, cavies, and capibaras. The wild dogs of the Cape country, called _Wilde Hunden_ (wild hounds) by the Dutch, are usually regarded as near akin to the _hyenas_. But they are more like real wild hounds than hyenas; and their colour--which is a mixture of black, white, and tan--almost points to them as the progenitors of that variety of dog known as the hound. Their habits, too, would seem to confirm this hypothesis: for it is well-known that these animals pursue their prey just after the manner of a pack of real hounds--doubling upon it, and using every artifice to run it down. The numerous species of ruminant animals--the antelope in particular--are the especial objects of their pursuit, and upon these they subsist. Like the Indian wild dogs, they live in communities--using the burrows of the wild hog and ant-eater, as also the hollow ant-hills, for their lairs and breeding places. Travellers passing across the plains of South Africa have often witnessed the splendid spectacle of a pack of these beautiful wild hounds in pursuit of a large antelope, and almost fancied themselves looking at a stag hunt, with a kennel of real hounds going at full view! The true wild dog of all is that creature so well-known and celebrated in all our tales of childhood--the _Wolf_. To describe the wolf, or even to give an account of his habits, would be superfluous. Almost every one is acquainted with the gaunt form, the shaggy hide, and tierce aspect of this formidable creature; and every one has heard of his fierce and savage disposition: for who is ignorant of the story of "Little Red Riding Hood?" The presence of this much-disliked animal is almost universal: by which I mean, that in some form or other he is represented in almost every corner of the globe. You may say there are no wolves in Africa; but this is not true: for the hyenas are nothing more nor less than wolves, and wolves of the very ugliest kind. Fortunately wolves are no longer found in Britain, though they were once plentiful enough in these islands; but all over the continent of Europe there are still numerous wolves in the forests and mountains. The Common Wolf, that is, the wolf of Europe, is the type of the family; but this type offers many varieties--according to the different localities in which it is found. I shall here notice these varieties. French wolves are generally browner and smaller than those of Germany; and the wolves of Russia, Sweden, and Norway are still stronger animals, and of a more sinister appearance. These differ very much in colour, which in winter is almost white. Again, the Alpine wolves are smaller than the French, and of a brownish-grey colour; while those of Italy and Turkey have a yellowish tinge. Black wolves are not uncommon, especially in the Pyrenees of Spain; but whether these, as well as the others, are all mere varieties of the common wolf, or whether there are two or three distinct species of European wolf, are questions to be left to the disputation of systematic naturalists. Over all the continent of America, from the Arctic shores in the north to Tierra del Fuego in the south, wolves are found; and here again there are varieties in size, colour, and even habits, that may fairly entitle the different kinds to rank as separate species. Most certainly there are distinct species, for that known as the Prairie Wolf, and also the Coyote of Mexico, are two kinds that more resemble jackals than real wolves. Besides, other wolves of the American continent, as the Brown Wolf of Mexico, the great Dusky Wolf of the Upper Missouri, the Aguara Dog of South America, the Wild Dog of the Falkland Islands, the Fox Wolves of Patagonia and Terra del Fuego, the Guazu of Paraguay and Chili, and the North American Common Wolf--are all animals of such different appearance and habits, that it is absurd to term them varieties of the same species. In Asia we have just the same series of varieties--that is, in every part of the great continent is found some representative of the tribe, which in reality is no variety, but an original and indigenous animal of the wolf kind--such as the Sandgah, or Indian wolf of the Himalayas; the Beriah, another Indian wolf; and the Derboom, a black species that inhabits the mountains of Arabia and Syria. In Africa the wolf is represented by the hyenas, of which there are at least four species--one of them, the common hyena, belonging to the northern half of the African continent, and extending its range into several countries of Asia. At the Cape, and northward into Central Africa, three large species of hyena, and one small one (the Aard wolf), represent the lupine family. The Jackal, too--of which there are several distinct kinds in Asia and Africa--is only a wolf of diminutive size and gregarious habit. This creature is fairly represented in America by the Coyote of Mexico, and the Barking Wolf of the prairies; and in Asia, upon the steppes of Tartary, by the Corsac. Even in Australia, where new mammalia have turned up in such odd and fantastic forms, the wolf has his congener in that curious creature known as the Tasmanian wolf. With regard to foxes, they, like the wolves, are distributed almost universally over the globe; and exhibit a like variety of forms and colours, according to the different localities which they inhabit. Their name is legion. As the smallest representatives of the wild dogs, we find in Africa the curious little creatures known as the Fennecs. Of these there are also varieties; for, although very much alike in habits, the Fennecs of Abyssinia and those of the Cape are evidently distinct species. CHAPTER EIGHT. CATS. The Lion is the _king of cats_; though there are some who think that the Tiger has a better claim to the _throne_. In point of size and strength, there is not much difference between these two animals. The lion _appears_ larger, on account of his shaggy mane; but specimens of the tiger have been taken whose measurement was equal to that of the largest lion. Otherwise, the tiger is decidedly superior in courage, in address, and in beauty; in fact, the royal tiger is one of the most beautiful of animals; while the lion, notwithstanding the great fame he enjoys, is among the very ugliest of brutes. These two powerful creatures often meet in the jungles of India, and try their strength in single combat. It is not decided which is superior in prowess, since victory is sometimes on one side and sometimes on the other. No doubt this depends on the individuals who may engage, for lions are not all alike, nor tigers neither. Both differ in strength and courage, just as men do; and this difference is caused by a variety of circumstances--such as age, size, season of the year, nature of the country and climate, and many like contingencies. Remember that the lion is found both in Asia and Africa, and nowhere else. He inhabits the whole of Africa, from the Cape to the shores of the Mediterranean, and there are three well-marked varieties on that continent. In Asia he is only found in its southern part--that is, in the tropical and sub-tropical regions; and there are also two or three varieties of the Asiatic lion. With regard to the tiger, he is altogether an Asiatic. There are no tigers in Europe, Africa, and America--of course we mean in their wild state; and the stories of tiger-hunts in Africa and America, frequently to be met with in books and newspapers, are the narratives of mere ignorant travellers, who confound the royal tiger with several species of spotted cats--of which we shall presently speak. We may add that the tiger, although exclusively Asiatic, is not exclusively tropical in his haunts. Tigers are more abundant in the hot jungles of India and some of the larger islands of the Indian Ocean than elsewhere; but they have also been observed far to the north of the Himalayan chain on the great _steppes_ that extend almost to the confines of Siberia. To continue the monarchical analogy; there are four cats that may be called the princes of the family. These are the _Jaguar_, the _Leopard_, the _Panther_, and the _Hunting-leopard_ or _Cheetah_. The first of these is exclusively American; the other three, African and Asiatic. They are all four what are termed spotted cats; that is, having black markings on a buff or yellowish ground. I need not add that they are all beautiful creatures. A superficial observer would easily mistake the one for the other; and in common phrase, they are indifferently termed leopards, panthers, and even tigers; but the naturalist, and even the _furrier_ knows that they are four distinct species. I shall endeavour to point out as briefly as possible some marks that will enable _you_ to distinguish them. In the spots we find a tolerably good criterion of the species. Those upon the body of the jaguar are not spots, but rather what may be termed rosettes. So, too, the black markings of the leopard and panther are rosettes; that is, irregular black rings enclosing an open space of the yellow ground. On the contrary, the spots upon the hunting-leopard are real spots, of a uniform black; and, consequently, this animal is easily distinguished from the other three. He differs from them also in shape. He is longer in the legs, stands more upright upon them, and can run more swiftly than any of the cat tribe. In fact, he has a tendency towards the nature and habits of the dog, and might be appropriately termed the cat-dog, or the dog-cat, whichever you please. It is on account of his canine qualities that he is sometimes trained to the chase: hence his specific name of the hunting-leopard. He inhabits both Asia and Africa. But how are the jaguar, leopard, and panther to be distinguished from one another? The jaguar easily enough from the other two. His rosettes have a black point in the centre, which is wanting in the rings of the panther and leopard. Besides, the jaguar is a larger and more powerful animal. Humboldt and others have observed specimens of the jaguar nearly equal in dimensions to those of the royal tiger himself; and his feats of fierce prowess, in the forests of Spanish America, are scarce eclipsed by those of his congener in the jungles of India. Human beings are frequently his victims, and settlements have been abandoned on account of the dangerous proximity of the jaguars. His range in America is pretty nearly co-terminal with the Spanish territories--including, of course, Brazil and Guiana, and excluding the country of Patagonia, where a smaller species takes his place. In all these countries he is misnamed tiger (_tigre_)--hence the anomalous stories to which we have alluded. We may add that there is a _black_ jaguar in tropical America, just as there is a _black_ panther in Asia. In neither case is it a different species: only a variety as regards colour. In all other respects the black and yellow kinds are alike. Even on the black ones the spots are observable in a certain light, being of a deeper hue than the general ground colour of the skin. Thus, then, it is easy to distinguish a cheetah from a jaguar, or either from a leopard or panther; but with regard to these last two, the distinction is more difficult. In fact, so much are they alike, that the two species are confounded even by naturalists; and it is yet an undecided point which is the leopard, and which the panther! That there are two distinct species is certain. The London furrier knows that there are two kinds of skins, which he distinguishes mainly by the feel; but the learned zoologist, Temminck, has pointed out a difference in the anatomical structure. Both animals are natives of Africa, and both were supposed to exist in Asia; but it is doubtful whether that known as the leopard extends beyond the limits of the African continent. The panther is that one which is a little heavier in the body, more cat-like in shape, and of a deeper yellow in the ground colour; but, perhaps, the truest distinction is found in the tail, which is longer in the panther than in the leopard, and consists of a greater number of vertebrae. The panther is a well-known animal in India and the Asiatic islands; and, as already stated, there is a dark-skinned variety, commonly known as the Black Panther of Java. Taking the cat family according to size, the next that deserves mention is the Couguar, or Puma. This is the panther of the Anglo-Americans, and the lion (_leon_) of the Mexicans and South Americans. His colour is a uniform tawny red, or calf colour; and he is inferior to the jaguar in size, strength, and courage. Notwithstanding, he is a formidable animal, and has been known to attack and destroy the larger mammalia. When wounded, or at bay, he will also defend himself against a human enemy; and there have been instances of hunters, both white and Indian, having succumbed to his strength. His range extends over nearly the whole continent of America; but he more particularly affects the deep shadow of the forests; and, like the jaguar, he is a tree-climber. He has no claim to the title of lion, except from some resemblance in colour; and no doubt it was this that led to his misnomer among the early settlers of Spanish America. The Ounce comes next. Of all the large cats this is the least known, either to naturalists or hunters. We only know that such a species exists; that it is a native of Western Asia (Persia, and perhaps Arabia); that it is an animal nearly as large as the leopard or panther, but of stouter build and clumsier shape; that it is covered with long woolly hair of a pale-yellow colour, and spotted, not so distinctly as the true leopards, from which it is easily distinguished, both by its form and colour. The name Ounce is from Buffon; but this specific appellation is also applied to the jaguar of America, the Jaguarundi, or lesser jaguar of Paraguay, and even to the Ocelot. The _Rimau-dahan_ is one of the most beautiful species of cats. It is of a yellowish ground colour, not spotted like the leopard, but marked with broad black bands and patches; in other words, clouded. It is not so large as either of the species described. It is a tree-climber, and lies in wait for its prey in the forks of the lower limbs, where it also goes to sleep. From this habit it derives its name, _Dalian_; which, in the Sumatran language, signifies the fork of a tree. Not unlike the _Rimau-dahan_, both in size and markings, is the Nepaul cat: a species, as its name imports, found in Nepaul, in the mountain forests. The Serval is a spotted cat--black upon a pale-yellowish ground--and considerably larger than the domestic species. It is a native of South Africa; and its skin is prized among the Kaffirs, for making their fur cloaks or _karosses_. The Ocelot is about equal in size to the last-named, and equally prized for its beautiful skin, which is clouded with an admixture of spots and stripes upon a ground of yellowish-grey. It belongs to Spanish America--more especially Mexico: and it is said to have been this animal that is represented on the hieroglyphical paintings of the ancient Aztecs. More probably its nobler congener, the jaguar, which is also found in Mexico, is the animal that held this distinction in the land of Anahuac. In Central and South America there are a great many species of striped and spotted cats, known generally as tiger cats. The Ocelot is one of these; but there are also the Pampas cats, the Chati, the Jaguarundi, the Margay, the False Margay, and many others. Numerous species, too, exist in the forests of India; as also in the great tropical islands of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines. There is yet a section of the cat family to be described. These are the lynxes, or cats with short tails and long ears--the latter erect, and at the tips pointing inward, or towards each other. Of the _Lynxes_ three species are found in North America. The largest of these is the Canada lynx, which in point of size approaches the smaller species of leopards. The colour of this animal is of a reddish grey, with spots very indistinctly marked. Its fur is long, and its skins form one of the principal articles of the Hudson's Bay trade. The Canada lynx is not found so far south as the United States; but its place is there occupied by the Bay lynx--a smaller species, and one very similarly marked, except that the rufous tint on the back and sides of the latter is deeper, and the spots more pronounced. Still further south is a third species, only made known to naturalists within the last few years. It inhabits Texas, and is hence called the Texan lynx. It is of a darker red than either of the preceding; but in other respects--size, shape, and habits--it is almost identical with the Bay lynx. Both range to the Pacific. Of the lynxes of the Old World, there is the common or European lynx, which is still found in several European countries; the Caracal, a native of Africa and part of Asia; the Booted lynx, also indigenous to both continents; the Chaus, belonging to the country of the Mahrattas; the Kattlo, a large species, of Northern Europe; the Nubian lynx, of North Africa; and the Southern lynx, a native of Spain. It may be added that there is scarce one of these species of which there are not two or more varieties, known only to those who have made a study of the Kingdom of Nature. CHAPTER NINE. RATS AND OTHER RODENTS. In this group we include not only Rats, but a great many other small rodents, or gnawers, such as Mice, Marmots, Lemmings, Hamsters, Mole-Rats, Jerboas, and Jumping Mice. The Shrew-Mice and Moles may also be classed here--although naturalists separate them from rodents, because their food is not herbivorous, but consists of worms and insects. For all that, there is a certain general resemblance, both as to appearance and habits, among all these small quadrupeds; which, for purposes of classification, is, perhaps, of more value than mere difference of food, or tubercles upon the teeth; especially, as it can be proved, that the sort of food an animal eats, is often dependent on the circumstances in which it may be placed. Of the _Rats_, properly so called, there are numerous species, as well as varieties. Their size is, in general, about the same as the Black and Norway rats--both of which belong to England, and have been introduced, by means of ships, into every country upon the habitable globe. They are said to have come originally from Asia. There is one species of rat, however, that is much larger than either of these--the Gigantic rat, found in Indian countries, and which in size quite equals a rabbit! The habits of the rats are too well-known to require description. Some--as the Wood Rat and Florida Rat of America--dwell apart from the habitations of man, in the woods; where, instead of living in burrows, they construct large nests, by collecting together heaps of sticks, leaves, and grass. _Mice_ may be regarded as only a smaller kind of rats; and of these there are many distinct species--both in the Old and New Worlds. The _Marmots_ are, perhaps, the most interesting of the small rodents. They stand in a sort of connection with the squirrels, more especially the ground squirrels: on the other hand, they resemble rabbits; and they have still many points of identity with rats. They belong to the northern zones of Europe, Asia, and America. There are three or four species belonging to the Old World; and a great many to North America. Moreover there is a considerable difference in the habits of these species, which has led zoologists to separate them into several genera. One genus, called the Seed-eaters, is a very curious kind. The marmots of this genus have a pair of pockets or pouches--one on the outside of each cheek--in which they actually carry seeds and other articles of food to their burrows. These pouches, when filled, impart to the little creatures a most ludicrous appearance. The marmots usually live in large communities--in burrows, as rabbits do. These burrows are sometimes very extensive--especially so, in the case of the prairie marmot of America--better known as the Prairie Dog-- whose _villages_ sometimes cover an extent of many square miles; and whose odd social habits have been repeatedly and accurately described by late travellers who have crossed the American continent. The _Mole-rats_ are a sort of combination between moles and rats: hence their common name. One species is found in Eastern Russia; where it burrows much after the fashion of the mole--living principally upon roots. Two other kinds belong to South Africa. Both these are of large size, nearly as big as rabbits. On the plains, they make extensive excavations, which often prove dangerous to the horse and his rider-- causing the former to stumble. The Dutch of the Cape know them by the name of Sand Moles. The _Hamsters_ differ considerably from the marmots in their mode of burrowing. They make their underground dwellings very extensive--having a great many chambers and galleries. In these they collect vast stores of food--consisting of grain, peas, and seeds of various kinds. Sometimes two or three bushels of provision will be found in the storehouse of a single family. The hamsters do not confine themselves exclusively to a vegetable diet: since it is known that they will kill and eat birds, or even small quadrupeds. In this respect they resemble the common rats; and, therefore, it is idle to talk of mere _herbivorous_ genera of animals. The hamsters are very fierce little creatures: constantly fighting with other quadrupeds, and even among themselves; but the polecat is their master and tyrant, and carries on a war of extermination against them--following them through the intricate ways of their burrows, and destroying them even in their dens! There are several species of hamsters in Europe and Asia, and also in North America: for the animal known as the Canada Pouched Rat is of this kind, and so also is the Tucan of Mexico. So also is that very singular and beautiful creature, the Chinchilla of South America--so celebrated for its soft and valuable fur. The _Lemmings_ are another form of small rodent animals, celebrated for their extraordinary migratory habit; which resembles that of the grey squirrels of North America. There are several species of lemmings belonging to the northern section of the Old Continent--in Eastern Russia and Asia. One or two are found in North America--in that part of it known as the Hudson's Bay Territory. The _Spinous Rats_ are little animals much resembling ordinary rats; but with the peculiarity of having stiff spines growing among their hair, after the manner of porcupine quills. There are several species of them: all natives of tropical America. The _Jerboas_ are, perhaps, the most singular of all the rodents. They are noted for having the hind legs much longer than the fore ones--in fact, being shaped very much like the kangaroos--of which they might be termed Lilliputian varieties, were it not that they lack the pouch, which distinguishes these curious creatures. Like the kangaroos, they use their fore-feet only to rest upon. When in motion, or desirous of passing quickly over the ground, they make use of their hind-feet only: proceeding by long leaps or jumps, and sometimes springing to the distance of twelve or fifteen feet. Their tails being long and slender, were supposed _not_ to assist them in this operation; but an experiment made by a cruel Frenchman--that of cutting off these appendages--proved that a considerable portion of the jumping power is derived from the tail. Africa and Asia are the head-quarters of these quadrupeds--the most noted species being the Jerboas of Egypt, and the Leaping Hare of the Cape. They dwell in sandy deserts--burrowing in communities like the marmots. In America there are no true jerboas: they are there represented by the Jumping Mice of Labrador and the Hudson's Bay Territory; which resemble the jerboas in almost everything except size, the jumping mice being much smaller animals. _Field Mice_ and _Dormice_ are other kinds of small rodents, differing from the common kind of mouse; but the habits and appearance of these little quadrupeds are well-known. The _Beaver_ and _Musk-rat_, or _Musquash_ of America, are usually classed among the rat tribe; but these animals, for many reasons, deserve to stand apart and form a group of themselves. With regard to the shrew-mice and moles, there is less reason for separating them from other mice; and we shall speak of them in this connection. The _Moles_ are known to be the best burrowers in the world: since they can pass under the surface of the ground as fast as a man can dig after them, or even faster. In England, the common mole is well-known--too well, in fact--for it is the very pest of the farmer; and the damage done by it to the herbage is very considerable indeed--of greater amount than that occasioned by any other wild animal. In America, where there are several species of moles, their habits are similar; and the common American mole is very like its European congener in every respect. But there are two or three species found in North American countries very different from either; and the most singular of all is that known as the Star-nosed Mole. This creature has the cartilage of the snout extended into five or six branches, that radiate from each other, like spokes of a wheel, or the points of a star--hence the name of star-nosed mole. The use of this singular appendage is not clearly understood; and, indeed, it would appear to be an obstruction to the natural requirements of the animal. No doubt, however, it has its purpose--though that purpose be unknown to us. The _Shrew-Mice_ are still another kind of small ratlike quadrupeds. They are distinguished by having upon each flank, under the ordinary skin, a little band of stiff and close hairs, from which an odoriferous humour is distilled. They dig holes in the earth, which they seldom come out of until towards evening; and their food consists of insects and worms. A species that inhabits the Pyrenees, and also the mountains of Russia, are called Desmans, and differ somewhat from the ordinary shrew-mice. They are aquatic in their habits; and their burrows always enter the ground below the level of the water. The Russian species are usually termed Musk-rats; but these are not to be confounded with the musk-rats of America--which last should undoubtedly be classed with the beavers. In India, the shrew-mice attain to the size of ordinary rats, and are there also called musk-rats, from the fact that a strong odour of musk is exhaled by them--so strong as to make the place through which the animal passes exceedingly disagreeable. The same is true of the Russian musk-rats, but for all that their skins are employed in chests containing clothing: since the musky smell is a good preservative against the moths. In addition to the numerous rat animals above-mentioned, there are still other kinds in different parts of the world--the names of which would alone fill many pages. Hence it is that the study of this section of the mammalia is, perhaps, the most difficult of all; and a true classification of these small quadrupeds has hitherto proved a puzzle to the most expert zoologists. CHAPTER TEN. BEAVERS. Of true Beavers there is only one species--unless the beaver of the Old World be different from the well-known animal of the American continent. This is a question which has been much debated among naturalists; and certainly the difference which is known to exist between the habits of the two animals would seem to prove them distinct. The European beaver is generally supposed to lead a solitary life--burrowing in the banks of rivers as otters do; but this supposition is evidently erroneous: or, rather, we should say, its solitary habit is not its normal or original condition, but has been produced by circumstances. It is probable that if European beavers were left to themselves, in a situation remote from the presence of man, they would build dams, and dwell together in colonies, just as the American beavers do. In fact, such colonies have actually existed in some parts of Europe and Asia; and no doubt exist at the present hour. One has even been found on the small river Nutha, in a lonely canton of the Magdeburg district, near the Elbe. Moreover, it is well-known that the American beavers, when much hunted and persecuted (as they are certain to be whenever the settlements approach their territory) forsake their gregarious habit; and betake themselves to the "solitary system;" just as their European cousins have done. Did this constitute the only difference between the beavers of the Old and New Worlds, we might regard them as one and the same; but there are other and still more important points of distinction--reaching even to their anatomical structure--which seem to prove them distinct species. The probability is in favour of this view: since there is perhaps no indigenous quadruped of the one continent exactly identical with its synonymous species of the other; excepting the polar bears, and a few other kinds--whose arctic range leads them, as it were, all round the earth. The written natural history of the beaver is usually that of the American species; not that this differs materially from his European congener, but simply because it has been more extensively and accurately observed. Its valuable fur has long rendered it an object of the chase; and for fifty years it has been hunted _a l'outrance_, and, in fact, exterminated from a wide domain of more than a million of square miles. Formerly, its range extended from the Gulf of Mexico almost to the shores of the Arctic Sea, and latitudinally from ocean to ocean. At present, it is not found in the territory of the United States proper, except in remote and solitary situations, among the mountains, or in some tracts still unsettled. Even where found in these places, its mode of life approximates more to that of the European species; that is, it burrows instead of builds. The beaver has been long reputed as the most sagacious of quadrupeds. True it is, that the capacity of cutting down trees--often a foot or more in diameter--floating or rafting these trees down a stream, and constructing a dam with them, and afterwards building its singular houses or lodges in the water, would seem to indicate the presence of a rational power. But there are many other creatures-- birds, insects, and quadrupeds--that exhibit instincts quite as surprising. Nevertheless the habits of the beaver are curious in the extreme, and deserve to be given in detail. The best account of them is that of the old and truthful traveller Hearne: upon whose homely but accurate observations scores of fireside naturalists have established a measure of their fame. We shall leave _him_ to tell the story of these singular animals. "The beavers," he says, "being so plentiful, the attention of my companions was chiefly engaged on them, as they not only furnished delicious food, but their skins proved a valuable acquisition,--being a principal article of trade, as well as a serviceable one for clothing. The situation of the beaver-houses are various. Where the beavers are numerous, they are found to inhabit lakes, ponds, and rivers, as well as those narrow creeks which connect the numerous lakes with which this country abounds; but the two latter are generally chosen by them when the depth of water and other circumstances are suitable, as they have then the advantage of a current to convey wood and other necessaries to their habitations; and because, in general, they are more difficult to be taken than those that build in standing water. They always choose those parts that have such a depth of water as will resist the frost in winter, and prevent it from freezing to the bottom. The beavers that build their houses in small rivers or creeks, in which water is liable to be drained off when the back supplies are dried up by the frost, are wonderfully taught by instinct to provide against that evil by making a dam quite across the river, at a convenient distance from their houses. The beaver-dams differ in shape, according to the nature of the place in which they are built. If the water in the river or creek have but little motion, the dam is almost straight; but when the current is more rapid, it is always made with a considerable curve, convex towards the stream. The materials made use of are drift-wood, green willows, birch, and poplars if they can be got; also mud and stones, intermixed in such a manner as must evidently contribute to the strength of the dam; but there is no other order or method observed in the dams, except that of the work being carried on with a regular sweep, and all the parts being made of equal strength. In places which have been long frequented by beavers undisturbed, their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank, capable of resisting a great force both of water and ice; and as the willow, poplar, and birch generally take root and shoot up, they by degrees form a regular planted hedge, which I have seen in some places so tall, that birds have built their nests among the branches. "The beaver-houses are built of the same materials as their dams, and are always proportioned in size to the number of inhabitants, which seldom exceeds four old and six to eight young ones; though, by chance, I have seen above double the number. Instead of order or regulation being observed in rearing their houses, they are of a much ruder structure than their dams; for, notwithstanding the sagacity of these animals, it has never been observed that they aim at any other convenience in their houses than to have a dry place to lie on; and there they usually eat their victuals, which they occasionally take out of the water. It frequently happens that some of the large houses are found to have one or more partitions (if they deserve that appellation), but it is no more than a part of the main building left by the sagacity of the beaver to support the roof. On such occasions it is common for these different apartments, as some are pleased to call them, to have no communication with each other but by water; so that, in fact, they may be called double or treble houses, rather than different apartments of the same house. I have seen a large beaver-house built in a small island that had near a dozen apartments under one roof; and, two or three of these only excepted, none of them had any communication with each other but by water. As there were beavers enough to inhabit each apartment, it is more than probable that each family knew their own, and always entered at their own door, without any further connection with their neighbours than a friendly intercourse, and to join their united labours in erecting their separate habitations, and building their dams where required. Travellers who assert that the beavers have two doors to their houses--one on the land side, and the other next the water-- seem to be less acquainted with these animals than others who assign them an elegant suite of apartments. Such a construction would render their houses of no use, either to protect them from their enemies, or guard them against the extreme cold of winter. "So far are the beavers from driving stakes into the ground when building their houses, that they lay most of the wood crosswise, and nearly horizontal, and without any other variation than that of leaving a hollow or cavity in the middle. When any unnecessary branches project inward they cut them off with their teeth, and throw them in among the rest, to prevent the mud from falling through the roof. It is a mistaken notion that the woodwork is first completed and then plastered; for the whole of their houses, as well as their dams, are, from the foundation, one mass of mud and wood, mixed with stones, if they can be procured. The mud is always taken from the edge of the bank, or the bottom of the creek or pond near the door of the house; and though their fore-paws are so small, yet it is held close up between them under their throat: thus they carry both mud and stones, while they always drag the wood with their teeth. All their work is executed in the night, and they are so expeditious, that in the course of one night I have known them to have collected as much as amounted to some thousands of their little handfuls. It is a great piece of policy in these animals to cover the outside of their houses every fall with fresh mud, and as late as possible in the autumn, even when the frost becomes pretty severe, as by this means it soon freezes as hard as a stone, and prevents their common enemy, the wolverene, from disturbing them during the winter; and as they are frequently seen to walk over their work, and sometimes to give a flap with their tail, particularly when plunging into the water, this has, without doubt, given rise to the vulgar opinion that they use their tails as a trowel, with which they plaster their houses; whereas that flapping of the tail is no more than a custom which they always preserve, even when they become tame and domestic, and more particularly so when they are startled. "Their food consists of a large root, something resembling a cabbage-stalk, which grows at the bottom of the lakes and rivers. They also eat the bark of trees, particularly those of the poplar, birch, and willow; but the ice preventing them from getting to the land in the winter, they have not any bark to feed on in that season, except that of such sticks as they cut down in summer, and throw into the water opposite the doors of their houses; and as they generally eat a great deal, the roots above-mentioned constitute a principal part of their food during the winter. In summer they vary their diet by eating various kinds of herbage, and such berries as grow near their haunts during that season. When the ice breaks up in the spring the beavers always leave their houses, and rove about until a little before the fall of the leaf, when they return again to their old habitations, and lay in their winter-stock of wood. They seldom begin to repair their houses till the frost commences, and never finish the outer coat till the cold is pretty severe, as has been already mentioned. When they erect a new habitation they begin felling the wood early in the summer, but seldom begin to build until the middle or latter end of August, and never complete it till the cold weather be set in. "Persons who attempt to take beavers in winter should be thoroughly acquainted with their manner of life; otherwise they will have endless trouble to effect their purpose, because they have always a number of holes in the banks, which serve them as places of retreat when any injury is offered to their houses, and in general it is in those holes that they are taken. When the beavers which are situated in a small river or creek are to be taken, the Indians sometimes find it necessary to stake the river across to prevent them from passing; after which they endeavour to find out all their holes or places of retreat in the bank. This requires much practice and experience to accomplish, and is performed in the following manner:--Every man being furnished with an ice-chisel, lashes it to the end of a small staff about four to five feet long; he then walks along the edge of the banks, and keeps knocking his chisel against the ice. Those who are acquainted with that kind of work well know by the sound of the ice when they are opposite to any of the beavers' holes or vaults. As soon as they suspect any, they cut a hole through the ice big enough to admit an old beaver; and in this manner proceed till they have found out all their places of retreat, or at least as many of them as possible. While the principal men are thus employed, some of the under-strappers and the women are busy in breaking open the house--which at times is no easy task, for I have frequently known these houses to be five or six feet thick; and one, in particular, was more than eight feet thick in the crown. When the beavers find that their habitations are invaded, they fly to their holes in the banks for shelter; and on being perceived by the Indians, which is easily done, by attending to the motion of the water, they block up the entrance with stakes of wood, and then haul the beaver out of its hole, either by hand, if they can reach it, or with a large hook made for that purpose, which is fastened to the end of a long stick. The beaver is an animal which cannot keep long under at a time; so that when their houses are broken open, and all their places of retreat discovered, they have but one choice left, as it may be called--either to be taken in their house or their vaults; in general they prefer the latter; for where there is one beaver caught in the house, many thousands are taken in the vaults in the banks. Sometimes they are caught in nets, and, in summer, very frequently in traps. "In respect to the beavers dunging in their houses, as some persons assert, it is quite wrong, as they always plunge into water to do it. I am the better enabled to make this assertion, from having kept several of them till they became so domesticated as to answer to their name, and follow those to whom they were accustomed in the same manner as a dog would do; and they were as much pleased at being fondled as any animal I ever saw. In cold weather they were kept in my own sitting-room, where they were the constant companions of the Indian women and children; and were so fond of their company, that when the Indians were absent for any considerable time, the beavers discovered great signs of uneasiness, and on their return showed equal marks of pleasure, by fondling on them, crawling into their laps, lying on their backs, sitting erect like a squirrel, and behaving like children who see their parents but seldom. In general, during the winter, they lived on the same food as the women did; and were immoderately fond of rice and plum-pudding; they would eat partridges and fresh venison very freely; but I never tried them with fish, though I have heard they will at times prey on them. In fact, there are few graminivorous animals that may not be brought to be carnivorous." The _Musquash_, or _Musk-rat_, is undoubtedly a beaver, and has been called at times the Little Beaver; but it has pleased the naturalists to constitute it a genus of itself, though there is only the one species known. Its habits are extremely like those of the beaver: it is aquatic, or amphibious, if you please--building itself a conical house in the midst of a swamp, or low islet, and feeding on shoots of trees, bits of green wood, leaves and stalks of nettles, and other herbaceous plants. Its fur bears a very great resemblance to that of the beaver, only it is shorter, and therefore less valuable. Notwithstanding this, it is an article of extensive commerce; and upwards of a million skins have been imported into England in a single year. The musquash might also be exterminated like the beaver; but being a smaller creature, and therefore less persecuted by the amateur sportsman, it is still common enough upon the streams of the northern and middle States of America. Further north it is plentiful; and the Hudson's Bay Company procure a vast number of skins for annual exportation to Europe. Its name of musk-rat is derived from the scent of musk which the animal emits, and which is especially powerful during the season of rut. It is possible that the musk-rat of Siberia, as well as several species of water-rats belonging to South America--and known vaguely by the name of Lutras and Nutrias--may be animals of the beaver kind, rather than Water-Rats or Otters, among which they are generally classed. CHAPTER ELEVEN. SQUIRRELS. These pretty little animals are widely distributed over the earth; though to this remark Australia seems to form an exception, since no species has yet been discovered there. However, there is much of that great island continent yet to be explored; and perhaps it may turn out that Australia has its squirrels, as well as other parts of the world-- no doubt squirrels with pouches. In number of species--and also of individuals, it may be added--America excels all other countries, and the great forests of North America may be regarded as the head-quarters of the squirrel tribe; but, if we give precedence to size, the squirrels of the East Indian countries are entitled to the first place. Animals known as Squirrels are of three very distinct kinds--viz., Squirrels, properly so called; Ground Squirrels: and Flying Squirrels. These three kinds are very naturally separated into three different genera; but the closet naturalists, not content with this simple division, have again subdivided them into other sub-genera, using very difficult names to distinguish them. In our little sketch we shall simply call them by the three names above-mentioned. The _Squirrels_, properly so called, are not only tree-climbers, but, as every one knows, dwell habitually upon trees, and there make their nests and their home. And perfectly at home they are among the highest branches; for under no circumstances do they ever miss their footing, or are they in the slightest danger of falling. In fact, they can not only run with the greatest agility along the branches, but equally well with their backs downward; and can spring from branch to branch, and also from tree to tree, over wide intervals of many yards. They can also leap down from the tops of the tallest trees to the earth--a feat often witnessed by squirrel-hunters--and do so without the appearance of having received the slightest injury; for, without pausing a moment on the ground, they continue their flight towards some other tree, where they expect to find better shelter from the short gun or rifle of their human enemy. The squirrel builds a nest in the tree, similar to that of some birds; but they have also in the same tree a more secure retreat in case of being pursued. This is a hole in the trunk or one of the larger limbs-- some natural excavation caused by the decaying of a branch--in short, what is termed a "knot hole," which is common in many kinds of timber. In this hole the squirrel usually lays up its store of winter food, consisting of nuts, beech-mast, etcetera; and here it takes refuge when hunted, finding the tree-cave a safe asylum. Unless decoyed out again, or, which often happens, _frightened_ out again, by rubbing the trunk with a piece of stick, the squirrel must escape scot-free nine times out of ten, since no hunter would think of felling a huge tree to procure so insignificant a reward as the carcass of a squirrel; and without felling the tree, and splitting it up, too, the creature could not be reached. Various devices, however, are practised to decoy it forth; and these, unfortunately for the little refugee, too often succeed. The squirrels are the life of the American woods--indeed, a journey through these great forests would often be very monotonous were it not enlivened by the presence and gambols of these beautiful creatures; and in the depth of winter, when the squirrels keep within their dark tree-caves, the solitude of the forest seems redoubled. But even during frost and snow, when the weather is fine and the sun shining brightly, a few will be seen venturing forth, as if to take an airing. A great many species exist in the forests of North America; sometimes only one, and sometimes several, occupy the same district. They are of different colours and sizes--some as small as the common squirrel of England, while several species are three or four times as large. Some are grey, others brown grey, several species of a fox red, and those esteemed the most beautiful are of a uniform jet black. Several new species have lately been found in the forests of Oregon and California. Their habits are all nearly alike; but to one species of Grey Squirrel belongs a habit as distinct as it is singular. This is their habit of collecting together in immense flocks of many thousands, and migrating over vast tracts of country, crossing broad rapid rivers, and staying at no obstacle. The object of this migration is not known, only that it appears to be the result of some impulse--such as excites to a similar movement the springboks of South Africa, the buffaloes of North America, and the passenger pigeons. In Europe the squirrel is represented by the Common Squirrel of our own woods, and which is found throughout the whole of Northern Europe and Asia, wherever there are trees. Although of a reddish colour in England, as well as in France, it assumes different hues, according to the different countries it inhabits; and in the more northern latitudes it is quite grey. Another European species, distinct from the English squirrel, is a denizen of the Pyrenees and the Alps of Dauphine. The Palm Squirrel is a beautiful species belonging to the tropical parts of Africa and India, and dwelling principally upon the palm trees--as its name imports. Another, known as the Barbary Squirrel, belongs to North Africa, and is also a dweller upon palm trees. The largest, and perhaps the most richly-coated of the tribe, is the Malabar Squirrel of India, which is as large as a domestic cat. It also haunts among palm trees, and is fond of the milk of the cocoa-nut, either in a liquid or solid state. There are squirrels also in Eastern Africa. India has several species, and the great islands of Madagascar, Ceylon, Java, Borneo, Sumatra, etcetera, have each one or more species of large and beautiful squirrels. The _Ground Squirrels_ differ from the true squirrels in several respects, though the chief difference lies in the fact that the former make their nest or lair upon the ground, while the latter universally lodge themselves aloft among the branches. The Ground Squirrels can climb, and appear to ascend trees almost as nimbly as their congeners; but they rarely do so unless when pursued, and then but seldom go beyond the lower forks or branches. Their nest is usually in some hole or cavity among the roots, though several species have been lately discovered in rocky regions, dwelling in the crevices of rocks. They approach in habits to the marmot tribe, and seem to link the tree squirrels with these last. Usually, these ground squirrels are striped longitudinally with black, red, and white stripes, giving them a fine appearance; and the species are of different dimensions, from that of the ordinary squirrel to the size of a mouse. In America, for a long time, but one kind was supposed to exist; but latterly a great number of species have been observed and described: denizens of the far West--of the prairies, and remote valleys of the Rocky Mountains. The African species of ground squirrel, already mentioned as the Palm Squirrel, has its dwelling among the palm trees, on the fruit and roots of which--especially that of the date-palm--it subsists. It is also an inhabitant of India, where there is at least one other species of palm ground squirrel. In Europe, and throughout the whole of Northern Asia, the ground squirrels are represented by the _burunduk_--a very interesting little species, quite similar in habits to those of North America. The _Flying Squirrels_ are the last of the group. These are the most singular of all, and resemble great bats more than squirrels. They possess the power, not exactly of flight, but of making very long leaps from a higher to a lower level, so long that they might almost be regarded as flights. They can pass from one tree to another standing more than a hundred yards apart, and this without descending more than a few feet below the level from which they started. This feat they are enabled to perform by means of a broad membrane that extends from the skin of their fore-legs to that of their thighs, and which, when stretched out, endows them with the properties of a parachute. Their bodies, too, have a flattened shape like the bats; and this also helps to sustain them in the air. They are true squirrels, however, living upon trees, as the common squirrels do, and looking very like the latter, notwithstanding their winged legs. In one point, however, they differ essentially from the common squirrels; and that is, they are _nocturnal_ in their habits. In the daytime they are never seen, except by accident; but in the twilight, and during a clear night, they may be observed making their long leaps from tree to tree, through the glades or along the edges of the forest. There are several species inhabiting the forests of America, and of late California has yielded several new ones. In the tropical forests of America there are several large species, and the Old World has its flying squirrel in the Polatouka, which inhabits the pine forests of Northern Europe and Asia. The largest species of these singular quadrupeds appears to belong to the Oriental Islands--to Java, Sumatra, the Philippines, and Moluccas, or Spice Islands, as also to Japan. The great Teguan, or flying squirrel of the Moluccas, is in reality as large as a cat! The singular Ay-ay of Madagascar is sometimes classed among the squirrels and sometimes among the lemurs. It certainly bears a great resemblance to the squirrel family; but the habits of all animals belonging to Madagascar are so little known that it is difficult to assign them to that exact genus in which Nature intended they should be placed. CHAPTER TWELVE. HARES, RABBITS, AND OTHER RODENTS. The Hare, and its very near congener, the Rabbit, are animals too well-known to need description; but it is necessary to say that, besides the species of both, peculiar to Great Britain, there are many other kinds in other parts of the world. Even in Britain itself, including Ireland, there are several distinct sorts both of hares and rabbits; for the Irish hare is distinct, being a larger, stronger, and even swifter animal than the English hare, and having many other points peculiar to it. Moreover, in the northern and mountainous parts of Scotland there is found the Varying or Alpine Hare, whose fur changes in the winter season to a snowy whiteness. But I may here remark, that the Irish hare also possesses this singular power of transformation, since upon the mountains of the north, especially upon the Mourne range, in county Down, _white_ hares have been frequently observed. Is this the Irish hare turned white, or the true Alpine hare of Pallas? Hares and rabbits are peculiarly the denizens of cold countries, as their warm woolly covering would plainly indicate. In tropical climates their place is supplied by other kinds of rodents, that resemble them in habits, if not in "dress." Of these other animals we shall presently speak. To the above remark, however a few partial exceptions may be brought forward; since there is a species existing in Egypt known as the Egyptian Hare, and there are three others at the Cape--the Rock Hare, the Burrow Hare, and the Vlakte Haas. These, however, differ very considerably from the common hares and rabbits of northern countries; and the remark still holds good, that in the tropics--properly so called--the hare does not exist: neither has any true hare been found in the new world of Australia. Otherwise, hares are plenteous in the different continents of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. In Asia there is a species inhabiting the regions of the Altai Mountains, and another peculiar to the Siberian territory, called the Tolai. There is an Indian species found in the Nepaul Mountains, and a curious variety, also a native of Nepaul and the Himalayas, known as the Woolly Hare of Thibet. The Polar Hare, valued for its beautiful white fur, inhabits the countries around the Arctic Ocean, and is common in Labrador and the Hudson's Bay territory. In North America, also, there are several other species of hares: the Marsh, or Swamp Hare, of the Southern United States, which dwells among the extensive marshes of the Carolinas and Louisiana, and which freely takes to the water; the Rabbit of the Middle States, which is a true hare, though from its small size usually termed a rabbit; the Californian Hare, indigenous to California, and also another Marsh Hare, belonging to the same country. Upon the prairies several distinct species have lately been discovered, among which the Sage Hare deserves especial mention. This kind derives its name from its being a dweller on the desert plains, where scarce any other vegetation exists except the _artemisia_, or wild sage plant, the leaves of which constitute the principal food of the animal, rendering its flesh almost uneatable. The _Calling Hares_ differ very much from the common hares and rabbits-- so much as to constitute a separate genus. Their ears are shorter, and they are altogether without tails. Their habits, however, are very similar to those of the hare family, and they are therefore very naturally grouped with the latter. They derive their trivial name from the habit of uttering a note, which somewhat resembles the piping of a quail, and which can be heard at a very great distance. This note is repeated three or four times at night and morning, but is seldom heard during the middle of the day, unless when the weather is cloudy. The calling hares are distributed over Asia and North America. At least two species belong to the Himalayan country, and one is found in Cabul. In Siberia and Northern Russia there is another, called the Eadajac; and several species inhabit the northern countries of America--some so small as scarcely to exceed the dimensions of a rat! The Little Chief is one of these tiny creatures long known; but late explorers of the Rocky Mountain regions have discovered a species still smaller than the little chief. The _Cavies_ appear to represent the hare family in the tropical parts of America. It is true that these last differ from hares in many particulars; but they have also many points of resemblance, and they may be grouped together in a very natural manner. They live much in the same manner; they are swift and inoffensive as the hares; but, instead of being clothed in soft wool, which would be altogether unsuitable to the climate in which they dwell, the cavies have a covering of hair so fine and thin as to convey to the touch a feeling of coolness rather than warmth. Some of the cavies are among the largest animals of the Rodent Family; for instance, the great Capivara, which is equal in size to an ordinary pig. This species is not a swift runner upon land; but it is semi-aquatic in its habits, and can swim and dive like an otter, its feet being webbed or palmated. It herds in troops of from five or ten to fifty in number, and is found upon the banks of all the great South American rivers, where it has for its chief enemy the fierce jaguar. The Guinea Pig is one of the family of cavies. This beautiful little animal is too well-known to require description. It may be remarked, however, that the name Guinea Pig is altogether a mistake, since the creature is found wild only in South America, and is _not_ a native of Guinea in Africa. Very likely it was originally brought from Guiana, and this has led to the misnomer. There are several species of Guinea pig in South America, differing from one another in size, shape, and colour. Besides the large Capivara and the little Guinea Pig, there are several intermediate kinds. These are known as the True Cavies, and are usually called Agoutis, or Acouchis. The agoutis are about the size of the common hare, and run almost as swiftly. For their food they prefer nuts to herbage, which is natural enough in a region where the latter is scanty and the former exists in plenty; and in eating they "squat" upright on their haunches, and convey the food to their mouth after the manner of squirrels. The agouti, like the hare, frequently rolls over when descending a hill at full speed--a habit, or rather an accident, due to the same cause in both animals, namely, the great length of the hind legs. When angry, the agouti stamps with the fore-feet, grunts like a young pig, and erects the bristly hair upon its crupper after the manner of porcupines. There are many species of agouti throughout tropical America and the West India Islands, and the range of the genus extends as far south as the plains of Patagonia. The _Pacas_ form another genus belonging to the family of the cavies that may be also grouped with the hares and rabbits. They burrow like the common rabbit, and their food consists of nuts, fruits, and roots. Their flesh is excellent; and on this account they are hunted eagerly, both by the Indians and whites who dwell in the countries where they are found. There are several species of them in South America, and they were also very common at one time in the West India Islands; but on account of the persecution of many enemies--more especially of hunters-- they are now comparatively rare. With the hares and rabbits may be classed still another family of South American animals, and one of the most interesting of the whole group. These are the Chinchillas and Viscachas. The place assigned to them by some naturalists is with the hamsters, and therefore they are grouped with the rats; but an examination into the habits of these animals shows that they are in reality representatives of the hares and rabbits on the elevated table-lands of Chili and Peru, as also over the whole plain country of La Plata and Patagonia. There are several species known indifferently as Viscachas and Chinchillas; but the true Chinchilla, celebrated for its soft and beautiful woolly coat, is an inhabitant of the elevated plateaux of the Andes, where the climate is as cold as in Siberia itself. The natural history of these rodents is full of curious interest, and deserves to be given more in detail, if our space would only admit of it. CHAPTER THIRTEEN. ELEPHANTS. The Elephant is by far the largest of land animals, and for this reason one of the most interesting to the student of zoology; but even without this superiority, he possesses qualities that entitle him to rank among the curious objects of creation. In ages long gone by there were elephants upon the earth--or animals resembling elephants--as much larger than the existing species as these are superior in size to other quadrupeds. Such were the mammoths and mastodons, the skeletons of which are occasionally found buried beneath the surface of the soil in different parts of the world. As might be expected, the species of this gigantic quadruped are not numerous. For a long time there was supposed to be only one; but this was an erroneous belief, and it is now proved that there are _at least_ two, since the elephants of Africa and those of Asia are altogether different from each other. It is not quite certain that the elephant of the Island of Ceylon is identically the same as other Indian elephants; and in the Asiatic countries and islands there are varieties differing from each other in size, and other peculiarities, quite as much as any of them does from the elephant of Africa. Again, in Africa itself we find that this great creature has its varieties--some larger and some smaller, according to the part of the country in which they are found. Even the natives of both Africa and the Indian territories recognise different kinds, proving that on both continents there are several permanent varieties, if not species. In the Indian countries these varieties have received distinct names-- just as our breeds of dogs--and an elephant is valued according to the breed or caste to which he belongs; for in India caste is a universal idea, even among animals. There are two principal castes--the Koomareah, of princely race; and the Merghee, or hunting elephant. These two kinds differ a good deal--as much, indeed, as if they were separate species. The koomareah is deep-bodied, strong, and compact, with a very large trunk and short thick legs. As a large trunk is considered the great beauty of an elephant, the koomareah is therefore preferred to the merghee; besides, he is also superior to the latter in strength and powers of endurance. The merghee is a taller animal, but neither so compact nor so strong, and his trunk is short and slender in proportion to his height. He travels faster, however; and for this reason is oftener employed in the chase. A cross between these two varieties is called a Sunkareah, which signifies a mixed breed or mule; and in a herd of elephants there will be found not only sunkareahs, but several varieties of cross breeds between the koomareahs and merghees. These "mules" are prized if they partake more of the nature of the princely caste, and less valued when nearer to the merghee. In addition to these distinctions, another very important one is found in the size and shape of the teeth. The Dauntelah is one with very large teeth, in opposition to the Mookna, in which the tusks are of small dimensions, and scarcely visible outside the mouth. The Europeans prefer elephants of the mookna variety, as these are of milder disposition than the dauntelahs; but the natives prize the large-toothed kinds, taking the chance of being able to tame them to submission. There are many degrees between the mookna and dauntelah, founded on the form of the tusks. Those of the Pullung-daunt project forward with an almost horizontal curve, while the straight tusks of the mooknas point directly downwards. Nearly a dozen varieties or breeds are thus established among the elephants of India that are held in a state of domestication. White elephants are also met with, and are highly prized by the rajahs and wealthy nobles. These are mere varieties, produced by albinism, and may belong to any of the castes already described. It has been further ascertained that the elephants of different Indian countries vary a good deal in point of size. Those from the southern districts, and some of the larger islands, are larger and stronger than the elephants of Nepaul and other mountain countries in the north. The finest are those of Cochin China and the Burmese territories of Pegu, while those of Ceylon are even superior to the kinds indigenous to Northern India. The African elephants are said also to be larger as they dwell nearer to the Equator; and from this it would appear that the elephant is essentially a tropical animal, and thrives best in the climate of the torrid zone. The Asiatic elephant is found wild as well as domesticated in nearly all the Indian countries, as also in many of the large islands. Its range northward is bounded by the lower hills of the Himalayas; and among these, especially through the _saul_ forests, these huge animals roam about in herds, each herd being under the guidance or leadership of an old male, or "bull," as he is termed. As an elephant brings a considerable sum of money, even in India, these are eagerly hunted; and their capture is accomplished by decoying them into a pound or enclosure constructed for the purpose, where ropes are attached to them, and then tied to the neighbouring trees. The decoy used is a tame elephant, that has been already trained for the purpose. There are in India, as well as in Africa, certain old bull elephants that lead a solitary life, and that are scarcely ever seen in company with the herds. These bachelors are usually of a morose and fierce disposition, and when one of them is captured it requires all the skill of the hunters to keep clear of danger. These wild bulls are larger and stronger than the common kind, and so untamable in their ferocity that even when captured no use can be made of them, since they will die rather than submit to being trained. They are called Goondahs by the people of Hindostau, and by English hunters Rogues or Rovers. The African elephant next merits attention. There is no difficulty in distinguishing this species from any of the Indian varieties. The immensely large ears constitute a marked characteristic of the former, which at once becomes recognisable. Other points of difference are the greater convexity of the forehead or skull and the larger size of the tusks; though this last point of distinction is not always to be depended upon, since there are Indian elephants with tusks of similar dimensions. Generally, however, the African elephants have the largest "ivories." In point of bulk the Asiatic species has been considered superior; but this belief may not be correct. Certain circumstances should be taken into account. The Asiatic elephant is living in a domesticated state, and this may have produced a greater size, as it does in the case of most other quadrupeds. Another circumstance: the African elephants of our collections have been mostly obtained from the Cape, or the regions contiguous to it. But it is now known that in the countries nearer to the equator there exists a much larger kind, that appears to be quite as bulky as any of the Asiatic varieties. The height of the elephant has been much exaggerated by travellers--some having been described as measuring eighteen feet from the foot to the top of the shoulder! An authority on this subject, who measured the largest he could meet with in different parts of India, found none that stood over twelve feet, and this appears to be the actual height of the very biggest of elephants. The African elephants have not been tamed--at least not in modern times; but it is certain that the elephants used by the Carthaginians in their wars with the Romans were of this species; and also that African elephants were the species exhibited by Caesar and Pompey in the Roman arena. In a wild state the African elephant has a wide range--from the Cape country on the south to Senegal on the western side, throughout the whole of Central Africa, and along the oriental coast to the valley of the Nile; but it is not very certain whether the elephant of the eastern countries of Africa is the African species or a variety of the Asiatic kind. The African elephant is said to be fiercer than that of Asia; but this is a doubtful statement; and perhaps the habits of the two do not materially differ, farther than might be expected from a difference of climate, food, and other external circumstances. CHAPTER FOURTEEN. THE HIPPOPOTAMUS, RHINOCEROS, AND TAPIR. Though these three kinds of creatures belong to different genera, there is a certain family likeness among them that entitles them to be classed together; and since there are not many species of each, they will conveniently form a group. Of late the hippopotamus has been the most notorious of the three; though he is far from being as interesting an animal as the rhinoceros. Since, however, he is at present the most popular, we shall give him the foremost place in our sketch. The Hippopotamus was known to the Greeks and Romans. His name is Greek, and, as every one knows, signifies the River-horse. Why so called? you may ask--since between this unwieldy creature and the beautiful horse there does not appear a single point of resemblance. The answer is, that the cry of the hippopotamus was fancied to resemble the neighing of a horse; and in some respects this is really the case. Hence the misnomer. The Dutch of the Cape Colony call the creature a Cow, or Sea-cow, which is also an ill-adapted name. The cow is well enough, for the head and mouth of the animal bear a very striking resemblance to those of a broad-muffled cow; but what the "sea" has to do with it is not so clearly understood: since the hippopotamus is found only in fresh water in lakes and rivers. Every one knows that this huge creature is of amphibious habits; and lives equally well on land, in the water, or even under the water. It requires air, however, and at intervals rises to the surface to breathe. On such occasions it usually projects a jet of water from its nostrils--in other words, it spouts, after the manner of the whales. It is altogether herbivorous; and grass and the leaves of succulent plants form its subsistence. A vast quantity of these are required to sustain it; and a single individual will consume as much as two hundred pounds' weight in a day. The hippopotamus, notwithstanding its formidable appearance, is not a dangerous enemy if suffered to go unmolested, or rather if persons do not come in its way. When wounded, however, or even intruded upon in its solitary haunts, it will attack man himself; and a boat or canoe passing along a river frequented by these creatures is in danger of suffering a similar fate to that resulting from an encounter with the great whale--that is, of being tossed out of the water or broken to pieces. The River-horse, or Sea-cow (whichever you prefer to call the creature), is exclusively confined to the African continent; and is found in all the great lakes and rivers from the Cape Colony to the southern limits of the Sahara. It is indigenous to the Upper Nile; but does not show itself in the lower half of that river. In fact, its range appears to be exactly co-terminal with that of the African elephant. There is a question about the number of species. For long it was supposed there was only one, but now it is ascertained that two, or even more, exist. The hippopotami of the Nile differ considerably from each other and also from the species known as Sea-cow in South Africa; while a smaller kind than either has been observed in the rivers of Western Africa. The _Rhinoceros_ is altogether a more curious and interesting animal than the hippopotamus; but, being more common, and oftener encountered by modern travellers, it is at present less an object of curiosity. Of rhinoceroses at least seven distinct species are known--three of them being Asiatic, and four African. The largest of all is the Indian rhinoceros, which inhabits a part of Bengal and the countries beyond--Burmah, Siam, and Cochin China. This species is easily distinguished from the others by the thick rough skin, which is placed on the animal's body in such a fashion as to resemble a coat of ancient armour. The singular protuberances have a complete resemblance to the "bosses" which were worn on the shields and breast-plates of warriors of the olden time. A second species, the Warak, which inhabits Java, is somewhat similarly accoutred; but the third Asiatic kind, the Sumatran rhinoceros, has a smoother skin, more resembling that of the African rhinoceros. These last-mentioned are denizens of the African continent; but especially of the regions extending northward from the Cape. They do not all four frequent the same district; but two, and sometimes three of them, are found in one locality. They are distinguished as the black and white rhinoceroses--there being two species of the black, and two of the white. The black ones are much fiercer than their white congeners; although the latter are by far the largest, and present a far more formidable appearance, from the extreme length of their horns. The _Tapir_ was for a long time supposed to be exclusively an American animal, but later research proves that there is also a species in Asia. It is found in the Island of Sumatra, and is larger than the American species, though very much resembling it in other respects. A new species has also been discovered in South America, altogether differing from the American tapir already so well-known. The habits of the American tapir are not unlike those of the rhinoceros. It is a creature of great strength, and heavy in its movements. It can live for a long time under water; and its haunts are the banks of the great rivers--especially where these are marshy, and covered with reeds and other aquatic plants, which constitute its food. It can swim or walk under the water at will; but its lair is generally in some bushy retreat at a distance from the banks; and its visits to the water are usually nocturnal. It is an object of chase among the native Indians, who prize both its flesh and skin; but its capture is by no means an easy matter, since its thick hide renders it impervious to the tiny arrow of the blow-gun. This species is found in all the rivers of South America, from Paraguay to the Isthmus of Darien; but its range terminates very abruptly on the north--a fact which puzzles the naturalist, since for many degrees further northward, climate and other circumstances are found similar to those which appear to favour its existence in the southern part of the continent. The other species of American tapir differs considerably in the nature of its haunts and habits. In these it is said more to resemble the tapir of Sumatra. The latter is found dwelling at a great elevation, in fact, on the tops of the highest mountains of that island; whereas the Danta, or American tapir, is altogether confined to the low hot plains. In the same district of country, and even in the same rivers--but further up among the mountains--the smaller species of American tapir is met with, but never upon the low level of the plains. When we consider that for more than three centuries, in a country inhabited by a civilised people, this new species of American tapir has remained not only undescribed but even unknown to the scientific world, we may fairly conjecture that other species of this, as well as of many other animals, may yet be brought to light to gratify the lover of nature, and add to his store of pleasant knowledge. CHAPTER FIFTEEN. GIRAFFES, CAMELS, AND LLAMAS. Strictly speaking, the Giraffes cannot be considered as belonging to the same family with the Camels, nor yet the Camels be classed with the Llamas; but there is a very great resemblance between these three genera of animals, and, except for scientific purposes, they form a group sufficiently natural. Indeed any one of the three is more like to the other two than to any other kind of mammalia; although some naturalists prefer considering the giraffe as a species of deer. This classification, however, rests principally upon an erroneous supposition--that the oblong protuberances on the head of the giraffe are horns, which in reality they are not, but mere continuations of the frontal bone. It would be as absurd, therefore, to call the giraffe a deer, as to consider it a species of camel, and perhaps more so. It may be regarded as an animal _sui generis_; but in making a series of groups--such as we have here attempted--it appears more natural to place it alongside the camels than elsewhere; and it is certainly as much like the true camel or dromedary as either the llama or vicuna. One of its most popular names--that of Camelopard, or Spotted Camel--shows the resemblance which suggests itself to the eye of the traveller and ordinary observer; and this resemblance extends also to many characters that are not external. Indeed, after all that has been said by anatomical naturalists, we might hazard assertion of the belief, that the camelopard is neither more nor less than a species of wild camel. Its appearance need not be described. Every eye is familiar with the slender form, long neck, smooth coat, and spotted skin of this singular animal. But its habits are less understood, and this arises from several distinct causes. In the first place, the giraffe inhabits only those countries about which very little is known by civilised people; secondly, it is but rarely seen, even by travellers; and, thirdly, when it _is_ encountered in its native haunts, it is of so shy a disposition, and so ready to take flight, that scarce any opportunity is ever obtained for properly observing it. The giraffe is exclusively confined to the continent of Africa; but its range is by no means limited. It was formerly common enough as far south as the Cape itself, whence it was driven by the Dutch and Hottentot hunters. It is not now met with to the south of the Great Orange River. Northward from this point, it extends to Nubia and Abyssinia; but it does not appear that it inhabits the western section of the continent, since it is not heard of in Guinea, or any of the countries on the Atlantic coast. In the interior it is common enough. The giraffes herd together in small troops--consisting of ten or a dozen individuals--and prefer the open forests, or rather the hills covered with copses of acacia and other African trees. Their principal food is the foliage of these trees; and one species of mimosa--the _camel-doorn_ (camel-thorn) of the Dutch hunters--is their especial favourite. The leaves of this tree, like all others of the acacia tribe, are of pinnate form, and sweet to the taste; and the giraffe browses upon them, standing erect, with its long neck outstretched to a height of nearly twenty feet! Its tongue is possessed of a peculiarly prehensile power, and with this extended a foot or more beyond the lips, it can sweep in the leaves and twigs for a wide circle around its muzzle. When affrighted and put to its speed, the giraffe appears to go with an up-and-down gait, and some travellers have alleged that it limps. This arises from the fact, that every time it lifts its fore-feet, it throws back its long neck, which on other occasions is always held erect. It sometimes travels with a pacing step, but it can also gallop after the manner of a horse, and is even so swift that it requires a horse at full speed to overtake it. Notwithstanding that its food consists principally of the leaves and twigs of trees, the giraffe will also eat grass. While browsing thus, it usually bends one of its knees downward; and while stretching upwards to a high branch, it brings all its feet nearer to each other. It often lies down to "chew its cud" or to sleep; and this habit produces the callosities upon the sternum and knees, which resemble those of the camels. The giraffe is a peaceful and timid animal, and is often the prey of the lion--the fierce beast of prey taking it unawares, springing upon its back, and destroying it by breaking the cervical vertebrae with his powerful teeth. Sometimes, however, it is enabled to drive the lion off by kicking out against him with its heels, and tiring or discouraging him from the attack. The Hottentots and Kaffirs hunt the giraffe for the sake of its flesh, which in young individuals is very good eating. Sometimes, however, it smells strongly of a species of shrub upon which the animal feeds, and which gives it a disagreeable odour. The Bushmen are particularly fond of the marrow produced in its long shank bones, and to obtain this, they hunt the animal with their poisoned arrows. They also make out of its skin bottles and other vessels for containing water. Conspicuous as is the giraffe, it is not so easy to distinguish it in the haunts where it inhabits. Seen from a distance, it has the appearance of a decayed tree, and, remaining motionless, it is often passed by the hunter or traveller without being observed. It is itself very keen-sighted; and the manner in which its large beautiful eye is set gives it a decided advantage for seeing around it, even without the necessity of turning its head. On this account it is approached with great difficulty, and usually contrives to escape from the most ardent pursuer. The _Camels_ come next in turn. Of these there exist two distinct species--the Camel, or Bactrian camel; and the Dromedary, or Arabian camel. Both are found only in a domesticated state. Both are "beasts of burthen," and of both there are several varieties. First, then, of the Bactrian camel--that is, the species with two humps. This animal differs very much from the Arabian camel, and is altogether more rare. It is about ten feet in length of body, and covered generally with a thick shaggy coat of hair of a dark brown colour; but there is no difficulty in distinguishing it from its Arabian congener. The two huge humps or hunches upon its back form a sufficient token by which to identify the species. It is found in Persia and the adjoining countries; but in no part in such numbers as in the middle zone of Asia--in the Taurus, and to the north of the Himalaya Mountains. It is also seen occasionally in Arabia and other countries; but in these it is rare, the dromedary taking its place for all purposes required by man. It is, nevertheless, of a stouter build than the latter, and stronger in proportion to its size. As already stated, there are several varieties, produced by a difference in stature, colour, and swiftness. The Dromedary, or Arabian camel, is altogether more widely distributed, and better known to the world. It is propagated in Arabia, Persia, the south of Tartary, some parts of India, in Africa from Egypt to Morocco, and from the Mediterranean Sea to the river Senegal. It is also numerous in the Canary Islands, and has been introduced into Italy, especially at Pisa, in Tuscany. It is not generally known that it has also been transported into the Island of Cuba, and employed at the mines of El Cobre, near Santiago; and later still--in fact, at the present hour--an attempt is being made to naturalise it upon the central plains of Texas and California. The callosities upon the limbs and chest, and the hump on the back, have caused much perplexity among naturalists; but, perhaps, their purpose may be explained. They seem to bear some relation to the necessities of the animal, considered as the slave or man. The callosities are the points on which it kneels down to receive its burden. The hump, which is a fatty secretion, is known to be absorbed into the system when the animal is pinched for food, thus forming a provision against the casualties to which it is subject in a life evidently ordained to be passed in the desert. Add to this, that its singularly formed stomach renders it capable of containing a supply of water suitable to long journeys, and we have ample evidence of the purpose for which this singular and useful creature was designed. The camel furnishes the Arab with flesh and milk, of its hair he weaves clothing, and even tents; his belt and sandals are the produce of its hide, and its dung affords him fuel. The hair of the Persian camel is held in the highest estimation. There are three kinds of it--black, red, and grey; the black being of most value, and the grey fetching only half the price of the red. But all such uses are mere trifles when compared with the value of these animals as beasts of burden--"ships of the desert," as they have been poetically named. By means of them, communication is kept up between distant countries separated by large tracts of frightful deserts, which, without some such aid, would be entirely impassable by man. We arrive at the _Llamas_, or camel sheep, as the old Spanish colonists used to call them. These animals are natives of South America, and their range is limited. They are found only on the high plateaus of the Andes; through which they extend, from New Granada on the north to Chili on the south, though one species ranges even to the Straits of Magellan. In all there are four distinct species of them--the Llama proper, the Paca or Alpaca, the Guanaco, and the Vicuna. The Llama and Paca are both held in a state of domestication; the former as a beast of burden, and the latter for its hair or wool. On the other hand, the Guanacos and Vicunas are wild animals, and are eagerly hunted by the mountain tribes of Indians for their flesh and skins, but in the case of the vicuna for the very fine wool which it yields, and which commands an enormous price in the markets of Peru. The Cordilleras of the Andes, below the line of perpetual snow, is the region inhabited by these creatures. In the hot countries, lying lower, they do not thrive; and even die in journeys made to the tropic coast lands. The wild species keep together in herds--sometimes of one or two hundred individuals--feeding on a sort of rushy grass or reed--called _yea_ by the natives--and they scarce ever drink, so long as they can pasture on green herbage. They have the singular habit of going to a particular spot to drop their dung, which resembles that of goats or sheep; and this habit often costs them their lives, since the excrement points out to the hunter their place of resort. They keep a careful look-out against any danger, usually taking care to place old males as sentinels of the flock, who give warning of the approach of an enemy. When startled they run swiftly, but soon halt, stand gazing back, and then gallop on as before. During summer they frequent the sides of the mountains; but, as winter approaches, they descend to the high table plains, and browse upon the natural meadows found there. They are captured in various ways. The Indians take them by first surrounding the herd, and then driving it within enclosures constructed for the purpose. They are also run down by dogs, trained to hunt them by the mountaineers of Chili, in which country they are found wild in great numbers. During the chase they frequently turn upon their pursuer, utter a wild shrill neighing, and then resume their rapid flight. The Vicunas--which are the smallest of the four kinds, and also the prettiest--are captured by the Indians in a still more singular manner. A large tract of the plains is enclosed merely by a cord, stretched horizontally upon stakes, of about four feet in height. To the cord are attached pieces of cloth, feathers, or coloured rags of any kind. Into this feeble enclosure the herd of vicunas is driven; and, strange to say, the frightened animals will permit themselves to be crowded together, and killed with stones rather than leap over the cord. When any guanacos chance to be mixed up with the herd, the result is likely to be very different. These, being of bolder spirit, as well as larger size, at once overleap or break through the fictitious barrier, and sweep off to the mountains, followed by the whole flock of the vicunas. The capability of the llama to carry burdens is well-known. They were thus employed by the ancient Peruvians, and, although at present they are less valued on this account, many are still used in carrying the ores from the rich gold and silver mines of Chili and Peru to the smelting furnaces, or ports of embarkation on the coast. The introduction of the mule, however, has to a great extent relieved the llamas of their load; and less attention is now paid either to their training or increase. CHAPTER SIXTEEN. SWINE. If not one of the most agreeable, the Hog--or Pig, as it is oftener called--is one of the most useful of the domesticated animals. Indeed, it would be difficult to say how culinary operations could be carried on without the valuable fat which this creature produces in such plenty, and to which both cooks and confectioners are so largely indebted. Besides, there are whole nations who feed almost entirely upon its flesh; and even its skin and bristles constitute an important item of manufacturing industry. The facility with which the flesh can be preserved under the name of bacon, the length of time it may be kept without the danger of spoiling, combined with the undoubted wholesomeness of such an article of diet, render it one of the most convenient articles of provision; and hence in agricultural districts, and other places far remote from towns, it is an almost universal article of food. The number of species that form the group of hogs or swine is very limited indeed; in all not exceeding half a score. These, however, are found in endless varieties, and distributed over all the globe, since in each of the five great divisions one or more indigenous kind of hog has been found. That which forms the type on which the swine family is founded, is, of course, the _Common Pig_; and this is supposed to be descended from the wild boar, so well-known in connection with the chase during medieval times. It is superfluous to say that the common hog of our farmyards has been propagated until an almost countless variety of breeds have been produced--not only every country, but even single counties or provinces having a breed of its own. All, however, are so much alike in habits and general appearance, and their characteristics so well-known, that it would be idle to give any description of them here. We shall only remark that the pig, if fairly treated, is by no means an animal of filthy or dirty habits, as is generally supposed. On the contrary, it is cleanly in its nature; and its slovenliness is brought upon it by the manner in which it is styed up, in its own filth. Neither is it a stupid creature, but possesses considerable intelligence; as is proved by the tricks which it has been taught to perform under the name of the "learned pig;" while several individuals have been trained to follow the gun, and stand to game as stanch as the best pointers. In France it is not uncommon for the truffle-hunters to use pigs in search of this favourite esculent--the keenness of scent which the animal possesses enabling it to find this hidden treasure, just as it does potatoes or other roots, far under the surface of the ground. The _Wild Boar_, next to the common domestic variety, is the best known and most celebrated of the swine. In earlier times it was found in every part of Europe. Even at this day, it is not rare in the forest fastnesses of most of the continental countries, and also in Asia. It was formerly common in England, and the chase of it was a favourite pastime among the kings and nobles, especially about the time of the Norman Conquest. In those days the Game laws were certainly harsh enough--much more so than those of our own time--since William the Conqueror issued an edict punishing with the _loss of his eyes_ any one who should be convicted of killing a wild boar! In Europe the famed boar spear, used in hunting this animal, has given way to the rifle; but in India, where the field is taken on horseback, the spear is still in use; and hunting the wild boar is one of the most exciting of wild sports practised in that country. The wild boar of India, however, is in some respects different from that of Europe; and naturalists generally class it as a distinct species. The _Babirussa_ is another species belonging to the East Indian world: found principally in the Moluccas and other islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is of about the same size as the common pig; but of more slender shape, and stands higher upon its deer-like limbs. The skin is thinly furnished with soft bristles, and is of a greyish tint, inclining to fawn colour on the belly. But the most striking character of the babirussa is to be found in its tusks. Of these there are two pairs of unequal size. The lower ones are short--somewhat resembling those of the common boar--whereas the two upper ones protrude through the skin of the muzzle, and then curve backward like a pair of horns, and often downward again, so as to form a complete circle! It is not known for what purpose these appendages exist. The two lower tusks must be formidable weapons; but the upper ones, especially in old individuals, can hardly inflict a wound. They may perhaps ward off the bushes from the eyes of the animal, as it rushes through the thick cover of its jungly retreat. The females are without these tusks; and are also much smaller than the males. The babirussa inhabits marshy thickets and forests; and is hunted for its flesh--which is highly prized both by the natives and foreigners. It is very swift and fierce. When pursued or wounded in the chase, it will show fight like the wild boar of Europe. The _Papuan hog_, or _bene_, is a native of the Island of New Guinea; and is characterised by its small stature and slender and graceful form. Its tusks are not large, and are shaped like the incisor teeth. It is covered with thick, short, and yellowish-coloured bristles; and when young it is marked by bright fulvous stripes along the back. The native Papuans highly esteem its flesh; and on this account it is hunted by them in the forests where it is found. Its young are often captured, and brought up in a domesticated state--in order that their flesh may the more easily be procured. Foreigners, who have visited this island, relish it as an article of food. We now come to the hogs of Africa--the Wart-hogs, as they are commonly called. Of these there are two species; and it would be difficult to say which is the uglier of the two. In respect of _ugliness_, either will compare advantageously with any other animal in creation. The deformity lies principally in the _countenance_ of these animals; and is caused by two pairs of large protuberances, or warts, that rise upon the cheeks and over the frontal bone. These excrescences--if we may so call them--lend to the visage of the creature an aspect positively hideous, which is rendered still more ugly and fierce-looking by a pair of formidable tusks curving upward from each jaw. The body is nearly naked--excepting along the neck and back, where a long bristly mane gives a shaggy appearance to the animal--especially when these bristles, of nearly a foot in length, are erected under the impulse of rage. Other peculiarities are, a pair of whiskers of white curling hair along the lower jaws; small black eyes surrounded by white bristly hair; a long tail tufted at the extremity; and on the knees of the fore-legs a piece of thick callous skin, hard and protuberant. In fact, every characteristic of this creature seems intended to make his portrait as disagreeable as may be. We have said there are two species. These are known as Aelian's wart-hog and the Cape wart-hog. The former is a native of Abyssinia, Kordofan, and other countries of North Africa; while the latter, as its name implies, is found at the Cape--or rather throughout the whole southern part of the continent. It is the Vlack Vaark of the Dutch colonists; and this species differs from Elian's wart-hog in having the cheek protuberances much larger, its head more singularly shaped, and, if possible, in being _uglier_! The wart-hog dwells among low bushes and forests. It creeps on its bent fore-feet in quest of food--sliding along on its knees, and propelling itself forward by its hind legs. This habit will account for the callosities already mentioned. In this posture it digs up the ground, extracting therefrom the roots and bulbs (of which its food is supposed entirely to consist); for, fierce and hideous as its aspect may be, the wart-hog is less omnivorous than several other species of the tribe. And now for the indigenous hogs of America, the _Peccaries_. Of these, also, there are two species described by naturalists; though certainly a third kind exists in the South American forests, distinct from the two that are known. These are the _Collared Peccary_, or _Coyametl_; and the _White-lipped Peccary_, or _Tagassou_. For a long time these two species were confounded with each other; but it is now proved that they are distinct--not only in size and colour, but to some extent also in their geographical distribution, their haunts, and habits. The Collared Peccary is of small stature: not larger than a half-grown Berkshire pig. It is thickly covered with hairy bristles of a greyish-brown colour, and has a whitish band or collar around the neck-- from which circumstance it derives its trivial specific name. Its geographical range is more extensive than that of its congener. It is found not only in South America, but throughout the whole of Central and North America, as far as the borders of the United States territory: in other words, the limits of its range are co-extensive with what was formerly _Spanish America_. It exists in Texas; and still further to the north-west, in New Mexico and California--though nowhere to the east of the Mississippi river. In Texas it is common enough; and stories are related of many a redoubtable Texan hunter having been "tree'd"--that is, forced to take shelter in a tree from a band of peccaries, whose rage he may have provoked while wandering in their haunts, and too recklessly making use of his rifle. The same is related as occurring to South American hunters with the white-lipped peccaries--that have a similar habit of trooping together in droves, and acting in concert, both for defence and attack, against the common enemy. The chief points of distinction between the two species are in the size and colour. The white-lipped kind is much the larger--frequently weighing one hundred pounds--while a full-grown individual of the collared peccary does not exceed in weight over fifty pounds. The former are of a deeper brown colour, want the white collar around the neck; but in its stead have a whitish patch around the mouth or lips, from which also comes their specific appellation. These are also thicker and stouter, have shorter legs, and a more expanded snout. They troop together in larger droves, that often number a thousand individuals of all ages and sizes. Thus united, they traverse extensive districts of forest--the whole drove occupying an extent of a league in length--all directed in their march by an old male, who acts as leader. Should they be impeded in their progress by a river, the chief stops for a moment to reconnoitre; then plunges boldly into the stream, followed by all the rest of the troop. The breadth of the river, and the rapidity of the current, seem to be but trifling obstacles to them; and are overcome easily, since the peccaries are excellent swimmers. They continue their onward march through the open grounds; over the plantations, which, unfortunately for their owners, may chance to lie in their way; and which they sometimes completely devastate, by rooting out the whole of the crops of maize, potatoes, sugarcane, or manioc. If they should meet with any opposition, they make a singular noise-- chattering their teeth like castanets; and if a hunter should chance to attack them when moving thus, he is sure to be surrounded and torn to pieces: unless he find some tree or other convenient object, where he may make escape, by getting out of their reach. The white-lipped peccaries are found in all the forests of South America--from the Caribbean Sea to the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. They are abundant in Paraguay; and Sonnini, the traveller, has observed them in Guyana. Others report their presence on the Orinoco and its tributaries--as also on all the waters of the Amazon. Most probably, it was from the number of these animals observed upon its banks by the early travellers, that the last-mentioned river obtained one of its Spanish names--the Rio Maranon--which signifies the "river of the wild hogs." CHAPTER SEVENTEEN. HORSES AND ASSES. The Horse--_par excellence_ the noblest of animals--is represented by only a limited number of species; but, like other creatures domesticated by man, he is found of many different breeds and varieties: too many to be minutely described in these pages. Suffice it to say, that almost every civilised nation possesses several kinds of horses--differing from one another in size, shape, colour, and qualities: in size especially-- since this fine animal may be observed not much bigger than a mastiff; while other members of his family attain almost to the dimensions of an elephant! Even savage tribes, both in Asia and America, are in possession of peculiar breeds of horses; and it may be assumed as a fact, that more than a hundred varieties exist upon the earth. These have all been regarded as springing from one original stock; but here again there is only vague conjecture; and it is far more probable, that the domesticated horses are the descendants of several kinds originally distinct in their wild state. There are wild horses at the present day in Asia, Africa, and America; but it is questionable whether any of these are the descendants of an originally wild stock. More likely they are the progeny of horses escaped from the domesticated breeds. Of course we refer to the _true_ horses of the genus _equus_; and not to the dziggetais, quaggas, and zebras--to which we shall presently refer. These last-mentioned kinds are still found wild, as they have ever been; and, with one or two exceptions, none of their species have been tamed to the use of man. In America--both in the northern and southern divisions of the continent--herds of wild horses are numerous. These have all sprung from individuals that escaped from their owners, and in process of time have multiplied to a great extent. Of course they could have no other origin: since it is well-known that, previous to the time of Columbus, no animal of the horse kind existed in America. The wild horses now found there are descended then from a domestic breed; and this breed has been easily ascertained to be that used by the Spaniards in their conquests of Mexico and Peru. It is a race known as the Andalusian horse--nearly allied to the Arabian--and no doubt at an earlier period imported into the peninsula of Spain by the Moors. These horses are much smaller than the English hunter; but possess all the properties of a true horse--the shape, action, etcetera--and cannot, therefore, be considered as mere _ponies_. They are, in reality, well-blooded horses, of small stature; and no breed could be better suited to the climate of most parts of Spanish America, where they now run wild. On the pampas of South America these horses exist in vast droves. The Gauchos, a half-civilised race of men, live amidst their herds, and hunt them chiefly for the hides. They early learn to capture and ride them; and a Gaucho is seldom seen off the back of his horse. He can capture and break one in in the course of an hour. The flesh also serves him as an article of food. Down as far as the Straits of Magellan the droves of wild horses are found. There the native Indians have tamed many of them--even the women and children going most of their time on horseback. On the llanos, or great plains, that extend northward from the Amazon and Orinoco--that is, in the provinces of Venezuela--other droves of wild horses exist; and these, along with half-wild oxen, form the sole property and pursuit of a class of men called Llaneros, who in many respects resemble the Gauchos. Again, proceeding to North America, we find the same species of horse running wild on the great plains to the north of Mexico; in California, and upon the prairies east of the Rocky Mountains. In Mexico Proper, as also in California, they are _owned_ by great landed proprietors; and are annually caught, branded, and sold. Many of these proprietors can count from 10,000 to 20,000 head roaming within the boundaries of their estates, besides large droves of horned cattle and mules. In the vast regions between the settled parts of Mexico and the frontier settlements of the United States, the wild horses are the property of no one, but range freely over the prairies without mark or brand. These are hunted and captured by different tribes of Indians--Comanches, Pawnees, Sioux, Blackfeet, etcetera, who also possess large numbers of them tamed and trained to various uses. Like the Gauchos and Llaneros of the south, these Indians use the flesh of the horse for food, and esteem it the greatest delicacy! Among some tribes, where the buffalo is not found, the horse takes the place of the latter as an article of diet; and forms the principal article of subsistence of thousands of these people. Among most of the prairie tribes the chase of this animal, or the buffalo, is the sole pursuit of their lives. Still further north ranges the wild horse, even as far as the prairies extend; and among the tribes of the Saskatchewan he is also found--used by them for the saddle, and also as a beast of burden. In these regions, however, the buffalo still exists in great numbers; and the horse, besides being eaten himself, is also employed to advantage in the chase of this animal. The wild horses of America are not all exactly of one breed. Those of the Mexico-American prairies, called by the Spaniards _mustenos_ (mustangs), differ slightly from those found upon the llanos of South America; and these again from the horses of the pampas, and the parameros of Peru. These differences, however, are but slight, and owing solely to climatic and other little causes. But the mustangs of the northern prairies have among them an admixture of breeds, derived from American runaways along the borders of the Mississippi, and others escaped from travellers on the prairies; and there have latterly been discovered mustangs of large size--evidently sprung from the English-Arabian horse. In the Falkland Islands the horse is also found in an untamed state. These were introduced by the French in 1764; but have since become perfectly wild. Strange to say, they are only found in the eastern part of the island--although the pasture there is not more rich than in the west, and there is no natural boundary between the two! In Asia the horse runs wild in large herds--just as in America. The range in which they are found in this state is chiefly on the great plains, or steppes--stretching from the Himalaya Mountains to Siberia. The Calmuck Tartars tame them; and possess vast droves, like the Gauchos and Indians. They also eat their flesh; and among many tribes of Tartars mare's milk is esteemed the most delicious of beverages. After the true horse, the most beautiful species is the _Zebra_. Every one knows the general appearance of this handsomely marked animal, which appears as if Nature had painted his body for effect. Of the zebra there are two distinct kinds--both of them natives of Africa, and belonging to the southern half of that great continent. They are easily distinguished from each other by the stripes. One of them is literally striped to the very hoofs--the dark bands running around the limbs in the form of rings. The stripes extend in the same way over the neck and head, to the very snout or muzzle. This is the true zebra, an animal that inhabits the mountainous regions of South Africa, and which differs altogether from the _dauw_ or Burchell's zebra, also found upon the great plains or karoos of the same region. The latter has the stripes only over the body; while the head and legs are very faintly streaked, or altogether of a plain brownish colour. Attempts have been made at taming both of these kinds, and with some success. They have been trained both to the saddle and draught; but, even in the most tractable state to which they have been yet reduced, they are considered as "treacherous, wicked, obstinate, and fickle." Another species of horse found also in South America is the _Quagga_. This is very much like the zebra in size, shape, and in fact everything except colour. In the last respect it differs from both, in being of a plain ashy brown hue over the upper parts of the body, very indistinctly striped, and of a dirty white colour underneath. Like the dauw, it frequents the open plains--trooping together in vast droves, and often herding with several species of antelopes. Another species of quagga, called the Isabella quagga, is supposed to exist in South Africa; but there are doubts upon this subject. The name is derived from the colour of a specimen seen by a very untrustworthy traveller, which was of the hue known as Isabella colour; but nothing is known of the animal, and most naturalists believe that the Isabella quagga is identical with the other species, and that the specimen reported by Le Vaillant was only a young quagga of the common kind. All these species of African horses are generally classed with the genus _Asinus_; that is, they are considered as _asses_, not _horses_. We now come to other species of the ass genus, which were all originally natives of Asia. First, then, there is the domestic _Ass_; and of this species there are almost as many varieties as of the horse,--some of them, as the Guddha of the Mahrattas, not larger than a mastiff, while others exist in different parts of the world as large as a two-year-old heifer. Asses are found of a pure white, and black ones are common, but the usual colour is that to which they have given their name--the "colour of an ass." Besides the domestic species, there are several others still found wild. There is the Koulan, which is exceedingly shy and swift--so much so that it is difficult to capture or even kill one of them; since before the hunter can approach within rifle range of them, they take the alarm and gallop out of sight. They live in troops, inhabiting the desert plains of Persia and Mesopotamia in winter, while in summer they betake themselves to the mountain ranges. They are also found on the steppes bordering the Caspian and Aral Seas. Another species of wild ass is the Kiang. This inhabits Thibet. It is of a bright bay colour, and has a smooth coat; but the males are deeper coloured than the females. They live in troops of about a dozen individuals under a solitary male; and frequent places where the thermometer is below zero--though they dwell indifferently either on open plains or mountains. The kiang has a variety of appellations, according to the country in which it is found. It is the Dziggetai, and the Wild Ass of Cutch, and also the Yototze of the Chinese; but it is very probable that all these are the names of different species. It is further probable, that there exist several other species of wild asses in the Thibetian and Tartar countries of Asia--and also in the vast unknown territories of North-eastern Africa--yet to be classified and described; for it may be here observed that a monograph of the horse tribe alone, fully describing the different species and breeds, would occupy the whole life of a naturalist. CHAPTER EIGHTEEN. THE OX TRIBE. Our common domestic cattle furnish the type on which this family is founded; and it is well-known that of this type there are many varieties in different countries. Even in our own, so many are there, that a mere list of their names would fill one of our pages. We shall refrain therefore from giving any description of the different varieties--simply remarking that they are all supposed to spring from one original. This is, to say the least, a very doubtful hypothesis, since cattle have been found domesticated in many countries, and the period of their first introduction to the society of man is altogether unknown. It is far more likely that different species have furnished the varieties now known as domestic cattle. We shall proceed to describe the other bovine animals--which, although of the same family, are beyond doubt of a distinct species from the common cattle. The _Zebu_ is one of the most remarkable. Its home is India and the adjacent regions; where it branches off into almost as many varieties as there are breeds of our own oxen. These varieties have different names; and they differ in size, shape, and other particulars; but the hump and long hanging dewlap render the zebu easily recognisable. In India they are sometimes employed as beasts of the saddle and draught; and their flesh is also eaten, though with the exception of the hump (which is esteemed a great delicacy) it is not equal to English beef. Among the Hindus the zebus are regarded as sanctified creatures; and to slaughter them is deemed sin. For all that, these fanatics do not hesitate to _work_ them--sometimes hard enough. There are some zebus, however, that are considered more holy than common. These may be seen wandering idly about the villages, fed from the hands of the people; and if neglected in this regard, they walk uninvited into the rice enclosures, and help themselves! The zebus are usually of an ashy-grey colour, though many are white; and their size varies from that of an ordinary calf, to the stature of a full-grown bull. There is a variety of the zebu--or perhaps a distinct species--known as the Dante. It is an African animal--that is, Egypt is the country where it is chiefly found. Very little knowledge of it exists among naturalists. It is distinguished from the Indian zebu by having a smaller hump upon the withers and a narrower face; and it is supposed to be the animal represented on the ancient Egyptian tombs. We next come to the kind of oxen termed _Buffaloes_; and of these there are several species. First, there is the _Indian buffalo_; and it may here be remarked, that when the word buffalo is used, an animal with a huge hump upon its shoulders is usually understood. This is an error, arising, no doubt, from the fact that the _bison_ of America, which _has_ a hump, is generally called a buffalo. But the Indian buffalo has no such protuberance; nor yet the African species. The Indian animal is found both in a domesticated and wild state; but both are clearly of the same species. The wild one is called the Arna, and the tame one Bhainsa, in the language of the natives. The former is of much greater size than the latter--standing, when full-grown, as high as the tallest man! So strong are these animals, that an arna bull has been known to butt down a good-sized elephant with a single stroke of his horns! It is the Indian buffalo that is found in Italy--where it has been introduced, and is used for draught; its great strength giving it the advantage over horses, especially on the deep miry roads that exist in some parts of the peninsula. The _Manilla buffalo_ is a smaller variety or species of the arna, inhabiting, as its name imports, the Philippine Islands. The _African buffalo_, sometimes known as the _Kaffir buffalo_, is another of these great oxen, and not the least celebrated of the tribe. It is an inhabitant of Africa, and is found chiefly in the southern half of that continent, from the Cape of Good Hope northwards. It is an animal of vast size and strength; often waging war with the lion, and frequently with man himself. In these encounters the buffalo is but too successful; and it is asserted among the natives of South Africa, that there are more deaths among them, caused by buffalo bulls, than by all the other wild beasts of the country. Like his Indian congener, the shock from the massive horns of an African buffalo is almost irresistible; and both the lion and elephant at times succumb to it. There is a smaller African species about which less is known. This is the Zamouse or Bush cow, which differs from the true buffalo in having a flatter forehead, and being altogether without the dewlap. We now come to the _American buffalo_, or _Bison_, as it should be called. This is indigenous to North America; and its present range is confined to the great prairies that extend eastward from the foot of the Rocky Mountains. It was formerly found much farther to the east--in fact, to the Atlantic coast; but its limits are now far beyond the meridian of the Mississippi. Hunters (both red and white) have driven it across the Rocky Mountains; and of late years it has been met with in the territory of the Upper Columbia. Its habits are too well-known to call for a description here, and its shaggy coat, with the deformity of its huge shoulder-hump, are familiar to every eye. With one exception, it is the only species of the ox tribe indigenous to America--and it may be added, to North America--since no native bovine animal is known to exist in the southern half of the Transatlantic continent. The _European buffalo_--or as it is sometimes called _Lithuanian buffalo_--bears a considerable resemblance to that of the prairies. In size it is perhaps superior; but the two are much alike in general appearance--especially in their massive form, and the long brown hair, of woolly texture, so thickly set upon their necks and shoulders. The European buffalo is nearly extinct, and exists only in some of the forests of Lithuanian Poland, where it is rather half-wild than wild; that is, it freely roams the forests, but only as the deer in our own extensive parks, or the white cattle, known as the wild Scotch oxen--in other words, it has an owner. A very remarkable species is the _Yak_, or _Grunting Ox_. This is found only in the high, cold countries that lie to the north of the Himalayan Mountains--in Thibet and Tartary. There is only one species, but this is both wild and tame--the wild sort being the larger and more formidable animal. The domestic variety is used by the people of Thibet for carrying burdens; and both its milk and flesh are in great demand in these cold countries of poverty and hunger. The yaks dislike the warmth of summer; and during that season seek to hide themselves in the shade, or under water, in which they swim well. Their grunt exactly resembles that of a hog. The calves are covered with rough black hair like a curly-haired dog; but, when three months old, they obtain the long hair that distinguishes the full-grown animal, and which hangs so low as to give it the appearance of being without legs! They willingly live with common cattle, and will breed with them; but the wild yak bull is an exceedingly fierce and dangerous animal. The tail of the grunting ox is very full, or bushy; and although the hair of the body is usually black, that upon the tail is universally of a pure white. This hair, when dyed red, is used by the Chinese to form the tufts worn in the caps of the mandarins. It is the _chowry_ or fly-brush of India. Like other domesticated cattle, the yak is found of different breeds-- known by the names of Noble yak, Plough yak, etcetera. Next in succession comes the _Musk Ox_ of America, which, from its long hanging hair, and also from many of its habits, bears a good deal of resemblance to the grunting ox. The musk ox is a native of North America; and there his range is confined to the most remote regions of the Hudson's Bay territory. He is met with in the inhospitable track known as the Barren Grounds--and also along the coasts and islands of the Arctic Ocean--but nowhere so far south as the boundary of the United States or the Great Lakes. But for the land expeditions of several Arctic explorers, the existence of the musk ox would hardly have been known; and, as it is, his habits are but little understood. He is not of large size--being between the stature of an ox and a sheep--and in general appearance he resembles the latter more than the former; hence, among naturalists, he is styled the Sheep ox (_ovibos_). He and the Bison, as already remarked, are the only _indigenous_ oxen of America. To return to Asia. In its south-eastern parts--the Indies--we find several other species of the ox tribe. There is the _Gayal_ or _Jungly-gau_, which inhabits the eastern parts of Bengal, especially the mountains that separate this province from Arracan. Of this there is a tame and wild species--the latter an inhabitant of forests, living rather upon the shoots of trees than upon grass. It is a large animal, more like the common ox than any of the buffaloes; and it is also less fierce in its disposition than the latter. Next to the gayal is the _Gam_--also a forest-dwelling ox, of large size; and, like the other, browsing upon the leaves and twigs of trees. The gam inhabits several forest-covered mountains in Central India, where it is only found wild. Attempts have been made to domesticate it, but without success--since it is both a shy and fierce animal; so much so that even the calves will not live in captivity! Another Indian ox is the _Takin_, which inhabits the country of the Kamptis, in the eastern ranges of the Himalayas, and about which there is a dispute among naturalists, as to whether _it is an ox_! We conclude our sketch with the _Anoa_, which belongs to Celebes--a small species bearing some resemblance to the antelopes; and the _Banting_ or _Sumatran Ox_, a native of Java, Borneo, and also, as its second name denotes, of the Island of Sumatra. CHAPTER NINETEEN. SHEEP. The Sheep is one of the animals which man has subjected to his use; and one, too, of primary importance in the domestic economy of almost every civilised nation. Like the horse, dog, cat, ox, and pig, it has assumed the greatest possible variety. Many naturalists have treated these varieties as species; but those writers of greatest authority agree in considering all the domestic breeds as having originated from one common stock; and it would be idle here to speculate upon this question. Of the _tame sheep_ there are not less than forty very distinct kinds, besides numerous varieties of each of these kinds! These, of course, are distributed among many nations, and exhibit a very great difference in point of size and general appearance. Some are without horns, while others have these appendages very large, and of eccentric shape; some are covered with long crisp wool; others have the wool lank and straight; while still others have no wool at all, but instead a coat of hair resembling that of a spaniel or Newfoundland dog! But, besides these distinct kinds, as already stated, there are numerous varieties of each kind. For instance, the common sheep of England is itself branched out into quite as many as twenty breeds, each of which has a name of its own, and differs from all the others in many essential characteristics. Leaving the common sheep of our own country, we shall say a few words of some of the more noted kinds that are in the possession of different nations abroad. From Spain comes the Merino, so celebrated for the quality of its wool; while in Astracan and other Oriental countries there is a breed, the lambs of which furnish the well-known Astracan lambs'-skin, one of the most beautiful and valuable of furs. The Wallachian sheep, bred in Hungary, Transylvania, and the Danubian principalities, also produces a flue fur-like skin, much worn by the peasantry of Eastern Europe, in jackets and cloaks termed "bundas." A very similar kind of hairy-coated sheep is propagated throughout Asiatic Russia and Siberia--the skins affording a warm and comfortable clothing for the natives of these cold countries. In the Indian countries there are many varieties, such as the Barwall of Nepaul, and also the Huniah, Cago, and Seeling, belonging to the same kingdom. Again, in the Deccan there is a breed known as Deccan sheep, another called Garar, and two others in Mysore denominated respectively the Carrimbar and Shaymbliar. China has a variety known as the Morvan, with very long legs; and in Russia, again, there is a kind with tails so long that their tops drag upon the ground; and another in Northern Russia, with tails so short that they appear altogether wanting! With regard to tails, no breed has these appendages so developed as the broad or fat-tailed sheep. This kind is supposed to have originally come from Barbary; but they are now propagated in different parts of the world. In Asia they are found among the Tartars, Persians, Buchanans, and Thibetians. In Africa itself they are common among the Abyssinians, and are also kept in large flocks by the Dutch colonists of the Cape. The tails of these sheep are sometimes so large and heavy, that it is with difficulty the animals can carry them; and in some instances they are dragged along the ground as the sheep move from place to place! The fat of which this appendage is composed is esteemed a great delicacy; and at the Cape, as elsewhere, it constitutes an important article of the _cuisine_. There are several other curious breeds of sheep reared in the different countries of Africa. These are, the Guinea sheep of the western coast; the Morocco sheep, bred in the kingdom of the same name; the African sheep, an inhabitant of the Sahara; and the smooth-haired African sheep. There are also the Tezzan sheep, belonging to Tripoli; the Saint Helena sheep, of the celebrated Island of Saint Helena; the Congo sheep, of Congo; and the Angolas, of the same region, famous for the quality of their wool--not to be confounded, however, with the Angora wool, which is the produce of a goat. There are sheep in Tartary that eat bones like dogs, and in Hindustan and Nepaul there are kinds that have four horns each. These are the Dumbas. A little species exists in Iceland, in which the horns sometimes grow to the number of eight--though four is the more common number. America, too, has its varieties. These are the Brazilian sheep, the Demerara breed, the South American sheep, and a variety known as the West Indian. In fact, go to whatever part of the world you may, you will find a species or variety of this valuable animal, different in some respects from all the others. The _wild sheep_, like the wild goats, do not number a great many species; but there are certainly several that are yet undescribed, and perhaps there may be about a dozen in all. No doubt the great central mountains of Asia, and also the ranges of Northern Africa, still unexplored, will in time yield several new species of wild sheep. Indeed, late travellers in the Himalayas speak of wild sheep that appear to be essentially different from the _argali_, and other species already known. One species of wild sheep belongs to Europe--the Moufflon, which is to this day found plentifully in the mountainous parts of Corsica, Cyprus, and Candia. It was supposed to be the original of the tame breeds; but this is a mere conjecture. In America there is also but one species of wild sheep, though it has also a variety. This is the Bighorn of the Rocky Mountains, lately much spoken of by prairie travellers and fur-hunters. It is not known in tropical North America, nor does its range extend to the Andes of the south; but it is found to the west, in the mountains of California, in a variety called the Californian sheep. The bighorn is extremely like the Asiatic argali, and was for a long time regarded as identical with the latter; but this was an error. It is now ascertained that not only is the American animal of another species, but also that there are several distinct species of the argali itself in the different ranges of Asiatic mountains. Africa has its wild sheep, but only in its northern parts. This is the Aoudad, which dwells in the mountains of Barbary. Asia appears to be the head-quarters of the wild sheep. One species is found in Armenia, and another in the Caucasus. Siberia has an argali, that appears altogether to differ from the argali of the Himalayas. Again, in the Himalayan Mountains themselves, there is one species which ranges north only as far as Thibet; while on the Thibetian plateaux, as far as the Altai Mountains, there is another, if not two other species, quite distinct from the latter. It has been observed by competent travellers, that these Thibetian argalis bear a very strong resemblance to the different breeds of tame sheep found in the same regions; from which it may be reasonably inferred that the domesticated varieties of different countries have sprung from several wild species, instead of being all descended from one common origin. CHAPTER TWENTY. GOATS. My young readers will be surprised to hear that nothing is more difficult than to tell a _Goat_ from a _Sheep_. Yet such is in reality the fact. Of course the common goat is easily distinguished from the common sheep; but then there are species and varieties of both these animals so like in shape, size, colour, and habits, that the most accomplished naturalists are unable to pronounce which are goats and which are sheep! Indeed, some naturalists make no distinction at all, but class both under the same genus. This, however, is not a correct view, since there is an essential difference in the _nature_ of these two animals, notwithstanding the frequent resemblance in their outward appearance. It was upon this very point--their _nature_--that the renowned Buffon relied in separating them; he alleging that the sheep differed only from the goats in the greater gentleness and timidity of their disposition. It is true that this is not a very scientific mode of classification; yet, strange to say, it is held to be one of the safest guides for distinguishing the one from the other. Of course, it can only be relied upon when taken in connection with other indices of a physical character. Perhaps you may fancy that goats and sheep may be distinguished from each other by the "coat"--the former having a _hairy_ coat, while that of the latter is _woolly_. For you who reside in the British Islands, this mark would stand good enough, since British goats are in reality clothed with hair, and British sheep with wool; but in many other countries the case is not only different, but directly the reverse, the goats being _woolly_, while the sheep are _hairy_! It may be further remarked, that there are both goats and sheep so very nearly akin to antelopes, that it is again difficult to draw a line of distinction among the three. Indeed, there is a section of the antelope tribe, called the _goat-antelopes_, so called on account of this very approximation. Several species of antelopes--as the chamois of the Alps, and others--are by many naturalists classed as goats; and the bighorn of the Rocky Mountains, which is a true wild sheep, is also classed by some zoologists as a species of antelope. The goats approach nearer to the nature of antelopes than do the sheep. In fact, the mountain antelopes are extremely like goats in their nature and habits. On this account the latter are supposed to stand between the sheep and antelopes. We shall separate the goats into two kinds: first, the _tame_ or _domesticated_ goats; and secondly, the _wild_ ones. Of the domesticated kind there is an endless list of varieties; and upon the question as to which of the wild species was the parent stock, thousands of opinions have been expressed, and long treatises written. It is just as with the dog, and other domestic animals--no one can certainly say what species was first introduced to the society of human beings; and it is far more likely that it was not any one wild species, but several, and belonging to different countries, that gave origin to the numerous kinds of goats now in the possession of man. It would be a troublesome task to describe these numerous varieties. Every country has its kind; and, in fact, every district of country can show a breed distinct from all the others. Instead of specifying each breed, we shall only mention a few of the more noted and valuable sorts. The Thibet or Cashmere goat is perhaps the most celebrated of the tribe; its celebrity arising from the fineness of its wool, out of which are manufactured the costly Cashmere shawls. An attempt was made to introduce this variety into England; but it has not been successful, though the cause of its failure has not been communicated to the public. We can easily find a very good reason in the fact, that a first-class Cashmere shawl requires a year in its manufacture; and therefore, if an English weaver were to have the raw material for nothing, his labour would amount to more than the shawl was worth in the market! It is just the same with the culture of the tea-plant. There are many districts in America where the tea-tree would flourish as well as in China; but what would be the use of growing it there, since the labour required to bring it to a state of readiness for the teapot would also raise it to an unsaleable price! These are the important principles that people who talk of protective duties entirely lose sight of. The best Cashmere goats are brought from the Thibet country; and then wool sells for a rupee a pound in Cashmere itself. It is spun by the women, and afterwards dyed. The persons employed in making the shawls sit on a bench around the frame. If it be a _pattern_ shawl, four persons labour at its manufacture; but a plain one requires only two. The borders are marked with wooden needles, there being a separate needle for each colour; and the rough side of the shawl is uppermost while it is being made. The best shawls are manufactured in the kingdom of Cashmere itself, though many are made in other Oriental countries, and also in France; and the wool of several varieties of the goat, besides the Thibet, is used in the manufacture. In Cashmere alone 30,000 shawls are made annually--giving employment to about 50,000 people. The Angora goat is another noted variety--esteemed for its fine silky hair. It inhabits the countries of Angora and Beibazar, in Asiatic Turkey, where it is kept in large flocks, the goatherds bestowing much care upon the animals--frequently combing and washing them! The Syrian goat, remarkable for its excessively long ears, is reared in Aleppo and other parts of Asiatic Turkey, and is kept for the use of its milk, with which many of the towns are supplied. There are other varieties less noted, among which may be mentioned the Spanish goats, without horns; the Juda, or African goat, with two hairy wattles under the chin; and the pretty little Whidaw goat--also a small African variety. There is also a Nepaul goat, and one belonging to the Deccan, called Bukee--a very large gaunt fellow, with long shaggy hair. The Irish goat, too, is a peculiar variety of the common or domestic species. Tame goats are distributed very generally over all the Old World. They thrive well in the cold climate of Norway; and are equally at home in the hottest parts of Africa and the Indian islands. In America they are rare, in the territory inhabited by the Anglo-Saxon races--it not being considered a valuable speculation to "raise" them; but throughout the Spanish territories, both in North and South America, large flocks may be seen, and the wild goats of Juan Fernandez are descendants of these Spanish-American domesticated breeds. The species of true _wild goats_ are not numerous, but are very generally distributed over the world--particularly over the old continents. In America only one wild species is indigenous: that is, the Rocky Mountain goat. Some authors have asserted that this species is not indigenous to America; but most certainly this statement is an error. From its peculiar appearance, as well as from the locality in which it is found, it could never have sprung from any known domesticated breed. It is a long-haired creature, snow-white in colour, and with very short straight horns. Its hair is of silky hue and fineness, and hangs so low that the animal appears as if without legs. Its skin makes one of the most beautiful of saddle covers; and for this purpose it is used; but the animal itself being rare, and only found in the most remote and inaccessible regions of the Rocky Mountains, a good skin is as costly as it is valuable. It is met with in the great central range, from Northern Mexico, as far north as the Rocky Mountains extend; and it is supposed also to exist among the higher summits of the Californian mountains. The Ibex is another species of wild goat, somewhat celebrated. It is the wild goat of the European Alps, where it is known by the Germans as Stein-boc, and as Bouquetin among the French. Another ibex belongs to the Caucasian Mountains, called Zebudor, or Hach; and still another kind inhabits the Himalayas, where it passes under the name of Sakeen. There is also an ibex in Siberia; and still another in the Pyrenees. In addition to these, there is a large wild goat in the loftiest Himalayas, known as the Jaral, or Tur; and another in India called the Jungle Kemas, or Wild Sheep of Tenasserim. In Northern Africa, again, there are several species of native wild goats, as the Jaela in Egypt, and the Walie of the African-Arab countries; but in South Africa no indigenous wild goats have been observed--their place in that region being supplied by their near congeners the Klipspringers, and other rock-loving antelopes. CHAPTER TWENTY ONE. ANTELOPES. The Antelope tribe is so closely related to that of the Deer, that it is often difficult to distinguish one from the other. Indeed, certain species of antelopes are more like to certain species of deer, than either to their own kind. This is more especially true of the females, where the horns--the chief point of distinction--are absent. In such cases, even the accomplished naturalist is perplexed by the close resemblance--which extends beyond mere outward appearance, and is found throughout all their habits. It may be remarked, however, that the different species of antelopes differ not only in size, shape, and colour, but quite as much in their modes of existence. Some, like the African Eland and the Nyl-ghau of India, are clumsy creatures both in shape and movements; while others, as the Gazelles, are models of symmetry and grace. Some are dwellers in the arid recesses of the desert; while others affect the most fertile pastures, or the deepest shades of the thick forest. Others, again, find their home amidst the sedge on the banks of lakes and rivers, passing half their time in the water; while several species--as the Chamois of Europe and the Klipspringer of South Africa--dwell in the mountains, making their way among cliffs and ravines, with an agility scarce equalled by any other animal. Again, some species are gregarious, and herd together in vast flocks; while others are found only in small droves, or families, and not a few species lead what is termed a solitary life. In all these respects the antelopes resemble the deer; and, indeed, no very marked distinction can be pronounced between the two. As already remarked, the main point of difference, upon which scientific naturalists rely, is found in the horns; those of the deer being termed osseous, or bony, while these appendages in the antelopes are true horns--that is, of the same material as the horns of oxen. Furthermore, the horns--or rather antlers--of the deer are caducous, shedding annually; while those of the antelopes are persistent, remaining throughout the life-time of the animal--as with goats, sheep, and oxen. The antelopes appear to stand, as it were, in a central position, surrounded by these three last-mentioned groups; in other words, there are species of antelopes that can scarcely be distinguished from goats, others equally like sheep, and others that come very near being true oxen! Nay, further, there are one or two species--the Gnus of South Africa--that bear a considerable resemblance to horses! At one time the antelopes were all classed in a single genus; but since the species have increased--or rather the knowledge of them--this arrangement has been deemed inconvenient; and the systematic naturalists have separated them into a great many genera--twenty or more--and to these genera they have given such a variety of pedantic titles, that it would be wellnigh impossible for one man's memory to retain them all. I do not hesitate to say, that it would have been much wiser to have retained the nomenclature of the old naturalists, and called all these animals _antelopes_--leaving the specific appellations to distinguish them from one another. In a popular sketch it is necessary to treat them in this way; for to give even a list of the generic characters of the systematic naturalists would occupy the whole of our space. First, then, of the number of these ruminants--that is, the number of kinds. In this respect they exceed the deer tribe, amounting in all to between eighty and ninety distinct kinds. Perhaps there are one hundred species upon the whole earth, since several new ones have been recently discovered in the interior regions of Asia and Africa. It is scarcely necessary to say that Africa is the great head-quarters of the antelope tribe--more than half the species belonging to that continent. In number of individuals, too, it far excels; the vast herds of these animals that roam over the karoos and great plains of South Africa consisting sometimes of numbers countless as locusts or the sands of the sea! Asia, however, is not without its share of species; and especially that portion of it--the Oriental region--so rich in other mammalia. In Australia no antelope has yet been found; nor even in the large island of Madagascar, so African in its character. Only one representative of the antelopes is indigenous to the New World--the Prong-horn of the prairies; for the Bighorn of the Rocky Mountains is a sheep, not an antelope. To say the least, this is a natural fact of some singularity; for from all we know of the habits of these animals, no country could be better suited to their existence than the great prairies of North America, or the llanos of the Orinoco, the paramos of Brazil, and the pampas of Buenos Ayres and Patagonia. And yet on these South American plains no animal of the genus _antelope_ has yet been discovered;--and on the prairies, as already mentioned, only one species, the Prong-horn. It is worthy of remark, also, that in Africa, where the antelopes most abound, no deer are found to exist in the few African species of the latter being denizens only of the extreme north of Africa, where that continent approximates in character to the southern countries of Europe. In Europe there are two species--the well-known Chamois of the Alps, and the Saiga of Eastern Europe, which last is also an Asiatic animal. In describing the different species--and we can only say a word or two of each--we shall class them, not according to generic distinctions, but rather by their geographical distribution; and we shall begin with the _Antelopes of Africa_. Of these the Eland is the largest (as it also is the largest of antelopes), being sometimes of the size and weight of a full-grown horse! It is an animal of rather an ungainly appearance; but its beautiful buff colour and mild disposition make up for its ungraceful shape; and it is scarcely ever out of good condition. Its home is Southern Africa, where it is still found in large herds; and its flesh affords a plentiful subsistence both to travellers and the half-savage natives of the land. Hunting the eland is a common pastime; and no craft is required to insure success, since these creatures are almost as tame as domestic cattle; so tame that the horseman usually rides into the middle of the drove, and, singling out the fattest bull, shoots him down without any difficulty. The eland thrives well in England; and Dr Livingstone remarks it strange that it has not long since been introduced to our pastures--since its flesh is better than beef, and the animal itself is as large as an ox. The Gingi Jonga is a distinct variety of the eland, found in Western Africa. The Koodoo is another large species, of which South Africa is the home. This is remarkable for a noble appearance; but its most striking characteristic is its magnificent horns--each of which is four feet in length, sweeping widely outwards in an elegant spiral curvature. The koodoo loves the shade of the forest, and especially delights to dwell on the banks of rivers--taking freely to the water and swimming well. The Gnu next merits attention. In point of fact this is the most singular of the whole genus--being that which in many respects resembles the horse. There are two kinds, both belonging to South Africa, and known as the Gnu and Brindled Gnu. When seen galloping at a distance, they bear a marked resemblance to quaggas, or wild horses. They live in extensive herds on the karoos; and are hunted by the natives for their skins--out of which the Kaffirs make their karosses. Their flesh is eaten; though it is not so much esteemed as that of some other antelopes. The Oryx, or Gemsbok, is a middle-sized species, dwelling in the same neighbourhood with the gnus. It is a heavy, stout animal, with a long bunch tail, and a pair of tapering slender horns, almost perfectly straight, and sweeping back towards the shoulders. It is truly a creature of the open desert plains; and can go for a long time without water. It is bold and dangerous--especially when wounded--and will give battle to the hunter even, it is said, when that hunter chances to be the lion himself! The true Oryx, or Milk-white Antelope, mentioned by early writers, is a kindred species to the Gemsbok; and is found in Northern Africa--in Sennaar, Nubia, Abyssinia, and Senegal. This last is a celebrated species, on account of the supposition that it is the animal figured on the temples of Egypt, and known as the _Unicorn_. It would not be difficult, I imagine, to point out the absurdity of this belief; and to prove that the Unicorn of the ancients was either the Gnu of South Africa, or an allied species--supposed to exist at the present time in the inter-tropical region of the same continent. A third species of oryx, the Beisa, inhabits Abyssinia. The Addax is a large, heavily-formed antelope, with spiral horns and ox-like appearance, inhabiting the greater part of the Central African region. It frequents sandy plains, and is noted for its broad hoofs, which seem designed to prevent it from sinking in the soft yielding sand of the desert. The addax is not gregarious, living in pairs or families. One of the handsomest of South African antelopes is the Water Buck, a fine large species, with long, widely-spreading horns. It is called Water Buck on account of its habit of frequenting the marshy banks of rivers and lakes, where it spends most of its time half immersed in the water! The Lechee is another species, allied to this, and of very similar habits; and two, if not three species of _water_ antelopes have been lately discovered by Livingstone and other South African explorers. The Sing-sing is an antelope belonging to Western Africa. The English on the Gambia call it the "Jackass Deer," from its resemblance to a donkey. The negroes believe that its presence has a sanitary effect upon their cattle; and hardly a flock is seen without having one or two sing-sings along with it. A similar fancy is entertained in our own country in regard to the common goat--many people keeping one in their stables, under the belief that it is beneficial to the health of the horses! Another Sing-sing is the Equitoon, or Kob, of Senegal--often confounded with the former species. A very beautiful antelope is the Blue buck, or Blauwboc of the Cape colonists. It is a large, bold animal, with horns ringed, and gently curving backwards. Its skin is jet black; and it is this colour reflected through the ashy-grey hair that gives the animal that purplish or blue tint, whence it derives its name. It is found in small troops on the plains north of Kurrichane; and when wounded, or in the rutting season, the males are dangerous creatures. Another similar species, but larger, is the Tah-kaitze, which is plentiful in the country of the Bechuanas. It is so ferocious in its disposition, that the native hunters fear to attack it with the asseghai; but prefer capturing it in pitfalls. The Black buck is a species of similar character and habits; and in Senegal there is one, not unlike the foregoing, known among the French as _vache-brune_, and called by the Mandingoes _white mouth_. The Pallah is another fine species of South African antelope. Its horns are of the lyrate form, and its colour a bright rufous. It is on this account known among the Dutch colonists as the Rooye-boc (Red buck). It runs in small troops, and is found in the country of the Bechuanas, who hunt it for its flesh. The Stein-boc is one of the slenderest and most graceful of antelopes. It lives upon stony plains and in mountain valleys in South Africa-- hence its name of _stein-boc_, or stone buck. It is very swift, and, when at full speed, will often spring over fifteen feet at a single leap. Its flesh is much prized, and on this account it is hunted eagerly by the natives; so that, although one of the swiftest of animals, it is now rare in most parts of the Cape colony. The Grys-boc is a closely allied species, but not so elegantly formed, nor yet so swift. It hides when closely pursued--thrusting its head into a bush, or squatting like a hare in her form. The stein-boc has a similar habit. The Bleek-boc, or Ourebi, is one of those antelopes which have the curious appendages upon the knees called brushes. It is a large animal, and its flesh is eaten by the Kaffirs, in whose country it is chiefly found. A very similar species, called the _gibari_, exists in Northern Africa--Abyssinia--and also on the western coast. Of all the South African antelopes, perhaps none is more known and admired than the Spring-boc (springbuck). Its name is derived from a curious habit the animal has of, every now and then, springing upward from the ground, while going at full speed across the plains. This leap is sometimes made to the height of many feet, in an almost perpendicular direction, and apparently without any other motive than for amusement! The spring-bucks are eminently gregarious; indeed, they may be said to swarm. Herds have been met with, numbering as many as 50,000 individuals, migrating from one part of the country to the other, and paying but little heed to the crowds of hyenas, wild dogs, and other predatory creatures, who keep them company only to destroy and devour them. The Klipspringer is a small antelope that inhabits the most inaccessible mountains of Southern Africa; and, like its near congener, the chamois of the Alps, is as much at home on the narrow ledges of cliffs as its kindred are upon the open plains. It is a long-haired, shaggy little creature; but its long hair does not protect it from the bullet of the hunter; and its young frequently fall victims to the eagle, and the great lammer-geyer vulture, which also dwells among these mountains. In addition to those described, there are many other species of antelopes in Africa. The Duyker-boc, or Diving-buck--so called from its habit of ducking or diving under the bushes when pursued--is a Cape species; and there is another diving-buck, called the Black-faced; and still another of these bush antelopes, termed Burchell's bush-boc. Then there is the Four-tufted antelope of Senegal; the Red-crowned bush-boc, also of Western Africa; and, belonging to the same region, the White-backed bush-boc. In the Island of Fernando Po there is found the Black-striped bush-boc; and in Abyssinia, the Madoqua, or Abyssinian bush-goat, of a yellow colour. The Bay bush-buck and Bay bush-goat are two species described as natives of Sierra Leone; while the Black bush-boc, of a sooty black colour, is found on the coast of Guinea. The Coquetoon is a species of a deep-reddish bay colour, belonging to Western Africa; and on the Senegal and Gambia we meet with another sooty species, called the Guevei. At Port Natal, in South Africa, there is a red species called the Natal bush-boc; and the Kleene-boc, a diminutive little creature, only about twelve inches in height--a very pigmy among the antelopes--also belongs to the same region. Several other small species--or pigmy antelopes, as they are termed--are found along the west coast of Africa, viz., the Black-rumped guevei of Fernando Po; the Grisled guevei of Sierra Leone; and the White-footed guevei of the same region. The little creature known as the Royal antelope, or Guinea-musk, is a native of Guinea. Still others in South Africa are the Ree-boc and the Reed-boc--the latter deriving its name from its habit of frequenting the reeds that grow along the banks of the South African rivers. In the Island of Zanzibar there is a very small species of antelope; and another found in Abyssinia, and called also the Madoqua, is said to be the smallest of all horned animals--being not so large as an English hare! In North Africa--in the Sahara Desert--exists a large species, called by the Arabs the Wild Ox. It is one of the clumsiest in shape of the whole tribe. In the south two kinds are near akin to it--the Harte-beest or Secaama, and the Sassaby or Bastard harte-beest. The Korrigun is another of these large antelopes, belonging to Western Africa; and the Bonte-boc and Bles-boc are two similar kinds, existing in the country of the Hottentots. The Bosch-boc, or Bush-goat, is still another of the southern antelopes, which derives its name from its dwelling-place--the bushy thickets--out of which it never shows itself; and, in addition to all these, there is the Decula of Abyssinia, the Guib of the western coast, the Ingala of Natal, and the Broad-horned antelope of the Bight of Biafra. We have not yet mentioned the _Gazelles_, which are, perhaps, the most interesting of all the antelope tribe. It is not necessary to describe their forms, or dilate upon the gracefulness of their movements and appearance. Their beautiful eyes have been a theme for the admiration of all ages. We shall only remark here, that there are several species of antelopes called gazelles, and that they are all natives of Africa. There is the Dorcas gazelle of Egypt, Barbary, and Asia Minor; the Isabella gazelle of Egypt and Kordofan; the Mhorr of Western Africa; the Abyssinian mhorr of the eastern parts of the continent; the Andora of Sennaar, Dongola, and Kordofan; and, lastly, the Korin. These are all gazelles; and it is believed that several other species may yet be found in the interior parts of Africa. Such is the list of African antelopes. With regard to the Asiatic species, we can only find space to give their names, and point out the localities they inhabit. The Nyl-ghau claims to be mentioned first, as it is one of the largest antelopes known. It inhabits the dense forests of India, and is a creature of interesting and singular habits. The Goral and Serow are also two large species inhabiting the Himalayas--especially in the kingdom of Nepaul--while the Chousinga is a denizen of the wooded plains of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa. Two others, Chousingas, are the Rusty red and Full horned, both natives of India; and the Jungliburka, a species found in the Bombay Presidency. In Persia we find the well-known Sasin, or common antelope, as it is usually called; and in the Oriental Islands, Sumatra furnishes us with the Cambing outan, and Japan with the Japanese goat antelope. The Mahrattas have the Chikara, or Ravine-deer, a species peculiar to the rocky hills of the Deccan. China is not without its representative in the Whang-yang, or yellow-goat, which also inhabits the arid deserts of Central Asia, Thibet, and Southern Siberia. The Goa is another Thibetian species; and this ends our list of the tribe: for the two European antelopes, the Chamois and Saiga, and the one peculiar to the prairies of North America--the Prong-horn--have already received mention. CHAPTER TWENTY TWO. DEER. Of these graceful quadrupeds there are nearly fifty species known to the scientific naturalist. These are geographically distributed throughout the continents of Europe, Asia, and America; and several belong to the great Indian islands. In Africa we find only two kinds, and these confined to the mountain regions near the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Throughout the central and southern parts of that vast continent no native deer exist; but their place is plentifully supplied by their very near kindred the antelopes--for which, as already seen, Africa is especially famous. It will be evident to my young readers, that anything like a detailed description of fifty different kinds of animals would take up a volume of itself. I must therefore content myself with giving a brief account of the more remarkable species, and a word or two only about those less noted. If size entitle a species to precedence, then decidedly the _Elk_ should stand first. He is the largest of the deer tribe--not unfrequently standing as high as a horse, and carrying upon his crown a pair of broad, flat-branched antlers, weighing sixty pounds! Although truly an animal of the deer kind, he lacks those graceful shapes and proportions that characterise most of his congeners; and his mode of progression--a sort of shambling trot--is awkward in the extreme. While the animal is in the act of running, its long split hoofs strike together, giving out a series of singular sounds that resemble the crackling of castanets. In the elk countries of North America the native Indians prize the skins--dressing them into a soft pliable leather. The flesh is also eaten; but it is inferior to the venison of either the fallow or red deer. The elk belongs equally to the Old and New Worlds. His range is the wooded countries of high latitudes in the north, both of Europe and Asia; and in America he is found in similar situations. In the latter continent he is called the Moose; and the name Elk is there erroneously given to another and more southern species--the Wapiti--to be noticed presently. In North America the range of the elk may be defined by regarding the boundary-line of the United States and Canada as its southern limit. Formerly elks were met with as far south as the Ohio--now they are rare even in Wisconsin. In Canada, and northward to the shores of the Arctic Sea, wherever timber is plenteous, the great moose deer dwell. They roam in small herds--or perhaps only families, consisting of six or seven individuals--and feed chiefly on the leaves of plants and trees. Their legs are so long, and their necks so short, that they cannot graze on the level ground, but, like the giraffes of Africa, are compelled to browse on the tops of tall plants, and the twigs and leaves of trees, in the summer; while in the winter they feed on the tops of the willows and small birches, and are never found far from the neighbourhood where such trees grow. Though they have no fore-teeth in their upper jaw, yet they are enabled somehow or other to crop from the willows and birch trees twigs of considerable thickness, cutting them off as clean as if the trees were pruned by a gardener's shears. The moose is a sly animal, and in early winter all the craft of the hunter is required to capture it. In summer it is easier to do so: these animals are then so tormented with mosquitoes and gnats, that they become almost heedless of the approach of their more dangerous enemy, man. In winter the hunter follows the moose by his track, easily discovered in the snow; but it is necessary to approach from the leeward, as the slightest sound borne to his ear upon the breeze is sufficient to start him off. A very singular habit of the moose adds to the difficulty of approaching him. When he has the intention to repose, he turns sharply out of the general track he has been following, and then, making a circuit, lies down, his body being hidden by the surrounding snow. In this lair he can hear any one passing along the track he has made; and, thus warned, his escape is easy. The hunter who understands his business can usually give a guess (from a survey of the ground) of where these detours are likely to be taken, and takes his measures accordingly. When within range, the hunter usually makes some noise, as by snapping a twig: the moose starts to his feet, and shows himself above the snow. For a moment he squats on his hams, before starting off. This is the fatal moment, for it is the time for the hunter to take sure aim and send the fatal bullet. If the shot prove only a slight wound, and not mortal, the moose sometimes turns upon his enemy; and if a friendly tree be not convenient, the hunter stands a good chance of being trampled to death. In the rutting season the moose will assail even man himself without provocation; and at such times the old "bulls" (as the hunters term the males) have terrible conflicts with one another. The habits of the elk of Northern Europe appear to be identical with the moose of America. Hunting it in Sweden and Norway is a favourite sport, and its flesh is eaten, the nose and tongue being esteemed great delicacies, as they are in America. It is related that elks were formerly used in Sweden to draw the sledge; but, for certain reasons, this was prohibited by law. In point of size, the _Wapiti_ stands next to the elk. In shape he resembles the well-known Stag or Red Deer of our parks, but is much larger. The wapiti is exclusively a native of North America; and it may be remarked that his range is more southerly, and not so northerly as that of the moose. He is not found so far south as the Southern States, nor farther north than the Canadas; but around the great lakes, and westward to the Rocky Mountains, and even to the Pacific, the wapiti is met with. He is a noble creature--perhaps the noblest of the deer tribe--and it is a boast of the backwoods' hunter to have killed an elk; for such, as already mentioned, is the name erroneously given to this animal. Perhaps the _Reindeer_ is the most celebrated of all the deer; and just on that account I shall say but little of this species, since its habits are familiar to every one. Every one has read of the Laplander and his reindeer--how these people have tamed and trained, and otherwise submitted it to a variety of useful purposes; but the Laplanders are not the only people who have to do with the reindeer. The tribes of the Tungusians and Tchutski, who inhabit the northern parts of Asia, have also trained it to various uses--as a beast of burden, and also to ride upon. The variety--perhaps it is a distinct species--which the Tungusians employ for the saddle, is much larger than that of the Laplanders; but it may be remarked that there are also varieties in Lapland itself. The same remark applies to the reindeer of America, which is found in the northern parts of the Hudson's Bay territory, and all along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, making its way over frozen seas, even to the islands that lie around the pole. In these desolate countries the Caribou (for by such name is the reindeer known in America) is hunted by both Indians and Esquimaux; but it has never been trained by either race to any useful purpose, and is only sought for as furnishing an important article of food and clothing. At least two kinds of Caribou exist in the vast tracts of almost unknown country known as Prince Rupert's Land, or the Hudson's Bay territory. As the three kinds described belong--at least partially--to the New World, we shall finish with the other deer of this hemisphere, before proceeding to those peculiar to the Old World. The _Virginian Deer_ is the species common to the United States proper, and, in fact, the only wild species now found in the greater number in the States. It is a small animal, very similar to the fallow-deer of Europe; and several varieties (or species), not differing much from the Virginian deer, exist throughout the forests of Mexico, California, Oregon, and South America. In Mexico there are three or four species, severally known as the Mexican Deer, the Mazama, the Cariacou, and by other appellations. Of course, the inhabitants simply know them as venados (deer). In Guyana there are one or two small species, and along the forest-covered sides of the Andes two or three more. In Bolivia there is a large kind known as the Tarush; and on the pampas of Buenos Ayres and Patagonia is a kind called Guazuti, which associates in large herds, and is remarkable for the powerful odour emitted by the bucks. In the forests of the Amazon, and all through the Brazilian country, deer exist of different species; several, as the Guazuviva, the Pita, the Eyebrowed Brocket, and the Large-eared Brocket, being tiny little creatures, not much larger than the fawns of the ordinary species. Returning to North America, we find several varieties of the Virginian Deer in the countries lying along the Pacific coast--viz., California, Oregon, and Russian America. These have received trivial names, though it is believed that they are only varieties, as mentioned above. Two, however, appear to be specifically different from the Virginian deer. One of these is the Mule Deer of the Rocky Mountains--almost as large as the red deer of our own country, and well-known to the trappers of the Upper Missouri. Another is a well-marked species, on account of the length of its tail--whence it has received its hunter appellation of the Long-tailed Deer. The _Deer of Europe_ are not numerous in species; but if we consider the large herds shut up in parks, they are perhaps as plentiful in numbers as elsewhere, over a like extent of territory. The _Reindeer_ and _Elk_, as already stated, are both indigenous to Europe; so also the _Stag_ or _Red Deer_, the greatest ornament of our parks. The red deer runs wild in Scotland, and in most of the great forests of Europe and Asia. There are also varieties of this noble animal, a small one being found in the mountains of Corsica. The _Fallow-Deer_ is too well-known to need description. It is enough to say that it exists wild in most countries of Europe, our own excepted. Into this country it is supposed to have been introduced from Denmark. The _Roebuck_, another species of our parks, is indigenous to both England and Scotland. It is now found plentiful only in the northern parts of Great Britain. It is a native also of Italy, Sweden, Norway, and Siberia. The _African Deer_ consist of two species, supposed to be varieties of red deer. They are found in Barbary, and usually known as the Barbary Deer. But the fallow-deer also exists in North Africa, in the woods of Tunis and Algiers; and Cuvier has asserted that the fallow-deer originally came from Africa. This is not probable, since they are at present met with over the whole continent of Asia, even in China itself. We now arrive at the species more especially termed _Asiatic_ or _Indian Beer_. These form a numerous group, containing species that differ essentially from each other. There is the _Ritsa_, or Great Black Stag of the Japanese and Sumatrans. It is named _black_ stag, from its dark brown colour during winter. It is fully as large as our own stag; and is further distinguished by long hair growing upon the upper part of its neck, cheeks, and throat, which gives it the appearance of having a beard and mane! It inhabits Bengal, and some of the large Indian islands. The _Samboo_, or _Sambur_, is another large species, not unlike the rusa. It is found in various parts of India, and especially in the tropical island of Ceylon. Several varieties of it have been described by naturalists. In the Himalaya Mountains there exist two or three species of large deer, not very well-known. One is the Saul Forest Stag, or Bara-singa-- a species almost as large as the Canadian wapiti. Another is the Marl, or Wallich's Stag, which is also found in Persia. Still another species, the Sika, inhabits Japan; and yet another, the Baringa, or Spotted Deer of the Sunderbunds, dwells along the marshy rivers of this last-mentioned territory. Again, there is the Spotted Rusa, and other species, inhabitants of the Saul Forests. In fact, the number of species of Indian deer is far from being accurately ascertained, to say nothing of the very imperfect descriptions given of those that are actually known. When we come to the great Oriental islands--the Isles of Ind--we find many new and beautiful species; some being large noble stags, while others are tiny graceful little creatures like gazelles. In Sumatra and Borneo we have a distinct species of Sambur Deer; in Timor a smaller one; a third exists in Java; and a fourth in the Philippines. In Java, too, we find the beautiful little Muntjak; and another tiny variety in China, called the Chinese Muntjak. Returning again to the Himalaya country, we encounter, in the plains south of this great chain, the Spotted Axis, so well-known from its beautiful markings, which resemble those of the fawn of our own fallow-deer. But it may be remarked that there are two or three species of spotted deer, and that they inhabit the plains of India--from the Himalayas southward to the Island of Ceylon. Ascending these great mountains, we encounter among their lower slopes another very singular species of cervine creature--the Musk Deer--which, though but little known, is one of the most interesting of its tribe; especially so, as it is from the secreting glands of this curious little animal that most of the celebrated perfume of commerce is obtained. Crossing the Himalayas, and advancing northwards, we find upon the plains of Central Asia a species of deer, known among the Tartars as Siaga, and to our own naturalists as the Tail-less Roe. Several species entirely unknown to scientific men will yet be discovered, when the immense steppes of Asia come to be explored by observers capable of describing and classifying. Like many another genus of animals, a complete monograph of the deer tribe would be of itself the labour of a life. CHAPTER TWENTY THREE. QUADRUPEDS WITH POCKETS. In the year 1711 was brought to France, from the Island of New Guinea, an animal of an unknown species, and one that was singular in many respects; but especially so, from the fact of its having a double skin, covering a part of its belly, and forming a sort of pocket or pouch. This animal was Le Brun's Kangaroo; very properly named after the naturalist who first described it, since it was the first of the marsupial or pouched animals known to the scientific world. The Opossums of America were afterwards scientifically described; but it is only of late years that the numerous species and genera of pouched animals--constituting almost the entire mammalia of the Australian world--have become generally known to Europeans. The peculiarity of the _pouched_ animals is in reality the _pouch_, common to all of them. Otherwise they differ in many respects--some being carnivorous, others graminivorous, others insectivorous, and so on. In fact, among them we have forms analogous to almost all the different groups of ordinary mammalia. Some naturalists have even classified them in the different groups, but with little success; and it is perhaps better to keep them together, retaining the "pouch" as the common characteristic. The marsupial animals bring forth their young before they are fully developed. The mother places the mouth, of what is little more than a foetus, to her teat; and there it remains till it is able to go alone. The pouch covers the teats, and serves to protect the young, while the process of development is going on. Even after the little ones are able to run about, they continue to use this singular nest as a place of repose, and a refuge in case of attack by an enemy! The pouched animals are not entirely confined to the Australian island. The large island of New Guinea possesses some of them; and there are species in Java, and others of the Asiatic islands. America (both North and South) has the opossums, in numerous species; but it is in Australia, and the contiguous islands of Van Diemen's Land and New Guinea, that we find both the genera and species in greatest numbers. These countries are, in fact, the head-quarters of the marsupial animals. The true genera are not numerous, though the species of most of them are; and it is but natural to suppose that many new ones--both genera and species--will yet be discovered, when the vast _terra incognita_ of Australia comes to be explored. In fact, every expedition into the interior brings home with it some new animal that carries a pouch! As the opossums were the first of these animals whose habits became generally known to Europeans, we shall speak first of them; and it may be remarked, that although there are several species in the Australian countries resembling the true opossums, and are even called opossums, yet among naturalists the name is usually limited to the pouched animals of America. The old writer, Lawson, gives as succinct an account of the habits of the best known species--the Virginia opossum--as may be found anywhere. We shall adopt it _verbatim_:--"The possum," says he, "is found nowhere but in America. She is the wonder of all the land animals--being of the size of a badger, and near that colour. The female, doubtless, breeds her young at her teats, for I have seen them stuck fast thereto when they have been no bigger than a small raspberry, and seemingly inanimate. She has a paunch, or false belly, wherein she carries her young, after they are from those teats, till they can shift for themselves. "Their food is roots, poultry, or wild fruits. They have no hair on their tails, but a sort of scale or hard crust, as the beavers have. If a cat has nine lives, this creature surely has nineteen; for if you break every bone in their skin, and smash their skull, leaving them quite dead, you may come an hour after and they will be quite gone away, or, perhaps, you may meet them creeping away. They are a very stupid creature, utterly neglecting their safety. They are most like rats than anything. I have for necessity, in the wilderness, eaten of them. Their flesh is very white and well-tasted, but their ugly tails put me out of conceit with that fare. They climb trees as the racoons do. Their fur is not esteemed or used, save that the Indians spin it into girdles and gaiters." Bating the exaggeration about their tenacity of life, and also the error as to their mode of bringing forth, the above account hits off the opossum to a nicety. Lawson might have added that their tails are highly prehensile, and are not only used for suspending them to the branches of trees, but also employed by the female for holding her young upon her back--in which fashion she often carries them about. The flesh of the opossum is not only eatable, but much eaten, and even sought after as a delicacy both by negroes and whites. It is surprising how the number of species of this animal has lately multiplied, under the research of naturalists. Perhaps no creature illustrates more forcibly the folly of setting limits to the species of animals, by simply trusting to the account of those known or described. Over thirty species have been found in America, of which five or six belong to the northern division of the continent. The tropical region is their head-quarters; but they are not confined to the torrid zone, since there are species existing everywhere, from Canada to Chili. Another form of pouched animal that can scarcely be called an opossum is the Yapock of tropical South America. It is a smaller animal than the opossum, aquatic in its habits, and in fact approaches nearer to the family of the water-rats. Of this, too, there are several species. Crossing to Australia we find the pouched animals, as already observed, of several different and very dissimilar genera. Taking them in the usual order of mammalia, we have three kinds truly carnivorous. First, the Tasmanian wolf, a creature which possesses all the fierce attributes of his synonyme, and is, in fact, a wolf, only one who carries a pocket. He is an animal as active as fierce, and lives by preying on the kangaroos and other kindred animals. He is also troublesome to the breeders of sheep; as, since the introduction of these innocent animals to his country, he appears to have formed a preference for mutton over kangaroo flesh. Fortunately his range is not extensive, as he is confined to the island of Van Dieman's Land, and has not been observed elsewhere. Only one species has been yet discovered. Another pouched animal, equally carnivorous, is the Ursine Opossum. This is a burrowing creature about the size of a badger, and of equally voracious habits. In some places it proves extremely destructive to the poultry of the settler, though it will also eat carcass, or dead fish--in short, anything. In a state of captivity it will not submit to be tamed, biting everything that comes near it, at the same time uttering a sort of yelling growl. Small though it be, in many of its actions and habits it resembles the bear, and might be regarded as the Australian representative of the ursine family; but several of its species approach nearer to the weasels--for it is not so poor in species as the Tasmanian wolf, there being at least five kinds of it in Australia and Van Dieman's Land. One variety of it is distinguished by the name of Native Devil! Another genus of Australian _carnivora_ is in the Phascogals. These animals are smaller than the last, and dwell upon trees like squirrels. From their having bushy tails, they might readily be mistaken for animals of the squirrel kind; but their habits are entirely different-- since to birds, and other small game, they are as destructive as the weasel itself. After the true carnivora come the Bandicoots. These are named after the great bandicoot rat of India, to which the early settlers fancied they bore a resemblance. They are insect-eaters, and represent in Australia the shrews and tenrecs of the Old World. They also feed upon roots and bulbs, which with their strong claws they are enabled to scratch up out of the ground. Their mode of progression is by leaps--not like those of the kangaroo, but still more resembling the pace of a rabbit or hare-- and they appear to prefer mountainous regions for their habitat. There are several species of them in Australia and the adjacent islands. The Phalangers, or Fox Opossums, come next in order. These creatures are so called from a sort of resemblance which they bear to the well-known Reynard; but, fortunately, the resemblance does not extend to their habits, as they are all supposed to be innocent creatures, living on fruits and seeds, and climbing trees for the purpose of obtaining them. The true Vulpine Opossum--which is a native of Australia, near Port Jackson--is very much like a small fox; but there are two sub-genera of the phalangers that differ much from this form. One of these is the Scham-scham, a very beautiful spotted creature found in the Molucca and Papuan islands. Several other species of phalangers inhabit these and other Asiatic islands, especially Celebes and New Ireland. The other sub-genus is that of the Flying Squirrels, usually known as Norfolk Island Flying Squirrels, though it is not even certain that they inhabit the last-mentioned island. It needs only to be said that these animals are very much like other flying squirrels; and in fact they _are_ squirrels, only squirrels of the marsupial kind. There are several species already described. Another pouched animal is the Koala, or Ashy Koala as it is called. It differs in appearance from all the others, being of stout make, and almost without a tail. It is not unlike the bear in its form and movements; but its bulk is scarce equal to that of a moderate sized dog. It can climb trees with great facility, though it makes its lodgment among their roots, in a den which it hollows out for itself. Its food is supposed to be fruits, and very likely it is the Australian representative of the _frugivorous_ bears. It has the singular habit of carrying its young one upon its back, after the latter has grown too large to be conveniently stowed away in the pouch. Two species of koala have been spoken of, but as yet one only is described and certainly known. The Wombat is another animal of thick stout form, and also without tail. It is a slow creature, easily overtaken by a man on foot. It burrows in the ground. During the day it remains in its hole, issuing forth only at night to procure its food, which consists mainly of herbage. There is but one species known, belonging to both Van Dieman's Land and New South Wales. I have kept the Kangaroos to the last: not that they are the least interesting, but because these very singular animals are now so well-known, and their habits have been so often described, that it seems almost superfluous to say a word about them. I shall content myself with observing that the genus of the kangaroos has been divided into two sub-genera, the true Kangaroos, and those known as Kangaroo Rats. The difference, however, is not very great, since the rats are as mild and inoffensive in their habits as the kangaroos themselves. Of the kangaroo rats there are several species; but when we arrive at the true kangaroos we find a list altogether too numerous to mention. They are of all sizes, too, from that of the great giant kangaroo, that stands, or rather squats, full five feet in height, down to little tiny creatures not bigger than rabbits or squirrels. There are nearly fifty species in all inhabiting the known parts of the Australasian islands. It may be remarked, in conclusion, that two or three other kinds of pouched animals, differing from all the foregoing, have been lately brought to light by recent explorers; but, since nothing certain has been ascertained in regard to their habits, it would be idle in this place even to mention their names. CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR. ANT-EATERS, ARMADILLOES, AND OTHER ODD ANIMALS. This is, perhaps, the most interesting of the groups--interesting on account of the singular animals which compose it, every one of which may be termed an odd creature. In a strictly natural classification these animals would not come together, since many of the species are unlike the others both in appearance and habits; but in a scientific point of view the absence of incisor teeth has caused them to be ranged together in a group, known as the _edentata_, or toothless animals. In this group we shall give the first place to the true ant-eaters, and first speak of the ant-eaters of America. Of these there are four well-known species, the great Ant-bear, or Tamanoir; the Tamandua, or little Ant-bear; another little ant-bear, the Ringed Tamandua; and a very small species that differs much from the other three. They are all inhabitants of tropical America, and there are varieties of them in different districts. The Tamanoir is by far the largest, often attaining the size of a Newfoundland dog; and the long hair which covers its sides, together with its immense bushy tail, give to it the appearance of being much bulkier than it is. Its habits are tolerably well-known, constituting a very curious chapter in natural history which we have not space to give. Suffice it to say that its food consists entirely of ants and termites, which of themselves form a strange feature in the zoology of tropical countries. These it eats--not with teeth, but by means of its long slimy tongue, by which it is enabled to draw into its mouth hundreds of the little creatures at a time. The two species of smaller ant-bears, or Tamanduas, obtain their sustenance in a similar manner, and in other respects are like their great congener; but they possess a power with which the latter is not gifted--that of climbing trees, and making their nests high up in the cavities of the trunks. They have the further power of being able to suspend themselves from the branches with their tails, which, like those of the opossums, are highly prehensile. The tamanduas do not live solely upon ant-diet. The wild bees, that build nests among the branches, are also objects of their attention; and their thick hairy skins appear to protect them from the stings of these insects. The smallest species--called the Ouatiri, or Two-toed Ant-eater--differs altogether from the three above-mentioned. It more resembles a little monkey, and is covered all over with a thick coat of soft woolly hair of a yellowish colour. It is also a tree-climber, possesses a naked prehensile tail, and makes its nest in a hole in the trunk, or in one of the larger branches. In Africa the ant-eaters are represented by several kinds of animals, differing essentially from each other in outward appearance, though all agreeing in their habits, or rather in the nature of their food. The Aard-vark, or Earth-hog, of the Cape colonists, is the most noted kind. This animal is a long, low-bodied creature, with sharp-pointed snout, and an immense whip-like tongue, which he is capable of projecting to a great distance, in the same manner as the tamanoir. His body is covered with a dense shock of reddish-brown hair; and he dwells in a burrow, which he can cleverly make for himself--hence his trivial name of Ground-hog. The other African ant-eaters are usually called Pangolins, or Manis. These are covered with scales that resemble suits of ancient armour; and on this account they have sometimes been confounded with the armadilloes, though the two kinds of creatures are altogether different in their habits. The pangolins possess, in common with the armadilloes, the power of rolling themselves into a ball whenever attacked by an enemy--a fashion not peculiar to pangolins and armadilloes, but also practised by our own well-known hedgehog. The Sloths belong to this group of mammalia; not that they have the slightest resemblance to the ant-eaters in any respect, but simply, as before stated, because they want the cutting teeth. They are not absolutely toothless, however, since they possess both canines and molars. With these they are enabled to masticate their food, which consists of the leaves and tender shoots of trees. The name, _sloth_, is derived from the sluggishness of their movements, amounting almost to complete inactivity. They scarce stir from the spot in which they may be placed, or at all events move so slowly as to be a whole hour in getting from one tree to another, or even from one limb to another! They spend most part of their time upon the trees (the _cecropia peltata_ is their favourite), usually clinging to the branches with their backs downward; and in this way they crawl from one to another, uttering at intervals a plaintive cry, which resembles the syllable _ai_, uttered several times in succession. From this they derive one of their trivial names of Ai, or Ay-ay. The sloths are all inhabitants of tropical America--dwellers in the great forests of Guiana and Brazil. As natural curiosities in the animal kingdom, the Armadilloes do not yield to any of the four-footed creatures, and an account of their habits, would space permit, could not be otherwise than extremely interesting. They are exclusively inhabitants of America; but many species, both in North and South America, are found far beyond the limits of the torrid zone. There are a great many species known--and these are of all sizes--from that of an ordinary rat, to the Giant Tatou, which sometimes attains the enormous dimensions of a moderate sized sheep! It may be mentioned that they are subdivided into a number of genera, as the sloths, etcetera; and here, again, without any very sufficient reason, since they all possess the scaly armour--from which the name armadillo is derived--and their habits are nearly identical. They dwell in burrows, which they make for themselves; in fact, they are more than ordinarily clever at excavating, and have been blamed for carrying their tunnels into graveyards, and feeding upon the bodies there deposited! Of some of the species this charge is but too true; and one would think that an animal of such habit would be regarded with disgust. On the contrary, the flesh of the armadillo is in much esteem as an article of food, both among the white colonists and the natives, and men and dogs are employed in many parts of South America to procure it for the table. Several species of armadilloes possess the power of clueing themselves up, _a la hedgehog_, and thus presenting an impenetrable front to the attacks of an enemy; while others want this power, but, in its stead, can flatten their bodies along the ground, in such a way that neither dog nor jaguar can set tooth upon anything softer than their scales, and these are as impenetrable as if they were plates of steel. The more noted species are known by different names--as the Tatou Poyou, the Giant Tatou, the Peba, the Pichiciago, the Pichey, the Hairy Tatou, the Mataco, the Apara, and such like designations. It may be added, that the armadilloes dwell in districts very dissimilar. According to the species, they inhabit low marshes, thick forests, or dry open hills; and several kinds are indigenous to the high table-lands of the Andes. Their usual food consists of fruits, legumes, and roots; but they are nearly all omnivorous, and will eat carrion whenever it falls in their way. To this group belong two very singular animals, that have only of late years become known. These are the Mullingong--better known as the Ornithoryncus--and the Echidna, or Ant-eating Hedgehog. Both are natives of what may be termed the new world of Australasia. To give an account of the peculiar conformation or appearance of the mullingong would require many pages, and only the artist can convey any idea of what the creature is like. Suffice it to say, that it is a sort of triangular cross between a bird, a quadruped, and a fish; having the bill of a duck, the hair, skin, and legs of a quadruped, and the aquatic habits of a fish, or rather of a seal. In general appearance it is, perhaps, more like to a beaver than to any other animal. It dwells upon the banks of rivers, lakes, or marshes, burrows in the ground like a badger, swims and dives well, and feeds chiefly on aquatic insects. The echidna is altogether a different sort of creature, both in appearance and habits. It is, in reality, an ant-eater, with the body of a porcupine, having a long slender snout and an extensile tongue, just like that of other ant-eaters. It burrows in the ground, where it can remain for a long period without food, and it is supposed to issue forth only during the season of the rains. It also possesses the power of rolling itself into a ball, like the hedgehog--hence its name among the colonists of Ant-eating Hedgehog; but by far the most appropriate appellation for it is the Porcupine Ant-eater, since in general appearance it is exceedingly like several species of porcupines. The Porcupines and Hedgehogs, though usually classed elsewhere, on account of their teeth, their food, and a few other reasons not very natural, should certainly stand in this group of odd animals; and here let us place them. We have not space to say much about either of them; and can only remark of the porcupines, that there are nearly a dozen known species inhabiting different parts of the world--as usual, separated into a great number of genera. Europe, Asia, Africa, the Asiatic Islands, North and South America, all have their porcupines-- some of them entirely covered with quills, others with hair intermingled with the spines, and still others on which the spinous processes are so small as to be scarcely perceptible, yet all partaking of the habits and character of the true porcupines. It may be further remarked, that the American porcupines are tree-climbers, and feed upon twigs and bark; in fact, lead a life very much resembling that of the sloths. The Hedgehogs, about which so much has been said, should also go with this group, though it is usual to place them among carnivorous animals. Of hedgehogs there are also several species, and they are found in most countries of Europe, and in many parts of Asia and Africa. No true hedgehog has yet been discovered in North or South America, but they have their representatives there in other species of worm-eating animals. It would not be proper to conclude these sketches without remarking, that there are still a few other odd animals which we have not an opportunity of introducing here. As an instance, we may mention the little Daman, or Hyrax, a native of Africa and Asia Minor, and of which there are two or three distinct species. This is the animal over which Mr Frederic Cuvier, and other learned anatomists, have raised such a paean of triumph--having discovered that, notwithstanding its great resemblance to a rabbit, the little creature was, in reality, a _rhinoceros_! M. Cuvier and his followers seem to have omitted the reflection that this wonderful discovery very naturally suggests. Putting it interrogatively, we may ask, How is it that the hyrax, whose "anatomical structure proves it to be a rhinoceros," is _not_ a rhinoceros in habits, appearance, nor, in fact, in anything but the shape of its bones? If, then, we were to take osteology for our guide, I fear we should often arrive at very erroneous conclusions; and were the little hyrax an extinct animal, and not known to us by actual observation, we should be led by anatomical theorists to ascribe to the timid creature a very different set of manners from what it has got. Despite anatomic theories, then, we shall continue to regard the hyrax-- the coney of the Scriptures--as a _rabbit, and not a rhinoceros_! FINIS. 
10843	----	The Mental Life of Monkeys and Apes: A Study of Ideational Behavior ROBERT M. YERKES Harvard University BEHAVIOR MONOGRAPHS Volume 3, Number 1, 1916 Serial Number 12 Edited by JOHN B. WATSON The Johns Hopkins University WITH SIX PLATES AND FIVE TEXT FIGURES CONTENTS I. Interests, opportunity and materials II. Observational problems and methods III. Results of multiple-choice experiments: 1. Skirrl, _Pithecus irus_ 2. Sobke, _Pithecus rhesus_ 3. Julius, _Pongo pygmaeus_ IV. Results of supplementary tests of ideational behavior: 1. Julius, _Pongo pygmaeus_: Box stacking experiment Box and pole experiment Draw-in experiment Lock and key test 2. Skirrl, _Pithecus irus_: Box stacking experiment Box and pole experiment Draw-in experiment Hammer and nail test Other activities 3. Sobke, _Pithecus rhesus_: Box stacking experiment Draw-in experiment Box and pole experiment Other activities V. Miscellaneous observations: 1. Right- and left-handedness 2. Instinct and emotion: Maternal instinct Fear Sympathy VI. Historical and critical discussion of ideational behavior in monkeys and apes: 1. Evidences of ideation in monkeys 2. Evidences of ideation in apes VII. Provision for the study of the primates and especially the monkeys and anthropoid apes VIII. Bibliography I INTERESTS, OPPORTUNITY AND MATERIALS Two strong interests come to expression in this report: the one in the study of the adaptive or ideational behavior of the monkeys and the apes; and the other in adequate and permanent provision for the thorough study of all aspects of the lives of these animals. The values of these interests and of the tasks which they have led me to undertake are so widely recognized by biologists that I need not pause to justify or define them. I shall, instead, attempt to make a contribution of fact on the score of each interest. While recognizing that the task of prospecting for an anthropoid or primate station may in its outcome prove incomparably more important for the biological and sociological sciences and for human welfare than my experimental study of ideational behavior, I give the latter first place in this report, reserving for the concluding section an account of the situation regarding our knowledge of the monkeys, apes, and other primates, and a description of a plan and program for the thorough-going and long continued study of these organisms in a permanent station or research institute. In 1915, a long desired opportunity came to me to devote myself undividedly to tasks which I have designated above as "prospecting" for an anthropoid station and experimenting with monkeys and apes. First of all, the interruption of my academic duties by sabbatical leave gave me free time. But in addition to this freedom for research, I needed animals and equipment. These, too, happily, were most satisfactorily provided, as I shall now describe. When in 1913, while already myself engaged in seeking the establishment of an anthropoid station, I heard of the founding of such an institution at Orotava, Tenerife, the Canary Islands, I immediately made inquiries of the founder of the station, Doctor Max Rothmann of Berlin, concerning his plans (Rothmann, 1912).[1] As a result of our correspondence, I was invited to visit and make use of the facilities of the Orotava station and to consider with its founder the possibility of coöperative work instead of the establishing of an American station. This invitation I gratefully accepted with the expectation of spending the greater part of the year 1915 on the island of Tenerife. But the outbreak of the war rendered my plan impracticable, while at the same time destroying all reasonable ground for hope of profitable coöperation with the Germans in the study of the anthropoids. In August, 1915, Doctor Rothmann died. Presumably, the station still exists at Orotava in the interests of certain psychological and physiological research. So far as I know, there are as yet no published reports of studies made at this station. It seems from every point of view desirable that American psychologists should, without regard to this initial attempt of the Germans to provide for anthropoid research, further the establishment of a well equipped American station for the study not only of the anthropoid apes but of all of the lower primates. [Footnote 1: See bibliography at end of report.] In the early months of the war while I was making every effort to obtain reliable information concerning conditions in the Canary Islands, I received an urgent invitation from my friend and former student, Doctor G. V. Hamilton, to make use of his collection of animals and laboratory at Montecito, California, during my leave of absence from Harvard. This invitation I most gladly accepted, and in February, 1915, I established myself in Santa Barbara, in convenient proximity to Doctor Hamilton's private laboratory where for more than six months I was able to work uninterruptedly under nearly ideal conditions. Doctor Hamilton without reserve placed at my disposal his entire collection of animals, laboratory, and equipment, provided innumerable conveniences for my work, and in addition, bore the entire expense of my investigation. I cannot adequately thank him for his kindness nor make satisfactory acknowledgment here of his generous aid. Thanks to his sympathetic interest and to the courtesy of the McCormick family on whose estate the laboratory was located, my work was done under wholly delightful conditions, and with assistance from Ramon Jimenez and Frank Van Den Bergh, Jr., which was invaluable. The former aided me most intelligently in the care of the animals and the construction of apparatus; and the latter, especially, was of very real service in connection with many of my experiments. The collection of animals which Doctor Hamilton placed at my disposal consisted of ten monkeys and one orang utan. The monkeys represented either _Pithecus rhesus_ Audebert (_Macacus rhesus_), _Pithecus irus_ F. Cuvier (_Macacus cynomolgos_), or the hybrid of these two species (Elliot, 1913). There were two eunuchs, five males, and three females. All were thoroughly acclimated, having lived in Montecito either from birth or for several years. The orang utan was a young specimen of _Pongo pygmaeus_ Hoppius obtained from a San Francisco dealer in October, 1914 for my use. His age at that time, as judged by his size and the presence of milk teeth, was not more than five years. So far as I could discover, he was a perfectly normal, healthy, and active individual. On June 10, 1915, his weight was thirty-four pounds, his height thirty-two inches, and his chest girt twenty-three inches. On August 18 of the same year, the three measurements were thirty-six and one-half pounds, thirty-three inches, and twenty-five inches. For the major portion of my experimental work, only three of the eleven animals were used. A growing male, _P. rhesus_ monkey, known as Sobke; a mature male, _P. irus_, called Skirrl; and the young orang utan, which had been named Julius. Plates I and II present these three subjects of my experiments in characteristically interesting attitudes. In plate I, figure 1, Julius appears immediately behind the laboratory seated on a rock, against a background of live oaks. This figure gives one an excellent idea of the immediate environment of the laboratory. Figure 2 of the same plate is a portrait of Julius taken in the latter part of August. By reason of the heavy growth of hair, he appeared considerably older as well as larger at this time than when the photograph for figure 1 was taken. In plate II, figure 3, Julius is shown in the woods in the attitude of reaching for a banana, while in figure 4 of the same plate he is represented as walking upright in one of the cages. Likenesses of Sobke are presented in figures 5 and 6 of plate II. In the latter of these figures he is shown stretching his mouth, apparently yawning but actually preparing for an attack on another monkey behind the wire screen. Figure 7 of this plate indicates Skirrl in an interesting attitude of attention and with an obvious lack of self-consciousness. The same monkey is represented again in figures 8 and 9 of plate II, this time in the act of using hammer and saw. EXPLANATION OF PLATE II FIGURE 3.--Orang utan, Julius, reaching for banana. FIGURE 4.--Julius walking across his cage. FIGURE 5.--_P. rhesus_, Sobke. FIGURE 6.--Sobke stretching his jaws (yawn?) preparatory to a fight. FIGURE 7.--_P. irus_, Skirrl. FIGURE 8.--Skirrl using hammer and nail. FIGURE 9.--Skirrl using a saw. All of the animals except the orang utan had been used more or less for experiments on behavior by Doctor Hamilton, but this prior work in no way interfered with my own investigation. Doctor Hamilton has accumulated a large mass of the most valuable and interesting observations on the behavior of monkeys, and he more thoroughly understands them than any other observer of whom I have knowledge. Much to my regret and embarrassment in connection with the present report, he has thus far published only a small portion of his data (Hamilton, 1911, 1914). In his most recent paper on "A study of sexual tendencies in monkeys and baboons," he has given important information concerning several of the monkeys which I have observed. For the convenience of readers who may make use of both his reports and mine, I am designating the animals by the names previously given them by Hamilton. The available and essential information concerning the individuals is presented below. _List of animals in collection_ Skirrl. _Pithecus irus_. Adult male. Sobke. _P. rhesus_. Young adult male. Gertie. _P. irus-rhesus_. Female. Born November, 1910. Maud. _P. rhesus_. Young adult female. Jimmy II. _P. irus_. Adult male. Scotty. _P. irus_ (?). Adult male. Tiny. _P. irus-rhesus_. Female. Born August, 1913. Chatters. _P. irus_. Adult eunuch. Daddy. _P. irus_. Adult eunuch. Mutt. _P. irus_. Young adult male. Born August, 1911. Julius. _Pongo pygmaeus_. Male. Age, 4 years to 5 years. When I arrived in Santa Barbara, Doctor Hamilton was about to remodel, or rather reconstruct, his animal cages and laboratory. This gave us opportunity to adapt both to the special needs of my experiments. The laboratory was finally located and built in a grove of live oaks. From the front it is well shown by figure 10 of plate III, and from the rear, by figure 11. Its location was in every way satisfactory for my work, and in addition, the spot proved a delightful one in which to spend one's time. [Illustration: FIGURE 12.--Ground plan of Montecito laboratory and cages. Scale 1/120 L, laboratory; C, cages; A, experiment room in which multiple-choice apparatus was installed; B, E, additional rooms for research; D, store room and shop; Z, large central cage communicating with the eight smaller cages 1-8.] Figure 12 is a ground plan, drawn to scale, of the laboratory and the adjoining cages, showing the relations of the several rooms of the laboratory among themselves and to the nine cages. Although the construction was throughout simple, everything was convenient and so planned as to expedite my experimental work. The large room A, adjoining the cages, was used exclusively for an experimental study of ideational behavior by means of my recently devised multiple-choice method. Additional, and supplementary, experiments were conducted in the large cage Z. Room D served as a store-room and work-shop. The laboratory was forty feet long, twenty-two feet wide, and ten feet to the plate. Each small cage was six, by six, by twelve feet deep, while the large compartment into which each of the smaller cages opened was twenty-four feet long, ten feet wide, and twelve feet deep. II OBSERVATIONAL PROBLEMS AND METHODS My chief observational task in Montecito was the study of ideational behavior, or of such adaptive behavior in monkeys and apes as corresponds to the ideational behavior of man. It was my plan to determine, so far as possible in the time at my disposal, the existence or absence of ideas and the rôle which they play in the solution of problems by monkeys and apes. I had in mind the behavioristic form of the perennial questions: Do these animals think, do they reason, and if so, what is the nature of these processes as indicated by the characteristics of their adaptive behavior? My work, although obviously preliminary and incomplete, differs from most of the previous studies of the complex behavior of the infrahuman primates in that I relied chiefly upon a specially devised method and applied it systematically over a period of several months. The work was intensive and quantitative instead of more or less incidental, casual, and qualitative as has usually been the case. Naturally, during the course of my special study of ideational behavior observations were made relative to various other aspects of the life of my subjects. Such, for example, are my notes on the use of the hands, the instincts, the emotions, and the natural aptitudes of individuals. It is, indeed, impossible to observe any of the primates without noting most interesting and illuminating activities. And although the major portion of my time was spent in hard and monotonous work with my experimental apparatus, I found time each day to get into intimate touch with the free activities of my subjects and to observe their social relations and varied expressions of individuality. As a result of my close acquaintance with this band of primates, I feel more keenly than ever before the necessity of taking into account, in connection with all experimental analyses of behavior, the temperamental characteristics, experience, and affective peculiarities of individuals. The light which I have obtained on the general problem of ideation has come, first, through a method which I have rather inaptly named the multiple-choice method, and second, and more incidentally, through a variety of supplementary methods which are described in Section IV of this report. These supplementary methods are simple tests of ideation rather than systematic modes of research. They differ from my chief method, among other respects, in that they have been used by various investigators during the past ten or fifteen years. It was not my aim to repeat precisely the observations made by others, but instead to verify some of them, and more especially, to throw additional light on my main problem and to further the analysis of complex behavior. What has been referred to as the multiple-choice method was devised by me three years ago as a means of obtaining strictly comparable objective data concerning the problem-solving ability of various types and conditions of animals. The method was first tried with human subjects in the Psychopathic Hospital, Boston, with a crude keyboard apparatus which, however, proved wholly satisfactory as a means of demonstrating its value. It has since been applied by means of mechanisms especially adapted to the structure and activities of the organisms, to the study of the behavior of the crow, pig, rat, and ringdove (Yerkes, 1914; Coburn and Yerkes, 1915; Yerkes and Coburn, 1915). The method has also been applied with most gratifying results to the study of the characteristics of ideational behavior in human defectives,--children, and adults,--and in subjects afflicted with various forms of mental disease. It is at present being tried out as a practical test in connection with vocational guidance and various forms of institutional examination, such as psychopathic hospital and court examinations. As no adequate description of the method has yet been published to which I can here refer, it will be necessary to present its salient characteristics along with a description of the special form of apparatus which was found suitable for use with monkeys and apes. The method is so planned as to enable the observer to present to any type or condition of organism which he wishes to study any one or all of a series of problems ranging from the extremely simple to the complex and difficultly soluble. All of the problems, however, are completely soluble by an organism of excellent ideational ability. For the human subject, the solution of the easiest problem of all requires almost no effort, whereas even moderately difficult problems may require many repetitions of effort and hours or days of application to the task. In each case, the solution of the problem depends upon the perception of a certain constant relation among a series of objects to which the subject is required to attend and respond. Such relations are, for example, secondness from one end of the group, middleness, simple alternation of ends, or progressive movement by constant steps from one end of a group to the other. It is possible to present such relational problems by means of relatively simple reaction-mechanisms. In their essential features, all of the several types of multiple-choice apparatus designed by the writer and used either by him or by his students and assistants are the same. They consist of a series of precisely similar reaction-devices, any one or all of which may be used in connection with a given observation. These reaction-mechanisms are so chosen as to be suited to the structure and action-system of the animal to be studied. For the human being the mechanism consists of a simple key and the total apparatus is a bank of keys, with such electrical connections as are necessary to enable the observer to obtain satisfactory records of the subject's behavior. Let us suppose the bank of keys, as was actually the case in my first form of apparatus, to consist of twelve separate reaction-mechanisms; and let us suppose, further, the constant relation (problem) on the basis of which the subject is required to react to be that of middleness. It is evident that in successive trials or experiments the keys must be presented to the subject in odd groups, the possibilities being groups of 3, 5, 7, 9, or 11. If for a particular observation the experimenter wishes to present the first three keys at the left end of the keyboard, he pushes back the remaining nine keys so that they cannot be operated and requires the subject to select from the group of three keys the one which on being pressed causes a signal to appear. It is of course the clearly understood task of the subject to learn to select the correct key in the group on first trial. This becomes possible only as the subject observes the relation of the key which produces the desired effect to the other keys in the group. On the completion of a subject's reaction to the group of three keys, a group of seven keys at the opposite end of the keyboard may, for example, be presented. Similarly, the subject is required to discover with the minimum number of trials the correct reaction-mechanism. Thus, time after time, the experimenter presents a different group of keys so that the subject in no two successive trials is making use of the same portion of the keyboard. It is therefore impossible for him to react to spatial relations in the ordinary sense and manner, and unless he can perceive and appropriately respond to the particular relation which constitutes the only constant characteristic of the correct reaction-mechanism for a particular problem, he cannot solve the problem, or at least cannot solve it ideationally and on the basis of a small number of observations or trials. For the various infrahuman animals whose ideational behavior has been studied by means of this method, it has been found eminently satisfactory to use as reaction-mechanisms a series of similar boxes, each with an entrance and an exit door. An incentive to the selection of the right box in a particular test is supplied by food, a small quantity of which is placed in a covered receptacle beyond the exit door of each of the boxes. Each time an animal enters a wrong box, it is punished for its mistake by being confined in that box for a certain period, ranging from five seconds to as much as two minutes with various individuals or types of organism. This discourages random, hasty, or careless choices. When the right box is selected, the exit door is immediately raised, thus uncovering the food, which serves as a reward. After eating the food thus provided, the animal, according to training, returns to the starting point and eagerly awaits an opportunity to attempt once more to find the reward which it has learned to expect. With this form of the apparatus, the boxes among which choice may be made are indicated by the raising (opening) of the front door. Since with various birds and mammals the box form of apparatus had proved most satisfactory, I planned the primate apparatus along similar lines, aiming simply to adapt it to the somewhat different motor equipment and destructive tendencies of the monkeys. I shall now briefly describe this apparatus as it was constructed and used in the Montecito laboratory. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV FIGURE 13.--Multiple-choice apparatus, showing observer's bench and writing stand. FIGURE 14.--Apparatus as seen from observer's bench. FIGURE 15.--Entrances to multiple-choice boxes as seen from the response-compartment. FIGURE 16.--Apparatus as seen from the rear, showing exit doors, food receptacles, and covers for same. The apparatus was built in room A (figure 12), this room having been especially planned for it with respect to lighting as well as dimensions and approaches. It was unfortunately impossible to obtain photographs showing the whole of the apparatus, but it is hoped that the four partial views of plate IV may aid the reader who is unfamiliar with previously described similar devices to grasp readily the chief points of construction. In this plate, figure 13 shows the front of the complete apparatus, with the alleyway and door by way of which the experimenter could enter. The investigator's observation-bench and record-table also appear in this figure, together with weighted cords used to operate the various doors and the vertically placed levers by means of which each pair of doors could be locked. Figure 14 is the view presented to the observer as he stood on the bench or observation stand of figure 13 and looked over the entire apparatus. Three of the entrance doors are shown at the right of this figure as raised, whereas the remainder of the nine entrance doors of the apparatus are closed. Figure 15 is a view of the entrance doors from below the wire roof of the apparatus. Again, two of the doors are shown as raised, and three additional ones as closed. The rear of the apparatus appears in figure 16, in which some of the exit doors are closed and others open. In the latter case, the food receptacles appear, and on the lower part of the raised doors of the corresponding boxes may be seen metal covers for the food receptacles projecting at right angles to the doors, while on the lower edge of each door is an iron staple used to receive a sliding bar which could be operated from the observer's bench as a means of locking the doors after they had been closed. The space beyond the exit doors was used as an alleyway for the return of the animals to the starting point. It will be necessary at various points in later descriptions to refer to these several figures. But further description of them will be more readily appreciated after a careful examination of the ground plan of the apparatus presented as figure 17 In accordance with the labelling of this figure, the experimenter enters the apparatus room through doorway 16, passes thence through doorways 17 and 10 to the large cage Z, from which he has direct access to the animals and can bring them into the apparatus. The multiple-choice mechanism proper, consisting of nine similar boxes (nine were used instead of twelve as a matter of convenience of construction, not because this smaller number is otherwise preferable) is labelled F. These boxes are numbered 1 to 9, beginning at the left. This numbering was adhered to in the recording of results throughout the investigation. The other important portions of the apparatus are the runway D, from which the subject at the experimenter's pleasure could be admitted through doorway 12 to the large response-chamber E; the alleyways G, H, and I, by way of which return to the starting point was possible; the observation bench C, with its approach step 13; and the observer's writing table A. In the construction of this large apparatus, it was necessary to make provision for the extremely destructive tendencies of monkeys and anthropoid apes,--hence the apparent cumbersomeness of certain portions. It was equally necessary to provide for the protection of the observer and the prevention of escape of the subjects by completely covering the apparatus and alleyways with a heavy wire netting. Each of the eighteen doors of the multiple-choice boxes, and in addition doors 11, 12, and 15 of the runway D, were operated by the observer from his bench C by means of weighted window cords which were carried by pulleys appropriately placed above the apparatus. Each weight was so chosen as to be just sufficient to hold its door in position after the experimenter had raised it. For the convenience of the experimenter in the rapid operation of the twenty-one doors, the weights for the doors of runway D were painted gray, those for the entrance doors, white, and those for the exit doors, black. In each entrance door, as is shown in figure 15 of plate IV, a window was cut so that the experimenter might watch the animal after it had entered a given box, and especially note when it left the box after having received its reward. This window was covered with wire netting. No such windows were necessary in the exit doors, but to them were attached heavy galvanized iron flanges which served to cover the food receptacles. One of these flanges is labelled o in figure 17. The food receptacles were provided by boring holes in a 2 by 4 inch timber securely nailed to the floor immediately outside of the exit doors. Into these holes aluminum cups fitted snugly, and the iron flanges, when the doors were closed, fitted so closely over the cups that it was impossible for the animals to obtain food from them. [Illustration: FIGURE 17.--Ground plan of multiple-choice apparatus in experiment room A. Scale 1/60 A, record stand; C, bench for observer; B, step as approach to C; D, alleyway leading to E, response-compartment; F, one of the nine (1-9) similar multiple-choice boxes; G, H, alleyways leading from boxes to starting point at D; I, alleyway used by experimenter as approach to rear of apparatus; W, W, windows; P, alleyway; Z, large cage; 16, entrance to room A; 17, entrance to apparatus and thence via 10 to cages; 18, entrance to alleyway 1; 11, 15, entrances to D; 12, entrance to E; 13, entrance door of box 5; 14, exit door of box 5; o, cover for food receptacle.] As originally constructed, no provision was made in the apparatus for locking the entrance and exit doors of the several boxes when they were closed. But as two of the subjects after a time learned to open the doors from either outside or inside the boxes, it became necessary to introduce locking devices which could be operated by the experimenter from the observation bench. This was readily accomplished by cutting holes in the floor, which permitted an iron staple, screwed to the lower edge of each door, to project through the floor. Through these staples by means of a lever for each of the nine boxes, the observer was able to slide a wooden bar, placed beneath the floor of the room, thus locking or unlocking either the entrance door, the exit door, or both, in the case of any one of the nine boxes. Since figure 17 is drawn to scale, it will be needless to give more than a few of the dimensions of the apparatus. Each of the boxes was 42 inches long, 18 inches wide, and 72 inches deep, inside measurements. The alleys D, I, and H were 24 inches, and G 30 inches wide, by 6 feet deep. The doors of the several boxes were 18 inches wide, by 5 feet high, while those in the alleyways were 24 inches wide by 6 feet high. The response-compartment E of figure 17 was 14 feet 4 inches, by 8 feet, by 6 feet in depth. In order that the apparatus might be used with adult human subjects conveniently, if such use should prove desirable, the depth throughout was made 6 feet, and it was therefore possible for the experimenter to walk about erect in it. The experimental procedure was briefly as follows: A small quantity of food having been placed in each of the food cups and covered by the metal flanges on the exit doors, the experimenter raised door 11 of figure 17 and then opened door 10 and the door of the cage in which the desired subject was confined. After the latter, in search of food, had entered the runway D, the experimenter lowered door 11 to keep it in this runway, and immediately proceeded to set the reaction-mechanisms for an experiment (trial). Let us suppose that the first setting to be tried involved all of the nine boxes. Each of the entrance doors would therefore be raised. Let us further suppose that the right door is defined as the middle one of the group. With the apparatus properly set, the experimenter next raises door 12, thus admitting the animal to the response-compartment E. Any one of the nine boxes may now be entered by it. But if any except number 5, the middle member of the group, be entered, the entrance door is immediately lowered and both the exit and entrance doors locked in position so that the animal is forced to remain in the box for a stated period, say thirty seconds. At the expiration of this time the entrance door is raised and the animal allowed to retrace its steps and make another choice. When the middle box is chosen, the entrance door is lowered and the exit door immediately raised, thus uncovering the food, which the animal eats. As a rule, by my monkeys and ape the reward was eaten in the alleyway G instead of in the multiple-choice box. As soon as the food has been eaten, the exit door is lowered by the experimenter, and the animal returns by way of G and H to runway D, where it awaits its next trial. As rewards, bananas and peanuts were found very satisfactory, and although occasionally other foods were supplied in small quantities, they were on the whole less constantly desired than the former. Four problems which had previously been presented to other organisms were in precisely the same form presented to the three primates. These problems may be described, briefly, by definition of the right reaction mechanism, thus: problem 1, the first mechanism at the subject's left; problem 2, the second mechanism at the subject's right (that is, from the end of the series at the subject's right); problem 3, alternately, the first mechanism at the subject's left and the first at its right; problem 4, the middle mechanism of the group. It was my intention to present these four problems, in order, to each of the three animals, proceeding with them as rapidly as they were solved. But as it happened, only one of the three subjects got as far as the fourth problem. When observations had to be discontinued, Sobke was well along with the last, or fourth problem; Skirrl was at work at the third problem; and Julius had failed to solve the second problem. For each of the problems, a series of ten different settings of the doors was determined upon in advance. These settings differ from those employed in a similar investigation with the pig only in that the numbering of the doors is reversed. In the present apparatus, the boxes as viewed from the front (entrance) are numbered from the left to the right end, whereas those of the pig apparatus were numbered from the right end to the left end. Below are presented for each of the several problems (1) the numbers of the settings presented in series; (2) the numbers of the doors open; (3) the number of doors open in each setting and for the series of ten settings; and (4) the number of the right door. PROBLEM 1. First mechanism at left of group Doors No. of No. of Settings open doors open right door 1..................1.2.3......................3..................1 2..................8.9........................2..................8 3..................3.4.5.6.7..................5..................3 4..................7.8.9......................3..................7 5..................2.3.4.5.6..................5..................2 6..................6.7.8......................3..................6 7..................5.6.7......................3..................5 8..................4.5.6.7.8..................5..................4 9..................7.8.9......................3..................7 10..................1.2.3......................3..................1 -- Total 35 PROBLEM 2. Second mechanism from the right end of group Doors No. of No. of Settings open doors open right door 1..................7.8.9......................3..................8 2..................1.2.3.4....................4..................3 3..................2.3.4.5.6.7................6..................6 4..................1.2.3.4.5.6................6..................5 5..................4.5.6.7.8..................5..................7 6..................1.2.3......................3..................2 7..................2.3.4.5....................4..................4 8..................1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9..........9..................8 9..................1.2.3.4....................4..................3 10..................3.4.5.6.7.8................6..................7 -- Total 50 PROBLEM 3. Alternately the first mechanism at the left and the first at the right end of the group Doors No. of No. of Settings open doors open right door 1..................5.6.7......................3..................5 2..................5.6.7......................3..................7 3..................1.2.3.4.5.6................6..................1 4..................1.2.3.4.5.6................6..................6 5..................4.5.6.7.8..................5..................4 6..................4.5.6.7.8..................5..................8 7..................2.3.4.5....................4..................2 8..................2.3.4.5....................4..................5 9..................3.4.5.6.7.8.9..............7..................3 10..................3.4.5.6.7.8.9..............7..................9 -- Total 50 PROBLEM 4. Middle mechanism of the group Doors No. of No. of Settings open doors open right door 1..................2.3.4......................3..................3 2..................5.6.7.8.9..................5..................7 3..................1.2.3.4.5.6.7..............7..................4 4..................7.8.9......................3..................8 5..................4.5.6.7.8..................5..................6 6..................1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9..........9..................5 7..................1.2.3......................3..................2 8..................2.3.4.5.6..................5..................4 9..................3.4.5.6.7.8.9..............7..................6 10..................6.7.8......................3..................7 -- Total 50 It was found desirable after a problem had been solved to present a new and radically different series of settings in order to determine to what extent the subject had learned to choose the correct door by memorizing each particular setting. These supplementary observations may be known as control experiments, and the settings as supplementary settings. In case of these, as for the original settings, the essential facts are presented in tabular arrangement. Settings for Control Experiments PROBLEM 1. First at left end Doors No. of No. of Settings open doors open right door 1..................2.3.4......................3..................2 2..................6.7.8.9....................4..................6 3..................3.4.5......................3..................3 4..................4.5.6.7.8.9................6..................4 5..................6.7.8.9....................4..................6 6..................1.2.3.4.5..................5..................1 7..................2.3.4.5.6.7.8..............7..................2 8..................3.4.5.6.7.8................6..................3 9..................5.6.7......................3..................5 10..................1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9..........9..................1 PROBLEM 2. Second from right end Doors No. of No. of Settings open doors open right door 1..................5.6.7.8....................4..................7 2..................2.3.4.5.6..................5..................5 3..................1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9..........9..................8 4..................5.6.7......................3..................6 5..................1.2.3.4....................4..................3 6..................4.5.6......................3..................5 7..................2.3.4.5....................4..................4 8..................1.2.3......................3..................2 9..................1.2.3.4.5.6.7..............7..................6 10..................2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9............8..................8 PROBLEM 3. Alternate left and right ends Doors No. of No. of Settings open doors open right door 1..................5.6........................2..................5 2..................5.6........................2..................6 3..................4.5.6.7.8.9................6..................4 4..................4.5.6.7.8.9................6..................9 5..................1.2.3.4.5..................5..................1 6..................1.2.3.4.5..................5..................5 7..................2.3.4.5.6.7................6..................2 8..................2.3.4.5.6.7................6..................7 9..................3.4.5.6.7.8................6..................3 10..................3.4.5.6.7.8................6..................8 PROBLEM 4. Middle Doors No. of No. of Settings open doors open right door 1..................4.5.6.7.8..................5..................6 2..................1.2.3......................3..................2 3..................1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9..........9..................5 4..................2.3.4.5.6..................5..................4 5..................6.7.8......................3..................7 6..................3.4.5.6.7.8.9..............7..................6 7..................7.8.9......................3..................8 8..................1.2.3.4.5.6.7..............7..................4 9..................2.3.4......................3..................3 10..................3.4.5.6.7..................5..................5 It was my aim so far as possible to present to a given subject each day the ten settings under a given problem in order, without interruption. If for any reason the series of observations had to be interrupted, it was resumed at the same point subsequently. Occasionally it was found desirable or necessary to present only five of the series of ten settings in succession and then to interrupt observations for an interval of a few minutes or even several hours. But as a rule it was possible to present the series of ten settings. All things being considered, it proved more satisfactory to give only ten trials a day to each subject. Frequently twenty and rarely thirty trials were given on the same day. In such cases the series of settings was simply repeated. The only pause between trials was that necessary for resetting the entrance doors and replenishing the food which served as a reward for success. III RESULTS OF MULTIPLE-CHOICE EXPERIMENTS 1. Skirrl, _Pithecus irus_ _Problem 1. First at the Left End_ Systematic work with the multiple-choice apparatus and method described in the previous section was undertaken early in April with Skirrl, Sobke, and Julius. The results for each of them are now to be presented with such measure of detail as their importance seems to justify. Skirrl had previously been used by Doctor Hamilton in an experimental study of reactive tendencies. He proved so remarkably inefficient in the work that Doctor Hamilton was led to characterize him as feeble-minded, and to recommend him to me for further study because of his mental peculiarities. With me he was from the first frank, aggressive, and inclined to be savage. It was soon possible for me to go into the large cage, Z, with him and allow him to take food from my hand. He was without fear of the experimental apparatus and it proved relatively easy to accustom him to the routine of the experiment. Throughout the work he was rather slow, inattentive, and erratic. Beginning on April 7, I sought to acquaint him with the multiple-choice apparatus by allowing him to make trips through the several boxes, with the reward of food each time. Thus, for example, with the entrance and exit doors of box 7 raised, the monkey was allowed to pass into the reaction-compartment E and thence through box 7 to the food cup. As soon as he had finished eating, he was called back to D by the experimenter and, after a few seconds, allowed, similarly, to make a trip by way of one of the other boxes. By reason of this preliminary training he soon came to seek eagerly for the reward of food. On April 10 the apparatus was painted white in order to increase the lightness and thus render it easier for the experimenter to observe the animal's movements, and when on April 12 Skirrl was again introduced to it for further preliminary training, he utterly refused to enter the boxes, giving every indication of extreme fear of the white floors and even of the sides of the boxes. Finally, the attempts to induce him to enter the boxes had to be given up, and he was returned to his cage unfed. The following day I was equally unsuccessful in either driving or tempting him with food into the apparatus. But on April 14 he was so hungry that he was finally lured in by the use of food. He cautiously approached the boxes and attempted to climb through on the sides instead of walking on the floor. It was perfectly evident that he had an instinctive or an acquired fear of the white surfaces. As the matter was of prime importance for the success of my work, I inquired of Doctor Hamilton, and of the men in charge of the cages, for any incident which might account for this peculiar behavior, and I learned that some three months earlier, while the animal cages were being whitewashed, Skirrl had jumped at one of the laborers who was applying a brush to the framework of one of the cages and had shaken some lime into his eyes. He was greatly frightened and enraged. Evidently he experienced extreme discomfort, if not acute pain, and there resulted an association with whiteness which was quite sufficient to cause him to avoid the freshly painted apparatus. Having obtained an adequate explanation of this monkey's peculiar behavior, I proceeded with my efforts to induce him to work smoothly and rapidly, and on April 15, by covering the floor with sawdust, I so diminished the influence of the whiteness as to render the preliminary training fairly satisfactory. At the end of two more days everything was going so well that it seemed desirable to begin the regular experiment. On the morning of April 19, Skirrl was introduced to the apparatus and given his first series of ten trials on problem 1. This problem demanded the selection of the first door at the left in any group of open doors. The procedure was as previously described in that the experimenter raised the entrance doors of a certain group of boxes, admitted the animal to the reaction-chamber, punished incorrect choices by confining the animal for thirty seconds, and rewarded correct choices by raising the exit door and thus permitting escape and the obtaining of food. The trials were given in rapid succession, and the total time required for this first series of ten trials was thirty-five minutes. Skirrl worked faithfully throughout this interval and exhibited no marked discouragement. When confined in a box he showed uneasiness and dissatisfaction by moving about constantly, shaking the doors, and trying to raise them in order to escape. For the series of settings used in connection with problem 1, the reader is referred to page 18. In the first setting, the doors numbered 1, 2, and 3, were opened. As it happened, the animal when admitted to the reaction-chamber immediately chose box l. Having received the reward of food, he was called back to D, and doors 8 and 9 having been raised in preparation for the next trial, he was again admitted to the reaction-chamber. This time he quickly chose box 9 and was confined therein for thirty seconds. On being released, he chose after an interval of four minutes, box 8, thus completing the trial. As it is highly important, not only in connection with the present description of behavior, but also for subsequent comparison of the reactions of different types of organism in this experiment, to present the detailed records for each trial, tables have been constructed which offer in brief space the essential data for every trial in connection with a given problem. Table 1 contains the results for Skirrl in problem 1. It is constructed as follows: the date of a series of trials appears in the first vertical column; the numbers (and number) of the trials for the series or date appear in column 2; the following ten columns present respectively the results of the trials for each of the ten settings. Each number, in these results, designates a box entered. At the extreme right of the table are three columns which indicate, first, the number of trials in which the right box was chosen first, column headed R; and second, the number of trials in which at least one incorrect choice occurred, column headed W. In the last column, the daily ratio of these first choices appears. Taking the first line of table 1 below the explanatory headings, we note on April 19 ten trials, numbered 1 to 10, were given to Skirrl. In trial 1, with setting 1, he chose correctly the first time, and the record is therefore simply 1. In trial 2, setting 2, he incorrectly chose box 9, the first time. At his next opportunity, he chose box 8, which was the right one. The record therefore reads 9.8. In trial 3, setting 3, he chose incorrectly twice before finally selecting the right box. The record reads 6.7.3, and so on throughout the ten trials which constitute a series. The summary for this series indicates three right and seven wrong first choices, that is, three cases in which the right box was entered first. The ratio of right to wrong first choices is therefore 1 to 2.33. Since the total number of doors open in the ten settings is thirty-five, and since in each of the ten settings one door is describable as the right door, the probable ratio, apart from the effects of training, of right to wrong first choices is 1 to 2.50. It is evident, therefore, that Skirrl in his first series of trials closely approximated expectation in the number of mistakes. TABLE 1 Results for Skirrl, _P. irus_, in Problem 1 ========+==========+=========+=========+===========+=============+===========+===========+===========+=============+===========+===========+===+===+======== | No. | S.1 | S.2 | S.3 | S.4 | S.5 | S.6 | S.7 | S.8 | S.9 | S.10 | | | Ratio Date | of | | | | | | | | | | | R | W | of | trials | 1.2.3 | 8.9 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 7.8.9 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 6.7.8 | 5.6.7 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 7.8.9 | 1.2.3 | | | R to W --------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-------------+-----------+-----------+---+---+-------- April | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 19 | 1- 10 | 1 | 9.8 | 6.7.3 | 9.7 | 6.2 | 7.8.6 | {6.7.7.7 | 4 | 7 | 2.3.3.1 | 3 | 7 | 1:2.33 | | | | | | | | {6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 20 | 11- 20 | 3.2.1 | 9.8 | 5.3 | 7 | 4.2 | 8.8.6 | 5 | 8.4 | 7 | 3.1 | 3 | 7 | 1:2.33 21 | 21- 30 | 3.1 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 6.2 | 6 | 5 | 6.4 | 9.7 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 1:1.00 22 | 31- 40 | 1 | 9.8 | 3 | 7 | 6.2 | 6 | 6.7.5 | 5.8.4 | 9.8.9.8.7 | 2.1 | 4 | 6 | 1:1.50 23 | 41- 50 | 2.3.1 | 8 | 5.7.3 | 7 | 4.2 | 6 | 5 | 7.8.4 | 7 | 3.1 | 5 | 5 | 1:1.00 24 | 51- 60 | 1 | 8 | 4.5.7.3 | 9.7 | 5.6.2 | 6 | 6.7.5 | 6.4 | 8.9.7 | 1 | 4 | 6 | 1:1.50 26 | 61- 70 | 1 | 8 | 6.7.4.7.3 | 7 | 4.5.6.2 | 6 | 5 | 8.4 | 7 | 3.2.3.1 | 6 | 4 | 1: .67 27 | 71- 80 | 3.1 | 8 | 3 | 9.7 | 4.6.2 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 5.8.4 | 7 | 1 | 4 | 6 | 1:1.50 28 | 81- 90 | 2.3.1 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 4.5.6.2 | 6 | 5 | 5.8.4 | 7 | 1 | 7 | 3 | 1: .43 29 | 91- 100 | 1 | 8 | 3 | 9.7 | 6.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 1 | 8 | 2 | 1: .25 30 | 101- 110 | 1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 5.6.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 2.3.1 | 7 | 3 | 1: .43 May | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | 111- 120 | 2.3.2.1 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 1: .11 3 | 121- 130 | 1 | 8 | 5.6.3 | 7 | 4.5.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 1 | 8 | 2 | 1: .25 4 and 5 | 131- 140 | 3.2.1 | 8[1] | 3 | 7 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 1: .11 5 | 141- 150 | 1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 1: .11 --------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-------------+-----------+-----------+---+---+-------- | | | | | | | | 2.3.4.5 | | | 1.2.3.4.5 | | | | | 2.3.4 | 6.7.8.9 | 3.4.5 | 4.5.6.7.8.9 | 6.7.8.9 | 1.2.3.4.5 | 6.7.8 | 3.4.5.6.7.8 | 5.6.7 | 6.7.8.9 | | | | +---------+---------+-----------+-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-------------+-----------+-----------+---+---+-------- 6 | 1- 10 | 2 | 6 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 3.2.1 | 6.2 | 5.6.7.8.3 | 5 | 6.1 | 6 | 4 | 1: .67 ========+==========+=========+=========+===========+=============+===========+===========+===========+=============+===========+===========+===+===+======== [Footnote 1: End of series on May 4.] By reading downward in any particular column of results, one obtains a description of the changes in the animal's reaction to a particular setting of the doors. Thus, for instance, in the case of setting 1, which was presented to the animal in trials numbered 1, 11, 21, and so on to 141, it is clear from the records that no definite improvement occurred. But oddly enough, in the case of setting 10, which presented the same group of open doors, almost all of the reactions are right in the lower half of the column. For setting 2, it is evident that mistakes soon disappeared. Comparison of the data of table 1 indicates that the number of correct first choices is inversely proportional to the number of doors in use, while the number of choices made in a given trial is directly proportional to the number of doors in use. During the first week of work on this problem, Skirrl improved markedly. His performance was somewhat irregular and unpredictable, but on the whole the experiment seemed fairly satisfactory. Cold, cloudy, or rainy days tended to diminish steadiness and to increase the number of mistakes. Similarly, absence of hunger was unfavorable to continuous effort to find the right box. The period of confinement, as punishment for wrong choices, was increased from thirty seconds to sixty seconds on April 26. But there is no satisfactory evidence that this favored the solution of the problem. Work on May 4 was interrupted by a severe storm, the noise of which so distracted the monkey that he ceased to work. Consequently, observations were interrupted on the completion of trial 132, and on May 5, the series was begun with setting 3. On this date, eighteen trials were given in succession, and in only one of them did a mistake occur. Since the ten trials numbered 133 to 142 were correct, Skirrl was considered to have solved problem 1, and systematic training was discontinued. On the following day, as a measure of the extent to which the animal had learned to select the first door at the left no matter what its position or the number of doors in the group presented, a control series was given in which the settings differed from the regular series of settings. These supplementary settings are presented at the bottom of table 1 together with the records of reaction in ten trials. Since in only six of these ten control settings was the first choice correct, it is scarcely fair to insist that the animal was reacting on the basis of an ideational solution of the problem. Rather, it would seem that he had learned to react to particular settings. A careful study of all of the data of response, together with notes on the varied behavior of the animal during the experiments, justifies the statement that Skirrl's solution of problem 1 was incomplete and unreliable. It was highly dependent upon the particular situation, or even the particular door at the left end of the group, and slightly if at all dependent upon anything comparable to the human idea of first at the left of the group. This particular series of observations has been described and discussed in some detail in order to make the chief points of method clear. It will be needless, hereafter, to refer explicitly to many of the characteristics of reaction or to the important points in the construction of tables which have been mentioned. A graphic representation of Skirrl's learning process in problem 1 is presented in figure 18. The irregularities are most striking, and fairly indicate the erraticness of the animal. The curve is based upon the data in next to the last column of table 1, that is, the column presenting the errors or wrong first choices in each series of trials. Unquestionably, the form of such a curve of learning should be considered in connection with the method or methods of selecting the right box employed by the animal during the course of experimentation. It appears from an analysis of the behavior of Skirrl in problem 1 that there developed a single definite and persistent method, namely, that of going to one box in the group, and in case it happened to be a wrong one, of choosing, on emergence from it, the next toward the right end of the group, and so on down the line. Having reached the extreme right end, the tendency was to follow the side of the reaction-chamber around to the opposite end and to enter the first box at the left end of the group, which was, of course, the right one. This method appears, with certain slight variations, in approximately ninety per cent of the trials which involved incorrect choices. Thus, in the case of trials 121 to 130, of which eight exhibit right first choices, the remaining two exhibit the method described above except that the final member at the right end of the group was in each case omitted. [Illustration: FIGURE 18.--Error curves of learning for the solution of problem 1 (first box at left end).] On the whole, Skirrl's behavior in connection with this problem appears to indicate a low order of intelligence. He persisted in such stupid acts as that of turning, after emergence from the right box, toward the right and passing into the blind alley I, instead of toward the left, through G and H, to D. In contrast with the other animals, he spent much time before the closed doors of the boxes, instead of going directly to the open doors, some one of which marked the box in which the reward of food could be obtained. It is, moreover, obvious that his responses, as they appear in table 1, are extremely different from those of a human being who is capable of bringing the idea of first at the left end to bear upon the problem in question. _Problem 2. Second from the Right End_ Following the series of control trials of problem 1 given to Skirrl on May 6, a period of four days was allowed during which the animal was merely fed in the boxes each day. This was done in order that he should partially lose the effects of his previous training to choose the first box at the left before being presented with the second problem, the second box from the right. On May 11 regular experimentation was begun with problem 2. Naturally the situation presented unusual difficulties to the monkey because of his previously acquired habit, and on the first day it was possible to give only five trials, in all except the first of which Skirrl had to be aided by the experimenter to find the right box. He persistently, as appears in the first line of records of table 2, entered the first box at the left. The series was continued on May 13, but with very unsatisfactory results, since he apparently had been greatly discouraged by the unusual difficulties previously met. Only four trials could be given, and in these the showing made was very poor. It is noteworthy, however, that in trials 6, 7, and 8, May 13, there was no marked tendency to choose the first box at the left. Thus quickly had the force of the previous habit been broken. For problem 2, the total number of open doors in the ten settings is fifty, as appears from the data on page 18, and as ten of these fifty open doors may be defined as right ones, the expected ratio of right to wrong first choices in the absence of previous training is 1 to 4. The actual ratio for the first series given in problem 2 is 1 to 8, while in the second series it is 0 to 10. On the morning of May 13, work was interrupted in the ninth trial by what seemed at the moment a peculiarly unfortunate accident, but in the light of later developments, an incident most fruitful of valuable results. Skirrl, in trial 9, directly entered box 1. Since this was not the right box, he was punished by being confined in it for ten seconds. While in the box he howled and when the entrance door was raised for him to retrace his steps, he came out with a rush, showing extreme excitement and either rage or fear, I could not be sure which. At intervals he uttered loud cries, which I am now able to identify as cries of alarm. Repeatedly he went to the open door of box 1 and peered in, or peered down through the hole in the floor which received the staple on the door. He refused to enter any one of the open boxes and continued, at intervals of every half minute or so, his cries. For thirty minutes I waited, hoping to be able to induce him to complete the series of trials, but in vain. Although it was obvious that he was eager to escape from the apparatus, he would not enter any of the boxes even when the exit doors were raised. Instead, he gnawed at the door (12 in fig. 17) to the alleyway D and attempted to force his way through, instead of taking the easy and clear route to the alleys, through one of the boxes. His behavior was most surprising and puzzling. Finally, I gave up the attempt to complete the series and returned him to his cage by way of the entrance door to the response-compartment E. I then entered the apparatus to seek some explanation of the animal's behavior, and my search was rewarded by the finding of two sharp pointed nails which protruded for an inch or more in the middle of the floor of box 1. My assistant, who had been charged with the task of installing the locks for the several doors, had used nails instead of screws for attaching staples underneath the floor and had neglected to clinch the nails. Skirrl, in the dim light of the box, doubtless stepped upon one of the nails and inflicted a painful, although not serious, injury upon himself. It was impossible for him to see clearly the source of his injury. He was greatly frightened and expressed the emotion most vigorously. His behavior strongly suggested a superstitious dread of some unseen danger. It may be that the instinctive fear of snakes, so strong in monkeys, was partly responsible for his response. The first result of this accident was that more than two weeks were lost, for it was impossible, during the next few days, to induce the animal to enter any of the multiple-choice boxes voluntarily. From May 14 to May 24, I labored daily to overcome his newly acquired fear. The usual procedure was to coax him through one box after another by standing at the exit door with some tempting morsel of food. After several days of this treatment, he again trusted himself to the boxes, although very circumspectly and only when both entrance and exit doors were raised. Not until May 24 was it possible to resume regular experimentation, and on that day it was found necessary to indicate the right box by raising the exit door slightly and then immediately lowering it. Trials in which this form of aid was given are indicated in table 2 by a star following the last choice. Gradually, Skirrl regained his confidence in the apparatus and began to work more naturally. For a long time he would not stand punishment, and it was necessary for the experimenter to be very careful in locking the doors, since the sound of the bar sliding beneath the floor often frightened and caused him to quit work. Day after day the tendency to peer through the holes in the floor at the entrance to the boxes rendered it clear that the animal feared some danger from beneath the floor. This behavior was so persistent that much time was wasted in the experiments. On the last day of May, punishment by confinement for ten seconds in wrong boxes was introduced, but since this tended to discourage the monkey, there was substituted for it on June 1 the punishment of forcing him to work his way out of each wrong box by raising the entrance door which had been closed behind him. This he could fairly readily do, and his stay in a box rarely measured more than ten seconds. As a variation in the mode of procedure, confinement for thirty seconds was tried on June 5, but it worked unsatisfactorily and had to be abandoned. During this series, the animal was startled by the sound from one of the sliding bars under the floor, and in the sixth trial he refused to work. As improvement was very slow, varied modes of rewarding and punishing the animal were tried in the hope of discovering a means of facilitating the work. Among the former are the use of banana, grapes, peanuts, and other eagerly sought foods in varying quantities, and in the latter are included periods of confinement ranging from ten seconds to sixty seconds. In the end, confinement of about thirty seconds, combined with a small quantity of food which was much to the monkey's taste, gave most favorable results. All this time Skirrl's attention to the task in hand was seldom good. He was easily diverted and even when extremely hungry, often stopped work in the middle of an early trial, yawned repeatedly and finally sat down to wait for release from the apparatus. The results obtained during the long continued trials with this animal in problem 2 are presented in table 2, which differs from the previously described table, first, in that several of the trials are followed by an asterisk to indicate that aid was given by the experimenter, and second, in that two additional columns, headed, respectively, R and W, are presented. These give the right and wrong first choices for each day, whereas the two columns preceding them give the same data for each series of ten trials. Similarly, the ratio of right to wrong choices is presented for each day in table 2, instead of for each series of ten trials as in table 1. From the results of table 2, several peculiarly interesting facts appear. In the first place the influence of the habit of choosing the first box at the left disappears with surprising suddenness, and in the second place, there are remarkable contrasts in the results for different settings as they appear in their respective vertical columns. Thus, in the case of setting 1, after the first trial mistakes became relatively infrequent, whereas in setting 6, which involved the same number of doors, mistakes continued to be the rule until nearly a thousand trials had been given. The most likely explanation of this difference is that for some reason the animal avoided box 9. The _reactive tendencies_, or better, the _methods of reaction_ which manifested themselves during this long series of observations may be described as follows: (a) choice of the first box at the left; (b) random choice with tendency to choose first, a box near the middle of the group; (c) choice of first box at the right followed by the one next to it on the left; (d) direct choice of the right box. TABLE 2 Results for Skirrl, _P. irus_, in Problem 2 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== | No. | S.1 | S.2 | S.3 | S.4 | S.5 | S.6 | S.7 | S.8 | S.9 | S.10 | | | | | Ratio Date | of | | | | | | | | 1.2.3.4.5 | | | R | W | R | W | of | trials | 7.8.9 | 1.2.3.4 | 2.3.4.5.6.7 | 1.2.3.4.5.6 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 1.2.3 | 2.3.4.5 | 6.7.8.9 | 1.2.3.4 | 3.4.5.6.7.8 | | | | | R to W --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- May | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 11&13 | 1- 9 | 7.7.9.7.8 | {1.2.2.1.4.1 | {2.3.2.3.2.5 | {4.6.1.4.1.1 | 4.4.7 | 3.1.2 | 4 | 4.1.8 | 1 | | 1 | 8 | 1 | 8 | 1: 8.00 | | | {2.1.2.1.3 | {2.3.2.5.6 | {2.6.1.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 24 | 11- 20 | 8*[1] | 2.4.3* | 4.5.6* | 2.2.5* | 5.6.6.7* | 3.1.2 | {5.2.3.5.3.2 | 4.6.8* | 4.4.3* | 5.5.6.7* | 0 |10 | 0 |10 | 0:10.00 | | | | | | | | {3.5.2.4* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 25 | 21- 30 | 8* | 4.4.3* | 5.6 | {6.6.2.3.4 | 6.7 | 2 | 4 | 5.6.3.8 | 4.4.3 | 6.4.6.8.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | {6.6.5* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 26 | 31- 40 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 4.5 | 6.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 5.8 | 4.3 | 5.3.8.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 27 | 41- 50 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 6 | 5 | 6.8.6.8.7 | 3.3.3.2 | 5.4 | {6.5.4.3 | 4.3 | 5.4.8.7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | | | | | {2.1.5.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 28 | 51- 60 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 7.6 | 5 | 5.6.7 | 3.3.3.2 | 4 | {5.4.3 | 4.3 | {5.4.3.3.4.5 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | | | | | {3.6.8 | | {6.4.3.5.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 29 | 61- 70 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.6.5 | 7 | 3.3.3.2 | 5.4 | 7.6.4.7.6.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 31 | 71- 80 | 8 | 4.4.4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 6.8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | {6.7.6.4.3 | 4.3 | 6.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 June | | | | | | | | | {2.6.3.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.8.6.5.4 | | | | | | | | | | 1 | 81- 90 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 5 | {6.5.6.5.8 | 3.1.3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | | | | | | | | | {5.4.6.4.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 91- 100 | 9.7.8 | 4.2.4.3 | 7.5.6 | 5 | 6.8.7 | 3.3.1.2 | 5.3.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 6.8.7 | 2 | 8 | 7 |13 | 1: 1.86 2 | 101- 110 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 6.8.6.5.7 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 111- 120 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.3.5.7.6 | {6.2.3.6.4 | 7 | 3.2 | {5.2.3.5.3.2 | 9.6.4.7.8 | {4.1.2 | 6.8.7 | 2 | 8 | 6 |14 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | {3.6.2.5 | | | {3.5.2.3.4 | | {4.2.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.8.6.3 | | | | | 3 | 121- 130 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 6 | 5 | 6.7 | 3.2 | {5.3.2.3 | 8 | 4.2.3 | {5.4.5.8.8 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | | | | {5.2.5.4 | | | {6.3.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 131- 140 | 8 | 4.3 | 5.7.3.2.6 | 4.5 | 5.7 | 1.3.2 | 5.3.4 | 6.7.8 | 4.2.1.3 | 7 | 2 | 8 | 6 |14 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 4 | 141- 150 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 2 | {5.3.2.3 | 6.8 | 4.1.3 | 5.6.7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | | | | | | | {5.5.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 151- 160 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 5 | 6.7 | 2 | 4 | 5.6.7.8 | 4.3 | 5.6.8.7 | 5 | 5 | 8 |12 | 1: 1.50 5 | 161- 170 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 6.8.7 | 3.2 | 5.3.2.3.5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 6.7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 171- 176 | 8 | 2.4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5* | 8.7 | 3.2* | | | | | 1 | 5 | 3 |13 | 1: 4.33 7 | 177- 180 | | | | | | | 5.4 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 8.7 | 1 | 3 | | | " | 181- 190 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.3.2.5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 5 | 9 | 1: 1.80 8 | 191- 200 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 201- 210 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.4.6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 6 |14 | 1: 2.33 9 | 211- 220 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.6.7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 221- 230 | 9.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 6.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.6.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 1 | 9 | 3 |17 | 1: 5.67 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 | 231- 240 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 6.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | {3.2.3.2.4.3 | 4.3 | 7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | | | | | {2.5.4.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 11 | 241- 250 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 12 | 251- 260 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 6.7 | 3.3.2 | 5.4 | {7.6.7.7 | 3 | 3.7* | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | | | | | {6.9.8* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 14 | 261- 270 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | {5.3.4.3 | 3 | {3.3.3.3.4 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1: 1.00 | | | | | | | | | {9.8* | | {4.6.4.7* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 15 | 271- 280 | 7.9.8 | 4.2.3 | 3.4.3.7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 1 | 9 | | | " | 281- 290 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 4 |16 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {4.3.2.3 | | | | | | | 16 | 291- 300 | 7.8 | {4.4.4 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.3.2 | 5.4 | {6.5.4.3 | 4.3 | 6.7 | 2 | 8 | | | | | | {4.4.3 | | | | | | {5.6.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 301- 310 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.3.2 | 5.5.4 | {7.6.5.4.6 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 5 |15 | 1: 3.00 | | | | | | | | | {5.7.9.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 17 | 311- 320 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.6.7.6.7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 321- 330 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 6.7 | 2 | 8 | 4 |16 | 1: 4.00 18 | 331- 340 | 7.7.8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | | | " | 341- 350 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 7 |13 | 1: 1.86 19 | 351- 360 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 6.5.6.5.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 361- 370 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.4.3.6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 9.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 6 |14 | 1: 2.33 21 | 371- 380 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 381- 390 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 6 |14 | 1: 2.33 22 | 391- 400 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 6.5.4.6.7 | 3.3.3.2 | 5.4 | 6.7.8 | 4.4.3 | 7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 401- 410 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 2 | 5.4 | 6.7.7.8 | 3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 7 |13 | 1: 1.86 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 23 | 411- 420 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | {7.6.7.6 | 4.3 | 7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | | | | | {6.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 24 | 421- 430 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 | | | " | 431- 440 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 5 | 5 |11 | 9 | 1: 0.82 25 | 441- 450 | 7.8 | 4.4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 6.5.7 | 3.3.2 | 5.5.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 26 | 451- 460 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 461- 470 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | 6 |14 | 1: 2.33 28 | 471- 480 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 9.8 | 3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 29 | 481- 490 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 30 | 491- 500 | 7.9.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 501- 510 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 8.7 | 2 | 8 | 5 |15 | 1: 3.00 July | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | 511- 520 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | 521- 530 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | {7.6.5.6.5 | 4.4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.5.6.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 531- 540 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 7 |13 | 1: 1.86 3 | 541- 550 | 7.8 | 4.4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 5.5.7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 551- 560 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 8 |12 | 1: 1.50 5 | 561- 570 | 7.7.8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 6.7 | 3.3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 571- 580 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 7 |13 | 1: 1.86 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.5.4.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | 6 | 581- 590 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.6.5 | {5.4.5.4.4 | 2 | 3.4 | 6.5.4.3.7.8 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | | {6.5.6.5.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 7 | 591- 600 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 601- 610 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 1 | 9 | 4 |16 | 1: 4.00 8 | 611- 620 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 621- 630 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 9.8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 1 | 9 | | | " | 631- 640 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 7.7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | 6 |24 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 9 | 641- 650 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 6.7 | 3.2 | {3.2.5.3 | 7.6.5.4.8 | 3 | 8.7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 | | | | | | | | {2.5.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.5.4.3.7 | | | | | | | 10 | 651- 660 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | {6.5.4.7.6 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | | | | | | | | {5.4.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 | 661- 670 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 6 | 4 | 9 |11 | 1: 1.22 12 | 671- 680 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 6.5.4.7.8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 13 | 681- 690 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | {6.5.4 | 3.2 | 4 | 6.7.8 | 3 | {6.5.4.5 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | | {6.5.7 | | | | | {6.5.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 691- 700 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 8 | 2 |12 | 8 | 1: 0.67 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 14 | 701- 710 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | {6.5.4.5 | 2 | 3.5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 | | | | | | | | | {4.6.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | " | 711- 720 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 5.4 | 6.5.4.8 | 3 | 6.5.7 | 7 | 3 |13 | 7 | 1: 0.54 15 | 721- 730 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | | | " | 731- 740 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 |11 | 9 | 1: 0.82 16 | 741- 750 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 751- 760 | 7.8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 5 | 5 |12 | 8 | 1: 0.67 17 | 761- 770 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4 | 7 | 6 | 4 | | | " | 771- 780 | 8 | 2.2.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 9 |11 | 1: 1.22 19 | 781- 790 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 7.6.5.8 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 | | | " | 791- 800 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 6.5.6.7 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 801- 810 | 8 | 2.3 | 6 | 5 | 6.5.7 | 2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 |20 |10 | 1: 0.50 20 | 811- 820 | 7.8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 7 | 3.3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 2.2.3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | | | " | 821- 830 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 4 | 8 | 2.3 | 8.7 | 6 | 4 |11 | 9 | 1: 0.82 21 | 831- 840 | 8 | 3 | 5.4.5.6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 6.7.8 | 3 | 8.7 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 841- 850 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 3.2.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 |14 | 6 | 1: 0.43 22 | 851- 860 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 3.5.4 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 6 | 4 | | | " | 861- 870 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 871- 880 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 2 | 8 |11 |19 | 1: 1.73 23 | 881- 890 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 4 | 6 | | | " | 891- 900 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 9 |11 | 1: 1.22 24 | 901- 910 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 4 | 6 | | | " | 911- 920 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 |11 | 9 | 1: 0.82 26 | 921- 930 | 7.8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 2.2.3 | 8.7 | 4 | 6 | | | " | 931- 940 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | 7 |13 | 1: 1.86 27 | 941- 950 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 1: 0.43 28 | 951- 960 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 5.4.7 | 2 | 5.5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1: 0.67 29 | 961- 970 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 8.7 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 1: 0.25 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 30 | 971- 980 | 8 | 3 | 4.3.2.6 | 5 | {6.5.4.6 | 2 | 5.5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 1: 0.43 | | | | | | {6.5.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 31 | 981- 990 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 1: 0.25 August | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | 991-1000 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | {2.3.5.3 | 7.6.8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 1: 0.43 | | | | | | | | {2.3.3.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 3 | 1001-1010 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 7.6.5.6.7.8 | 3 | 5.4.3.4.3.7 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 1011-1020 | 8 | 2.3 | 5.6 | 3.2.3.6.5 | 7 | 2 | 5.4 | 9.8 | 2.1.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 |11 | 9 | 1: 0.82 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 4 | 1021-1030 | 7.8 | 3 | 5.4.3.7.6 | 6.5 | {6.5.6 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | {2.2.4.2 | 8.7 | 2 | 8 | | | | | | | | | {5.6.7 | | | | {4.2.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 1031-1040 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 6.4.3.6.5 | 7 | 2 | 3.5.4 | 8 | 2.3 | 8.7 | 5 | 5 | 7 |13 | 1: 1.86 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | 1041-1050 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 2.3.2.6.5 | 8.7 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 2.2.4.3 | {8.8.6.8.4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1: 0.67 | | | | | | | | | | | {6.5.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 6 | 1051-1060 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 4.2.6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1: 0.67 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 7 | 1061-1070 | 8 | 3 | 5.4.3.6 | 4.5 | {6.5.6.5 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 1: 0.43 | | | | | | {4.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 9 | 1071-1080 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 7 |10 | 0 |10 | 0 | 1: 0.00 --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | 1.2.3.4.5 | | | | | | 1.2.3.4 | 2.3.4.5 | | | | | | | 5.6.7.8 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 6.7.8.9 | 5.6.7 | 1.2.3.4 | 4.5.6 | 2.3.4.5 | 1.2.3 | 5.6.7 | 6.7.8.9 | | | | | --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- 10 | 1- 10 | 6.5.7 | 3.2.6.5 | 8 | 6 | 2.4.3 | 5 | 5.4 | 2 | 7.5.2.7.6 | 8 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1: 1.00 11 | 11- 20 | 7 | 3.6.5 | 8 | 6 | 3 | 6.5 | 4 | 3.2 | 7.6 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1: 0.67 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {3.2.3.5.3 | | | | | | | | 12 | 21- 30 | 7 | 2.2.6.5 | 7.8 | 6 | 3 | 5 | {2.5.3.2 | 2 | 6 | 8 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 1: 0.43 | | | | | | | | {5.3.2.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {2.5.5.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== [Footnote 1: First choices correct by reason of aid from the experimenter are not counted as correct (R) in the summary.] [Footnote *: Aided by experimenter.] The method of choosing the first box at the right end and then the one next to it developed in the case of all except two of the ten settings. The time of appearance is worth noting. In setting 1, it failed to appear; in setting 2, it developed early,--after about one hundred trials; in setting 3, after about one hundred and fifty trials; in setting 4, after about one hundred and fifty trials; in setting 5, after about one hundred and seventy trials; in setting 6, after about one hundred trials; in setting 7, after about fifty trials; in setting 8, it never developed; in setting 9, after about fifty trials; and in setting 10, it developed very late,--after about four hundred and seventy trials. This method of reaction, although inadequate, proved remarkably persistent, and it is doubtful whether it had been wholly overcome at the conclusion of the experiment. In the case of the series of trials given on June 8, numbered 191 to 200, the method used was either that of the first at the right and then the next, or direct choice of the right box. Throughout the trials with this problem, the end boxes, numbers 1 and 9, were avoided. This is at least partially explained by the fact that they never existed, and obviously never could appear, in problem 2, as right boxes. In trials 601 to 610, given on July 7, there occurred partial return to the formerly established method of choosing the first door at the right. This relapse was characteristic of what happened during the many days which intervened between the definite appearance of this habit and the final solution of the problem. Especially in connection with such relapses, Skirrl showed extreme fatigue or ennui and often would refuse to work and simply sit before the open doors yawning. This happened even when he was extremely hungry and evidently eager enough for food. From July 12 on the hunger motive was increased by feeding the monkey only in the apparatus and by so regulating the amount of food given in each trial that he should obtain barely enough to keep him in good physical condition. An increase in the number of correct choices promptly resulted, and continued until on July 14 the ratio of choices was 1 to .54. It appeared from these data that a relatively small number of choices, say not more than ten a day, the rewards in connection with which supplied the only food received by the animal, yielded most favorable results. On July 16, the period of confinement in wrong boxes was increased to sixty seconds, and it was so continued for a number of days. But in the end, it became clear that the period of thirty seconds, combined with a liberal reward in the shape of desired food and a single series of ten trials per day, was most satisfactory. The detailed data of table 2 indicate that at this time Skirrl was making his choices by memory of the particular setting. Skirrl, on July 17 was evidently hungry and eager to locate food, but seemingly unable to select the right box. In trial 5 (765th) of the series, he was punished by confinement in box 8. When the doors were unlocked in order that the entrance door might be raised to release him, the lock-bar, sliding under the floor, made a slight grating noise, and the instant the entrance door was opened, he jumped out excitedly. _He made no outcry, but as soon as he was out of the box, sat down, and taking up his right hind foot, examined it for a few seconds._ Having apparently assured himself that nothing serious had happened, he went on unconcernedly about his task. The presumption is that the sound of the lock-bar, associated as it was with his painful experience in box 1, revived the strongly affective experience of stepping on the nail. Psychologically described, the sound induced an imaginal complex equivalent to the earlier painful experience. The behavior seems to the writer a most important bit of evidence of imagery in the monkey. Finally, on August 9, after ten hundred and seventy trials, Skirrl succeeded in choosing correctly in the ten trials of a series, and he was therefore considered to have solved the problem of the second door from the right end of the group. On the following day, he was given a control series with the settings which are presented on page 19 and also at the bottom of table 2. In this series he chose correctly five times,--in other words, as often correctly as incorrectly. An analysis of the choices indicates, however, that two of the five correct choices were made in box 8, which, as it happened, had proved a peculiarly easy one for him throughout the training, since from the first he tended to avoid door 9. Consequently, it is only fair to conclude, from the results for this control series and for those given on August 11 and 12, that the animal chose not on the basis of anything remotely resembling a general idea of secondness from the right end, but instead on the basis of gradually acquired modes of reaction to the particular settings. This conclusion is strengthened by the fact that he had failed to learn to react appropriately and readily to most of the settings of the regular series. The curve which represents the course of the learning process in this problem is presented in figure 19. For this and all other curves which involve more than a single series of observations a day, the method of construction was as follows: The first series for each day of training is indicated on the curve by a dot, while the second or third series on a given day, although space is allowed for them, are not so indicated. Consequently, the form of the curve is determined chiefly by the first series per day. The extreme irregularities of this curve are most interesting and puzzling, as are also the variations in the daily ratios of right to wrong first choices. Three times in the course of the training, this ratio rose to 1 to 9, or higher. The causes for such extreme variations are not easily enumerated, but a few of the most obvious contributory causes are variations in the weather, especially cloudiness or fogginess, which rendered the apparatus dark; variations in the degree of hunger or eagerness for food; differences in the activities of the animals in the cages outside of the laboratory (sometimes they were noisy and distracted the subject), and finally, differences in the physical fitness and attitude of the animal from day to day. The more or less incidental behavior in connection with this experiment more strongly than the statistical results of the work on problem 2 indicate the existence of imagery. That ideas played a part in the solution of the problem is probable, but at best they functioned very ineffectively. The small number of methods used in the selection of the right box, and the slight variations from the chief method, that of choosing the first box at the right end and then the one next to it, apparently justify Doctor Hamilton's characterization of this monkey as defective. [Illustration: FIGURE 19.--Error curves of learning for the solution of problem 2 (second box from right end).] _Problem 3. Alternately First at Left and First at Right_ Following the control series given in connection with problem 1, an interval of rest lasting from August 12 to August 19 was allowed in order that Skirrl might in part at least lose the effects of his training and regain his customary interest in the apparatus by being allowed to obtain food easily instead of by dint of hard labor,--labor which was harder by far, apparently, than physical activity because it demanded of the animal certain mental processes which were either lacking or but imperfectly functional. The difficultness of the daily tasks appears to be reliably indicated by the tendency to yawn. Systematic work on problem 3, which has been defined as alternately the first door at the left and the first door at the right of the group, was begun August 19, and for nine days a single series of ten trials per day was given. Work then had to cease because of the experimenter's return to Cambridge. The results of the work on this problem demand but brief analysis and comment. The expected ratio of one right to four wrong choices per series appears (see table 3) for the first series of trials, and _this in spite of the fact that Skirrl had been trained for several weeks to choose the second door from the right end_. One would ordinarily have predicted a much larger number of incorrect choices. The right choices were due to the monkey's strong tendency to go first to the first door at the right and thence to the one next to it. Indeed in the series given on August 24; this method was followed without variation. In other words, in every one of the ten trials Skirrl entered first the box at the extreme right end of the group. This necessarily resulted in as many right as wrong first choices. Consequently, the ratio reads 1 to 1. But the method was not adhered to, and at no time either before or after that date did he succeed in equalling this achievement. There was, as a matter of fact, no steady improvement, and so far as one may judge from the records which were obtained, the course of events in the solution of this problem would have been similar to those in problem 2. TABLE 3 Results for Skirrl, _P. irus_, in Problem 3 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== Date | No. of | S.1 | S.2 | S.3 | S.4 | S.5 | S.6 | S.7 | S.8 | S.9 | S.10 | R | W | R | W |Ratio of | trials | 5.6.7 | 5.6.7 | 1.2.3.4.5.6 | 1.2.3.4.5.6 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 2.3.4.5 | 2.3.4.5 | 3.4.5.6.7.8.9| 3.4.5.6.7.8.9| | | | |R to W ________|___________|______________|______________|______________|______________|______________|______________|______________|______________|______________|______________|___|___|___|___|________ August | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.5.4.6 | | | | | | | {8.7.6.5 | | | | | 19 | 1- 10 | 7.5 | 6.7 | {3.2.6.4 | 5.3.6 | {7.8.7.6 | 8 | 4.3.5.4.5.2 | 5 | 9.8.7.6.4.3 | {4.5.8.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1:4.00 | | | | {3.6.1* | | {8.6.4 | | | | | {6.5.9* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {5.4.6.5 | | {8.7.6.7 | | | | | | | | | | 20 | 11- 20 | 7.6.5 | {6.5.6.5 | {4.6.5.3 | 5.3.2.4.6 | {7.5.8.8 | 8 | 5.4.3.2 | 4.5 | 8.7.6.5.4.3 | {8.7.6.8.3 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1:9.00 | | | {7 | {2.5.1* | | {7.6.4* | | | | | {7.6.4.3.9 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.2.5.6 | | | | {5.3.5.4 | | | | | | | | 21 | 21- 30 | 7.6.7.6.5 | 7 | {5.3.6.5 | 2.5.5.6 | 8.6.5.4 | 8 | {3.5.3.5 | 5 | {9.8.7.6 | 8.9 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1:2.33 | | | | {4.3.1* | | | | {4.3.2* | | {5.4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 23 | 31- 40 | 7.6.5 | 6.5.7 | {6.4.3.2 | 3.2.6 | 8.7.6.4 | 8 | 5.4.5.3.2 | 5.2 | 8.7.3 | 9 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1:4.00 | | | | {5.6.2.1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 24 | 41- 50 | 7.6.5 | 7 | {6.2.5 | 6 | {8.7.8.7 | 8 | 5.3.2 | 5 | {9.8.7.6 | 9 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1:1.00 | | | | {4.3.1 | | {5.7.5.4 | | | | {5.4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {8.7.3.6 | | | | | 25 | 51- 60 | 7.6.5 | 6.5.7 | 5.2.1 | 6 | 8.5.4 | 8 | 2 | 2.5 | 9.8.7.4.3 | {8.7.5.3 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1:2.33 | | | | | | | | | | | {8.7.9* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 26 | 61- 70 | 7.6.5 | 6.5.7 | 1 | 2.1.6 | 8.7.6.4 | 8 | 2 | 3.2.5 | 9.8.7.5.3 | {3.6.8.3 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1:2.33 | | | | | | | | | | | {4.7.9 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {8.6.3.3 | | | | | 27 | 71- 80 | 7.6.5 | 7 | 2.1 | 1.5.6 | 8.7.6.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 9.8.7.6.3 | {7.5.3.8 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1:1.50 | | | | | | | | | | | {3.6.9* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 28 | 81- 90 | 7.6.7.5 | 7 | 3.1 | 6 | 8.6.4 | 4.8 | 2 | 2.4.5 | 8.7.4.3 | 3.8.9 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1:2.33 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== [Footnote *: Aided by experimenter.] 2. Sobke, _Pithecus rhesus_ _Problem 1. First at the Left End_ Sobke was somewhat afraid of the experimenter when the investigation was undertaken, and instead of willingly coming out of his cage when the door was raised, he often had to be coaxed out and lured into the apparatus with food. Whereas Skirrl was frank and rather aggressive, Sobke was stealthy in his movements, furtive, and evidently suspicious of the experimenter as well as of the apparatus. He was perfectly safe to approach, but would not permit anyone to touch him. After a few days, he began to take food from the hands of the experimenter. Preliminary work to acquaint this monkey with the routine of the experiment was begun on April 13. As in the case of Skirrl, he was lured into the apparatus and was taught the route through the boxes to the starting point by being allowed to obtain food once each day in each of the nine boxes. The procedure was simple. The entrance door and the exit door of a particular box were raised and the animal admitted to the reaction-compartment and permitted to pass through the box whose doors stood open, take its food, and return to the starting point. Sobke very quickly learned the route perfectly and came to work steadily and rapidly. After five days of preliminary work of this sort, he was so thoroughly accustomed to the apparatus that it was evidently desirable to begin with regular training experiments. The first series of trials was given on April 19. Both punishment and reward were employed from the first. The punishment consisted of confinement for thirty seconds in each wrong box, and the reward of a small piece of banana, usually not more than a tenth of a medium sized banana for each correct choice. The total time for the first series of trials was fourteen minutes. This indicates that Sobke worked rapidly. My notes record that he worked quickly though shyly, wasted almost no time, made few errors of choice, and waited quietly during confinement in the boxes. In this, also, he differed radically from Skirrl who was restless and always tried to escape from confinement. Throughout the work on problem 1, punishment and reward were kept constant. Everything progressed smoothly; there were no such irregularities of behavior as appeared in the case of Skirrl, and consequently the description of results is a relatively simple matter. Sobke invariably chose the end boxes. His performance was in every way superior to that of Skirrl. As previously, the detailed results are presented in tabular form (table 4). From this table it appears that, whereas the expected ratio of right to wrong first choices for this problem is 1 to 2.5, the actual ratio for Sobke's first series was 1 to .67. This surprisingly good showing is unquestionably due to his marked tendency to choose the end box of a group; and this tendency, in turn, may in part be the result of the preliminary training, for during that only one box was open each time. But, if the preliminary training were responsible for Sobke's tendency, it should be noted that it had very different effect upon Skirrl, and, as will be seen later, upon Julius. The results for the ten different settings of the doors for problem 1 as they appear in table 4 are of interest for a number of reasons. In the first place, the setting 1. 2. 3 appearing twice,--at the beginning of the series and again at the end--yielded markedly different results in the two positions. For whereas no mistakes were made in the case of setting 1, there were fifty per cent of incorrect first choices for setting 10. Again, satisfactory explanation is impossible. It is conceivable that fatigue or approaching satiety may have had something to do with the failures at the end of the series, but as a rule, as is indicated by settings 1, 2, and 6, if correct choices were made at the beginning, they continued throughout the day's work. In this problem, Sobke's improvement was steady and fairly rapid, and in the eighth series, trials 71 to 80, only correct first choices appear. Consequently, seventy trials were required for the solution of the problem. This number is in marked contrast with Skirrl's one hundred and thirty-two trials. Immediately following the first perfect series, Sobke was given two series of control tests on April 28. Conditions were unfavorable, since the day was stormy and the rain pattering on the sheet-iron roof made a great din. Nevertheless, he worked steadily and well up to the sixth trial, which was preceded by a slight delay because of the necessity of refilling some of the food boxes. After this interruption, wrong choices occurred in trial 6. And again after trial 9, there was brief interruption, followed by wrong choices in trial 10. The ratio of right to wrong choices for this first control series was therefore 1 to .25. TABLE 4 Results for Sobke, _P. rhesus_, in Problem 1 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== | No. | S.1 | S.2 | S.3 | S.4 | S.5 | S.6 | S.7 | S.8 | S.9 | S.10 | | | | | Ratio Date | of | | | | | | | | | | | R | W | R | W | of | trials | 1.2.3 | 8.9 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 7.8.9 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 6.7.8 | 5.6.7 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 7.8.9 | 1.2.3 | | | | | R to W --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- April | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 19 | 1-10 | 1 | 8 | 3 | 9.7 | 6.2 | 6 | 7.5 | 4 | 9.7 | 1 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1:0.67 20 | 11-20 | 1 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 2 | 6 | 7.5 | 8.4 | 9.9.7 | 1 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 1:0.43 21 | 21-30 | 1 | 8 | 4.3 | 9.7 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 8.4 | 7 | 1 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 1:0.43 22 | 31-40 | 1 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 6.2 | 6 | 6.5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 1:0.43 23 | 41-50 | 1 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 9.7 | 3.1 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 1:0.25 24 | 51-60 | 1 | 8 | 3 | 9.7 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 2.1 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 1:0.25 26 | 61-70 | 1 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 1:0.11 27 | 71-80 | 1 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 1 |10 | 0 |10 | 0 | 1:0.00 --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | | | | | 2.3.4 | | | 1.2.3.4.5 | | | | | | | 2.3.4 | 6.7.8.9 | 3.4.5 | 4.5.6.7.8.9 | 6.7.8.9 | 1.2.3.4.5 | 5.6.7.8 | 3.4.5.6.7.8 | 5.6.7 | 6.7.8.9 | | | | | | +--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ | | | | 28 | 1-10 | 2 | 6 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 5.4.1 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 5.4.2.1 | 8 | 2 | | | " | 11-20 | 2 | 6 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 2.1 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 9 | 1 |17 | 3 | 1:0.18 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== Six minutes after completion of the first control series, a second was given under slightly more favorable conditions, and in this only a single wrong choice occurred, in that box 2 was first chosen in trial 6 instead of box 1. From the results of these two control series, it is evident that Sobke's solution of problem 1 is reasonably adequate. He is easily diverted or disturbed in his work by any unusual circumstances, but so long as everything goes smoothly, he chooses with ease and certainty. Whether it is fair to describe the behavior as involving an idea of the relation of the right box to the other members of the group would be difficult to decide. I hesitate to infer definite ideation from the available evidence, but I strongly suspect the presence of images and relatively ineffective or inadequate ideation. It is perfectly evident that Sobke is much more intelligent than Skirrl. In practically every respect, he adapted himself more quickly to the experimental procedure and progressed more steadily toward the solution of the problem than did Skirrl. The contrast in the learning processes of the two monkeys could scarcely be better exhibited than by the curves of learning which are presented in figure 18. The first, that for Sobke, is surprisingly regular; the second, that for Skirrl, is quite as surprisingly irregular. These results correlate perfectly with the steadiness and predictability of the former's responses and the irregularity and erraticness of the latter's. _Problem 2. Second from the Right End_ On the completion of problem 1 Sobke was in perfect condition, as to health and training, for experimental work. He had come to work quietly, fairly deliberately, and very steadily. His timidity had diminished and he would readily come to the experimenter for food, although still he was somewhat distrustful at times and became timid when anything unusual occurred in the apparatus. As preparation for problem 2, a break in regular experimentation covering four days followed the control series of problem 1. On each of these four days the monkey was allowed to get food once from each of the nine boxes, both doors of a given box being open for the trial and all other doors closed. For this feeding experiment, the doors were opened in irregular order, and this order was changed from day to day. Systematic work with problem 2 began on May 3, with punishment of thirty seconds for mistakes and a liberal reward of food for each success. Early in the series of trials it was discovered that Sobke was likely to become discouraged and waste a great deal of time unless certain aid were given by the experimenter. On this account, after the first two trials, the method was adopted of punishing the animal by confinement for the first ten mistakes in a trial, and of then, if need be, indicating the right box by slightly and momentarily raising the exit door. Every trial in which aid was thus given by the experimenter is indicated in table 5 by an asterisk following the last choice. In the first series of trials for this problem, aid had to be given in seven of the ten trials, and even so the series occupied seventy-one minutes. It is possible that had no aid been given, the work might have been continued successfully with a smaller number of trials than ten per day. But under the circumstances it seemed wiser to avoid the risk of discouraging and thus spoiling the animal for use in the experiment. It should be stated, also, that it proved impossible to adhere to the period of thirty seconds as punishment in this series. For the majority of the wrong choices confinement of not more than ten seconds was used. For the second series, given on May 4, the conditions were unfavorable in that it was dark and rainy, and the noise of the rain on the roof frightened Sobke. He refused to work after the fourth trial, and the series had to be completed on the following day. The total time required for this series was seventy-eight minutes. The work on May 6 was distinctly better, and the animal's behavior indicated, in a number of trials, definite recognition of the right door. He might, for example, make a number of incorrect choices, then pause for a few seconds to look steadily at the doors, and having apparently found some cue, run directly to the right box. No aid from the experimenter was needed in this series. On the following day improvement continued and the animal's method of choosing became definite and fairly precise. He was deliberate, quiet, and extremely business-like. The time for the series was thirty-one minutes. The period of punishment was increased on May 12 to thirty seconds. Previously, for the greater number of the trials, it had been ten to fifteen seconds. This increase apparently did not disturb the monkey, for he continued to work perfectly throughout the series, although making many mistakes in spite of deliberate choices and the refusal of certain boxes in each trial. An interesting and significant incident occurred on May 13 when at the conclusion of trial 5, Doctor Hamilton came into the experiment room for a few minutes. Sobke immediately stopped working, and he could not be induced to make any choices until Doctor Hamilton had left the room. This well indicates his sensitiveness to his surroundings, and his inclination to timidity or nervousness even in the presence of conditions not in themselves startling. Work was continued thus steadily until May 28 when, because of the failure of the animal to improve, it seemed wise to increase the period of confinement as punishment to sixty seconds. In the meantime, it had sometimes been evident that Sobke was near to the solution of his problem. He would often make correct choices in three or four trials in succession and then apparently lose his cue and fail utterly for a number of trials. After June 1, in order to hasten the solution of the problem, two series per day were given. In some instances the second series was given almost immediately after the first, while in others an interval of an hour or more intervened. It was further found desirable to give Sobke all of his food in the apparatus. When the rewards obtained in the several trials did not satisfy his hunger, additional food was presented, on the completion of the series of experiments, in one or more of the food cups. On days marked by unwillingness or refusal to work, very little food was given. Thus, the eagerness of the monkey to locate the right box was increased and, as a matter of observation, his deliberateness and care in choice increased correspondingly. Sixty seconds punishment was found satisfactory, and it was therefore continued throughout the work on this problem. It was evident, on June 9, from the behavior of the monkey as well as from the score, that the perfect solution of the problem was near at hand. This fact the experimenter recorded in his daily notes, and sure enough, on the following day Sobke chose correctly throughout the series of ten trials. The time for this series was only ten minutes. The choices were made deliberately and readily. An analysis of the data of table 5 reveals five methods or reactive tendencies which appeared more or less definitely in the following order: (a) Choice of first box at the left, because of experience in problem 1. This tendency was very quickly suppressed by the requirements in connection with problem 2. Indeed one of the most significant differences which I have discovered between the behavior of the primates and that of other mammals is the time required for the suppression of such an acquired tendency. The monkey seems to learn almost immediately that it is not worth while to persist in a tendency which although previously profitable no longer yields satisfaction, whereas in the crow, pig, rat, and ring dove, the unprofitable mode of response tends to persist during a relatively large number of trials. (b) The tendency to choose, first, a box near the left end of the group, to go from that to the box at the extreme right end of the group, thence to the one next in order, which was, of course, the right box. This tendency appears fairly clearly from May 7th on. (c) The box at the extreme right was first chosen and then the one next to it. For example, in setting 2, box 4 would be chosen first, then box 3. Or, if this did not occur, the method previously described under (b) was likely to be employed, as for example, in setting 8, where such choices as 7.6.5.1.8 appear. (d) In certain series there appeared a marked preference for a particular box, usually box 3 (see results for May 24). This was doubtless due in a measure, if not wholly, to the fact that box 3 was the right box twice in each series of ten settings. But it should be added that the same is true of box 7, for which no preference was manifested at any time. (e) Direct choice of the right box. The five reactive methods or tendencies enumerated above roughly appeared in the order named, but there were certain irregularities and the order as well as the time of appearance varied somewhat from setting to setting. In general, method c was the most frequently used prior to the development of method e, the direct choice of the right box. TABLE 5 Results for Sobke, _P. rhesus_, in Problem 2 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== | No. | S.1 | S.2 | S.3 | S.4 | S.5 | S.6 | S.7 | S.8 | S.9 | S.10 | | | | | Ratio Date | of | | | | | | | | 1.2.3.4.5 | | | R | W | R | W | of | trials | 7.8.9 | 1.2.3.4 | 2.3.4.5.6.7 | 1.2.3.4.5.6 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 1.2.3 | 2.3.4.5 | 6.7.8.9 | 1.2.3.4 | 3.4.5.6.7.8 | | | | | R to W --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | May | | {7.7.9.7.7 | {1.2.4.1 | {3.2.7.2 | {4.6.1.6 | | {3.1.3.3 | | | {4.1.4.1 | {3.8.3.3 | | | | | 3 | 1-10 | {9.7.9.7.9 | {1.4.1.1 | {7.7.7.5 | {1.6.1.1 | 5.8.6.7 | {3.3.1.1 | 3.5.4 | 9.1.8 | {4.1.4.2 | {3.8.6.3 | 0 |10 | 0 |10 | 0:10.00 | | {7.9.9.7.8* | {4.3* | {2.7.6* | {1.3.5* | | {1.1.2* | | | {1.4.3* | {8.3.7* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {4.7.2.7 | | (8.8.4.8 | | {5.5.5.5 | {9.5.5.9 | | | | | | | 4 and 5 | 11-20 | (7.9.7.9.9 | 1.4.1.3 | {2.7.3.2 | 1.6.5 | {8.8.4.8 | {3.3.1.1.3 | {5.5.5.3 | {7.1.6.6 | {4.4.4.4 | {8.8.6.8 | 0 |10 | 0 |10 | 0:10.00 | | {9.7.7.9.8 | | {7.2.6* | | {4.8.7* | {3.3.1.2 | {5.5.4* | {6.5.8* | {4.4.4.3 | {8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 6 | 21-30 | 9.7.9.7.8 | 4.3 | 7.2.3.7.6 | {6.3.1.6 | 6.8.7 | 3.1.2 | {5.3.5.3 | {6.9.4.6.1 | {4.1.2.4 | {3.4.5.3 | 0 |10 | 0 |10 | 0:10.00 | | | | | {6.2.6.5 | | | {2.4 | {7.9.7.8 | {4.2.3 | {8.6.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 7 | 31-40 | 7.9.7.8 | 1.4.3 | 2.7.6 | 3.5 | 4.8.7 | 3.1.2 | 3.2.3.5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 5.8.3.4.8.7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 8 | 41-50 | 7.9.7.8 | (4.2.4.1.4 | 6 | 5 | 6.5.4.8.7 | {3.1.3.1 | 5.3.5.4 | {7.4.2.1 | {4.2.4.1 | 5.3.8.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 | | | {4.2.2.4.3 | | | | {3.1.3.2 | | {9.8 | {4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {5.3.5.3 | | | | | | | | 10 | 51-60 | 7.7.8 | 3 | 7.3.2.7.6 | 6.4.6.5 | (6.4.8.5 | 3.1.3.2 | {2.5.3.5 | 5.9.8 | 4.2.4.3 | {6.5.4 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 | | | | | | {4.8.7 | | {2.5.4 | | | {3.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 11 | 61-70 | 7.9.7.8 | 1.4.3 | 4.3.2.7.6 | 6.5 | {5.4.8.6 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 6.5.2.3.1.8 | 3 | 6.5.3.8.7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 | | | | | | {5.4.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 12 | 71-80 | 7.9.8 | 3 | 7.3.2.7.6 | 6.5 | 5.4.8.7 | 1.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 5.4.3.8.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 13 | 81-90 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 3.7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 1.3.2 | 2.5.2.5.4 | 7.6.5.9.8 | 3 | 8.7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {1.2.1.2.2 | | | | | | 14 | 91-100 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 6.5.4.7 | 1.3.2 | 5.4 | 9.8 | {1.4.2.2.1 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | | | {4.1.4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 15 | 101-110 | 7.8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 5.4.5.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 2.1.3 | 8.8.7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 17 | 111-120 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | {2.1.2.1.2 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.6.5.1.8 | 3 | 8.7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 | | | | | {1.3.2.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 18 | 121-130 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.6.5.2.8 | 3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {5.3.2.5.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {2.5.2.5.3 | | | | | | | | 19 | 131-140 | 8 | 3 | 3.2.6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | {5.5.2.5.5 | 7.6.9.8 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1: 0.67 | | | | | | | | {3.2.5.5.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {2.5.5.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 20 | 141-150 | 7.8 | 3 | 3.2.7.6 | 6.5 | 5.4.7 | 3.2 | 3.2.5.4 | 6.5.4.3.8 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 21 | 151-160 | 7.8 | 3 | 5.7.5.3.7.6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.3.5.2.5.4 | 7.6.5.9.8 | 3 | 6.4.3.8.7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 22 | 161-170 | 7.8 | 3 | 7.6 | 3.2.6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | {5.2.5.3 | 7.6.5.8 | 3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | {2.5.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {3.1.3 | | | | | | | | | 24 | 171-180 | 8 | 3 | {3.2.7.5 | {3.6.4 | 8.7 | {1.3.3 | {3.5.4 | 8 | {4.4.2.1 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | {7.3.6 | {3.6.5 | | {3.2 | | | {4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 25 | 181-190 | 7.9.7.9.8 | 3 | 3.7.6 | 5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 4.3.8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 26 | 191-200 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1: 1.00 27 | 201-210 | 7.9.8 | 3 | 3.2.7.6 | 5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 28 | 211-220 | 8 | 3 | 3.7.6 | 4.3.2.6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.6.5.9.8 | 3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 29 | 221-230 | 7.8 | 3 | 5.4.3.7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 2 | 3.2.5.4 | 7.6.5.8 | 3 | 3.8.7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 31 | 231-240 | 7.7.8 | 3 | 3.7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 9.8 | 3 | 3.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 June | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | 241-250 | 8 | 3 | 5.4.7.6 | 3.2.6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 251-260 | 7.9.8 | 3 | 3.7.6 | 5 | 6.5.4.8.7 | 3.2 | 4 | 5.4.3.8 | {4.2.1.4 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 8 |12 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | | | {2.4.4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | 261-270 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 3.2.6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 8 | 3 | 6.5.3.8.7 | 5 | 5 | | | " | 271-280 | 7.8 | 3 | 3.7.6 | 3.6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.6.5.4.3.8 | 3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 9 |11 | 1: 1.22 3 | 281-290 | 7.8 | 3 | 7.6 | 3.6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 4 | 7.8 | 3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | | | " | 291-300 | 9.8 | 3 | 3.6 | 4.3.6.5 | 8.7 | 2 | 3.5.4 | 7.6.5.9.8 | 3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | 7 |13 | 1: 1.86 4 | 301-310 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 3.4.3.6.5 | 8.7 | 2 | 3.2.5.4 | 7.6.5.8 | 3 | 3.8.7 | 4 | 6 | | | " | 311-320 | 8 | 3 | 5.4.7.6 | 3.2.6.5 | 7 | 2 | 3.2.5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 |11 | 9 | 1: 0.82 5 | 321-330 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 4.6.5 | 7 | 2 | 3.5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 331-340 | 8 | 3 | 7.4.7.6 | 3.2.4.6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 3.5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 |13 | 7 | 1: 0.54 7 | 341-350 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 8.7 | 1.3.1.2 | 3.5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 | | | " | 351-360 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 8.7 | 2 | 3.5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 |13 | 7 | 1: 0.54 8 | 361-370 | 7.8 | 3 | 4.7.6 | 3.5 | 8.7 | 2 | 3.4 | 9.8 | 3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | | | | 371-380 | 8 | 3 | 7.6 | 3.4.4.3.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 9 |11 | 1: 1.22 9 | 381-390 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 4.2.1.5 | 7 | 2 | 3.4 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 391-400 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 3.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 9 | 1 |16 | 4 | 1: 0.25 10 | 401-410 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 7 |10 | 0 |10 | 0 | 1: 0.00 --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | 1.2.3.4.5 | | | | | | 1.2.3.4 | 2.3.4.5 | | | | | | | 5.6.7.8 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 6.7.8.9 | 5.6.7 | 1.2.3.4 | 4.5.6 | 2.3.4.5 | 1.2.3 | 5.6.7 | 6.7.8.9 | | | | | | +--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- 11 | 1-10 | 6.7 | 3.5 | 8 | 6 | 3 | 5 | 3.4 | 3.2 | 7.7.2.6 | 8 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1: 1.00 12 | 11-20 | 7 | 3.6.6.2.5 | 8 | 6 | 3 | 4.5 | 4 | 2 | 7.6 | 8 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 1: 0.43 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== [Footnote *: Aided by experimenter.] Examination of table 5 indicates that some of the settings proved very easy for Sobke; others, extremely difficult. Consequently, the number of methods which were tried and rejected for a given setting varies from two to five. Setting 2 proved a fairly simple one, and after the inhibition of the tendency to choose the first box at the left, the only definite tendency to appear was that of choosing the first box at the right, and then the one next to it. After one hundred and thirty trials, this method suddenly gave place to direct choice of the right box, and during the following twenty-eight series, no error occurred for this setting. Setting 4, on the contrary, proved extremely difficult, and a variety of methods is more or less definitely indicated by the records. It is needless to lengthen the description by analyzing the data for each setting, since the reader by carefully scanning the columns of data in table 5 may observe for himself the various tendencies and their mutual relations. Sobke's curve of learning (figure 19) in problem 2, is extremely irregular, as was that of Skirrl. Similar irregularities appear in the daily ratios of right to wrong first choices presented in the last column of table 5. Most of these irregularities were due, I have discovered, to unfavorable external conditions. Thus, dark rainy days and disturbing noises outside the laboratory were obviously conditions of poor work. On the day following the final and correct series for problem 2, a control series was given. In this Sobke seemed greatly surprised by the new situations which presented themselves. Repeatedly he exhibited impulses to enter the box which would have been the correct one in the regular series of settings. He frequently inhibited such impulses and chose correctly, but at other times he reacted quickly and made mistakes. It was evident from his behavior that he was not guided by anything like a definite idea of the relation of the right box to the other members of the group. In a second control series given on the following day, June 12, confusion appeared, but less markedly. For the first setting, a correct choice was made with deliberation. For the second setting, box 3 was immediately chosen, as should have been the case in the regular series of settings. Sobke seemed confused when he emerged from this box and had difficulty in locating the right one. Then followed direct correct choices for settings 3, 4, and 5. For setting 6, there is recorded a deliberately made wrong choice, and so on throughout the series, the choices being characterized by deliberateness and definite search for the right box. Uncertainty was plainly indicated, and in this the behavior of the animal differed markedly from that in the concluding series of the regular experiment. It seems safe to conclude from the results of these control series that Sobke has no free idea of the relation of secondness from the right and is chiefly dependent upon memory of the particular settings for cues which lead to correct choice. _Problem 3. Alternately First at Left and First at Right_ For four successive days after the last control series in connection with problem 2, Sobke was merely fed in the apparatus according to previous description (p. 43). He exhibited a wonderfully keen appetite and was well fed during this interval between problems. The method of experimentation chosen for problem 3 in the light of previous experience was that of confining the monkey for a short time, ten to fifteen seconds, in the wrong box, in each of the first ten mistakes for a given trial, and of then aiding him to find the right box by the slight and momentary raising of the exit door. Aid proved necessary in a few of the trials during the first four days. Then he worked independently. As work progressed it was found possible and also desirable to increase the period of confinement, and in the end, sixty seconds proved satisfactory. It was also thought desirable to increase the number of trials per day from a single series during the early days to two or even three series from June 29 on. Often three series could be given in succession without difficulty. During the early trials on this problem Sobke worked remarkably well, but later his willingness diminished, evidently because of his failure readily to solve the problem, and it became extremely difficult to coax him into the apparatus. On days when he entered only reluctantly and as it seemed against his will, he was likely to be nervous, erratic, and often slow in making his choices, but above all he tended to waste time by not returning to the starting point, preferring rather to loiter in the alleyways or run back and forth. TABLE 6 Results for Sobke, _P. rhesus_, in Problem 3 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== | No. | S.1 | S.2 | S.3 | S.4 | S.5 | S.6 | S.7 | S.8 | S.9 | S.10 | | | | | Ratio Date | of | | | | | | | | | 3.4.5.6 | 3.4.5.6 | R | W | R | W | of | trials | 5.6.7 | 5.6.7 | 1.2.3.4.5.6 | 1.2.3.4.5.6 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 2.3.4.5 | 2.3.4.5 | 7.8.9 | 7.8.9 | | | | | R to W --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | June | | | | | {3.1.2.1 | {7.8.7.8 | | | | {9.8.7.9 | | | | | | 17 | 1--10 | {6.6.7.6 | 5.7 | {4.4.3.5.4 | {4.4.2.1 | {8.8.7.8 | 8 | 2 | 3.2.5 | {8.7.6.9 | 3.8.9 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1:4.00 | | {6.5 | | {5.4.2.1 | {5.4.6* | {7.7.4* | | | | {8.7.3* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {3.4.2.5 | | {8.7.7.5 | | | | | | | | | | 18 | 11--20 | 6.6.6.5 | 5.7 | {4.5.6.4 | 3.1.4.3.6 | {8.8.7.8 | 8 | 3.2 | (3.4.2.4 | 9.8.8.7.3 | 8.6.9 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1:9.00 | | | | {2.3.1* | | {7.8.4* | | | {4.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {3.6.5.4 | | {8.8.7.7 | | | | | | | | | | 19 | 21--30 | 6.5 | 7 | {2.5.2.6 | 3.6 | {7.8.8.8 | 8 | 4.3.2 | {3.2.4.2 | {9.8.7.9.7 | 9 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1:2.33 | | | | {3.5.1* | | {8.4 | | | {2.5 | {6.5.4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | (8.8.8.8 | | | | {9.9.8.9 | | | | | | 21 | 31--40 | 6.5 | 5.6.5.7 | {3.5.4.6 | 2.5.3.6 | {7.8.3.8 | 8 | 4.2 | 2.5 | {9.5.9.9 | 9 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1:4.00 | | | | {4.3.5.1 | | {8.7.4* | | | | {9.9.3* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 22 | 41--50 | 7.6.5 | 6.5.5.7 | 1 | 2.1.3.6 | {8.8.8.8 | 8 | 2 | 2.3.2.2.5 | {9.8.9.8.7 | 9 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1:1.50 | | | | | | {7.8.4 | | | | {6.5.9.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 23 | 51--60 | 5 | 6.5.7 | 1 | {1.2.1.1 | 8.5.4 | 8 | 5.4.2 | 2.4.2.5 | {9.8.4.9 | 9 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1:1.50 | | | | | {3.2.6 | | | | | {7.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 24 | 61--70 | 7.6.5 | 7 | 2.3.1 | 2.1.5.4.2.6 | 8.7.8.4 | 8 | 4.5.4.3.2 | 2.2.4.5 | 9.7.6.8.3 | 9 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1:2.33 25 | 71--80 | 6.5 | 5.7 | 3.1 | 6 | 8.5.4 | 8 | 2 | 3.2.5 | 9.8.7.3 | 3.9 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1:2.33 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 26 | 81--90 | 7.7.6.5 | 6.5.7 | 3.1 | {1.4.1.1 | 8.4 | 8 | 5.4.2 | 2.5 | 9.8.9.6.3 | 9 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1:4.00 | | | | | {5.1.6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 28 | 91--100 | 7.6.5 | 7 | 1 | 1.2.4.6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 3.2.2.2.5 | 9.8.8.7.9.3 | 9 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1:1.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 29 | 101--110 | 7.6.5 | 5.7 | 1 | {1.1.5.3 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 4.2.5 | {9.9.8.9.4 | 9 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | {2.1.6 | | | | | {9.7.6.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 111--120 | 6.5 | 6.5.7 | 1 | 2.1.1.3.6 | 8.5.4 | 8 | 2 | 3.2.5 | 9.8.7.6.4.3 | 9 | 4 | 6 | 8 |12 | 1:1.50 30 | 121--130 | 5 | 6.5.6.5.5.7 | 1 | 3.1.6 | 8.7.6.8.5.4 | 8 | 2 | 4.2.4.2.5 | 9.3 | 9 | 5 | 5 | | | " | 131--140 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 2.3.6 | 8.5.6.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 9.8.3 | 3.9 | 6 | 4 |11 | 9 | 1:0.82 July | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | 141--150 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 1.6 | 8.7.4 | 8 | 2 | 3.2.5 | 9.8.6.9.3 | 9 | 6 | 4 | | | " | 151--160 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 2.5.3.6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 2.5 | 9.3 | 8.8.7.5.4.9 | 5 | 5 |11 | 9 | 1:0.82 2 | 161--170 | 6.5 | 7 | 1 | 2.6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 3.5 | 9.3 | 9 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1:1.00 3 | 171--180 | 6.5 | 7 | 1 | 1.5.6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 3.5 | 9.3 | 9 | 5 | 5 | | | " | 181--190 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 4.6 | 8.6.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 9.8.4.8.5.3 | 9 | 7 | 3 |12 | 8 | 1:0.67 5 | 191--200 | 6.5 | 5.7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 9.5.3 | 9 | 6 | 4 | | | " | 201--210 | 5 | 7 | 6.1 | 2.6 | 8.6.4 | 8 | 5.3.5.4.3.2 | 4.3.5 | 9.7.3 | 9 | 4 | 6 |10 |10 | 1:1.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 6 | 211--220 | 5 | 5.7 | 1 | 2.6 | 8.6.4 | 8 | 2 | 4.3.5 | 9.3 | {5.4.8.3 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {8.5.4.9 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 221--230 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 5.3.6 | 8.6.8.4 | 8 | 4.2 | 3.2.5 | 9.3 | 9 | 5 | 5 | 9 |11 | 1:1.22 7 | 231--240 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 2.6 | 8.4 | 7.4.8 | 2 | 4.3.5 | 8.3 | 9 | 5 | 5 | | | " | 241--250 | 5 | 7 | 2.6.3.5.1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 9.3 | 9 | 7 | 3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {2.6.2.6.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 251--260 | 5 | 7 | {6.3.2.6 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 9.5.3 | 9 | 7 | 3 |19 |11 | 1:0.58 | | | | {5.4.3.1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 8 | 261--270 | 7.5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 5.2 | 5 | 8.3 | 8.5.4.9 | 5 | 5 | | | " | 271--280 | 5 | 7 | 2.6.4.6.1 | 6 | 8.5.8.4 | 7.4.8 | 5.5.3.5.2 | 5 | 9.3 | 9 | 5 | 5 |10 |10 | 1:1.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 9 | 281--290 | 5 | 5.7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 2.5 | 8.3 | {7.3.8.6.8 | 5 | 5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {4.7.3.9 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 291--300 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 9.3 | 9 | 8 | 2 | | | " | 301--310 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 5.2 | 5 | 9.5.3 | 9 | 7 | 3 |20 |10 | 1:0.50 10 | 311--320 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 7.4.8 | 2 | 5 | 9.3 | 9 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 321--330 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 5.2.6 | 8.7.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 9.3 | 9 | 7 | 3 |14 | 6 | 1:0.43 12 | 331--340 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 8.3 | 9 | 8 | 2 | | | " | 341--350 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 5.2 | 5 | 9.3 | 9 | 7 | 3 |15 | 5 | 1:0.33 13 | 351--360 | 5 | 5.7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 5.2 | 5 | 3 | 9 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 361--370 | 5 | 7 | 6.1 | 6 | 4 | 8 | 5.2 | 3.2.5 | 9.3 | 9 | 6 | 4 |13 | 7 | 1:0.54 14 | 371--380 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 7.4.3.9 | 8 | 2 | | | " | 381--390 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 9.3 | 4.7.3.9 | 7 | 3 |15 | 5 | 1:0.33 15 | 391--400 | 5 | 5.5.7 | 1 | 3.6 | 8.4 | 8 | 3.2 | 5 | 8.3 | 9 | 5 | 5 | | | " | 401--410 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 7.3 | 6.5.3.9 | 7 | 3 |12 | 8 | 1:0.67 16 | 411--420 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 9 | 9 | 1 | | | " | 421--430 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 4.7.4.9 | 9 | 1 | | | " | 431--440 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 5.7.3.9 | 8 | 2 |26 | 4 | 1:0.15 17 | 441--450 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 4 | 4.8 | 2 | 5 | 4.3 | 3.5.9 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 451--460 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 3.6 | 4 | 5.4.8 | 2 | 5 | 9.3 | 9 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 461--470 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 9 |10 | 0 |24 | 6 | 1:0.25 19 | 471--480 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 8.4 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 9 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 1:0.11 --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 5.6 | 5.6 | 4.5.6.7.8.9 | 4.5.6.7.8.9 | 1.2.3.4.5 | 1.2.3.4.5 | 2.3.4.5.6.7 | 2.3.4.5.6.7 | 3.4.5.6.7.8 | 3.4.5.6.7.8 | | | | | | +--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- 19 | 1--10 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 9 | 1 | 5 | 3.7.2 | 7 | 3 | 8 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 1:0.11 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== [Footnote *: Aided by experimenter.] The data of table 6 indicate for this problem only three pronounced reactive tendencies: (a) As the initial tendency, the choice of the second box from the right end. This proved surprisingly weak, in view of the animal's long training on problem 2, and it disappeared quickly. (b) Choice of the end boxes, and (c) direct choice of the right box. For this, as for the other problems, extreme differences in method and in time and degree of success appear for the different settings. Thus, while settings 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 10 proved to be easy, settings 4, 5, 8, and 9 were evidently more difficult. [Illustration: FIGURE 20.--Error curve of learning for the solution of problem 3 (alternately the first box at the left end and the first at the right end) by Sobke.] From the first this problem promised to be much easier for Sobke than problem 2, and although the actual number of trials necessary for the solution is greater by sixty for problem 3 than for problem 2, comparison of the data of the tables justifies the statement that the third problem was both easier and more nearly adequately solved than the second. This is not surprising when the nature of the two problems is considered, for whereas problem 2 requires choice by perception of the relationship of secondness from the right end of the group, problem 3 requires, instead, the choice of the end member of the group each time, with the additional variation of alternation of ends. Now as it happens, the end member is easily selected by the monkey, and it appears further that alternation was relatively easy for Sobke to acquire. Consequently, the combination of end and alternation proved easier than the choice of the second from the right end of the group. The above statements are supported by comparison of the curves of learning. The curve for problem 2, figure 19, is extremely irregular; that for problem 3, figure 20, much more regular. Similarly, the daily ratios of right to wrong choices as exhibited in tables 5 and 6 indicate smaller variations for the third problem than for the second. Sobke made ten correct first choices in the third series for July 17, but he was working very uncertainly and it seemed rather a matter of good luck than good management that he succeeded in presenting this perfect series: For this reason and also because it did not seem feasible to have Sunday intervene between the final and perfect regular series and the control series, an additional regular series was given on July 19, in which, as the table indicates, a single mistake occurred, in trial 5. The monkey was working perfectly. The series of trials required only ten minutes, and it was evident that carelessness and eagerness to obtain food were chiefly responsible for the mistake. The control series given on July 19 immediately after the series just described resulted similarly in one failure and nine successes. The choices were made easily and with certainty, and the only mistake, that of setting 7, was apparently due to carelessness. This excellent showing for the control series wholly justifies the comparison of problems 2 and 3 as to difficultness, made above. Whereas in both problems 1 and 2 the control trials caused confusion, in the case of problem 3, they did not essentially alter the behavior of the animal. The fact seems to be that for this problem the particular setting is of relatively little importance; while turning alternately to the extreme left and the extreme right is of prime importance. That Sobke had the idea of alternation or of the end box, there seems no more reason for insisting than that he had the idea of secondness from the right end in problem 2. It is possible, even probable, that these ideas existed rather vaguely in his consciousness, but there is obviously no necessity for insisting that the solution of the problems depended upon them. _Problem 4. Middle_ As the available time for the continuation of the experiment was limited, it was decided to proceed with work on problem 4 immediately upon the completion of problem 3, and on July 20, the problem of the middle door was presented to Sobke. Since it was anticipated that this sudden change would confuse and discourage him greatly, the only form of punishment administered was the momentary lowering of the entrance door of the wrong box. As in the previous problem, he was aided after ten successive wrong choices. As might have been anticipated, he persistently entered the end boxes of the groups, and this in some instances probably would have been kept up for many minutes had not the experimenter lured him into the right box by slightly raising the exit door. In the first series, he had to be aided in five of the ten trials. The total time for the series was forty-five minutes, the total number of choices, eighty-eight. In the second series, he was aided in four of the trials. The total time required was seventy-two minutes, and the total number of choices was seventy-six. Throughout the first series, Sobke worked hard, but with evidently increasing dissatisfaction. He clung persistently to his acquired tendency to choose the end boxes, and after each trial he returned less willingly to the starting point. Up to this time his attitude toward the experimenter had been perfectly friendly, if not wholly trustful. But when on July 21 he was brought into the apparatus for the second series, he exhibited a wholly new form of behavior, for instead of attending diligently to the open doors and devoting his energies to trying to find the right box, he instead, after gazing at them for a few seconds, turned toward the experimenter and jumped for him savagely, throwing himself against the wire netting with great force. This was repeated a number of times during the first two or three trials, and it occurred less frequently later in the series. Since nothing unusual had happened outside of the experiment room, the suggested explanation of this sudden change in attitude and behavior is that the monkey resented and blamed on the experimenter the difficulty which he was having in obtaining food. From this time on until the end of my work, Sobke was always savage and both in and out of the apparatus he was constantly on the watch for an opportunity to spring upon me. Previously, it had been possible for me to coax him into the apparatus by offering him food and to return him to his cage by walking after him. But on and after the twenty-first of July, it was impossible for me to approach him without extreme risk of being bitten. Doctor Hamilton when told of this behavior, reported that several times monkeys have shown resentment toward him when they were having trouble in the experiment. I therefore feel fairly confident that I have not misinterpreted Sobke's behavior. When on July 22 I gave Sobke an opportunity to enter the apparatus, he refused, and it was impossible to lure him in with food. Two hours later, having waited meantime for his breakfast, he entered readily and worked steadily and persistently through his third series of trials, but in no one of these trials did he choose correctly. Neither on this day nor the following did he exhibit resentment while at work. He apparently had regained his affective poise and was able to attend as formerly to the task of locating his rewards. During these first three series, although the ratio of right to wrong choices stood 0 to 10, there occurred a marked reduction in the number of trials in which aid was necessary as well as in the total number of choices, and on July 23 correct reactions began to appear. Improvement during the next hundred trials was steady and fairly rapid, and on July 31, a record of seven right to three wrong trials was obtained. This was surprising to the experimenter, as well as gratifying, since he was eager to have the animal complete this problem before work should have to be discontinued. Everything went smoothly until August 2, when my assistant, who had been left in charge of the experimental work for a week, attempted to increase the number of trials per day to two series. Sobke apparently was not quite ready for this increase in the amount of his day's labor and refused to work at the end of the first series. In this series he did less well than on the previous day. The following day, August 3, unfortunately and contrary to the wishes of the experimenter, the laboratory was painted and there was necessarily considerable disturbance because of the presence of the workmen, and in addition, the pervasive odor of fresh paint. Sobke chose still less successfully on this date, and on August 4, he refused to work after the eighth trial. It is true that during these bad days the total number of choices steadily diminished while the successes, also, diminished, or at best, failed to increase. When on August 9, I returned to the laboratory to take charge, I found that Sobke was no longer trying to solve the problem as when I had gone away. His attitude had changed in that he had become indifferent, careless, and obviously discouraged with his task. TABLE 7 Results for Sobke, _P. rhesus_, in Problem 4 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== | No. | S.1 | S.2 | S.3 | S.4 | S.5 | S.6 | S.7 | S.8 | S.9 | S.10 | | | | | Ratio Date | of | | | 1.2.3.4 | | | 1.2.3.4.5 | | | 3.4.5.6 | | R | W | R | W | of | trials | 2.3.4 | 5.6.7.8.9 | 5.6.7 | 7.8.9 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 6.7.8.9 | 1.2.3 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 7.8.9 | 6.7.8 | | | | | R to W --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | July | | | {5.9.5.5 | {1.7.1.3 | {9.7.9.7 | | {1.9.3.1 | | {6.3.2.6 | | | | | | | 20 | 1- 10 | 2.4.2.4.3 | {5.9.5.6 | {1.7.1.7 | {7.9.7.9 | {8.4.8.4 | {9.2.9.3 | 3.1.3.2 | {3.6.3.2 | {9.3.4.3 | {8.6.6.8.6 | 0 |10 | 0 |10 | 0:10.00 | | | {5.8.7* | {1.7.4* | {7.7.8 | {4.6 | {9.1.5* | | {6.3.4* | {3.9.3.6 | {8.6.8.6.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {7.9.7.7 | {4.8.5.5 | {1.4.3.2 | | | {3.9.3.8 | | | | | | 21 | 11- 20 | 2.3 | {5.6.5.5 | {1.2.7.1 | {7.9.7.7 | {8.4.8.4 | {8.9.1.9 | 3.1.2 | {6.2.3.2.6 | {4.3.3.5 | 6.7 | 0 |10 | 0 |10 | 0:10.00 | | | {9.5.5.7 | {7.3.7.4 | {9.7.8* | {5.4.6* | {1.9.5* | | {3.5.2.4 | {3.4.6* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {3.7.4.8 | | | | | | 22 | 21- 30 | 2.3 | 5.6.5.6.7 | 1.7.4 | {7.9.7 | 4.7.4.6 | {1.4.6.3 | 3.1.2 | 5.2.6.4 | {4.3.5.8 | 6.6.7 | 0 |10 | 0 |10 | 0:10.00 | | | | | {7.7.8 | | {2.7.5 | | | {3.7.6* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {5.4.7.4 | | | | | | 23 | 31- 40 | 2.4.3 | 5.6.8.7 | 1.7.4 | {7.7.7.7 | 4.7.6 | 2.7.5 | 3.1.2 | 6.4 | {7.5.4.3 | 7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 | | | | | {7.7.8 | | | | | {7.3.6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 24 | 41- 50 | 3 | 5.6.7 | 1.6.4 | 7.7.7.8 | 4.7.6 | {2.7.6.4 | 3.2 | 6.5.4 | 5.3.8.6.6 | 7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 | | | | | | | {2.7.3.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {9.6.5* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 26 | 51- 60 | 4.3 | 6.5.7 | 2.7.4 | 7.8 | 6 | {6.4.2.7 | 3.2 | {6.5.3.5.2 | 7.6 | 7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | | | {4.8.6.5 | | {6.5.6.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {4.7.3.7 | | | | | | | | | 27 | 61- 70 | 3 | 6.5.7 | 2.5.4 | 7.7.8 | 5.7.6 | {4.6.1.4 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 5.7.6 | 6.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | | | {7.3.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 28 | 71- 80 | 3 | 7 | 6.5.4 | 7.8 | 5.4.7.6 | 2.7.6.5 | 2 | 5.5.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 29 | 81- 90 | 3 | 6.5.7 | 2.4 | 7.7.8 | 5.4.6 | {2.7.7.6 | 2 | 4 | 5.4.7.6 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | {2.7.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 30 | 91-100 | 3 | 7 | 2.6.5.4 | 7.8 | 6 | 5 | 2 | 5.4 | 5.4.6 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1: 0.67 31 | 101-110 | 3 | 7 | 2.4 | 7.8 | 6 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 7.6 | 7 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 1: 0.43 August | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | 111-120 | 3 | 7 | 6.5.7.6.4 | 7.8 | 6 | 4.2.7.6.5 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1: 1.00 3 | 121-130 | 3 | 6.5.7 | 7.6.5.4 | 7.8 | 7.6 | 5 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 4 | 131-140 | 3 | 7 | 6.5.7.6.4 | 7.8 | 6 | {2.7.6.4 | 2 | 6.4 | 3.5.4.6 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1: 1.00 | | | | | | | {8.7.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | {2.4.4.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | 141-150 | {2.4.4.2 | 6.5.7 | {2.7.6.7 | 8 | 7.6 | {2.8.7.6 | 3.2 | 6.4 | 7.6 | 8.7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 | | {4.3* | | {5.4 | | | {8.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 6 | 151-160 | 2.4.4.3 | 7 | 2.6.5.4 | 7.8 | 7.6 | 7.6.5 | 2 | 6.4 | 6 | 7 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {4.4.2.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 161-170 | {4.2.4.2 | 7 | 6.5.4 | 7.8 | 7.6 | 7.6.5 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 2 | 8 | 6 |14 | 1: 2.33 | | {4.4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 7 | 171-180 | 4.3 | 7 | 6.5.4 | 8 | 7.6 | 5 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 5 | 5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 181-190 | {4.2.4.4 | 7 | 7.6.5.4 | 7.8 | 6 | 6.5 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 9 |11 | 1: 1.22 | | {2.4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 9 | 191-200 | 3 | 7 | 5.4 | 8 | 8.7.6 | 6.5 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 7.6 | 8.7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 | 201-210 | 3 | 7 | 2.5.4 | 7.8 | 7.6 | {2.8.7.6 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | {8.7.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 11 | 211-220 | 3 | 7 | 6.5.4 | 7.8 | 6 | {7.6.4.3 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1: 1.00 | | | | | | | {2.7.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 12 | 221-230 | 3 | 7 | 2.4 | 7.8 | 6 | 7.6.5 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 8.7.6 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1: 1.00 19 | 231-240 | 3 | 7 | 2.4 | 7.8 | 6 | 5 | 2 | 6.4 | 8.7.6 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1: 0.67 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 20 | 241-250 | 3 | 7 | 5.4 | 8 | 7.6 | {2.4.1.2.7 | 3.2 | 6.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | {8.7.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 21 | 251-260 | 3 | 7 | 6.5.4 | 7.8 | {7.4.5.4 | {6.4.3.2 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 8.7.6 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | {8.7.6 | {7.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 23 | 261-270 | 3 | 7 | 6.5.4 | 7.8 | 6 | 6.5 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1: 1.00 24 | 271-280 | 3 | 7 | 6.4 | 7.8 | 7.6 | 2.5 | 2 | 4 | 7.4.3.8.7.6 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1: 1.00 25 | 281-290 | 3 | 7 | 2.5.4 | 8 | 7.6 | 5 | 2 | 6.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1: 0.67 26 | 291-300 | 3 | 7 | 6.5.4 | 8 | 7.6 | 7.6.5 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 7.6 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1: 1.00 27 | 301-310 | 3 | 7 | 2.6.5.4 | 8 | 7.6 | 5 | 2 | 6.5.4 | 7.5.4.9.8.6 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1: 0.67 28 | 311-320 | 3 | 7 | 2.5.4 | 8 | 6 | 9.8.7.5 | 2 | 3.4 | 8.6 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1: 0.67 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== [Footnote *: Aided by experimenter.] I immediately set about reinstating the former attitude by lessening the number of trials and the punishment, and by increasing the value of the reward, but my best efforts, continuing up to August 28, failed markedly to improve the condition. The number of correct choices did somewhat increase, but at no time did the animal attain the degree of success which he had achieved as early as July 31 in the eleventh series of trials. During the last two weeks of experimentation, all possible efforts were put forth to discover the best combination of rewards and punishments. Punishment was varied from 0 to confinement of sixty seconds, and many kinds of food in different amounts were tried as rewards, but in spite of everything Sobke failed to improve markedly. From time to time, notably on August 12 and 21, he exhibited peculiarly strong resentment toward me and repeatedly attempted to attack me. The outcome of my experiments with problem 4 is peculiarly interesting in that it indicates the importance of a favorable attitude toward the work and the extreme risk from disturbing or discouraging conditions. It seems not improbable that had the work progressed without change in experimenter, or method of procedure, and above all without the disturbance of the painting, Sobke might have solved problem 4 within a few days. This is by no means certain, however, for in problems 2 and 3 the ratio of right to wrong choices instead of increasing steadily increased very irregularly. The detailed results for this problem are given in table 7. Reactive tendencies which appear are: (a) persistent choice of the end boxes followed, subsequently, by (b) the tendency to locate the middle box directly. This proved fairly easy when the number of boxes involved was only three as in settings 1, 4, 7, and 10. Setting 4 was most difficult of all, because box 9 was avoided or ignored. When the number of open boxes was as great as five, as in settings 2 and 8, the task was obviously more difficult, but whereas success in setting 2 appeared early, in setting 8 it failed to appear during the course of experimentation. For the settings 3, 6, and 9, involving either seven or nine open boxes, the direct choice of the middle box was next to impossible, and Sobke tended to choose, first of all, a particular box toward one end of the series, for example, box 2, in setting 3, and box 7 in setting 9. To the experimenter, as he watched the animal's behavior, it looked as though effort each time were being made to locate the middle member of the group. This appeared relatively easy for groups of three boxes, extremely difficult for as many as five boxes, and almost impossible for seven or nine. 3. Julius, _Pongo pygmaeus_ _Problem 1. First at the Left End_ The orang utan, Julius, was gentle, docile, and friendly with the experimenter throughout the period of investigation. He at no time showed inclination to bite and could be handled safely. As contrasted with Skirrl and even with Sobke, he adapted himself to the multiple-choice apparatus very promptly, and only slight effort on the part of the observer was necessary to prepare him, by preliminary trials, for the regular experiments. But in order to facilitate work, he was familiarized with the apparatus by means of regular route training and feeding in the several boxes from April 5 to April 9. On April 10 the apparatus was painted white as has been stated previously, and on the following Monday, April 12, Julius when again introduced to it gave no indications of fear, uneasiness, or dislike, but worked as formerly, making his round trips quickly and eagerly entering any box which happened to be open, in order to obtain the reward of food. The regular experimentation was undertaken on April 13, and the results of the first series of trials with Julius are sharply contrasted with those obtained with the monkeys in that fewer choices were necessary. Instead of the expected ratio of right to wrong first choices, 1 to 2.5, the orang utan gave a ratio of 1 to 1. An additional markedly different result from that obtained with the monkeys is indicated below in the total time required for a series of trials. As examples, the data for the first, second, fifth, and tenth series are presented. TIME FOR SERIES OF TRIALS 1st series 2nd series 5th series 10th series Skirrl 35 min. 20 min. 14 min. 10 min. Sobke 14 " 17 " 10 " 9 " (8th series) Julius 12 " 11 " 14 " 9 " It is also noteworthy that Julius in the presence of visitors or under other unusual conditions worked steadily and well, whereas the monkeys, and especially Sobke, tended to be distracted and often refused to work at all. Almost from the beginning of his work on problem l, Julius began to develop the tendency to enter immediately the open door nearest the starting point. In case the group of open doors lay to the right of the middle of the apparatus, this method naturally yielded success; whereas if the group included doors to the left of the middle, it resulted in failure. Obviously it was a most unsatisfactory method, and although it enabled him to make more right than wrong first choices, it prevented him from increasing the number of right choices, and as table 1 indicates, it maintained the ratio of 1 right to .67 wrong first choices for eight successive days. On April 23 a break occurred in which the number of correct choices was reduced from six to five. Julius worked very rapidly and with almost no hesitation in choosing. My notes record "he seems to miss the point wholly. It is doubtful whether the punishment is sufficiently severe." At this time he was being punished by thirty seconds confinement in each wrong box, the interval having been held fairly steadily from the first series of experiments. On April 26 it was increased to sixty seconds, in an effort to break him of the habit of choosing the "nearest" door. But he became extremely restless under the longer confinement and tried his best to raise the entrance and exit doors. Since there was at this time no mechanism for locking them when closed, it was difficult for the experimenter to prevent him from escaping by way of the entrance door or from raising the exit door sufficiently to obtain the food. Indeed, the longer confinement worked so unsatisfactorily that on the following day I substituted for it the punishment of forcing him to raise the entrance door of the wrong box in order to escape for a new choice. He was rewarded with food in the alleyway H, beside door 15 (figure 17), only when he chose correctly on first attempt. This method discouraged him extremely and proved wasteful of time. Consequently, in a second series on the same date return was made to the former method, and he was rewarded with food whenever he found the right box. But on April 28, the two methods were again employed, the first in the initial series and the second in a final series of trials. The animal's persistent attempts to raise the doors gave the experimenter so much trouble that on April 29 barbed wire was nailed over the windows of the entrance doors with the hope that it might prevent him from working at them. But he quickly learned to place his fingers between the barbs and raise the doors as effectively as ever. On April 30 the reward of food was given only when the first choice was that of the right box and in that event it was placed in the alleyway H as stated above. As it seemed absolutely essential to break the unprofitable habit of choosing the nearest door, on May 3 a new series of settings was presented, in which only the doors to the left of the middle of the row of nine boxes were used as right doors. That is, in this new series, doors 1 to 4 occur as right doors; 5 to 9 do not. As punishment for wrong choices on this date, Julius was confined in the wrong box from one to five minutes. It was difficult to keep him in, but by means of cords which had been attached to the doors, this was successfully accomplished. Yet another and slightly different series of settings was employed on May 4, and this, proving satisfactory, was continued in use until the end of the experiment, with punishment ranging from sixty to one hundred and twenty seconds for each mistake. Naturally the modification of settings introduced May 3 greatly increased the proportion of wrong first choices. Indeed, as appears in table 8, the ratio of right to wrong immediately changed from 1:0.67 to 1:4.00. Between May 3 and May 10, no steady and consistent improvement in method or in the number of correct first choices occurred, and on the last named date, Julius chose correctly only three times in his ten trials. At this time there was, as my notes record, no satisfactory indication of progress, and the status of the experiment seemed extremely unsatisfactory in as much as in spite of the experimenter's best efforts to break up the habit of choosing the nearest door, the orang utan still persisted, to a considerable extent, in the use of this method. The only encouraging feature of the results was an evident tendency to choose somewhat nearer the left end of a group than previously. TABLE 8 Results for Orang utan in Problem 1 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== | No. | S.1 | S.2 | S.3 | S.4 | S.5 | S.6 | S.7 | S.8 | S.9 | S.10 | | | | | Ratio Date | of | | | | | | | | | | | R | W | R | W | of | trials | 1.2.3 | 8.9 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 7.8.9 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 6.7.8 | 5.6.7 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 7.8.9 | 1.2.3 | | | | | R to W --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | April | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 13 | 1- 10 | 3.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.2 | 7.6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1:1.00 14 | 11- 20 | 3.2.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.4.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1:0.67 15 | 21- 30 | 3.2.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.5.5.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1:0.67 16 | 31- 40 | 3.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.2.1 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1:0.67 17 | 41- 50 | 3.2.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1:0.67 19 | 51- 60 | 3.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1:0.67 20 | 61- 70 | 2.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 5.3.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1:0.67 21 | 71- 80 | 3.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 5.4.3.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.2.1 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1:0.67 22 | 81- 90 | 3.1 | 8 | 5.3 | 7 | 6.3.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.2.1 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1:0.67 23 | 91-100 | 3.2.1 | 8 | 5.3 | 7 | 4.3.2 | 6 | 5 | 5.4 | 7 | 3.2.1 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1:1.00 24 | 101-110 | 3.2.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.3.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1:0.67 26 | 111-120 | 3.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.3.2 | 6 | 5 | 5.4 | 7 | 3.1 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1:1.00 27 | 121-130 | 3.2.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.3.2 | 6 | 6.5 | 5.8.6.4 | 7 | 3.3.3.1 | 4 | 6 | | | " | 131-140 | 3.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.3.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.2.1 | 6 | 4 |10 |10 | 1:1.00 28 | 141-150 | 3.2.1 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 5.4.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 151-160 | 3.1 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 3.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.2.1 | 7 | 3 |14 | 6 | 1:0.43 29 | 161-170 | 3.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.3.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.2.1 | 6 | 4 | | | " | 171-180 | 3.2.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.2.1 | 6 | 4 |12 | 8 | 1:0.67 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 30 | 181-190 | 3.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | {4.5.6.4 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 6 | 4 | | | | | | | | | {5.6.4.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 191-200 | 3.1 | 8 | 4.5.6.7.3 | 7 | 4.5.3.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.2.1 | 6 | 4 |12 | 8 | 1:0.67 May | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | 201-210 | 3.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 6 | 4 | | | " | 211-220 | 3.2.1 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4.2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 3.1 | 6 | 4 |12 | 8 | 1:0.67 --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | 2.3.4.5 | | | | | | | 2.3.4.5 | | | | | | | 1.2.3 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 6.7.8 | 1.2.3 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 4.5.6.7.8.9 | 2.3.4.5 | 1.2.3 | 4.5.6.7.8.9 | 6.7.8.9 | | | | | --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- 3 | 221-230 | 3.1 | 4.3 | 4.2 | 3.1 | 4.3 | 4 | 4.3.2 | 3.1 | 4 | 4.3.2 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1:4.00 --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | 2.3.4.5 | 4.5.6.7 | | | | | 2.3.4.5 | | | | | | | | 1.2.3 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 6.7.8 | 8.9 | 2.3.4.5 | 3.4.5.6 | 1.2.3 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 6.7.8.9 | 1.2.3 | | | | | --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- 4 | 231-240 | 3.2.1 | 4.3 | 4.2 | 4 | 4.3.2 | 4.3 | 3.2.1 | 4 | 3.2 | 3.2.1 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1:4.00 5 | 241-250 | 2.1 | 3 | 3.2 | 4 | 3.2 | 4.3 | 3.2.1 | 4 | 3.2 | 3.2.1 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1:2.33 6 | 251-260 | 2.1 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 3.2 | 3 | 2.1 | 4 | 3.2 | 2.1 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1:1.00 7 | 261-270 | 2.1 | 3 | 3.2 | 4 | 3.2 | 3 | 2.1 | 4 | 4.2 | 2.1 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1:1.50 8 | 271-280 | 2.1 | 4.3 | 4.3.2 | 4 | 3.2 | 4.3 | 3.1 | 4 | 3.2 | 2.1 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1:4.00 10 | 281-290 | 1 | 4.3 | 4.2 | 4 | 3.2 | 4.3 | 2.1 | 4 | 3.2 | 2.1 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1:2.33 11 | 291-300 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 1 |10 | 0 |10 | 0 | 1:0.00 --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1.2.3 | 8.9 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 7.8.9 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 6.7.8 | 5.6.7 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 7.8.9 | 1.2.3 | | | | | --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- 12 | 301-310 | 1 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 1 |10 | 0 |10 | 0 | 1:0.00 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== A series of correct first choices was obtained on May 11, greatly to the surprise of the experimenter, for no indication had previously appeared of this approaching solution of the problem. It seemed possible, however, that the successes were accidental, and it was anticipated that in a control series Julius would again make mistakes. But on the following day, May 12, the presentation of the original series of ten settings, which, of course, differed radically from the settings used from May 4 to May 11 was responded to promptly, readily, and without a single mistake. Julius had solved his problem suddenly and, in all probability, ideationally. Only three reactive tendencies or methods appeared during Julius's work on this problem: (a) choice of the open door nearest to the starting point (sometimes the adjacent boxes were entered); (b) a tendency to avoid the "nearest" door and select instead one further toward the left end of the group; (c) direct choice of the first door on the left. The curve of learning plotted from the daily wrong choices and presented in figure 18, had it been obtained with a human subject, would undoubtedly be described as an ideational, and possibly even as a rational curve; for its sudden drop from near the maximum to the base line strongly suggests, if it does not actually prove, insight. Never before has a curve of learning like this been obtained from an infrahuman animal. I feel wholly justified in concluding from the evidences at hand, which have been presented as adequately as is possible without going into minutely detailed description, that the orang utan solved this simple problem ideationally. As a matter of fact, for the solution he required about four times the number of trials which Sobke required and twice as many as were necessary for Skirrl. Were we to measure the intelligence of these three animals by the number of trials needed in problem 1, Sobke clearly would rank first, Skirrl second, and Julius last of all. But other facts clearly indicate that Julius is far superior to the monkeys in intelligence. We therefore must conclude that _where very different methods of learning appear, the number of trials is not a safe criterion of intelligence._ The importance of this conclusion for comparative and genetic psychology needs no emphasis. _Problem 2. Second from the Right End_ Julius was given four days' rest before being presented with problem 2. He was occasionally fed in the apparatus, but regular continuation of training was not necessary to keep him in good form. During this rest interval, locks were attached to the doors of the apparatus so that the experimenter by moving a lever directly in front of him could fasten either one or both of the doors of a given box by a single movement. On May 13 Julius was given opportunity to obtain food from each of the boxes in turn, and trial of the locks was made in order to familiarize him with the new situation. He very quickly discovered that the doors could not be raised when closed, and after two days of preliminary work, he practically abandoned his formerly persistent efforts to open them. The locks worked satisfactorily from a mechanical point of view as well as from that of the adaptation of the animal to the modified situation. Problem 2 was regularly presented for the first time on May 17, on which day a single series was given. The period of punishment adopted was twenty seconds, and for each successful choice a small piece of banana was given as a reward. After the first trial in this series, in which Julius repeatedly entered the first box at the left, that is box 7, there was but slight tendency to reënter the first box at the left of the group. Instead, Julius developed the method of moving box by box toward the right end of the group. The choices were made promptly, and their systematic character enabled the animal to obtain his reward fairly quickly, in spite of the large number of mistakes. In the second series, the orang utan developed the interesting trick of quickly dodging out of the wrong box before the experimenter could lower the door behind him. This he did only after having been punished for many wrong choices to the point of discouragement. The trick was easily broken up by the sudden lowering of the entrance door as soon as he had passed under it. There appeared on May 21 an unfavorable physical condition which manifested itself, first of all through the eyes which appeared dull and bloodshot. On the following day they were inflamed and the lids nearly closed. Julius refused to eat, and experimentation was impossible. Until June 2 careful treatment and regulation of diet was necessary. He passed through what at the time seemed a rather startling condition, but rapidly regained his usual good health, and on June 3, although somewhat weak and listless, he again worked fairly steadily. Since it was now possible to lock the doors and confine the animal for any desired period, on June 5 the interval of punishment was made sixty seconds, and a liberal quantity of banana, beet, or carrot was offered as reward. No increase in the number of successful choices appeared, and Julius showed discouragement. Sawdust had been strewn on the floor, and in the intervals between trials as well as during confinement in wrong boxes, he took to playing with the sawdust. He would take it up in one hand and pour it from hand to hand until all had slipped through his fingers, then he would scrape together another handful and go through the same process. Often he became so intent on this form of amusement that even when the exit door was raised, he would not immediately go to get the food. The reactive tendencies which appeared in the work on problem 2 will now be presented in order, since I shall have to refer to them repeatedly, and the list will be more useful to the reader at this point than at the conclusion of the presentation of daily results. The following is not an exhaustive list but includes only the most important and conspicuous tendencies or methods together with the dates on which they were most apparent. (a) May 17, choice of first box at left of group or near it, then the next in order, and so on, until the second from the right was reached. This method with irregularities and certain definite skipping was used at various times, sometimes over periods of several days, during the course of the work. (b) June 3, preference for number 3 and number 4 developed immediately after the orang utan's illness and when he was working rather listlessly. On June 9 and 10, the original tendency (a) reappeared and persisted for a number of series. (c) June 14, a tendency to choose the box at or near the right end of a group, and then the one next to it. In connection with this tendency, which of course required only two choices in any given trial, interest in playing with the sawdust on the floor developed. Again on June 21, the animal returned to the use of tendency (a). (d) June 29, movement to box at right end of group, hesitation before it, and turning through a complete circle so that the second box from the right was faced. This, the correct box, was often promptly entered. This method, if persisted in, would obviously have yielded solution of the problem. (e) July 5, approach to and pretense to enter the box next to the right end (right one), and then choice of some other box. This _feint_ is peculiarly interesting, and its origin and persistence are difficult to account for. (f) In connection with the tendency to pretend that he was going to enter the second box from the right end, Julius developed also the tendency to turn around in front of the box at the right end, starting sometimes to back into it, and then to enter, instead, the box second from the end. (g) July, 6 and 7, a fairly definite tendency to take the one next in order or, instead, to go directly to the right box. (h) July 10, direct first choices without approach to other boxes appeared for the first time on this date. For this problem, it proved impossible to establish and maintain uniform conditions of experimentation. Instead, because of the failure of the animal to improve and the tendency to discouragement, both punishment and reward had to be altered from time to time, and other and more radical changes were occasionally made in the experimental procedure. Below for the sake of condensed and consecutive presentation, the most important conditions from day to day are arranged in tabular form: CONDITIONS OF EXPERIMENT FROM DAY To DAY FOR PROBLEM 2 Date Punishment Reward May 17 ............. 20 sec. confinement ........ Food in right box for each (Aid after 10 trials) trial " 18 to 21 ........ 30 sec. confinement ........ Food (banana) in right box for each trial " 22 to June 2 .... Illness, no experiments June 3 ............... 15 sec. confinement ........ Food (banana) in right box for each trial " 4 ............... 30 " " ............. Food (banana) in right box for each trial " 5-10 ............ 60 " " ............. Beet, carrot and loquat, in addition to banana " 11 .............. 10 to 30 sec. confinement .. Beet, carrot and loquat, in addition to banana " 12 to 15 ........ 60 sec. confinement ........ Beet, carrot and loquat, in addition to banana " 16 .............. 60 " " ............. Banana and sweet corn--former preferred " 17 (1st series). 60 sec. confinement ........ Food (banana, as in early series) " 17 (2nd series). No confinement in wrong box; Food only for correct first but instead, return to choices starting point by way of alleys " 18 to 22 ........ No confinement in wrong box; Food only for correct first but instead, return to choices starting point by way of alleys " 22 (2nd series). No punishment; allowed to Food for each trial enter boxes until right one was found " 23 .............. Return to starting point. After five wrong choices of a given box the animal was held for 60 secs. in one of the boxes and was then released by way of the exit door and rewarded when the right one was chosen " 23 (2nd series). No punishment .............. Reward for each trial " 24 (1st series). Return to starting point. .. Food only for correct first choices " 24 (2nd series). No punishment .............. Reward for each trial " 25-30 ........... Same as on 24th ............ July 1 (1st series). No punishment .............. " " " " " 1 (2nd series). Return to starting point ... Reward only for correct first choices " 2-8 ............. Same as on July 1 .......... " 8 (2nd series). No punishment .............. Reward for each trial " 8 (3rd series). Return to starting point ... Reward only for correct first choices " 9-10 ............ Same as for July 8 (3rd series) " 10 (2nd series). Momentary confinement in ..... Reward for each correct choice wrong boxes " 12 .............. Return to starting point ..... Reward for correct first choice " 12 (2nd series). 30 sec. confinement .......... Reward for each correct choice " 12 (3rd series). 5 " " ............... " " " " " " 13 .............. 30 " " ............... " " " " " " 14-17 ........... Return to starting point ..... Reward for correct first choices " 17 (2nd series). 60 sec. confinement .......... Reward for each correct choice " 19 .............. 30 " " ............... " " " " " " 20-26 ........... 10 " " ............... " " " " " " 27-30 ........... Right box indicated by slight Reward in each right box raising of exit door momentarily. No punishment " 30 (2nd series). Return to starting point ..... Reward for correct first choices " 31 .............. " " " " ..... " " " " " " 31 (2nd series) to Aug. 10 .... 10 to 60 sec. confinement .... Reward for each correct choice Aug. 10 (2nd series). Threatened with whip ......... " " " " " " 11 (1st series). " " " ........... " " " " " " 11 (2nd series). 10 sec. confinement .......... " " " " " " 12 .............. Threatened with whip ......... " " " " " " 12 (2nd series). 10 sec. confinement .......... " " " " " " 19 .............. 10 " " ............... " " " " " " 19 (2nd series). Threatened with whip ......... " " " " " With the above reactive tendencies and modifications of method in mind we may continue our description of results. On June 9 there developed a tendency to increase the magnitude of the original error by choosing nearer the left end of the groups. This is odd, since one would naturally suppose that an animal as intelligent as the orang utan would tend to avoid the general region in which success was never obtained and to focus attention on the right, as contrasted with the wrong end of each group. _It obviously contradicts the law of the gradual elimination of use less activities._ In other words, it is wholly at variance with the principle of trial and error exhibited by many infrahuman organisms. Julius, although making many mistakes, worked diligently and, for the most part, fairly rapidly. The day's work proved most important because of the change in method and also because of the appearance of hesitation, the rejection of certain boxes, and the definite choice of others. My notes record "this is a most important day for Julius in problem 2;" but subsequent results do not clearly justify this prophecy. The method of choosing the first box at the left and then of moving down the line until the right one was reached was so consistently followed that during a number of days it was possible for me to predict almost every choice. Indeed, to satisfy my curiosity in this matter during a number of series I guessed in advance the box which would be chosen. The percentages of correct guesses ranged from ninety to one hundred. June 10, for example, yielded two series for which the ratio of right to wrong first choices was 0 to 10, and in which the method described above was used consistently throughout. It was inevitable that punishment by confinement and the discouragement resulting therefrom should interfere with the regularity of work and make it extremely difficult to obtain strictly comparable results from series to series and from day to day. The data for this problem, as presented in table 9, have values quite different from those for the monkeys, chiefly because of the more variable conditions of observation. It was occasionally noted that the disintegration of a definite method and the disappearance of the tendency on which it depended occurred rather suddenly. Frequently it happened that having used an inadequate method fairly persistently on a given day, the animal would on the following day exhibit a wholly different method. Even over night a new method might develop. In the monkeys, although there was occasionally something comparable with this, it was by no means so evident. TABLE 9 Results for Orang utan in Problem 2 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== | No. | S.1 | S.2 | S.3 | S.4 | S.5 | S.6 | S.7 | S.8 | S.9 | S.10 | | | | | Ratio Date | of | | | | | | | | 1.2.3.4.5 | | | R | W | R | W | of | trials | 7.8.9 | 1.2.3.4 | 2.3.4.5.6.7 | 1.2.3.4.5.6 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 1.2.3 | 2.3.4.5 | 6.7.8.9 | 1.2.3.4 | 3.4.5.6.7.8 | | | | | R to W --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | May | | {7.7.7.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 17 | 1- 10 | {7.7.7.7 | 1.1.3 | 2.4.6 | 2.3.4.5 | 4.5.7 | 3.2 | 2.3.4 | {2.3.4.5 | 1.2.3 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 0 |10 | 0 |10 | 0:10.00 | | {7.7.8 | | | | | | | {6.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {4.5.6.8 | | | | | 18 | 11- 20 | 7.8 | 1.3 | 3.4.5.6 | 2.4.5 | 4.5.6.7 | 2 | 2.3.4 | {2.3.4.5 | 1.2.3 | {8.8.8.3 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 | | | | | | | | | {6.7.8 | | {4.5.6.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {2.4.7.7.2 | | | | | | | {5.3.4.5 | | | | | 19 | 21- 30 | 7.8 | 1.3 | {5.7.7.2 | 5 | 4.6.8.4.7 | 1.2 | 2.3.4 | 5.8 | 3 | {6.8.4.5 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 | | | | {3.2.4.6 | | | | | | | {3.5.6.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 20 | 31- 40 | {7.9.7.7 | 3 | 4.5.6 | 4.5 | 5.6.7 | 2 | 4 | 5.6.7.8 | 3 | 5.6.7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | {9.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 21 | 41- 50 | 7.8 | 3 | 3.4.5.6 | 4.5 | 4.5.6.7 | 2 | 3.4 | 4.5.6.8 | 3 | 4.5.6.7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 June | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 3 | 51- 60 | 7.8 | 3 | 4.5.6 | 3.4.5 | 4.5.6.7 | 3.1.2 | 3.4 | {3.7.9.7 | 3 | 4.5.6.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | | | | | {9.7.6.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 4 | 61- 70 | 7.8 | 3 | 4.5.6 | 4.5 | 4.5.6.7 | 3.3.1.2 | 4 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 3 | 4.5.6.7 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 1: 2.33 5 | 71- 80 | 7.9.7.8 | 3 | 3.4.5.6 | 3.6.3.4.5 | 4.7 | 3.1.2 | 4 | 3.4.5.6.7.8 | 3 | 4.5.6.7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 81- 90 | 7.8 | 3 | 3.4.5.6 | 3.4.5 | 4.5.6.7 | 2 | 3.4 | 3.4.5.6.7.8 | 2.3 | 4.5.6.7 | 2 | 8 | 5 |15 | 1: 3.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 7 | 91- 100 | 7.8 | 3 | 4.5.6 | 4.5 | 4.5.6.7 | 1.2 | 3.4 | {3.4.5.6 | 2.3 | {3.4.5.6 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 | | | | | | | | | {7.8 | | {8.5.6.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 8 | 101- 110 | 7.8 | 3 | 4.5.6 | 4.5 | 4.5.6.7 | 2 | 3.4 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 3 | 4.5.6.7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 111- 120 | 7.8 | 3 | 4.5.6 | 3.4.5 | 5.6.7 | 2 | 5.5.2.3.4 | 4.5.6.7.8 | 4.4.1.2.3 | 4.5.6.7 | 2 | 8 | 5 |15 | 1: 3.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 9 | 121- 130 | 7.8 | 2.3 | 4.5.6 | 4.5 | 4.5.6.7 | 2 | 3.4 | {2.3.4.5 | 1.2.3 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 1 | 9 | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 131- 140 | 7.8 | 1.2.3 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 5 | 4.5.6.7 | 1.2 | 2.3.4 | 6.7.8 | 2.3 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 1 | 9 | 2 |18 | 1: 9.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 | 141- 150 | 7.8 | 1.2.3 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 1.2.3.4.5 | 4.5.6.7 | 1.2 | 2.3.4 | {1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 0 |10 | | | | | | | | | | | | {5.6.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 151- 160 | 7.8 | 1.2.3 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 1.2.3.4.5 | 4.5.6.7 | 1.2 | 2.3.4 | {1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 0 |10 | 0 |10 | 0:10.00 | | | | | | | | | {5.6.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 11 | 161- 170 | 8 | {4.1.2.4.1 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 5 | 6.7 | {3.1.3.1 | 5.2.3.4 | 2.6.7.8 | 4.1.2.3 | 8.5.6.7 | 2 | 8 | | | | | | {4.1.4.1.3 | | | | {3.1.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 171- 180 | 9.7.8 | 4.3 | 5.6 | 4.5 | 7 | 3.1.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.2.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 5 |15 | 1: 3.00 12 | 181- 190 | 7.9.7.9.8 | 1.2.3 | 3.4.5.6 | 6.4.5 | 5.6.7 | 2 | 5.3.4 | 7.8 | 4.1.2.3 | 4.5.6.7 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1: 9.00 14 | 191- 200 | 9.8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 6.7.8 | 4.2.3 | 7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 201- 210 | 8 | 2.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.1.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 5 |15 | 1: 3.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 15 | 211- 220 | {7.9.7.9 | 4.2.3 | 6 | 5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 9.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | {7.9.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 221- 230 | 9.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 5.6.7 | 1.2 | 2.3.4 | 3.4.5.6.7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 1 | 9 | 4 |16 | 1: 4.00 16 | 231- 240 | 7.9.8 | 3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 2 | 5.4 | 5.6.7.8 | 4.1.4.3 | 8.7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 241- 250 | 9.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 6.7.8 | 4.3 | 6.7 | 1 | 9 | 3 |17 | 1: 5.67 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 17 | 251- 260 | 9.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | {6.5.4.6 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 6.5.6.7.8 | 3 | 5.6.7 | 1 | 9 | | | | | | | | | {5.4.5.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.6.6.5.6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {5.5.5.6.6 | | | | | | | | | | " | 261- 270 | {9.7.7.7 | 4.4.4.4.3 | 6 | 5 | {6.6.6.6.6 | {3.3.3.3 | 4 | {4.5.4.5.4 | 3 | {5.5.5.5 | 4 | 6 | 5 |15 | 1: 3.00 | | {7.7.7.8 | | | | {6.5.4.5 | {3.3.2 | | {5.6.7.8 | | {5.5.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | {6.5.5.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {4.5.6.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 18 | 271- 280 | {7.7.7.7 | 4.4.4.4.3 | 5.5.5.5.6 | 5 | {5.5.5.6 | {3.3.3. | 4 | {4.6.5.6 | 4.4.3 | 5.6.4.7 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 8 | 1: 4.00 | | {7.7.8 | | | | {5.5.6 | {3.3.2 | | {6.7.4.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {7.7.7.9 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 19 | 281- 290 | {9.9.9.7 | {4.4.4 | {5.7.7 | 5 | 5.7 | {3.3.3.3 | 4 | 5.8 | {4.4.4.4 | {6.5.6.5 | 2 | 8 | | | | | {7.7.8 | {4.4.3 | {7.4.6 | | | {3.3.2 | | | {4.4.3 | {5.5.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 291- 300 | 7.7.7.7.8 | 4.4.4.4.3 | 5.5.6 | 5 | {5.6.6.5.6 | 3.3.2 | {5.5.5.5 | 5.6.8 | 4.4.3 | 6.6.6.7 | 1 | 9 | 3 |17 | 1: 5.67 | | | | | | {6.6.6.7 | | {3.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {5.6.6.6.7 | | | | | | | 21 | 301- 310 | 7.7.8 | 4.4.3 | 5.6 | 5 | {6.6.6.5 | {3.3.3.3 | 5.5.5.2.4 | {3.4.3.5.5 | {4.2.2.4 | 5.3.7 | 1 | 9 | | | | | | | | | {5.6.5.7 | {3.2 | | {1.1.2.4.7 | {4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {2.3.2.2.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 311- 320 | {7.7.7.7 | 1.1.1.2.3 | {5.5.4.2 | 1.1.6.5 | 4.6.7 | 1.3.2 | {2.2.2.2 | {1.1.2.3 | {2.2.2.4 | {6.3.3.8 | 0 |10 | 1 |19 | 1:19.00 | | {7.7.8 | | {2.5.6 | | | | {2.2.3.4 | {6.6.6.8 | {2.3 | {4.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 22 | 321- 330 | 7.8 | {2.4.2.1.4 | 6 | 5 | 6.6.8.7 | 3.2 | 5.5.3.3.4 | 3.3.7.7.8 | 4.4.4.2.3 | 6.7 | 2 | 8 | | | | | | {4.4.4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 331- 340 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 6.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 6.7.8 | 3 | 5.6.7 | 4 | 6 | 6 |14 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 23 | 341- 350 | 7.8 | 4.2.4.3 | 6 | 5 | 6.7 | {3.3.3.1 | 5.5.4 | {7.5.4.3 | 4.4.4.3 | {6.6.3.6 | 2 | 8 | | | | | | | | | | {3.3.3.2 | | {6.7.7.8 | | {8.6.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 351- 360 | 7.8 | 4.4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 6.7 | 3.3.2 | 5.4 | {6.7.6.5 | 4.3 | 5.6.7 | 1 | 9 | 3 |17 | 1: 5.67 | | | | | | | | | {7.6.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 24 | 361- 370 | 7.8 | 4.4.2.3 | 7.7.6 | 6.6.4.5 | 7 | {3.3.3.3 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 5.6.7 | 2 | 8 | | | | | | | | | | {3.3.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 371- 380 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.6.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 6 |14 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 25 | 381- 390 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 7.7.7.6 | {6.6.6.6 | 8.6.7 | 3.1.2 | 5.3.5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | {6.4.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 391- 400 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 5 | 6.5.8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 5 | 5 | 9 |11 | 1: 1.22 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 26 | 401- 410 | 9.9.9.8 | 3 | {7.7.7.7.3 | {6.6.6.6 | 8.8.8.7 | 3.2 | {5.5.5.5 | 7.8 | {4.4.4.4 | 6.6.8.8.7 | 1 | 9 | | | | | | | {3.7.7.6 | {6.6.5 | | | {5.5.4 | | {4.4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 411- 420 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | 4 |16 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 28 | 421- 430 | 8 | {4.4.4.4 | 7.6 | {6.6.3.6 | 7 | {3.3.3.3 | 5.5.5.4 | 9.7.7.5.8 | 4.4.4.3 | 8.7 | 2 | 8 | | | | | | {4.4.3 | | {6.6.6.5 | | {3.3.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 431- 440 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {7.6.5.4 | | | | | | | " | 441- 450 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | {3.2.1.5 | 4.3 | 7 | 2 | 8 | 8 |22 | 1: 2.75 | | | | | | | | | {7.9.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 29 | 451- 460 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 6.6.6.5 | 8.6.7 | {3.3.3.3 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | | | | | | | | | | {3.3.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 461- 470 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 3.2.3.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | | | " | 471- 480 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 7.7.6 | 6.6.5 | 7 | 2 | 5.5.5.5.5.4 | 7.8 | 4.4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 |13 |17 | 1: 1.31 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 30 | 481- 490 | 8 | {4.4.4.4 | 7.7.6 | 6.6.6.5 | 8.6.6.5.7 | {3.1.3.3 | 5.5.5.4 | 8 | 4.4.4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | | {4.4.3 | | | | {3.3.3.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 491- 500 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.7.7.6 | 6.6.5 | 8.8.7 | 3.3.3.3.2 | 5.4 | {9.9.7.4 | 3 | 8.8.7 | 2 | 8 | 5 |15 | 1: 3.00 | | | | | | | | | {9.6.8 | | | | | | | July | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | 501- 510 | 9.7.9.8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 8.6.7 | 3.3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 511- 520 | {9.7.7.7 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.4.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 4 | 8 | 4.4.4.3 | 8.6.5.6.7 | 3 | 7 | 6 |14 | 1: 2.33 | | {7.9.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | 521- 530 | 9.8 | 3 | 7.5.7.6 | 6.4.5 | 8.7 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 531- 540 | 9.9.7.8 | 3 | 7.4.6 | 5 | 6.6.7 | 3.3.2 | 3.4 | 7.3.5.4.8 | 4.3 | {8.8.6.5 | 2 | 8 | 8 |12 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | | | | {4.5.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 3 | 541- 550 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | {6.6.6.6 | 6.8.7 | 3.3.3.2 | 5.5.4 | 9.6.9.6.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | | | | {6.6.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 551- 560 | 9.9.7.8 | 4.3 | 6 | 5 | 8.6.5.7 | {3.3.3.3 | 5.4 | {7.6.5.7 | 3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 7 |13 | 1: 1.86 | | | | | | | {3.2 | | {9.7.9.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | 561- 570 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | {8.8.8.8 | {3.3.3.3 | 5.5.5.5.4 | 8 | 4.4.4.3 | 8.8.8.8.7 | 2 | 8 | | | | | | | | | {8.8.7 | {3.3.3.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 571- 580 | 9.8 | 4.4.4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 8.8.7 | {3.3.3.3.3 | {5.5.5.5.5 | 7.6.8 | 4.4.3 | 7 | 2 | 8 | 4 |16 | 1: 4.00 | | | | | | | {3.3.3.2 | {5.5.5.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 6 | 581- 590 | 9.8 | 4.3 | 7.7.6 | 6.6.5 | 7 | 2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 591- 600 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 4.5 | 6.6.6.7 | 2 | 5.3.5.4 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 8.8.8.7 | 5 | 5 | 8 |12 | 1: 1.50 7 | 601- 610 | 8 | 1.3 | 6 | 5 | 6.5.7 | 2 | 5.4 | 5.6.6.6.7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 611- 620 | {9.7.7.7.9 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 6.5.6.5.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.9.7.9.8 | {4.4.4.4 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | 8 |12 | 1: 1.50 | | {7.7.7.8 | | | | | | | | {4.4.4.3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 8 | 621- 630 | {9.9.9.7.9 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.6.6.5 | {8.8.8.8 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.6.8 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | {9.9.8 | | | | {5.6.5.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {7.6.5.7 | | | | | | | " | 631- 640 | 9.8 | 3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 4 | {6.5.4.6 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 | | | | | | | | | | | | {9.7.9.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 641- 650 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 7.9.6.7.9.8 | 3 | 8.6.8.7 | 8 | 2 |17 |13 | 1: 0.76 9 | 651- 660 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 7.6.7.6.8 | 3 | 8.6.8.8.4.7 | 8 | 2 | | | " | 661- 670 | 9.9.8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.6.7.6.8 | 4.3 | 5.6.8 | 3 | 7 |11 | 9 | 1: 0.82 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 | 671- 680 | 9.8 | 3 | 5.4.5.6 | 5 | 6.4.8.6.7 | 3.2 | {3.5.3.2.3 | {7.6.5.6 | 3 | 5.4.3.7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | | | | | | | {5.3.5.2.4 | {5.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 681- 690 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 6.8.7 | 7 | 3 |10 |10 | 1: 1.00 12 | 691- 700 | 7.8 | 3 | 5.6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 7.7.7.7.8 | 4.2.2.3 | 8.7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 701- 710 | 9.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | {7.6.5.4.3 | 3 | 8.7 | 2 | 8 | | | | | | | | | | | | {2.1.4.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 711- 720 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | {7.6.5.4.3 | 3 | {6.5.4.3.6 | 4 | 6 | 9 |21 | 1: 2.33 | | | | | | | | | {2.5.9.8 | | {5.4.3.8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 13 | 721- 730 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 6 | 4.3.6.5 | 4.6.5.4.7 | 2 | 4 | {6.5.4.3 | 3 | {5.4.3.6 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | | {2.1.8 | | {8.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {4.7.5.4 | | | | | | | 14 | 731- 740 | 8 | 3 | 5.5.6 | 5 | {5.6.5.5 | 3.2 | 4 | {7.7.4.6 | 3 | 4.6.7 | 5 | 5 | | | | | | | | | {8.8.7 | | | {5.6.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {5.4.5.5.4 | | {4.4.4.5.5 | | | | | " | 741- 750 | 8 | 3 | 5.6 | 5 | {6.5.6.6 | 2 | 4 | {5.6.4.4.4 | 3 | {5.4.8.8.4 | 6 | 4 |11 | 9 | 1: 0.82 | | | | | | {6.8.4.7 | | | {7.6.8 | | {5.5.6.4.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 15 | 751- 760 | 7.7.9.7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 6.6.7 | 2 | 4 | 6.6.8 | 3 | {6.6.6.8 | 6 | 4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {5.6.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {5.4.6.6.5 | | | | | " | 761- 770 | 8 | 3 | 5.6 | 5 | 6.6.6.6.7 | 2 | 3.4 | 5.4.7.8 | 3 | {5.3.5.8.5 | 5 | 5 |11 | 9 | 1: 0.82 | | | | | | | | | | | {5.5.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {4.6.7.6.9 | | | | | | | 16 | 771- 780 | 7.7.7.8 | 3 | 6 | 4.5 | 5.7 | 2 | 3.4 | {7.7.5.5 | 3 | (5.6.8.5 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.6.6.8 | | {3.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.6.7.2 | | | | | | | " | 781- 790 | 7.8 | 3 | {4.5.4.3 | {4.6.4.4 | {4.4.6.8 | 2 | 3.4 | {3.4.4.4 | 3 | 6.7 | 3 | 7 | 7 |13 | 1: 1.86 | | | | {2.6 | {1.4.3.5 | {5.7 | | | {9.9.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 17 | 791- 800 | 7.8 | 2.3 | 6 | {4.4.4.3.6 | 4.8.4.6.7 | 2 | 4 | {5.7.6.6.1 | 3 | 5.7 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | {2.4.2.5 | | | | {7.4.4.8 | | | | | | | | | | {2.4.4.4.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 801- 810 | 7.8 | {4.2.4.1.4 | 5.7.6 | 5 | 5.7 | 2 | 3.5.5.4 | 6.8 | {2.4.4.2 | 6.8.7 | 2 | 8 | 6 |14 | 1: 2.33 | | | {2.4.3 | | | | | | | {4.2.4 3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 19 | 811- 820 | 7.9.7.8 | 2.4.2.4.3 | 5.7.6 | 3.6.4.6.5 | 7 | 2 | 3.5.4 | 6.8 | 4.4.3 | 6.8.7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 821- 830 | 7.8 | 2.4.4.3 | 6 | 4.6.6.6.5 | 6.8.7 | 2 | 3.5.5.5.4 | 6.8 | 2.4.3 | 6.5.7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 831- 840 | 7.9.8 | 2.4.4.2.4.3 | 7.6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 7.6.4.6.8 | 2.4.3 | 6.8.7 | 4 | 6 | 8 |22 | 1: 2.75 20 | 841- 850 | 7.8 | 3 | 5.7.6 | 4.6.5 | 6.8.7 | 2 | 3.5.4 | 3.5.8 | 2.4.3 | 6.8.6.8.7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 851- 860 | 8 | 2.4.3 | 6 | 3.6.5 | 5.7 | 2 | 2.5.4 | 4.7.8 | 2.4.3 | 4.4.6.7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 861- 870 | 7.8 | 2.4.3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 2.4 | 6.8 | 2.4.3 | 4.7 | 4 | 6 | 9 |21 | 1: 2.33 21 | 871- 880 | 7.9.8 | 2.4.3 | 5.7.6 | {4.6.4.6 | 4.6.7 | 2 | 3.5.3.5.4 | 5.7.8 | 2.4.3 | 5.7 | 1 | 9 | | | | | | | | {3.2.4.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 881- 890 | 7.8 | 2.4.2.3 | 3.5.7.6 | 3.4.6.4.6.5 | 4.6.5.6.7 | 2 | 4 | 6.8 | 3 | 4.6.5.7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 891- 900 | 7.8 | 2.4.3 | 5.7.6 | 4.5 | 5.7 | 3.3.3.2 | 4 | {4.6.5.7.6 | 2.4.3 | 5.7 | 1 | 9 | 5 |25 | 1: 5.00 | | | | | | | | | {4.2.4.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 22 | 901- 910 | 7.8 | 2.4.3 | 5.7.6 | 4.6.5 | 6.8.7 | 2 | 2.5.4 | 5.6.8 | 2.3 | 6.7 | 1 | 9 | | | " | 911- 920 | 7.8 | 2.3 | 5.6 | 4.5 | 5.7 | 2 | 3.4 | 4.6.8 | 2.3 | 5.6.7 | 1 | 9 | 2 |18 | 1: 9.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 23 | 921- 930 | 7.8 | 2.3 | {3.2.4.4 | 5 | 4.6.5.6.7 | 2 | 3.2.4 | 5.4.6.8 | 2.3 | {4.5.4.3.5 | 2 | 8 | | | | | | | {5.6 | | | | | | | {6.5.6.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 23 | 931- 940 | 7.9.7.8 | 3 | 5.4.6 | 5 | 5.7 | 2 | 4 | 6.7.8 | 3 | 6.8.7 | 5 | 5 | | | " | 941- 950 | 7.8 | 3 | 5.6 | 4.6.5 | 7 | 2 | 3.5.4 | 5.6.8 | 2.3 | 6.7 | 3 | 7 |10 |20 | 1: 2.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 24 | 951- 960 | 7.8 | 2.3 | {2.7.7.4 | 4.6.5 | 5.7 | 2 | 4 | 4.6.8 | 3 | 6.8.7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | | | {5.7.4.6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 961- 970 | 7.9.7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | (6.8.6.8 | 2 | 5.5.3.4 | 7.8 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 9 |11 | 1: 1.22 | | | | | | {6.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {4.2.6.4 | | | | | | | | | | | 26 | 971- 980 | 7.9.7.8 | 3 | 6 | {6.4.6.4 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 6.8 | 3 | 6.8.7 | 6 | 4 | | | | | | | | {6.1.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 981- 990 | 7.9.7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 7.6.8 | 3 | 6.8.7 | 7 | 3 | | | | 991-1000 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 6.8.5.7 | 2 | 4 | 6.8 | 4.2.3 | 6.5.7 | 5 | 5 |18 |12 | 1: 0.67 --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- In |trials 1001| to 1100 the | right door |was indicated | by being |raised before | the choice | was made. | | | | | | | | --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- 30 | 1101-1110 | 8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 6.6.5 | 7 | 2 | 5.4 | {7.7.7.7.7 | 3 | 6.6.7 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 1: 1.50 | | | | | | | | | {7.6.6.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {7.7.6.7 | | | | | | | 31 | 1111-1120 | 7.7.8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 6.7 | 3.3.2 | 4 | {7.6.6.7 | 4.4.4.3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.6.8* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 1121-1130 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 3 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 8 |12 | 1: 1.50 August | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | 1131-1140 | 8 | 4.4.3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 3.3.3.2 | 4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 6 | 4 | | | " | 1141-1150 | 7.8 | 4.4.3 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 4.3 | 7 | 3 | 7 | 9 |11 | 1: 1.22 3 | 1151-1160 | 7.9.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 5 | 6.7 | 2 | 5.4 | 7.6.7.8 | 4.3 | 6.7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 1161-1170 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 8 |12 | 1: 1.50 4 | 1171-1180 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 6.7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 6.5.6.7 | 2 | 8 | | | " | 1181-1190 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 3.3.2 | 4 | 7.8 | 3 | 7 | 8 | 2 |10 |10 | 1: 1.00 5 | 1191-1200 | 7.8 | 4.4.3 | 6 | 5 | 6.7 | 3.3.3.2 | 4 | 6.7.8 | 3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | | | | 1201-1210 | 8 | 4.3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 7.8 | 3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | | | " | 1211-1220 | 7.8 | 3 | 7.6.5 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 7.7.6.7.8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 |17 |13 | 1: 0.76 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 6 | 1221-1230 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | {6.5.6.6 | 2 | 4 | {5.6.5.7 | 3 | 6.8.6.7 | 7 | 3 | | | | | | | | | {5.6.5.7 | | | {9.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 1231-1240 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 4.5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 6.7.8 | 3 | 6.7 | 6 | 4 |13 | 7 | 1: 0.54 7 | 1241-1250 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 8.7 | 8 | 2 | | | " | 1251-1260 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 6.5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 3 | | | " | 1261-1270 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 5.3.4 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 8 | 2 |23 | 7 | 1: 0.30 9 | 1271-1280 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 5.4 | 9.7.8 | 3 | 7 | 8 | 2 | | | " | 1281-1290 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 4 | 7.8 | 3 | 7 | 8 | 2 |16 | 4 | 1: 0.25 10 | 1291-1300 | 7.8 | 3 | 7.6 | 5 | 6.7 | 3.2 | 4 | 6.7.8 | 3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | | | " | 1301-1310 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 5.6 | 4.5 | 6.7 | 2 | 4 | 6.8 | 3 | 6.8.7 | 3 | 7 | | | " | 1311-1320 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 5.7 | 2 | 4 | 5.7.8 | 3 | 4.6.8.7 | 6 | 4 |14 |16 | 1: 1.14 11 | 1321-1330 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 6.7 | 3.2 | 4 | 4.6.7.8 | 2.3 | 5.7 | 4 | 6 | | | " | 1331-1340 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 4.5 | 6.7 | 2 | 4 | 6.7.8 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 4 |10 |10 | 1: 1.00 12 | 1341-1350 | 9.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 6.7 | 2 | 4 | 6.7.8 | 3 | 6.7 | 6 | 4 | | | " | 1351-1360 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 6.7 | 2 | 4 | 7.8 | 3 | 6.7 | 6 | 4 |12 | 8 | 1: 0.67 19 | 1361-1370 | 7.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 6.7 | 2 | 4 | 6.7.8 | 3 | 6.7 | 6 | 4 | | | | 1371-1380 | 9.8 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 3.2 | 4 | 7.9.8 | 3 | 6.8.7 | 6 | 4 |12 | 8 | 1: 0.67 ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== [Footnote *: Aided by experimenter.] After two hundred and fifty trials on problem 2 had been given Julius, it seemed desirable to introduce a radical change in method in order to stimulate him to maximal effort. It was therefore decided to force him to make a round trip through the apparatus in connection with each choice, and to let this forced labor serve, in the place of confinement, as punishment for mistakes. This new method yielded peculiar and characteristic results. They differ from those previously obtained largely because of the orang utan's remarkably strong tendency to reenter the box through which he had just passed. This occurred so persistently, as may be seen in table 9 (June 17, second series, June 18, etc.), that a further modification of method was introduced in that after the same wrong box had been entered five times in succession, the experimenter on the next choice of the box confined the animal for a stated interval, say sixty seconds, in it, and then allowed it to escape by way of the exit door and choose repeatedly until it finally located the right box. Were it not for this particular feature of the method, the number of choices recorded after June 17 would unquestionably be very much greater than the table indicates. The new method proved a severe test of the orang utan's patience and perseverance, for he had to work much harder than formerly for his reward, and often became much fatigued before completing the regular series of ten trials. Early in the use of this method, he developed the habit of rolling around from exit door to starting point by a series of somersaults. When especially discouraged he would often bump his head against the floor so hard that I could hear the dull thud. As has been noted, I found it desirable to vary the procedure repeatedly. It proved especially interesting to give one series per day with the round trip as punishment and another series with confinement as punishment. Day after day, as the experiment progressed, slight or great fluctuations of the ratios of right to wrong choices appeared, but without consistent improvement. There was, to be sure, as the last column of table 9 shows, a radical improvement during the first six hundred and fifty trials, for the number of right choices per series increased from 0 to 8. But, as the observations were continued from day to day, it became more and more evident that the animal was merely passing from tendency to tendency--method to method--mixing tendencies, and occasionally developing new ones, without approach to the solution of the problem. This fact would have led me to discontinue the work much earlier than I actually did had it not been for the peculiarity of the results obtained with problem 1. It seemed not improbable that at any time Julius might succeed in perfectly solving this problem over night precisely as he had solved the first problem. A curiously interesting bit of behavior appeared for the first time on June 29. Julius had gone to the first box at the right end of the group, and instead of entering, he had wheeled around toward his right, and turning a complete circle, faced the right box, which he promptly entered. Subsequently, the tendency developed and the method was used with increasing frequency. On June 30, it appeared in the first series, four times, in the second series, six times; on July 1, in the first series, three times, and in the second series, four times; on July 2, in the first series, five times, and in the second series, nine times. It was indeed only by accident that the animal failed to fulfill the technical requirement for perfect solution of the problem in this series. Yet, had he done so, his subsequent trials would doubtless have revealed the lack of any other idea than that of turning completely around before entering a box. This odd bit of behavior proved peculiarly interesting and significant in that the tendency to turn became dissociated from the position (in front of the first box at the right end of the group) in connection with which it originally developed. After a few days, Julius would enter the reaction-chamber and instead of proceeding directly to the right end of the group, would stop suddenly wherever he happened to be, turn toward his right in a complete circle, and hasten into the box nearest to him which, as often as not, proved to be the wrong one. Thus the idea of turning completely about, which had it continued its association with the idea of facing the first box at the right, would have yielded success, instead became useless because of its dissociation. That the orang utan is capable of using free ideas seems clear enough in the light of this behavior. That he proved incapable of getting the idea of second from the right end is as clearly shown by the detailed results of table 9,--the fruits of weeks of experimenting. Certain other interesting tricks developed in Julius's behavior. Thus, on July 5, there appeared the tendency to move as though about to enter the right box (feint), then to stop suddenly and promptly enter another box, which was, of course, a wrong one. The reason for the development of this tendency could not be discovered, but in connection with it, there appeared another tendency which possibly can be explained. Julius took to backing into the chosen box so that he could face the experimenter. He would then, after a period of hesitation, come out and promptly enter one of the other boxes. This tendency was apparently due to the fact that during one or two series the experimenter growled at the orang utan every time he made a mistake. The growl startled him and caused him to look around. He evidently felt the need of keeping his eyes on the experimenter,--Hence the backing into the open box. The tendency disappeared shortly after the experimenter gave up the use of the growl as a method of punishing the animal for what were suspected to be careless choices. Curiously enough, it was not until July 10 that direct choice of the right box was made at all frequently. Previously, selection of it had been made almost invariably after approach to other boxes. But in the second series for July 10 there was an extraordinary improvement in method. This developed in the presence of two visitors, and it is therefore all the more surprising. The choices were made not only directly, but with decision and evident certainty that was quite at variance with the previous behavior of the animal. All the while through variation of methods, I was seeking to discover the best means of holding the orang utan to his maximum effort and care in attempting to select the right box. One day it would seem as though forcing him to make round trips with rewards only for correct first choices proved most satisfactory, and the next it might seem equally clear that punishment by confinement for thirty seconds or sixty seconds, with reward for correct choice in every trial, yielded better results. In the end I had to admit that no best method had been demonstrated and that I had failed to develop conditions which served to compel the animal's attention to the problem and to lead him to work without discouragement. There were, it is true, days on which it seemed practically certain that the problem would be solved, but as it turned out, Julius never succeeded in choosing correctly--throughout a series of ten trials. As a last resort, in order to make perfectly sure that the orang utan was doing his best, I decided to introduce corporal punishment in a mild form. For this purpose, I placed my assistant in charge of the apparatus and the series of trials, and stationed myself in one corner of the reaction-chamber with a whip in my hand. Whenever Julius entered a wrong box, I approached him with the whip and struck at him, being careful not to injure him and rarely striking him at all, for the threat was more effective than a blow. He was extremely afraid of the whip and would begin to whine and attempt to get out of the way as soon as he saw it. This method was introduced on August 10, but no improvement resulted, and in the end there was no reason to consider it more satisfactory than the other procedures. I am now wholly convinced that Julius did his best to choose correctly in the majority of the numerous series which were given him in connection with problem 2. From trials 1001 to 1100, a radical departure from the previous methods was introduced in that the right box was indicated to the animal by the slight and momentary raising of its exit door. Of course no records of the choices for this group of one hundred trials appear in table 9, for the simple reason that the animal inevitably and immediately entered the right box. It was thought that this method might serve to break up the previously developed tendencies toward inadequate forms of response and so encourage the animal that he would later solve the problem when given opportunity to select the right box without aid from the experimenter. But as a matter of fact, while the ratio of right to wrong first choices was 1 to .67 in the series preceding this change of method, it was 1 to 1.50 in the first series following its use. There is no satisfactory evidence that Julius profited by this experience, though as a matter of fact he did succeed in making his best daily record, eight right to two wrong choices, on August 4, after 1190 trials. The curve of learning for this problem has been plotted and is presented in figure 19. It is of course incomplete and it is offered only to indicate the extreme irregularity in performance. _Problem 1a. First at the Right End_ It was decided on August 19 that the further continuation of the work of Julius on problem 2 was not worth while. He had become much discouraged, and although willing to work for food, gave no indications whatever of improvement and seemed to have exhausted his methods. It seemed wise instead of giving up work with him in the multiple-choice method to return to a form of problem 1. We may designate it as problem 1a. The right box is definable as the first at the right end of the series instead of the first at the left end as in the original problem 1. It was thought possible that Julius might quickly solve this problem by a process similar to that used for problem 1. Work was begun on problem 1a, August 20, and for six successive days two series of trials per day were given, the settings for which as well as the resulting choices are given in table 10. Most notable in these results is the large number of cases in which Julius chose first the second box from the right end of the series, or in other words that box which had been the right one in problem 2. Contrary to expectation, he showed no inclination to abandon this tendency to choose the second from the right end, and the ratio of right to wrong choices changed in the direction opposite from expectation, beginning with 1 to 4 and ending on the sixth day with 0 to 20. It was obviously useless to continue the experiment further since Julius had given up his attempts to locate the right box in the first choice and was apparently satisfied to discover it by a process of trial and error. He had, it would seem, satisfied himself that the problem was insoluble. These results obtained in problem 1a constitute a most interesting comment on the effects of problem 2 on the orang utan. Behavior similar to that which he developed well might have been obtained from a child of three to four years placed in a like situation and forced to strive, day after day, to solve a problem beyond its ideational capacity. In many respects the most interesting and to the experimenter the most surprising result of this long series of observations with Julius was the lack of consistent improvement. It seemed almost incredible that he should continue, day after day, to make incorrect choices in a particular setting while choosing correctly in some other setting which from the standpoint of the experimenter was not more difficult. TABLE 10 Results for Orang utan in problem 1a ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== | No. | S.1 | S.2 | S.3 | S.4 | S.5 | S.6 | S.7 | S.8 | S.9 | S.10 | | | | | Ratio Date | of | | | | | | | | | | 1.2.3.4 | R | W | R | W | of | trials | 5.63 | 1.2.3.4 | 6.7.8.9 | 2.3.4.5 | 3.4.5.6.7 | 1.2.3 | 5.6.7.8 | 1.2 | 2.3.4.5.6 | 5.6.7 | | | | | R to W --------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+---+---+---+---+-------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | August | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 20 | 1- 10 | 6 | 3.4 | 6.7.8.9 | 4.5 | 6.7 | 3 | 7.8 | 2 | 5.5.6 | 6.7 | 3 | 7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 11- 20 | 5.6 | 3.4 | {7.8.7.8 | 4.5 | 6.7 | 2.3 | {7.6.7.7 | 2 | 5.6 | 6.7 | 1 | 9 | 4 |16 | 1: 4.00 | | | | {8.7.8.9 | | | | {6.7.7.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 21 | 21- 30 | 5.6 | 3.4 | {7.8.7.6 | 4.5 | 6.7 | 2.3 | 7.8 | 2 | 5.6 | 5.7 | 1 | 9 | | | | | | | {8.7.9 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 31- 40 | 5.6 | 3.4 | 7.7.6.8.9 | 4.5 | 6.7 | 3 | 6.7.8 | 2 | 6 | 6.7 | 3 | 7 | 4 |16 | 1: 4.00 23 | 41- 50 | 5.6 | 3.4 | 7.8.9 | 4.5 | 6.7 | 2.3 | 6.7.8 | 2 | 5.6 | 5.6.7 | 1 | 9 | | | " | 51- 60 | 5.6 | 3.4 | 7.8.9 | 4.5 | 6.7 | 2.3 | 6.8 | 2 | 5.6 | 6.7 | 1 | 9 | 2 |18 | 1: 9.00 24 | 61- 70 | 5.6 | 3.4 | 6.8.9 | 4.5 | 5.7 | 2.3 | 6.7.8 | 1.2 | 5.6 | 6.7 | 0 |10 | | | " | 71- 80 | 5.6 | 3.4 | 6.7.8.9 | 4.5 | 5.7 | 2.3 | 5.7.8 | 2 | 5.6 | 6.7 | 1 | 9 | 1 |19 | 1:19.00 25 | 81- 90 | 5.6 | 3.4 | 6.7.8.9 | 5 | 5.6.7 | 2.3 | 7.8 | 1.2 | 5.6 | 4.5.6.7 | 1 | 9 | | | " | 91-100 | 5.6 | 3.4 | 6.7.8.9 | 3.4.5 | 6.6.7 | 2.3 | 6.7.8 | 1.2 | 5.6 | 6.7 | 0 |10 | 1 |19 | 1:19.00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 26 | 101-110 | 5.6 | 3.4 | {6.7.8.8 | 3.5 | 5.6.7 | 2.3 | 5.6.7.6.7.8 | 1.2 | 5.6 | 6.7 | 0 |10 | | | | | | | {6.7.6.9 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {6.7.8.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | " | 111-120 | 5.6 | 2.3.4 | {6.7.8.7 | 3.4.5 | 5.6.7 | 2.3 | 7.8 | 1.2 | 5.6 | 4.5.6.7 | 0 |10 | 0 |20 | 0:20.00 | | | | {6.7.9* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ========+===========+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+==============+===+===+===+===+======== [Footnote *: Aided by experimenter.] The evidence suggests that in this young orang utan ideational learning tended to replace the simpler mode of problem solution by trial and error. Seemingly incapable of solving his problems by the lower grade process, he strove persistently, and often vainly, to gain insight. He used ideas ineffectively. Animals far lower in intelligence (e.g., the pig), surpass him in ability to solve these relational problems because they use the method of elimination by trial consistently and effectively. Julius, in these experiments, made a poor showing because his substitute for trial and error is only slightly developed. Would he have succeeded better with the same problems if mentally mature? There are many important features of the results which, for lack of space, have not been indicated or discussed. They can be developed from later comparative studies of the data, for in the tables appear all of the essential facts of response apart from those mentioned in the text. IV RESULTS OF SUPPLEMENTARY TESTS OF IDEATIONAL BEHAVIOR 1. Julius, _Pongo pygmaeus_ _Box Stacking Experiment_ In addition to the multiple-choice experiments which have been described in detail in the previous section, it was possible to conduct certain less systematic tests of ideational behavior in the monkeys and the orang utan. From the technical standpoint these tests were relatively unsatisfactory because only inexactly describable. But their results are in many respects more interesting, if not also more important, in the light which they throw on ideation than are those previously presented. First, in order of time, comes a test which may be designated as the box stacking experiment. The method will now be described in connection with an account of the behavior of Julius as contrasted with that of a child of three years and four months of age. In the large central cage labelled Z, figure 12, which was twenty-four feet long, ten feet wide, and ten to twelve feet deep, the following situation was arranged. From the center of the wire covering of the cage, a banana was suspended on a string so that it was approximately six feet from the floor, five feet from either side of the cage, and twelve feet from either end. From all approaches it was far beyond the reach of Julius, since it was impossible for him to climb along the wire roof and thus reach the string. Two boxes were placed on the floor of the cage several feet from the point directly under the banana. The one of these boxes was heavy and irregular in shape, as is shown in figures 21, 23 and 24 of plate V. Its greatest height was twenty-one inches; its least height, eighteen inches; its other dimensions, twelve and sixteen inches respectively. The smaller and lighter box measured twenty-two by twelve by ten inches. According to the experimenter's calculations, the only way in which Julius could obtain the banana was by placing the smaller box upon the larger and then climbing upon them. At 10 a.m. on March 5, Julius was admitted to the large cage, and the banana was pointed out to him by the experimenter. He immediately set about trying to get it, and worked diligently during the whole of the period of observation, which, because of the unfinished condition of some of the cages, was limited to slightly over ten minutes. Within this period he made upward of a dozen fairly well directed attempts to obtain the food. Chief among them were three attempts to reach the banana from different positions on the left wall of the cage (as the experimenter faced the laboratory); two attempts to reach it from different positions on the right wall; two from the large box in positions nearly under the banana; two from the large box with the aid of the experimenter's hand; and one from the distant end of the cage(?). There occurred, also, less definite and easily describable efforts to get at the reward. On account of the unfinished condition of the cages, the experimenter had to remain in the large cage with Julius during the test. This interfered with the experiment because the animal tended both to try to escape and to get the experimenter to help him with his task. Particularly interesting is the latter sort of behavior. After the orang utan had made two or three futile attempts to obtain the food he came to the experimenter, who was standing in one corner of the cage, took him by the hand, and led him to a point directly under the banana. He then looked up toward the banana, grasped the experimenter's arm, raised it, and then tried to pull himself up. He was not allowed to get the food by climbing up on the experimenter. A few minutes later, he again led the experimenter toward the banana, but receiving discouragement in this activity, he proceeded to devote himself to other methods. Apart from the distractions which have been mentioned above, Julius's attention to the food was surprisingly constant. Whatever his position with respect to it, he seemed not for an instant to lose his motive, and to whatever part of the cage he went and whatever he did during the interval of observation was evidently guided by the strong desire to obtain the banana. Frequently he would look directly at it for a few seconds and then try some new method of reaching it. His gaze was deliberate and in the handling of the boxes he accurately gauged distances. Several times he succeeded in placing the larger box almost directly under the banana, and repeatedly he located that portion of the side wall from which he could most nearly reach the coveted prize. EXPLANATION OF PLATE V Orang utan, Julius, obtaining banana by piling boxes or by using pole FIGURE 21.--Julius in act of setting larger box on end. FIGURE 22.--Placing smaller box on larger. FIGURE 23.--Balancing on larger box preparatory to reaching for banana. FIGURE 24.--Balancing and reaching to the utmost. FIGURE 25.--Standing on three boxes (after stacking them) and reaching for reward. FIGURE 26.--Lifting smaller box up toward banana. FIGURE 27.--The act of stacking the boxes. FIGURE 28.--Sequel to figure 27. FIGURE 29.--Box and pole experiment. Pushing the second pole into the box. FIGURE 30.--Pushing pole into box. FIGURE 31.--Enjoying the reward of success. From my notes I quote the following comment on the results of the initial experiment: "Despite all that has been written concerning the intelligent behavior of the orang utan, I was amazed by Julius's behavior this morning, for it was far more deliberate and apparently reflective as well as more persistently directed toward the goal than I had anticipated. I had looked for sporadic attempts to obtain the banana, with speedy discouragement and such fluctuations of attention as would be exhibited by a child of two to four years. But in less than ten minutes Julius made at least ten obvious and well directed attempts to reach the food. There were also wanderings, efforts to obtain aid from the experimenter, and varied attempts to escape from the cage." Before proceeding further with the description of the behavior of Julius in the box stacking test, I shall describe for contrast the behavior of a boy three years four months of age when confronted with a situation practically identical with that which the ape was given an opportunity to meet. For the child, the banana was suspended, as previously described, from the roof of the cage. The same two boxes were placed on the floor at considerable distances from the banana, and in addition, a light stick, about six feet long, and a piece of board, the latter by accident, were on the floor. The child was asked to get the banana for Julius, and he eagerly and confidently volunteered to do so. His behavior may best be described by enumeration of the several attempts made. They include (1) placing the larger box nearly under the banana and reaching from it. (2) Standing of the larger box on end with resulting failure because the child could not stand on the sloping edges of the top of the box. (3) The larger box was turned on its side and the lighter box drawn up opposite it and stood on end. The child then mounted the larger box and from it stepped to the top of the smaller. But the boxes had not been placed beneath the banana, and when the child reached for it, he found himself several feet away from his prize. (4) The boxes were moved to a position nearly under the banana and another futile attempt was made to reach it without placing the smaller box on top of the larger one, the only position from which the child could readily obtain it. (5) The piece of board was placed on top of the larger box and from this height the child again reached upward. (6) The six-foot stick was taken up and an attempt was made to strike the banana and thus dislodge it, but it was too securely fastened to be obtained thus. (7) Attention shifted to other things, and the child played for a time with the board. Reminded of the banana by the experimenter, he again tried method (3). (8) He again used the stick on the banana. (9) The effort to knock the prize to the floor having failed, he became discouraged and said that he must go home. (10) When told that Julius was very hungry and wanted the banana, he repeated efforts similar to those described in (3) and (6). Up to this time the observations had covered a period of twenty minutes. The child was now taken from the cage and allowed to play about for fifteen minutes. Asked then whether he would go back and try to get the banana, he replied, "No, 'cause I don't want to get it," thus indicating his discouragement with the situation. When taken into the cage, he, nevertheless, made the additional attempts indicated below: (11) Use of one of the boxes. (12) He remarked, "Now I know, I'll get it," and after so saying, repeated (3). (13) Failing, he turned to me and said, "I could get it if I was on your head," but he did not, as Julius had done, lead me to the proper place and try to reach the banana by climbing up or by urging me to lift him. (14) Later, he played in the boxes, apparently forgetful of his task. Finally he remarked: "I'll get the banana," but he made no attempt to do so, and instead, watched the monkeys intently. Thereafter, he showed no further interest in the solution of the problem, and the experiment, after a total period of fifty-five minutes, was discontinued. Comparison of the behavior of the ape with that of the child indicates a greater variety of ideas for the latter. Julius gauged his distances much more accurately than the child, attended more steadily, and worked more persistently to obtain the reward, but he did not so nearly approach the idea of stacking the boxes as did the child, for the latter, in placing the board on one of the boxes, exhibited in ineffective form the idea which should have yielded the solution of the problem. The child was given no further opportunity to work at the problem, whereas Julius, as I shall now describe, continued his efforts on subsequent days under somewhat different conditions. On Wednesday, March 10, the banana was suspended as formerly, and three boxes, all of them small and light enough to be readily handled by the ape, were placed in distant parts of the cage. The six-foot stick which had been present in the test with the child, but not in the first test with Julius, was also placed in the cage. Julius was allowed to work for about an hour. As formerly, he was sufficiently hungry to be eager to get the food and evidently tried all of the possible ways which occurred to him. Chief among these were (1) the use of the various boxes separately or in pairs in very varied positions but never with one upon another,--the only way in which the banana could be reached; (2) climbing to various points on the sides of the cage, with infrequent attempts to reach the banana. Usually his eyes saved him the vain effort. Unlike the child, Julius paid little attention to the six-foot stick. Two or three times he took it up and seemingly reached for the banana, but in no case did he try persistently to strike it and knock it from the string. It is but fair, however, to remark that such an act is very difficult for the young orang utan, as compared with the child, because of the weakness of the legs and the awkwardness of striking from a sitting posture. As previously, the steadiness of attention and the persistence of effort toward the end in view were most surprising. At one time Julius walked to the end of the cage and there happened to see one of the monkeys eating. He watched intently a few seconds and then hastened back to the banana as if his task had been suggested to him by the sight of the feeding animal. Most interesting and significant in this behavior was the suddenness with which he would turn to a new method. It often looked precisely as though a new idea had come to him, and he was all eagerness to try it out. On March 11, Julius was given another opportunity to obtain the banana by the use of the three boxes. Although he used them together he made no effort to place one upon another. Certain of his methods are shown in plate V, especially by figures 21, 23 and 24. This experiment was continued on April 2 under yet different conditions, for this time only two boxes were placed in the cage, the one of them the heavy, irregularly-shaped box and the other the smaller, lighter one originally used. On the end of the heavier box had been nailed a two by two inch wooden block in order to increase the difficulty in using this box alone. As previously, Julius made varied attempts to obtain the banana, but on the whole his interest and attention seemed somewhat weaker than previously and there were indications of discouragement because of repeated failures. He handled the boxes conspicuously well, and it seemed at times that he would certainly succeed in placing the one upon the other and in reaching the food. After one series of attempts from the sides of the cage and from the large box, he deliberately turned away from the box and neatly executed a somersault on the floor of the cage, as much as to say, "I am disgusted with the whole situation." Again, later on the same day, after falling from the top of the larger box, which tilted over very easily, he rolled himself into a ball, and childlike, played with his feet. An additional evidence of his changed affective attitude toward his task, especially in connection with definite failures, appeared in his rough handling and biting of the boxes. When most impatient, he worked very roughly. Julius was allowed to work for the reward from thirty to ninety minutes, or, as a rule, until he had become completely discouraged on April 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 13. His behavior was interesting and significant, but nothing new appeared except that his willingness to work gradually disappeared, and on April 13, although previously hungry, he made only a single attempt to obtain the banana and then paid no further attention to it. The prolonged and varied efforts to obtain the banana were due in a measure at least to three accidental successes. Thus on April 2, 3 and again on the 5th, by fortunate combinations of circumstances, he succeeded in getting the banana, contrary to the intention of the experimenter. Although active at first on April 6, he soon wearied of his task and quit work. The same was true on April 7, and again on the 8th and 9th. On these days, although hungry, he did not care to enter the large cage and worked only a few minutes each day, seldom making more than two or three half-hearted attempts to obtain the banana. His attitude toward the task had changed completely, in that hopelessness had taken the place of eager expectancy. By the 13th of April he had so nearly given up voluntary efforts to solve the problem that it seemed worth while to test his ability to get the idea by watching the experimenter. For this purpose the following test of imitation was made. On the morning of April 14, having placed a banana in the usual position, I took Julius into the large cage, dragged the two boxes to the proper position beneath the banana, placed the smaller one upon the larger one and then climbed up on them to show the ape that I could reach the banana. I then stepped down and gave him a chance to climb on the boxes. He did so immediately and obtained the food. Another piece of banana was supplied, the boxes were placed in distant corners of the cage, and fifteen minutes were allowed Julius so to place them that he could obtain his reward. He gave no indications of having profited by my demonstration, but worked with the boxes singly, usually with the larger one. On April 16, with the banana in position and the two boxes also in the cage, Julius was admitted and allowed to work for five minutes, but again without success. I then placed the boxes properly for him and he immediately climbed up and got the banana. While he was eating, the boxes were carried to distant corners of the cage and another banana placed in position. Now thirty minutes were allowed him for unaided work on the problem. As formerly, the larger box was used repeatedly and attempts to reach from the side of the cage appeared, but there was no tendency to try to use the two boxes together. He worked fairly persistently, however, and showed clearly the stimulating and encouraging effect of aid from the experimenter. Once more, on April 17, Julius was taken into the cage and allowed to watch me place the boxes in proper position. He then climbed up and obtained the desired food. After the bait had been renewed and the boxes displaced, he immediately tried to use the larger one, then he reached for the small one as though to use both together. But the impulse died out and he turned again to the larger box as usual, standing it on end, and persistently trying to balance himself on it. Nothing else of special interest happened during the interval of unaided effort. Similarly, I placed the boxes for the ape on April 19, allowed him to get the banana and then gave him opportunity to try for himself after the boxes had been displaced. This time he immediately reached for the smaller box and moved it about a little, thus indicating a new association. He next turned to the larger box and worked with it persistently. Later, he once more worked with the smaller box in an unusual manner. He repeatedly stood on it, but made no attempt to lift it or to place it on the larger box. Clearly the usually neglected smaller box had become associated with the satisfaction of obtaining the banana. The same method was carried out on April 20. As I placed the boxes in position beneath the banana, Julius watched with unusual intentness, and when it came his turn to try to obtain the food by the use of the boxes, he began at once to work with the smaller box, but as on April 19, he soon abandoned it and turned to the other. While I was making note of this particular feature of his behavior, he suddenly seized the smaller box by two corners with his hands and by one edge with his teeth, and after a few attempts placed it on top of the larger box, climbed up, and obtained the banana. Because of bad weather on April 21, the next test was made on April 22, with everything as usual. Unaided, the ape was given an opportunity to obtain the coveted reward, while I stood ready to obtain records of his behavior with my camera. He wasted no time, but piled the smaller box on top of the larger one immediately, and obtained his reward. As soon as opportunity was offered, he repeated the performance. The same thing happened on April 23 and several succeeding dates. Julius had got the idea, and the only further improvement possible was in skill in manipulating the boxes. One of the curious performances which appeared during the imitative period is pictured in figure 26, plate V, where the ape is seen lifting the smaller box into the air. This he did three or four times one day, raising it toward the banana each time as though he expected thus to obtain the reward. As he did not go up with the box (according to his expectation?), he abandoned this method, and looking about, discovered the larger box in a distant corner. Thereupon, he promptly pulled the boxes to their proper position beneath the banana, stacked them, and obtained his food. After considerable skill had been acquired in the placing of the boxes, the one upon the other, the height of the banana above the floor was increased so that three boxes were necessary. Figure 25 of plate V shows him standing on three boxes and reaching upward, and figures 22, 27 and 28 show various modes of handling the boxes and of reaching from them. He was not at all particular as to the stability of his perch, and often mounted the boxes when it seemed to the experimenter inevitable that they should topple over and precipitate him to the floor. Only once, however, during the several days of experimentation did he thus fall. Obviously important is the evident change in the animal's attention on April 20. He watched with a keenness of interest which betokened a dawning idea. Before he had succeeded in stacking the boxes, I had written in my note-book, "He seemed much interested today, in my placing of the boxes." Interesting, and important also, is the ease and efficiency with which he met the situation time after time, after this first success. "Trial and error" had no obvious part in the development of the really essential features of the behavior. The ape had the idea and upon it depended for guidance. Except for the fact that Julius was immature, probably under five years of age, it is likely that he would have stacked the boxes spontaneously instead of by suggestion from the experimenter or imitatively. No unprejudiced psychologist would be likely to interpret the activities of the orang utan in the box-stacking experiment as other than imaginal or ideational. He went directly, and in the most business-like way from point to point, from method to method, trying in turn and more or less persistently or repeatedly, almost all of the possible ways of obtaining the coveted food. The fact that he did not happen upon the only certain road to success is surprising indeed in view of the many ineffective methods which he used. It seemed almost as though he avoided the easy method. It is especially important, in connection with these results, to point out the risk of misinterpretation of observations on the anthropoid apes. If they can imitate human activities as readily and effectively as Julius did in this particular experiment, we can never be sure of the spontaneity of their ideational behavior unless we definitely know that they have had no opportunity to see human beings perform similar acts. Of all the methods of eliciting ideational or allied forms of behavior used in my study of the monkeys and ape, none yielded such illuminating results as the box stacking test, and although from the technical standpoint, it has many shortcomings, as a means to qualitative results it has proved invaluable. _Other Methods of Obtaining the Reward_ Some weeks later, I tried to discover how Julius would obtain the much desired banana when the boxes were absent. I placed in the large cage a stick about six feet long and an old broom. When admitted, he looked about for the boxes, but not seeing them, picked up the broom and placing it with the splints down, beneath the banana, he tried to climb it, but as it fell over with him, he abandoned this after a few trials, went to his cage, and picking up some old bags which he used at night as covers, he dragged them out and placed them on the floor beneath the banana. He next put the broom upon them and tried to climb up. This general type of behavior persisted for several minutes, everything within reach being used as were the bags, as a means of raising him in the desired direction. Finally, he placed his feet on the broom where the handle joins the splints, seized the handle near the top with his hands, drew himself up as far as possible, and then launched himself in the air and tried to seize the banana. On the third attempt he succeeded. Later, he was given a plain stick about five feet long. Figure 32 of plate VI shows him using this to obtain the banana in the manner described above. He would grasp it with one or both feet, usually one, ten to fifteen inches from the floor of the cage, meanwhile holding with his hands near the top of the stick. He would then, with all his strength, draw himself up suddenly and jump toward the banana. Often he came down rather hard on the cement floor, much to his disgust. Yet another method of obtaining the reward developed a day or two later. A light red-wood stick about five feet long and an inch in its other dimensions was the only object in the cage which could possibly be of use in obtaining the banana. The aim of the experimenter was to discover whether Julius would use this as a club. Previously, in connection with the use of the boxes, he had taken up the same stick two or three times and reached for the banana with it, but in no case had he struck at it or clearly tried to knock it from the string, as did the child most readily and naturally. When provided with this same stick, and it alone, as a means of obtaining the food, he hit upon the following interesting method. Placing one end of the stick between a wooden brace and the wire side of the cage, he climbed up to a level with the banana as is shown in figure 33 of plate VI. Then holding with one hand and one foot to a timber of the cage and to the stick with his other foot, he swung outward as far as possible and reached the banana with his free hand. Having once succeeded by the method, he used it whenever given an opportunity. It was impossible for him to make the reach without the use of the small stick, while with it he succeeded fairly easily and regularly. _Box and Pole Experiment_ Following the box stacking test, Julius was given an opportunity to exhibit ideation in another type of experiment. This may be designated the box and pole test. The conditions are describable thus. A strong wooden box eighty-four inches long, by four inches wide, by four inches deep, with open ends, was built with one side hinged. Hasps and padlocks enabled the experimenter to lock this "lid" after food had been placed in the center of the box. This box could be placed in the center of the large cage and there fastened by means of cross bars. It is well shown in position in figure 29, plate V. Two poles each eight feet long and approximately one and a half inches in their other dimensions were the only additional materials in the experiment. On May 1, Julius was allowed to see the experimenter place a half banana in this box, close the lid, lock it in position, and securely fasten the box by means of the cross bars. He was then given opportunity to try to get the banana. The two poles lay on opposite sides of the box and near the edges of the cage. Doctor Hamilton and the writer were in the cage watching. Julius looked into the box through one end, and seeing the banana, reached for it. He could not obtain it in this way, so he began to bite at the box and to pull at it with all his strength. During the fifteen minutes allowed him, he worked at the box in a great variety of ways, fooling with the locks which had been attached to the hasps as well as with the cross bars and continually reaching in at the one or the other end. He was somewhat distracted by the presence of the two observers and attended rather unsatisfactorily to the task in hand. Not once did he touch the poles, and it is doubtful whether he even noticed them. He was not very hungry at this time, and after a few minutes active work he virtually gave up trying to get the food. Two days later, on May 3, the box was once more placed in position, this time with a half banana in the middle and a small piece of banana near each open end. The two poles lay on the floor of the cage, each several feet distant from the box. Julius was eager for food. When released he went immediately to the box, reached in and obtained a piece of banana from the end nearer the laboratory. He then looked in and saw the piece near the middle of the box. His next move was to pick up the eight foot pole and push it into the box, but before pushing it all the way through, he stopped and began to pull at the box in various ways. Shortly he returned to the pole and twice thrust it in as far as he could reach. The first time, after thrusting it all the way through, he pulled it out and examined the end as though expecting the banana to come out with it. After a third attempt he looked into the box, presumably seeing the banana, then turned a backward somersault, came to the end of the cage, and looked at me. Had it been at all possible, he would have taken me by the hand and led me to the box as a helper. After a few seconds, he returned to the pole, pried the lid of the box with it, then gnawed at the pole. For about five minutes he worked fairly rapidly and steadily, using the poles, pulling, gnawing, and walking about. His next move was to go to the opposite end of the box, look in, take the piece of banana which was near the opening, then pick up the second pole, which had not previously been noticed, and after a number of attempts, push it into and through the box, looking after it and then pulling it out and looking into the box. Having done this he again came to my end of the cage, and from there returned to try once more with the pole which he had first used. He pushed this pole all the way through, then walked to the other end of the box, looked in and reaching in, obtained the banana which had been pushed far enough along to be within his grasp. Figures 29, 30 and 31 of plate V show stages of this process. Julius had worked twenty-four minutes with relatively little lost time before succeeding. He had shown almost from the start the idea of using the pole as an instrument, and his sole difficulty was in making the pole serve the desired purpose. The experiment was rendered still more crucial on May 5 by the placing of the two poles upright in opposite corners of the large cage. For a few minutes after he entered the cage, Julius did not see them, and his time was spent pulling and gnawing at the box. Then he discovered one of the poles, seized it, and pushed it into the box. He tried four times, then went and got the other pole and pushed it into the opposite end of the box. Twice he did this, then he returned to the original pole, bringing the second one with him. He pushed it in beside the first, and as it happened, shoved the banana out of the opposite end of the box. But he did not see this, and only after several seconds when he happened to walk to that end of the box did he discover the banana. The total time until success was fifteen minutes. Subsequently the ape became very expert in using the pole to obtain the banana, and often only a minute or two sufficed for success. It was not possible for him to direct the stick very accurately, for when he was in such a position that he could look through the box, he could not work the stick itself. It was, therefore, always a matter of chance whether he obtained the banana immediately or only after a number of trials. Although it is possible that the use of the poles in this experiment was due to observation of human activities, it seems probable in the light of what we know of the natural behavior of the anthropoid apes that Julius would have solved this problem independently of human influence. It was the expectation of the experimenter that the pole would be used to push the banana through the box, but as a matter of fact the ape used it, first of all, to pull the food toward him, thus indicating a natural tendency which is important in connection with the statements just made. Subsequently he learned that the banana must be pushed through and obtained at the farther end of the box. I am not prepared to accept the solution of this problem as satisfactory evidence of ideation, but I do know that few observers could have watched the behavior of the orang utan without being convinced that he was acting ideationally. _Draw-in Experiment_ An interesting contrast with the box and pole test is furnished by what may be called the draw-in experiment. This was planned as a simple test of Julius's ability to use a stick to draw things into his cage from beyond the wire side. A board was placed, as is shown in figure 34 of plate VI, with sides to hold a banana, carrot, or some other bit of food, in position. In the actual test either a carrot or a banana was placed about two feet from the wire netting and a stick two feet long was then put into the cage with the ape. When this situation was first presented to Julius, he looked at the banana, reached for it, and failing, picked up a bag from the floor of the cage and tried to push it through the wire mesh toward the banana. He also used a bit of wire in the same way, but was unable thus to get the food. As soon as a stick was placed in his cage, he grasped it and used it in a very definite, although unskillful, way to pull the banana toward him. He was extremely eager and impatient, but nevertheless persistent in his efforts, and within five minutes from the beginning of the first trial, he had succeeded in getting two pieces of banana, using always his left hand to manipulate the stick. This test was repeated a number of times with similar results. He had from the first the ability to use a stick in this way, and the only difficulty with the test as a means of obtaining evidence of ideational behavior is that the possibility of imitation of man cannot be certainly excluded. _Lock and Key Test_ By my assistant it was reported on May 5 that the orang utan had been seen to place a splinter of wood in a padlock which was used on the cages and to work with it persistently. It looked very much like imitation of the human act of using the key, and I therefore planned a test to ascertain whether Julius could readily and skillfully use a key or could learn quickly to do so by watching me. The first test was made on May 15 with a heavy box whose hinged lid was held securely in position by means of a hasp and a padlock. The key, which was not more than an inch in length, was fastened to a six inch piece of wire so that Julius could not readily lose it. With the animal opposite me, I placed a piece of banana in the box, then closed the lid and snapped the padlock. I next handed Julius the key. He immediately laid it on the floor opposite him and began biting the box, rolling it around, and occasionally biting also at the lock and pulling at it. During these activities he had pulled the box toward his cage. Now he suddenly looked up to the position where the banana had been suspended in the box experiment. Evidently the box had suggested to him the banana. For thirty minutes he struggled with the box almost continuously, chewing persistently at the hinges, the hasp, or the lock. Then he took the key in his teeth and tried to push it into one of the hinges, then into the crack beneath the lid of the box. Subsequently I allowed him to see me use the key repeatedly, and as a result, he came to use it himself now and then on the edge of the box, but he never succeeded in placing it in the lock, and the outcome of the experiment was total failure on the part of the animal to unfasten the lock of his own initiative or to learn to use the key by watching me do so. I did not make any special attempt to teach him to use the key, but merely gave him opportunity to imitate, and it is by no means impossible that he would have succeeded had the key been larger and had the situation required less accurately coordinated movements. However, it is fair to say that the evidence of the idea of using the key in the lock was unconvincing. My assistant's observation was, perhaps, misleading in so far as it suggested that idea. It may and probably was purely by accident that the animal used the splinter on the padlock. 2. Skirrl, _Pithecus irus_ _Box Stacking Experiment_ The monkey Skirrl was tested by means of the box stacking experiment much as Julius had been. On August 23, with a carrot suspended six feet from the floor of the large cage and three boxes in distant corners, the animal was admitted and his behavior noted. The boxes, which were made of light, thin material, ranged in size from one six inches in its several dimensions to one twenty inches long, thirteen inches wide, and eleven inches deep. Only by using at least two of these boxes was it possible for the animal to reach the carrot. Immediately on admission to the cage, Skirrl began to gnaw at the boxes, trying with all his might to tear them to pieces. After some thirty minutes of such effort, interrupted by wanderings about the cage and attempts to get at the other monkeys, he suddenly went to the largest box of all, set it up on end almost directly under the carrot, mounted it, and looked up at the food. It was still beyond his reach and he made no effort to get it, but instead, he reached from his perch on the big box for the next smaller box, which was approximately sixteen inches, by fourteen, by twelve. This he succeeded in pulling toward him, at the same time raising it slightly from the floor, but his efforts caused the large box to topple over and he quit work. The experiment was discontinued after a few minutes, the total period of observation having been thirty-five minutes. Skirrl handled the boxes with ease and with evident pleasure and interest. He also noticed the carrot at various times during the interval, but his attention was fixed on it only for short periods. The test was continued on August 24 when, instead of a carrot, a half banana was used as bait. It was placed only five feet from the floor, and three boxes were as formerly placed in distant corners of the cage. When admitted, Skirrl looked at the banana, then pulled one of the boxes toward it, but instead of mounting, he went to the smallest box and began to gnaw it. Shortly, he mounted the middle sized box and looked up toward the banana, but the box was not directly under the bait, and in any event, it would have been impossible for him to reach it. He next went to the largest box, gnawed it vigorously, turned it over several times, and then abandoned it for the middle sized box, from which by skillful use of his teeth and hands, he quickly tore off one side. By this time, apparently without very definitely directed effort on the part of the monkey, all three of the boxes were in the center of the cage and almost directly beneath the banana. Skirrl climbed up on the largest box and made efforts to pull the middle sized one up on to it, the while looking at the banana every few seconds. He did not succeed in getting the boxes properly placed, and after a time began moving them about restlessly. His behavior plainly indicated that hunger was not his chief motive. He was more interested in playing with things or in working with them than in eating, and the satisfaction of tearing a box to pieces seemed even greater than that of food. It is especially noteworthy that when Skirrl attempts to dismember a box, instead of starting at random, he searches carefully for a favorable starting point, a place where a board is slightly loosened or where a slight crack or hole enables him to insert his hand or use his teeth effectively. Many times during this experiment he was observed to examine the boxes on all sides in search of some weak point. If no such weak point were found, he shortly left the box; but if he did find a favorable spot, he usually succeeded, before he gave up the attempt, in doing considerable damage to the box. Following the behavior described above, Skirrl returned to the middle sized box, placed it on end under the banana, mounted, and looked upward at the bait, but as it was a few inches beyond his reach, he made no attempt to get it, but instead, after a few seconds, went to the smallest box, and finding a weak point, began to tear it to pieces. Later he rolled what was left of the smallest box close to the other two boxes, nearly under the banana, and the remainder of his time was spent gnawing at the boxes and playing with pieces which he had succeeded in tearing from them. During the remainder of the thirty minute interval of observation, no further attention was given the bait. Again, on August 25, the test was tried, but this time with boxes whose edges had been bound with tin so that it was impossible for the monkey to destroy them. He spent several minutes searching for a starting point on the middle sized box, but finding none, he dragged it under the banana, looked up, mounted the box, but, as previously, did not reach for the bait because it was beyond his reach. He then played with the boxes for several minutes. Finally he worked the two smaller boxes to a position directly under the banana, put the middle sized one on end, mounted it, and looked at the bait, but again abandoned the attempt without reaching. During the thirty minutes of observation he made no definite effort to place one box upon another. Three times he mounted one or another of the boxes when it was under the banana or nearly so, but in no case was it possible for him to reach the bait. From the above description of this monkey's behavior, it seems fairly certain that with sufficient opportunity, under strong hunger, he would ultimately succeed in obtaining the bait by the use of two or more boxes. For his somewhat abortive and never long continued efforts to drag two boxes together or to place the one upon the other clearly enough indicate a tendency which would ultimately yield success. The possibility of imitation is not excluded, for Skirrl had opportunities to see Julius and the experimenter handle the boxes. Because of the other work which seemed more important at the time, this experiment was not continued further. The results obtained suggest the desirability of testing thoroughly the ability of monkeys to use objects as only the anthropoid apes and man have heretofore been thought capable of using them. _Box and Pole Experiment_ Skirrl was first tested with the box and pole experiment on August 12. As in the case of Julius, a half banana was placed in the middle of the long box and the attention of the monkey was attracted to the bait by small pieces of carrot placed near each open end. Two poles were placed near the box on the floor of the cage. When admitted to the cage Skirrl went almost directly to the ends of the box, took the pieces of carrot which were in sight, but apparently failed to perceive the bait in the middle of the box. For a while he played with the locks on the box, shoved it about, and amused himself with it, showing no interest in obtaining the food. Later he looked through the box and saw the banana. He then dragged the box about, apparently trying to get it into his cage, but he gave no attention to the poles nor did he make any evident effort to obtain the banana which was easily visible in the center of the box. The period of observation was only twelve minutes. On August 24 this experiment was repeated with an important modification of the apparatus in that the wooden lid of the long box had been replaced by a wire cover through which the animal could see the bait. Two poles were as formerly on the floor of the cage, not far from the box. Skirrl almost immediately noticed the banana and tried to get it by gnawing at the box. He did not once reach in at the ends of the box, but he did handle the poles, throwing them about and pounding with them. There was not the slightest attempt to use them in obtaining the bait. This experiment was later repeated three times at intervals of a number of days, but in no case did Skirrl show any tendency to use the poles as means of obtaining the food. _Draw-in Experiment_ This also was arranged in the same manner as for Julius, and on each of five days Skirrl was allowed at least thirty minutes to work for the bait. Either a banana or a carrot was each day placed on the board well beyond his reach, and one or two, usually two, small sticks were put into his cage. Not once during the several periods of observation did Skirrl make any attempt to use a stick or any other object as a means of drawing the food to him. Instead, he reached persistently with his arm, pulled and gnawed at the wires which were in his way, and occasionally picked up and gnawed or pounded with the sticks in the cage. His attention every now and then would come back to the food, but it tended to fluctuate rather rapidly, and in the regular period of observation, thirty minutes, it is unlikely that he attended to the bait itself for as much as five minutes. In this respect as well as many others, Skirrl's behavior contrasts sharply with that of the orang utan. The results of this experiment indicate the lack in the monkey of any tendency or ability, apart from training, to use objects as means of obtaining food. Ways of using objects as tools which apparently are perfectly natural to the anthropoid apes and to man are rarely employed by the lower primates. _Hammer and Nail Test_ One day I happened to observe Skirrl playing with a staple in his cage. He had found it on the floor where it had fallen and was intently prodding himself with the sharp points, apparently enjoying the unusual sensations which he got from sticking the staple into the skin in various portions of his body, and especially into the prepuce. A few days later I saw him playing in similar fashion with a nail which he had found, and still later he was seen to be using a stick to pound the nail with. This suggested to me the hammer and nail test. A heavy spike was driven into an old hammer to serve as an indestructible handle. This hammer, along with a number of large wire nails and a piece of redwood board, was then placed in the monkey's cage. Skirrl immediately took up the hammer, grasping the middle of the handle with his left hand, and with his right hand taking up a nail. He then sat down on the board, examined the nail, placed the pointed end on the board, and with well directed strokes by the use of the head of the hammer drove the nail into the board for the distance of at least an inch. He then tried to pull it out, but was forced to knock it several times with the hammer before he could do so. This performance, during the next few minutes, was repeated several times with variations. Often the side of the hammer was used instead of the head, and occasionally, as is shown in figure 8 of plate II, he seized the hammer well up toward the juncture of the same with the spike. This figure does justice to the performance. At the moment the picture was taken, Skirrl's attention had been attracted by a monkey in an adjoining cage, and he had momentarily looked up from his task, the while holding nail and hammer perfectly still. This test was repeated on various days, and almost uniformly Skirrl showed intense interest in hammer and nails and used them more or less persistently in the manner described. Occasionally, apparently for the sake of variety, he would put the blunt end of the nail on the board and hammer on the point. Again, he would try persistently to drive the nail into the cement floor, and once by accident, when hammer and nails were left in his cage over night, he succeeded in making several holes in the bottom of his sheet iron water pan. There was no doubting the keen satisfaction which the animal took in this form of activity. It is impossible to say that the behavior was not imitative of man, for Skirrl, along with all of the other monkeys, had had abundant opportunity to see carpenters working. But this much can be said against the idea of imitation,--no one of the other animals, not excepting the orang utan, showed any interest whatever in hammer and nails. Occasionally they would be played with momentarily or pushed about, but Sobke, Jimmie, Gertie, Julius, although given several opportunities to exhibit any ability which they might have to drive nails, made not the least attempt to do so. Evidently we must either conclude that Skirrl had a peculiarly strong imitative tendency in this direction, or instead, a pronounced disposition or instinct for the use of objects as tools. It would seem fair to speak of it as an instinct for mechanical activity. Under this same heading may be described Skirrl's reactions to such objects as a handsaw, a padlock, and a water faucet. The saw was given to him in order to test his ability to use it in human fashion, for if he could so expertly imitate the carpenter driving nails, it seems likely that he might also imitate the use of the saw. As a matter of fact, he showed no tendency to use the saw as we do. Instead, he persistently played with it in various ways, at first using it as a sort of plane to scrape with, later often rubbing the teeth over a board so that they cut fairly well, but never as effectively as in the hands of a man. After two or three days' practice with the saw, Skirrl hit upon a method which is, as I understand, used by man in certain countries, namely, that of placing the saw with the teeth up, holding it rigid, and then rubbing the object which is to be sawed over it. This Skirrl succeeded in doing very skillfully, for he would sit down on the floor of the cage, grip with both feet the handle of the saw, with the teeth directed upward, then holding either end in his hands, he would repeatedly rub a stick over the teeth. In this way, of course, he could make the saw cut fairly well. But still more to his liking was the use of a spike instead of a stick as an object to rub over the teeth, for with this he was able to make a noise that would have satisfied even a small boy. Further light is shed on the force of the tendency to imitate man by the saw test. After Skirrl had been given an opportunity to show what he could do with the tool spontaneously, I demonstrated to him the approved human way of sawing. Often he would watch my performance intently as though fascinated by the sound and motion, but when given the tool he invariably followed his own methods. Although I repeated this test of imitation several times on three different days, the results were wholly negative. _Other Activities_ One day as Skirrl was being returned to his own cage by way of the larger cage, he picked up an unfastened padlock and carried it into the cage with him. For more than an hour he amused himself almost without interruption by playing with this lock. The things which he did with it during that time would require pages to describe. His interest in it was very similar to that which he had exhibited in hammer and nails, saw, and indeed any objects which he could play with. The lock was pounded in various ways, bitten, poked with nails, hooked into the wires of the cage, used to pull on, pounded with a stick, used to hammer on the floor of the cage with, and in fine, manipulated in quite as great a variety of ways as a human being could have discovered. Finally it was hooked to the side of the cage and snapped shut, and as Skirrl was unable to dislodge it from this position, he shortly gave up playing with it. At the end of the large cage and just outside the wire netting was a faucet to which a hose was usually attached. The valve could be opened by turning a wheel-shaped hand piece. Both Skirrl and Julius learned to turn this wheel in order to get water to play with, but usually the former's strength was not sufficient to turn on the water. The latter could do it readily. The indications are that both animals profited by seeing human beings turn on the water. This unquestionably attracted their attention to the faucet, and probably by playing with it they accidentally happened upon the proper movement. At any rate, Skirrl's behavior was significant in this connection, for he would pick up the hose to see if water were flowing, and if it were not, he would throw it down, go directly to the faucet, and try to turn the wheel. The association of the wheel with the desired flow of water was therefore definitely established. Shall we describe the act as ideational? It seems the natural thing to do. 3. Sobke, _Pithecus rhesus_ _Box Stacking Experiment_ For this test, in the case of Sobke, three light boxes made of redwood about one-third of an inch thick were used. The smallest, box 1, was six inches in each direction, the next larger, box 2, was twelve inches, and the third, box 3, eighteen inches. As in the case of the other animals, bait, either banana or carrot, was suspended from the middle of the roof of the large cage at such distance from the floor as to be reached by the animal only by the use of the boxes. The first observations on Sobke were made on June 14. The three boxes had been placed in the form of a pyramid directly under the banana, which hung about eighteen inches above the uppermost box. Sobke's attention while in his cage had been attracted to the bait by seeing me fastening it in position, but when admitted to the large cage, he simply glanced at it and then wandered about the cage, picking up bits of food and struggling to get at the other monkeys. This he did for about five minutes. He then went to the boxes, placed his hands on top of the bottom one, but did not climb up on it. A few minutes later he returned to the box again, climbed up, and readily reached the food, which he ate while resting on boxes 1 and 2. I now replaced the bait and gave the monkey a second chance to obtain it. Almost immediately he climbed up as far as the second box, but although he could reach the banana only from the uppermost box, he deliberately shoved it off to the ground and sat down upon box 2. As he was unable to obtain the banana from this, he soon began to gnaw and pull at it, and as he was succeeding all too well in his efforts to tear the box to pieces, he had to be returned to his cage. The most important features of his behavior were, first, his stealthy and indirect manner, and second, his failure to use other means of obtaining the bait than that supplied by the observer. Instead of looking straight at the experimenter, or at the object which he wished to obtain, he apparently looked and attended elsewhere. For this reason it was often difficult to decide whether or not he had noticed the bait or the boxes. Finally I was led to conclude that he usually knew exactly what was going on and had in his furtive way noted all of the essential features of the situation, and that his manner was extremely indicative of his mental attitude of limited trust. Both Julius and Skirrl went to the opposite extreme in the matter of directness, or as we should say in human relations, frankness. They would look the experimenter directly in the eye, and they usually gazed intently at anything, such for example as the bait, that interested them. Sobke, even when very hungry, instead of going directly toward the bait, and trying to obtain it, usually did various other things as though pretending that he had no interest in food. On the following day, June 15, the three boxes were again placed nearly under the banana, but this time the two smaller boxes, numbers 1 and 2, were pushed to the extreme end of the lower box and so far from the bait that it could not be reached from box 1. It was necessary then for the animal to push boxes 1 and 2 along on box 3 until they were nearer the bait. Sobke, when admitted to the cage, evidently noticed the banana, but as formerly, he made no immediate effort to obtain it. After wandering in search of food and quarreling with the other monkeys for several minutes, he went to the boxes, pushed the topmost one, number 1, off on to the floor, and then carried it into his cage where he quickly tore one side off. He next returned to the large cage, climbed up on box 2, and he was able, by jumping, to reach and obtain the banana. As Sobke was very good at jumping, his new method rendered the box stacking experiment of uncertain value, since it was next to impossible so to arrange the spatial relations of bait and boxes that he should be neither discouraged by too great a distance nor encouraged to jump by too small a distance. Evidently it would be more satisfactory to simplify the conditions by trying to discover, first of all, whether he would use a single box as a means of reaching the reward. In pursuance of this idea, I suspended a piece of bread five feet from the floor of the cage, and a few feet to one side of it, I placed a box from which it could be reached, or at least easily seized by jumping. Sobke shortly walked to a point beneath the bait and leaping into the air, seized it. I then replaced the bait, raising it to a height of five feet ten inches from the floor of the cage. When I had retired, Sobke placed himself in the proper position beneath, looked up at it, but went away without jumping for it. During the remaining ten minutes of observation, he paid no further attention to the bait, having satisfied himself evidently that it was beyond his reach. My use of this test was concluded on June 16 when once more I suspended a piece of bread six feet from the floor and placed a few feet to one side the eighteen inch box, number 3, from which had the monkey pushed it to a point directly under the bread, he could have obtained the food easily. Sobke noticed the food promptly, and from time to time as he wandered about, he glanced at it out of the corner of his eye, but not once did he sit down and look at it steadily and directly as Julius and Skirrl might have done. In the first twenty minutes of observation the monkey made no attempt either to use the box or to reach the food by jumping. I then placed the box directly under the bait, and scarcely had I withdrawn from the cage before Sobke climbed up on it and looked toward the food. He could not reach it without jumping, and he made no effort to get it. I had left a second box in the cage,--one which I had been using as a seat. Sobke now went to this box, placed his hands on it, looked toward the bait, and then went to a distant part of the cage. No further indications were obtained during the remainder of the period of observation of interest in the boxes as possible means of obtaining the desired food. It is of course obvious that this experiment was not long enough continued to justify the conclusion that either Sobke or Skirrl could not use the boxes or even learn to place one box upon another in order to obtain the bait. The experiment, like several others which are being described briefly, was used to supplement the multiple-choice experiment, and the experimenter's chief interest was to discover the number and variety of methods which would be used by the animal in the first few presentations of a situation. It is practically certain that both of these monkeys would have succeeded ultimately in solving the problem of obtaining the food had they been left in the cage with a number of boxes, for Skirrl very early indicated interest in moving the boxes about, and Sobke showed a tendency in that direction which perhaps was inhibited partially by his distrust of the experimenter. _Draw-in Experiment_ For Sobke, as for Julius and Skirrl, the draw-in test was made by putting food on a shelf outside the cage, beyond the reach of the animal, and placing in the cage with the animal one or two sticks long enough to be used for drawing in the bait. Sobke was first given this test on July 24. He tried persistently to reach the banana with his hand, seized the box which supported the bait, shook it, picked up one or other of the sticks, and chewed at it repeatedly, but not once did he make any move to use a stick to draw the food toward him. This experiment was repeated on July 27, 29, 30 and 31, a period of thirty minutes being allowed on each day for observation. At no time did Sobke show any inclination to use either a stick or any other object as a means of reaching the bait. Instead, he confined himself strictly to the use of hands and teeth. This test makes it fairly certain that Sobke had no natural tendency to use objects as tools. In so far as he attended to things about the cage or laboratory, it seemed to be rather to play with them in a general way than to use them ideationally or otherwise for definite purposes. The definitely negative result of the draw-in experiment rendered needless prolonged observation with the box and pole test, whose results are now to be presented. _Box and Pole Experiment_ The eighty-four inch box, previously used for a similar test with Julius, was presented to Sobke on August 24, the wooden cover having been replaced by a wire one so that the monkey could readily see the bait in the middle of the box. Sobke, when admitted to the large cage, went directly to the box and at once discovered the banana which was midway between the ends. He evidently desired it. Shortly, he went to one end of the box and looked in. This he repeated later. He also shook the box and tried to pull it about and tear it with his teeth, but to the two poles lying nearby on the floor of the cage he gave not the slightest attention during a thirty minute period of observation. The experiment was not repeated because of more important work. _Other Activities_ In more respects than I have taken time to enumerate in the above descriptions of behavior, the relations of Sobke to objects differed from those of Skirrl, and still more from those of Julius. Hammer, nails, saw, stones, sticks, locks, and various other objects received relatively little attention from Sobke unless they happened to come in his way; then they were usually pushed aside with but scant notice. Rarely he would carry something to the shelf of his cage with him, but as a rule only to lay it down and attend to something else. Skirrl, on the contrary, attended persistently to anything new in the shape of a movable object. He was extremely partial to objects which could be manipulated by him in various ways, and especially to any thing with which he could make a noise. His interest in hammer and nails, saw, locks, etc., seemed never to wane. I have seen him play for an hour almost uninterruptedly with a hammer and a nail, or even with a big spike which he could use to pry about his cage. In the absence of anything more interesting, even a staple or a small nail might receive his undivided attention for minutes at a time. How important is the species difference in this connection, I have no means to judge, but if we may not consider these different modes of behavior characteristic of _P. rhesus_ as contrasted with _P. irus_, we must conclude that remarkable individual differences exist among monkeys, for whereas Skirrl is by nature a mechanical genius, Sobke has apparently no such disposition. I can imagine no more fascinating task than the careful analytical study of the temperaments of these two animals. Skirrl's behavior has importantly modified my conception of genius. V MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS 1. _Right- and left-handedness_ Several years ago Doctor Hamilton reported to me observations which he had made on preference for the right or left paw in dogs. He has not, I believe, published an account of his work. Subsequently, Franz observed a similar preference in monkeys which, according to his report, exhibit marked tendency to be right-handed, left-handed, or ambidextrous. My own observations, although they are wholly incidental to my other work, seem worthy of description at this point. I noted, first of all, that the orang utan Julius tended to use his left hand. He by no means limited himself to this, but in difficult situations he almost invariably reached for food or manipulated objects in connection with food getting with the left hand. Figures 23 and 24 of plate V, show him reaching for a banana with the left hand. Likewise, figure 34 exhibits the use of the left hand in the draw-in experiment. So marked was Julius's preference for his left hand that I became interested in observing similar phenomena in the monkeys. Skirrl, when driving nails, held the hammer with his left hand and the nail with his right hand. The fact that he never was observed to reverse the use of the hands is surprising, for other observations indicate that he preferred the right hand for certain acts. Stimulated by the obvious left-handedness, in certain connections, of Julius and Skirrl, I tested the preference of several of the monkeys in the following simple way. Standing outside the cage I would hold out a peanut to a hungry animal, keeping it so far from the cage that the monkey could barely reach it with its fingers. I noted the hand which was used to grasp the food. Next I varied the procedure by placing the peanut on a board in order to make sure that I was not definitely directing the animal's attention. With Sobke the following results were obtained. In forty trials given on two different days, he reached for and obtained the food each time with his left hand. Only by holding the bait well toward the right side of his body was it possible to induce him to use the right hand. So far as may be judged from these observations and from others in connection with the experiments, this animal is definitely left-handed. With Skirrl the results are strikingly different. As stated above, he used the hammer consistently with his left hand, but in twenty attempts to obtain food by reaching, he used his right hand seventeen times and his left only three times. It was quite as difficult to induce him to use his left hand for this purpose as it was to induce Sobke to use his right. We must therefore conclude that Skirrl is right-handed in connection with certain movements and left-handed in others. The monkey named Gertie in the reaching experiment consistently used her left hand, never once using the right. Jimmie, so far as it was possible to make tests with him, also used his left hand, but it should be said that the results are unsatisfactory because he was at the time extremely pugnacious and paid attention to the experimenter rather than to the food. Scotty, in the first series of ten trials, used his right hand eight times, his left twice. In the second series, given the following day, he used the right hand three times and the left seven times. From this we should have to infer that he is ambidextrous. A female _rhesus_ monkey which had been brought to the laboratory only a few days previously showed a preference for the right hand by the use of it fourteen times to six. In connection with these data which are, I should repeat, too scanty to be of any considerable value, I wish to describe my own experience. Although naturally left-handed, I am by training right-handed to the extent of having been able to use my hands in writing and in various other activities equally well at the age of twelve. I am at present ambidextrous in that there are many things which I do with equal readiness and skill with either hand. Delicate, exact, and finely coordinated movements, such as those of writing and using surgical instruments, I perform always with my left hand while grosser movements involving the whole hand or arm, I am rather likely to perform with my right hand. It seems not improbable in the light of my own experience that we shall find some specialization among the lower animals with respect to preference for right and left hand or arm. I should not be at all surprised to discover that it is the rule for animals to possess or to develop readily definite preference for one hand in connection with a given act of skill and to have quite as definite a preference for the other hand in connection with a radically different kind of act. 2. _Instinct and emotion_ Of the many presumably instinctive modes of behavior which were observed, only those which have to do with social relations seem especially worth reporting. From among them I shall select for description a few which have already been referred to in connection with the experimental observations. _Maternal Instinct_ Aspects of the maternal instinct I had opportunity to observe in Gertie, who on February 27 gave birth to a male infant, I present below the substance of a previously published note on her behavior (Yerkes, 1915). "On February 27 one of the monkeys of our collection gave birth, in the cages at Montecito, to a male infant. The mother is a _Macacus cynomolgus rhesus_ (_P. irus rhesus_) who has been described by Hamilton (1914, p. 298) as 'Monkey 9, Gertie, _M. cynomolgus rhesus_ (_P. irus rhesus_). Age, 3 years 2 months. (She is now, May 1, 1915, 4 years and 6 months.) Daughter of monkeys 3 and 10. First pregnancy began September, 1913.' The result of this pregnancy was, I am informed, a still-birth. "The second pregnancy, which shall now especially concern us, resulted likewise in a still-birth. Parturition occurred Saturday night, and the writer first observed the behavior of the mother the following Monday morning. In the meantime the laboratory attendant had obtained the data upon which I base the above statements. "At the time of parturition Gertie was in a 6 by 6 by 12 foot out-door cage containing a small shelter box, with an exceptionally quiet and gentle male (not the father of the infant) who is designated in Hamilton's paper as Monkey 28, Scotty. "My notes record the following exceptionally interesting and genetically important behavior. On March 1, when I approached her cage, Gertie was sitting on the floor with the infant held in one hand while she fingered its eyelids and eyes with the other. Scotty sat close beside her watching intently. When disturbed by me the mother carried her infant to a shelf at the top of the cage. Repeatedly attempts were made to remove the dead baby, but they were futile because Gertie either held it in her hands or sat close beside it ready to seize it at the slightest disturbance. "Especially noteworthy on this, the second day after the birth of the infant, are the male's, as well as the female's, keen interest in the body and their frequent examinations of the eyes, as if in attempts to open them. Often, also, the mother searched the body for fleas. "Observations were made from day to day, and each day opportunity was sought to remove the body without seriously frightening or exciting the female. No such opportunity came, and during the second week the corpse so far decomposed that, with constant handling and licking by the adults, it rapidly wore away. By the third week there remained only the shriveled skin covering a few fragments of bone, and the open skull from the cavity of which the brain had been removed. This the mother never lost sight of: even when eating she either held it in one hand or foot, or laid it beside her within easy reach. "Gradually this remnant became still further reduced until on March 31 there existed only a strip of dry skin about four inches long with a tail-like appendage of nearly the same length. "The male, Scotty, on this date was removed to another cage. Gertie made a great fuss, jumping about excitedly and uttering plaintive cries when she discovered that her mate was gone. Whenever I approached her cage she scurried into the shelter box and stayed there while I was near. This behavior I never before had observed. It continued for two days. On April 2, it was noted that she had lost her recently acquired shyness and she no longer made any attempts to avoid me. As usual, on this date, she was carrying the remnant about with her. "The following day, April 3, Gertie was lured from her cage to a large adjoining compartment for certain experimental observations. After she had been returned to her own cage the remnant was noticed on the floor of the large cage. I picked it up. Gertie evidently noticed my act; for although at a distance of at least ten feet from me, she made a sharp outcry and sprang to the side of the cage nearest me. I held the piece of skin (it looked more like a bit of rat skin than the remains of a monkey) out to her and she immediately seized it and rushed with it to the shelf at the top of the cage. "Two days later the remnant was missing, and careful search failed to discover it in the cage. It is probable that Gertie had carelessly left it lying on the floor whence it was washed out when the cages were cleaned. On this date Gertie seemed quieter than for weeks previously. "Thus it appears that during a period of five weeks the instinct to protect her offspring impelled this monkey to carry its gradually vanishing remains about with her and to watch over them so assiduously that it was utterly impossible to take them from her except by force. "After reading this note in manuscript, Doctor Hamilton informed me that Gertie had behaved toward her first still-birth as toward her second. And, further, that Grace, a baboon, also carried a still-birth about for weeks. "I am now heartily glad that my early efforts to remove the corpse were futile, for this record of the persistence of maternal behavior seems to me of very unusual interest to the genetic psychologist." _Fear_ In connection with the multiple-choice experiments Skirrl exhibited what seemed to be instinctive fear as a result of his unfortunate experience with nails in the floor of box 1. He seemingly referred his misadventure to some unseen enemy under the floor, and this in spite of the fact that he was given abundant opportunity to examine the floor of the box, but not until after the dangerous nails had been clinched. His long continued avoidance of the experiment boxes and his still more persistent hesitancy in entering them, coupled with his almost ludicrous efforts to see beneath the floor through the holes cut for the staples on the doors, gave me the impression of superstitious fear of the unseen. As I watched and recorded his behavior day after day during the period of most pronounced fear, I could not avoid the thought that the instinctive fear of snakes had something to do with his peculiar actions, and although I have never studied either the natural or the acquired responses of monkeys to snakes, I suspect that lacking such instinctive equipment, Skirrl would have behaved differently as a result of the pricks which he received from the nails. It is needless to redescribe his acquired fear of whiteness as it manifested itself in the freshly painted apparatus. Accompanying these instructive modes of response and their emotions are suggestions of peculiarly interesting problems as well as of modes of attacking them. As a matter of fact, Skirrl's fear-reactions did much to alter my conception of the constitution of his mind. I should not have been surprised by the features of behavior exhibited, but I was by no means prepared for their persistence, and for the highly emotional attitude toward the particular situation. Only an organism of complexly constituted nervous system and fairly highly developed affective life could be expected to respond as did this monkey. As has been suggested above, I find the appeal to instinct, modified by experience, a natural mode of accounting for the unexpected features of Skirrl's behavior. _Sympathy_ The instinctive playfulness of the young monkey Tiny contrasted most strikingly with the more serious, if not more sedate, modes of behavior of the older individuals. During the greater part of my period of observation Tiny was cage-mate of Scotty, the most calm and apparently lazy of all the monkeys. Tiny delighted in teasing Scotty, and her varied modes of mildly tormenting him and of stirring him to pursuit or to retaliation were as interesting as they were amusing. Her most common trick was to steal up behind him and pull the hair of his back, or seize his tail with her hands or teeth. Often when he was asleep she would suddenly run to him, give a sudden jerk at a handful of hairs, and leap away. He was surprisingly patient, and I never saw him treat her roughly in retaliation. Another of Tiny's favorite forms of amusement was that of trying to stir up the other monkeys to attacks on one another. She very cleverly did this by pretending that she herself was being attacked. The instant the older animals began to show hostility toward one another she would leap out of the way and watch the disturbance with evident satisfaction. It was this mode of behavior in the little animal which ultimately provided opportunity for the observations which I wish now to report as indicative of sympathetic, possibly I may say altruistic, emotions. Tiny was confined with Scotty in a cage adjoining the one in which Jimmie and Gertie were being kept. The cages were separated by wire netting of half-inch mesh. One morning as I was watching the behavior of the animals in the several cages, I noticed Tiny dressing with her teeth a wounded finger. It had evidently been bitten by one of the other animals, in all probability either by Jimmie or Gertie. Tiny was trimming away the loose bits of skin very neatly and cleansing the wound. After working at this task for a few minutes, she quickly climbed up to the shelf near the top of her cage, and by rushing to the partition wire between the two cages, she lured Gertie to an attempted attack on her. Gertie sprang up to the partition, placed her hands on it, with the fingers projecting through the meshes, and attempted to seize Tiny's fingers with her teeth. But the latter was too quick for her, and withdrawing her hands, like a flash seized in her teeth the middle finger of Gertie's left hand. She then bit it severely and with all her might, at the same time pulling and twisting violently, often placing the entire weight of her body on the finger. Her sharp teeth cut to the bone, and it was impossible for the larger and stronger monkey to tear away. For several seconds this continued, then Gertie succeeded in escaping, whereupon she at once retreated to the opposite end of her shelf and proceeded to attend to her injured finger. She cried, wrung her hands, and from time to time placed the finger in her mouth as though in an effort to relieve the pain. By this time Jimmie's attention had been attracted by the disturbance and he rushed up to the shelf, and facing Gertie, watched her intently for a few seconds. The look of puzzled concern on his face was most amusing. Apparently he felt dimly that something in which he should have intelligent interest was going on, but was unable wholly to understand the situation. After watching Gertie for a time and trying to discover what she was doing, which was rendered difficult by her tendency to turn away from him, in order to shield her injured finger, he rushed over to the wire partition and made strenuous efforts to seize Tiny with his hands and teeth. But although she continued close to the partition and often crowded against it with face and hands flattened on the wires, he was not able to get hold of her, and after a few vain attempts he returned to his mate, and again with evident solicitousness and the most troubled expression, watched her wringing her hands and chewing or sucking at her injured finger. Shortly he again returned to the partition and renewed his attempts to seize the young monkey. Thus he went back and forth from one place of interest to the other several times, but being unable to achieve anything at either point, he finally gave up and returned to his breakfast on the floor of the cage. I report this incident fully because the behavior of Jimmie was in marked contrast with the usual behavior of the monkeys. Selfishness seemed everywhere dominant, while clear indications of sympathetic emotions were rare indeed. The above is undoubtedly the best evidence of anything altruistic that I obtained. It is possible that Tiny's action was retaliatory, but although it is practically certain that either Gertie or Jimmie inflicted the wound on her finger, I of course cannot be sure that the spirit of revenge stirred her to punish Gertie so severely. Jimmie's part in the whole affair is, however, perfectly intelligible from our human point of view, and there seems no reason to doubt that he did experience something like a feeling of sympathy with his mate, coupled with a feeling of resentment or anger against Tiny. VI HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL DISCUSSION OF IDEATIONAL BEHAVIOR IN MONKEYS AND APES It is my purpose in this section to indicate the relations of my work on monkeys and apes to that of other investigators. Although throughout the report I have used freely the psychological terms idea and ideation, it has been my aim to describe the behavior of my animals rather than to interpret it or speculate concerning its accompaniments. Certain acts I have designated as ideational simply because they seemed to exhibit the essential features of what we call ideational behavior in man. Further study may, and probably will, modify my opinion concerning this matter. It is of prime importance to analyze ideational behavior so that it may be accurately described and satisfactorily defined in terms of its distinguishing characteristics. I had hoped to be able to present a tentative analysis in this report, but the results of my efforts are so unsatisfactory that I do not feel justified in publishing them. The terms idea and ideation have been used to designate contents of consciousness which are primarily representative. Nowhere have I attempted to indicate different types or grades of ideational behavior and nowhere have I found it necessary to emphasize differences between image and idea. In general, the acts which I have called ideational have been highly adaptive, and the learning processes in connection with which they have appeared have differed strikingly from those of the selective sort in their abruptness of appearance. Extremely interesting and valuable definitions of ideation and discussions of the characteristics of different sorts of ideas in the light of original observations on monkeys have been presented by Thorndike (1901, pp. 1, 2; 1911, p. 174); Kinnaman (1902, p. 200); and Hobhouse (1915, p. 270). As these authors have contributed importantly to our knowledge of the behavior of monkeys, their discussions of the meaning of terms are especially valuable. Serviceable definitions are to be found, also, in Romanes (1900), Morgan (1906), Washburn (1908), and Holmes (1911). _Evidences of Ideation in Monkeys_ Aside from anecdotal and traveller's notes on the behavior of monkeys and apes we have only a scanty literature. In fact, the really excellent articles on the behavior and mental life of these animals may be counted on one's fingers; and not more than half of these are experimental studies. I shall, in this brief historical sketch, neglect entirely the anecdotal literature, since my own work is primarily experimental, and since its results should naturally be compared with those of other experimenters. Thorndike (1901), the American pioneer in the application of the experimental method to the study of mind in animals, published the first notable paper on the psychology of monkeys. His results force the conclusion that "free ideas" seldom appear in the monkey mind and have a relatively small part in behavior. That the species of Cebus which he observed exhibits various forms of ideation he is willing to admit. But he insists that it is of surprisingly little importance in comparison with what the general behavior of monkeys as known in captivity and as described by the anecdotal writers have led us to expect. It is important to note, however, that Thorndike's observations were limited to Cebus monkeys which, as contrasted with various old world types, are now considered of relatively low intelligence. In many respects the most thoroughgoing and workmanlike experimental study of monkeys is that of Kinnaman (1902), who has reported on the study of various forms of response in _P. rhesus_. He presents valuable data concerning the learning processes, sensory discrimination, reaction to number, and to tests of imitation. His results indicate a higher level of intelligence than that discovered by Thorndike, but this is almost certainly due to difference in the species observed. Kinnaman goes so far as to say "We have found evidence, also, of general notions and reasoning, both of low order" (p. 211). The contribution of Hobhouse (1915) to our knowledge of the mental life of monkeys, although in a measure experimental, is based upon relatively few and unsystematic observations as contrasted with those of Thorndike and Kinnaman. It appears, however, that Hobhouse's experiments were admirably planned to test the ideational capacity of his subjects, and one can not find a more stimulating discussion of ideation than that contained in his "Mind in Evolution." The results of his tests made with a _P. rhesus_ monkey are similar to those of Kinnaman, for almost all of them indicate the presence and importance of ideas. Watson (1908) in tests of the imitative ability of _P. rhesus_ saw relatively little evidence of other than extremely simple forms of ideation. But in contrast with his results, those obtained by Haggerty (1909), in a much more extended investigation in which several species of monkey were used, obtained more numerous and convincing evidences of ideation in imitative behavior. Although this author wholly avoids the use of psychological terms, seeking to limit himself to a strictly objective presentation of results, it is clear from an unpublished manuscript (thesis for the Doctorate of Philosophy, deposited in the Library of Harvard University) that he would attribute to monkeys simple forms of ideational experience. Witmer (1910) reports, in confirmation of Haggerty's results, intelligently imitative behavior in _P. irus_. The work of Shepherd (1910) agrees closely, so far as evidences of ideation are concerned, with that of Thorndike. He obviously strives for conservatism in his statements concerning the adaptive intelligence of his monkeys, all of which belonged to the species _P. rhesus_. At one point he definitely states that they exhibit ideas of a low order, or something which corresponds to them. Satisfactory evidences of reasoning he failed to obtain. Franz's (1907, 1911) studies of monkeys, unlike those mentioned above, have for their chief motive not the accurate description of various features of behavior but instead knowledge of the functions of various portions of the brain. His results, therefore, although extremely interesting and of obvious value to the comparative psychologist, throw no special light upon the problem of ideation. The investigation by Hamilton (1911) of reactive tendencies in _P. rhesus_ and _irus_ yielded preeminently important data concerning complex behavior. For the ingenious quadruple-choice method devised by this observer showed that mature monkeys exhibit fairly adequate types of response. As Hamilton's interest centered in behavior, he did not discuss ideation, but this does not prevent the comparison of his data with those of the present report, and the agreement of his findings with my own is obvious. My work contrasts sharply with that briefly mentioned above in that I applied systematically and over a period of several months an experimental method suited to reveal problem solving ability. Previously, the so-called problem or puzzle-box method had been used as a means of testing for the presence of ideas. For this I substituted the multiple-choice method. One of the chief advantages of this new method is the possibility of obtaining curves of learning for the solution or attempted solution of relational problems of varying difficultness. I am confident that these curves of learning will prove far more valuable than such data as are yielded by the puzzle-box method. The Pithecus monkeys, which I studied intensively, yielded relatively abundant evidences of ideation, but with Thorndike I must agree that of "free ideas" there is scanty evidence; or rather, I should prefer to say, that although ideas seem to be in play frequently, they are rather concrete and definitely attached than "free." Neither in my sustained multiple-choice experiments nor from my supplementary tests did I obtain convincing indications of reasoning. What Hobhouse has called articulate ideas, I believe to appear infrequently in these animals. But on the whole, I believe that the general conclusions of previous experimental observers have done no injustice to the ideational ability of monkeys. It is clearly important, however, that we always should take into account the species of animal observed, for unquestionably there are extreme differences in mental development among the monkeys. As I view my results in the light of their relations to earlier work, I am strongly impressed with the importance of the use of improved methods for the study of complex behavior. The delayed reaction method of Hunter, the quadruple-choice method of Hamilton, and my multiple-choice method offer new and promising approaches to forms of activity which thus far have been only superficially observed. The ability exhibited by Skirrl to try a method out and then to abandon it suddenly is characteristic of animals high in intelligence. Most of the problems which I presented to my animals would be rated as difficult by psychologists, for as a rule they involved definite relations and demanded on the part of the subject both perception of a particular relation and the ability to remember or re-present it on occasion. I was greatly surprised by the slow progress of the monkeys toward the solution of these problems. It had been my supposition that they would solve them more quickly than any lower type of mammal, but as a matter of fact they succeeded less well than did pigs. Their behavior throughout the work proved that of far greater significance for the experimenter than the solution of a problem is definite knowledge of the modes of behavior exhibited from moment to moment, or day to day. This is true especially of those incidental or accidental modes of response which so frequently appeared in connection with my work that I came to look upon them, the surprises of each day, as my chief means of insight. _Evidences of Ideation in Apes_ Reliable literature of any sort concerning the behavior and mental life of the anthropoid apes is difficult to find, and still more rare are reports concerning experimental studies of these animals. There are, it is true, a few articles descriptive of tests of mental ability, but even these are scarcely deserving of being classed as satisfactory experimental studies of the psychology of the ape. I have the satisfaction of being able to present in the present report the first systematic experimental study of any feature of the behavior of an anthropoid ape. Among the most interesting and valuable of the descriptions which may be classed among accounts of tests of mental ability is Hobhouse's (1915) study of the chimpanzee. The subject was an untrained animal, so far as stated, of somewhat unsatisfactory condition because of timidity. Nevertheless, Hobhouse was able to obtain from him numerous and interesting responses to novel situations, some of which may be safely accepted as evidences of ideation of a fairly high order. Similar in method and result to the work of Hobhouse is that of Haggerty (unpublished thesis for the Doctorate of Philosophy, deposited in the Library of Harvard University). Haggerty's tests of the ability of young orang utans and chimpanzees to solve simple problems and to use tools in various ways yielded results which contrast most strikingly with those obtained in his experimental study of the imitative tendency in monkeys. His observations, had he committed himself to anything approaching interpretation, doubtless would have led him to conclusions concerning the ideational life of these animals very similar to those of Hobhouse. Koehler, working in the Canary Islands, has, according to information which I have received from him by letter, made certain experiments with orang utans and chimpanzees similar to those of Hobhouse and Haggerty. His results I am unable to report as I have scanty information concerning them. They are, presumably, as yet unpublished. In his laboratory at Montecito, California, Hamilton has from time to time kept anthropoid apes, but without special effort to investigate their ideational behavior. He has most interesting and valuable data concerning certain habits and instincts, all as yet unpublished. To a congress of psychologists Pfungst (1912) briefly reported on work with anthropoid apes in certain of the German zoölogical gardens. His preliminary paper does not enable one to make definite statements concerning either his methods or such results as he may have obtained concerning ideational behavior. So far as I know, he has not as yet published further concerning his investigation. Möbius (1867) has described interesting observations concerning the mental life of the chimpanzee. But this, like all of the work previously mentioned, is rather in the nature of casual testing than thoroughgoing, systematic, and analytic study. In addition to the above reports, there are a few concerning the behavior of apes which have been especially trained for purposes of exhibition. Most interesting of these is that of Witmer (1909), who studied in exhibitions and in his own laboratory the behavior of the chimpanzee Peter. The varied forms of intelligently adaptive behavior exhibited by this ape convinced Witmer of ideational experience and even of an approach to reasoning. In his brief report he expresses especial interest in the possibility of educating this "genius among apes" to the use of language. A chimpanzee named Consul was observed several years ago by Hirschlaff (1905), and his tricks were interestingly described from the pedagogical standpoint. Similar in character is Shepherd's (1915) brief description of the stage behavior of Peter and Consul, both chimpanzees. It is impossible to determine from the account whether these animals are the same as were observed by both Witmer and Hirschlaff. As no reference is made in Shepherd's paper to other descriptions of the behavior of these animals and as he adds nothing to what had already been presented, the reader obtains no additional light on ideation. I have mentioned only samples of the articles on trained anthropoids. All are necessarily descriptions of the behavior of individuals who had been trained not for psychological purposes but for the vaudeville stage, and although such observations unquestionably have certain value for comparative psychology, it is well known that unless an observer knows the history of an act, he is not able to evaluate it in terms of intelligence and is especially prone to overestimate its value as evidence of ideation. There remain studies of the apes, dealing primarily with behavior and mental characteristics, which are slightly if at all experimental and deserve to be ranked as naturalistic accounts. Such is, for example, the book of Sokolowski (1908), in which attention is given to the characteristics of young as well as fairly mature specimens of the gorilla, chimpanzee and orang utan. The various publications of Garner (1892, 1896, 1900) deal especially with the language habits of monkeys and apes, but observations bearing on ideation are reported. Wallace (1869) describes certain features of the behavior of an infant orang utan whose mother he shot in Borneo. He also reports observations concerning the behavior of adult orang utans, many specimens of which were shot by him during his travels. Early in the last century, Cuvier (1810) interested himself in studies of the intellectual characteristics of the orang utan, and his data, taken with those of Wallace, Sokolowski, and others similarly interested in the natural history of mind, give one a valuable glimpse of the life of the anthropoid ape. Finally, the data brought together by Brehm (1864, 1875, 1888) in his famous Tierleben; by Darwin (1859, 1871) in "The Origin of Species," and other works, by Romanes (1900), especially in his books on mental evolution, by C. Lloyd Morgan (1906) in his several works on comparative psychology, and by Holmes (1911) in his discussion of the evolution of intelligence, contribute not unimportantly to our all too meagre knowledge of the mental life of the anthropoid apes. My own results, viewed in the light of what one may learn from the literature, stand out as unique because of the method of research. Never before, so far as I have been able to learn, has any ape been subjected to observation under systematically controlled conditions for so long a period as six months. Moreover, my multiple-choice method has the merit of having yielded the first curve of learning for an anthropoid ape. This fact is especially interesting when one considers the nature of the particular curve. For so far as one may say by comparing it with the curves for various learning processes exhibited by other mammals, it is indicative of ideation of a high order, and possibly of reasoning. I do not wish to exaggerate the importance of my results, for as contrasted with what might be obtained by further study, and with what must be obtained if we are adequately to describe the mind of the orang utan, they are meager indeed. Especially noteworthy, as evidences of ideation, in the results yielded by the multiple-choice method are (1) the use by the orang utan of several different methods in connection with each problem; (2) the suddenness of transition from method to method; (3) the final and perfect solution of problem I without diminution of the initial errors; (4) the dissociation of the act of turning in a circle from that of standing in front of a particular box. To these features of behavior others of minor importance might be added. But as they have been sufficiently emphasized in the foregoing detailed descriptions, I need only repeat my conclusion, from the summation of evidence, that this young orang utan exhibited numerous free ideas and simple thought processes in connection with the multiple-choice experiment. His ultimate failure to solve the second problem is peculiarly interesting, although in the light of other features of his behavior by no means indicative of inferior intelligence. The various supplementary experimental tests which I employed are in no wise importantly distinguished from those used by other observers. The box stacking experiment has, according to my private information, been used by Koehler. It is obviously important that such tests be applied in the same manner to individuals not only of the different genera of anthropoid apes, but of different ages, sex, and condition of training. The box stacking experiment, although it yielded complete success only as a result of suggestion on my part, proved far more interesting during its progress than any other portion of my work. In connection with it, the orang utan exhibited surprisingly diverse and numerous efforts to meet the demands of the situation. It is fair to characterize him as inventive, for of the several possible ways of obtaining the banana which were evident to the experimenter, the ape voluntarily used all but two or three, and one of these he subsequently used on the basis of imitation. Had Julius been physically and mentally mature, my results would undoubtedly have been much more impressively indicative of ideas, but even as matters stand, the survey of my experimental records and supplementary notes force me to conclude that as contrasted with the monkeys and other mammals, the orang utan is capable of expressing free ideas in considerable number and of using them in ways highly indicative of thought processes, possibly even of the rational order. But contrasted with that of man the ideational life of the orang utan seems poverty stricken. Certainly in this respect Julius was not above the level of the normal three-year-old child. In common with other observers, I have had the experience of being profoundly impressed by the versatility of the ape, and however much I might desire to disprove the presence of free ideas and simple reasoning processes in the orang utan, I should feel bound to accept many of the results of my tests as evidences of such experience. I have attempted to indicate briefly the historical setting of my investigation. I propose, now, in the concluding section, to look forward from this initial research and to indicate as well as I may in a few words the possibilities of results important for mankind from the thorough study of the monkeys and anthropoid apes. VII PROVISION FOR THE STUDY OF THE PRIMATES, AND ESPECIALLY THE MONKEYS AND ANTHROPOID APES[1] [Footnote 1: Much of the material of this section was published originally in _Science_ (Yerkes, 1916).] I should neglect an important duty as well as waste an opportunity if in this report I did not call attention to the status of our knowledge concerning the monkeys and apes and present the urgent need of adequate provision for the comparative study of all of the primates. Although for centuries students of nature have been keenly interested in the various primates, the information which has been accumulated is fragmentary and wholly inadequate for generally recognized scientific and practical needs. There is a voluminous literature on many aspects of the organization and lives of the monkeys and apes, but when one searches in it for reasonably connected and complete descriptions of the organisms from any biological angle, one, is certain to meet disappointment. Concerning their external characteristics we know much; and our classifications, if not satisfactory to all, are at least eminently useful. But when one turns to the morphological sciences of anatomy, histology, embryology, and pathology, one discovers great gaps, where knowledge might reasonably be expected. Even gross anatomy has much to gain from the careful, systematic examination of these organisms. With still greater force this statement applies to the studies of finer structural relations. Little is known concerning the embryological development and life history of certain of the primates, and almost nothing concerning their pathological anatomy. Clearly less satisfactory than our knowledge of structure is the status of information concerning those functional processes which are the special concern of physiology and pathology. Certain important experimental studies have been made on the nervous system, but rarely indeed have physiologists dealt systematically with the functions of other systems of organs. There are almost no satisfactory physiological descriptions of the monkeys, anthropoid apes, or lower primates. SUB-DIVISIONS OF THE ORDER PRIMATES _Order_ _Sub-orders_ _Families_ ,- a. PROSIMII (Lemurs and Aye-Ayes) | | ,- i. Hapalidae (Marmosets) | | ii. Cebidae (Howling Monkeys, PRIMATES -+ | Tee Tees, Squirrel Monkeys, | | Spider Monkeys, and Capuchin | | Monkeys) `- b. ANTHROPOIDEA ... -+ iii. Cercopithecidae (Baboons | and Macaques) | iv. Simiidae (Gibbons, Orangs, | Chimpanzees, and Gorillas) `- v. Hominidae (Man) When we turn to the science of genetics we meet a similar condition, for the literature reveals only scattered bits of information concerning heredity in the primates. No important experimental studies along genetic lines have been made with them, and such general observations from nature as are on record are of extremely uncertain value. Were one to insist that we know nothing certainly concerning the relation of heredity in other primates than man, the statement could not well be disputed. Occasionally in recent years students of human diseases have employed monkeys or apes for experimental tests, but aside from the isolated results thus obtained, extremely little is known concerning the diseases peculiar to the various types of infra-human primates or the significant relations of their diseases to those of man. Next in order of extent to our morphological knowledge of these organisms is that of their behavior, mental life, and social relations. But certainly no one who is conversant with the behavioristic, psychological and sociological literature could do otherwise than emphasize its incompleteness and inadequacy. For our knowledge of behavior has come mostly from naturalistic observation, scarcely at all from experimentation; our knowledge of social relations is obviously meager and of uncertain value; and finally, our knowledge of mind is barely more than a collection of carelessly drawn inferences. This picture of the status of scientific work on the primates, although not overdrawn, will doubtless surprise many readers, and even the biologist may find himself wondering why we are so ignorant concerning the lives of the organisms most nearly akin to us, and naturally of deepest interest to us. The reasons are not far to seek. Most scientific investigators are forced by circumstances to work with organisms which are readily obtained and easily kept. The primates have neither of these advantages, for many, if not most of them, are expensive to get and either difficult or expensive to keep in good condition. Clearly, then, our ignorance is due not to lack of appreciation of the scientific value of primate research but instead to its difficultness and costliness. Strangely enough, the practical importance of knowledge of the primates has seldom been dwelt upon even by those biologists who are especially interested in it. It is, therefore, appropriate to emphasize the strictly human value of the work for which I am seeking provision. During the past few years it has been abundantly and convincingly demonstrated that knowledge of other organisms may aid directly in the solution of many of the problems of experimental medicine, of physiology, genetics, psychology, sociology, and economics. In the light of these results, it is obviously desirable that all studies of infrahuman organisms, but especially those of the various primates, should be made to contribute to the solution of our human problems. To me it seems that thoroughgoing knowledge of the lives of the infrahuman primates would inevitably make for human betterment. Through the science of genetics, as advanced by experimental studies of the monkeys and anthropoid apes, practical eugenic procedures should be more safely based and our ability to predict organic phenomena greatly increased. Similarly, intensive knowledge of the diseases of the other primates in their relations to human diseases should contribute importantly to human welfare. And finally, our careful studies of the fundamental instincts, forms of habit formation, and social relations in the monkeys and apes should lead to radical improvements in our educational methods as well as in other forms of social service. Along theoretical lines, no less than practical, systematic research with the primates should rapidly justify itself, for upon its results must rest the most significant historical or genetic biological descriptions. It is beyond doubt that genetic psychology can best be advanced to-day by such work, and what is obviously true of this science is not less true of all the biological sciences which take account of the developmental or genetic relations of their events. In view of the probable values of increasingly complete accounts of primate life, it seems far from extravagant to insist that the securing of adequate provision for systematic and long continued research is the most important task for our generation of biologists and the one which we shall be least excusable for neglecting. Indeed, when one stops to reflect concerning the situation, it seems almost incredible that the task has not been accomplished. Some ten years ago Professor John B. Watson (1906) entered a plea for the founding of a station for the experimental study of behavior. He made no special mention of work with the monkeys and apes, but it is clear from the problems which he enumerates that he would consider them most important subjects for observation. Professor Watson's plea has apparently been forgotten by American biologists, and it seems not inappropriate to revive it at this time. For surely we have advanced sufficiently along material and scientific lines during the last ten years to render possible the realization of his hope. To my knowledge, only one definite attempt has thus far been made to gain special provision for the study of the primates. Somewhere about the year 1912 there was established on Tenerife, one of the Canary Islands, a modest station for the study of the anthropoid apes. I have already referred to it briefly on page 1. The plan and purpose of this station, which is of German origin, have been presented briefly by Rothmann (1912). From personal communications I know that a single investigator has been in residence at the station since its founding and that psychological and physiological results of value have been obtained, but no published reports have come to my attention. When I first heard of the existence of the German anthropoid station I naturally thought of the possibility of coöperative work, but the events of the past two years have rendered the chances of cooperation so remote that it now seems wholly desirable and indeed imperative to seek the establishment of an American station, which, unlike the German station, shall provide adequately not only for the study of the anthropoid apes but for that of all of the lower primates. It should be the function of such a station or research institute (1) to bring together and correlate all the information at present available; (2) to fill in existing gaps observationally and thus complete and perfect our knowledge of these organisms; (3) to seek to bring all available information to bear upon the problems of human life. Hitherto the unsatisfactoriness of progress has been due to the lack of a definite plan and program. Every investigator has gone his own way, doing what little his personal means and opportunity rendered possible. The time has at last come when concerted action seems feasible as well as eminently desirable. I am therefore offering a plan and program which, if wisely developed, should lead ultimately to fairly complete and practically invaluable knowledge of the lives of all of the primates. There should be provided in a suitable locality a station or research institute which should offer adequate facilities (1) for the maintenance of various types of primate in normal, healthy condition; (2) for the successful breeding and rearing of the animals, generation after generation; (3) for systematic and continuous observation under reasonably natural conditions; (4) for experimental investigations from every significant biological point of view; (5) for profitable cooperation with existing biological institutes or departments of research throughout the world. The station should be located in a region whose climate is highly favorable to the life of many of the lower primates as well as to that of man. Such a location is by no means easy to find. Because of my intense interest in the subject, I have, during the past five years, prospected in various parts of the world for a satisfactory site. I shall now attempt to indicate the chief requirements and also the foremost advantages and disadvantages of several regions which have been considered. It is first of all requisite that the climate be such as to agree with the organisms to be studied and such, also, as to render their breeding normal and dependable. Second in importance is its satisfactoriness for the life and scientific productiveness of the observer. While certain tropical localities would meet the first requirement perfectly, they would prove extremely unsatisfactory for research activity. It therefore seems essential to find a region whose climate shall reasonably meet the needs of the experimenter while adequately meeting those of the animals to be studied. A further factor which has important bearing upon the productiveness of the observer is the degree of isolation from civilization and from other scientific work. No scientist can long work effectively, even in a reasonably healthy and stimulating climate, if entirely cut off from similar interests and activities. It is therefore desirable, if at all possible, to discover a location in the midst of civilization and with reasonably good opportunities for scientific associations. With these several desiderata before us, I shall call attention to a number of possible sites for a station, several of which I have visited. Southern California, and especially the portion of the State between Santa Barbara and San Diego, promises fairly well. It is definitely known that certain, if not all, species of monkey will breed there fairly satisfactorily, and although it has not yet been demonstrated, there is no reason to suppose that in certain regions the anthropoid apes might not also be kept in perfect health and successfully bred. The main advantages of this general region are (a) a climate which promises to be reasonably satisfactory for many if not all of the primates; (b) admirable climatic conditions for investigators; (c) wholly satisfactory scientific and cultural environment for the staff of a station. The most significant disadvantages are (a) a temperature, which is at times a trifle too low for the comfort of certain of the monkeys and apes. It is by no means certain, however, that they would not usually adapt themselves to it. (b) The necessity of importing all of the animals and of having to rely upon successful acclimatization. Of course it is to be assumed that importation would be necessary only at the outset of such work, since the animals later should replenish themselves within the confines of the station. Florida offers possibilities somewhat similar to those of southern California, but as I have not had opportunity to examine the conditions myself, I can say only that in view of such information as is available the advantage seems to be greatly in favor of the latter. Cuba, Jamaica, Porto Rico, and for that matter, several of the West Indies, offer possible sites for a successful station. I have reasonably intimate personal knowledge only of the conditions in Jamaica. The major advantages in the West Indies are (a) suitable climatic conditions and food supply for the animals; and (b) reasonably satisfactory climatic conditions for the staff. These are, however, more than counterbalanced in my opinion by the following serious disadvantages: (a) the relative isolation of the investigators from their fellow scientists; (b) the necessity of importing all of the animals originally used; (c) the risk of destruction of the station by storms. It is definitely known that anthropoid apes as well as monkeys can be successfully kept, bred, and reared in the West Indies. During the past year, on the estate of Doha Rosalia Abreu, near Havana, Cuba, a chimpanzee was born in captivity. A valuable account of this important event and of the young ape has been published by Doctor Louis Montané (1915). It therefore seems practically certain that regions could be found readily on Jamaica, Porto Rico, or smaller islands, which would be eminently satisfactory for the breeding of apes. There are obvious reasons why an American station for the study of the primates should be located on territory controlled by the United States Government, and if a tropical location proves necessary, it would probably be difficult to find more satisfactory regions, aside from the inconveniences and risk of importation and the relative isolation of the investigators, than are available on Porto Rico. I have not seriously considered the possibility of locating an American station on the continent of Africa, for although two of the most interesting and important of the anthropoid apes, the gorilla and the chimpanzee, are African forms, while many species of monkey are either found there or could readily be imported, it has seemed to me that the islands of the West and East Indies and the portions of the United States referred to above are much to be preferred over anything available in Africa. In the East, Borneo, the Philippine Islands, and Hawaii are well worth considering. Borneo is the home of the gibbon and of at least one species of orang utan, and in addition to these important assets, it presents the advantages of (a) a wholly suitable climate and food supply for monkeys and apes; and (b) climatic conditions for investigators which, I am informed by scientific friends, are nearly ideal. For investigators the most serious disadvantage here, as in all other parts of the East, would be the isolation from other scientific work and workers. The possibilities of Central America I considered several years ago when it seemed to me possible that work might profitably be done with monkeys and apes on the Canal Zone. The advantages are (a) a climate which promises fairly well for the animals; and (b) reasonable accessibility from the United States. The disadvantages are (a) a far from ideal climate for long continued scientific work; and (b) an environment which from the cultural and scientific point of view leaves much to be desired. Were a permanent psycho-biological station for the study of the primates to be established in southern California, it would, even though wholly satisfactory conditions for the breeding, rearing, and studying of the animals were maintained, furnish more or less inadequate opportunity for the observation of the animals under free, natural conditions. It would therefore be necessary, to supplement the work of such a station by field work in Borneo, Sumatra, Africa, India, South America, and such other regions as the species of organism under consideration happen to inhabit. Considering equally the needs of the experimenter and the demands of the animals, it seems to me reasonable to conclude that southern California should be definitely proved unsuitable before a more distant site were selected. For the information which I have been able to accumulate convinces me that it would in all probability be possible successfully to breed and keep the primates there, and it is perfectly clear that in such event the output of a station would be enormously greater because of the more favorable conditions for research than in any tropical region or in a more isolated location. Assuming that satisfactory provision in the shape of a scientific establishment for the study of the primates in their relations to man were available, the following program might be followed: (1) Systematic and continuous studies of important forms of individual behavior, of social relations, and of mind; (2) experimental studies of physiological processes, normal and pathological, and especially of the diseases of the lower primates, in their relations to those of man; (3) studies of heredity, embryology, and life history; (4) research in comparative anatomy, including gross anatomy, histology, neurology, and pathological anatomy. Each of these several kinds of research should be in progress almost continuously in order that no materials or opportunities for observation be needlessly wasted. Because of the nature of the work, it would be necessary to provide, first of all, for those functional studies which demand healthy and normally active organisms, whose life history is intimately and completely known. This is true of all studies in behavior, whether physiological, psychological, or sociological. Simultaneously with behavioristic observations and often upon the same individuals, genetic experiments might be conducted. This would be extremely desirable because of the relatively long periods between generations. After the usefulness of an animal in behavioristic or genetic inquiries had been exhausted, it might be made to render still further service to science in various experimental physiological, or medical inquiries. And finally, the same individual might ultimately be used for various forms of anatomical research. Thus, it is clear that the scientific usefulness of a lemur, a monkey, or an ape might be maintained at a high level throughout and even beyond the period of its life history. The program thus briefly sketched would provide either directly or indirectly for work on every aspect of primate life. Especially important would be the intimacy of interest and cooperation among investigators, for the comparative method should be applied consistently and to the limit of its value. The results of various kinds of observation should be correlated so that there should ultimately emerge a unitary and practically valuable account of primate life, to replace the patchwork of information which we now possess. Because of the costliness of maintaining and breeding the monkeys and apes, it is especially desirable that the several kinds of research mentioned above should be conducted. Indeed, it would seem inexcusably wasteful to attempt to maintain a primate or anthropoid station for psychological observations alone, or for any other narrowly limited biological inquiry. Furthermore, the station should be permanent, since for many kinds of work it would be essential to have intimate knowledge of the life history and descent of an individual. With the lower primates, a generation might be obtained in from two to five years; with the higher, not more frequently, probably, than from ten to fifteen years. It therefore seems not improbable that the value of the work done in such a station would continue to increase for many years and would not reach its maximum short of fifty or even one hundred years. A staff of several highly trained and experienced biologists would be needed. The following organization is suggested as desirable, although, as indicated below, not necessarily essential in the beginning: (1) An expert especially interested in the problems of behavior, psychology, and sociology, with keen appreciation of practical as well as of theoretical problems; (2) an assistant trained especially in comparative physiology; (3) an expert in genetics and experimental zoology; (4) an assistant with training and interests in comparative anatomy, histology, and embryology; (5) an expert in experimental medicine, who could conduct and direct studies of the diseases of man as well as of the lower primates and of measures for their control; (6) an assistant trained especially in pathology and neurology. To this scientific staff of six highly trained individuals there should be added a business manager, a clerical force of three individuals, a skilled mechanician, a carpenter, and at least four laborers. The annual expenditures of an institute with such a working staff, would in southern California, approximate fifty thousand dollars. It would therefore be necessary that it have an endowment of approximately one million dollars. In the absence of this foundation it would, of course, be possible to make a reasonably satisfactory beginning on the work which has been outlined in the following less expensive manner. A working plant might be established, on ground rented or purchased at a low figure, for about ten thousand dollars; the salary of a director, assistants, a clerical helper, and combined mechanic and laborer might be estimated at the same figure; the cost of animals and of maintenance of the plant would approximate five thousand dollars. Thus, we should obtain as an estimate of the expenditures for the first year twenty-five thousand dollars. Without expansion, the work might be conducted during the second year for fifteen thousand dollars, and subsequently it might be curtailed or expanded, resources permitting, according as results achieved and in prospect justified. An institute established on such a modest basis as this still might render largely important scientific service through its own research and through organized cooperation with other existing research establishments. Thus, for example, supposing that behavioristic, psychological, sociological, and genetic inquiries were conducted in the institute itself, animals might be supplied on a mutually satisfactory basis to institutes for experimental medicine, for physiological research, and for anatomical studies. Under such conditions, it is conceivable that extremely economical and good use might be made of all the available primate materials. But it is not improbable that even coöperative research would prove on the whole more profitable, except possibly in the case of morphological work, if investigators could conduct their studies in the institute itself rather than in distant laboratories. In any event, the idea of coöperation should be prominent in connection with the organization of a research station for the study of the primates. For thus, evidently, scientific achievement in connection with these important types of animal might be vastly increased over what would be possible in a single relatively small institution with a limited and necessarily specialized staff of workers. Despite the fact that biologists generally recognize the importance of the work under consideration and are eager to have it done, it is perfectly certain that we shall accomplish nothing unless we devote ourselves confidently, determinedly and unitedly, with faith, vision, and enthusiasm, to the realization of a definite plan. Our vision is clear,--if we are to gather and place at the service of mankind adequate comparative knowledge of the life of the primates and if we are to make this possible harvest of scientific results count for human betterment, we must bend all our efforts to the establishment of a station or institute for research. VIII BIBLIOGRAPHY BREHM, A. Tierleben. 1888. COBURN, C.A. and YERKES, R.M. A study of the behavior of the crow, 1915. _Corvus Americanus_ Aud. by the multiple-choice method. _Journal of Animal Behavior_, vol. 5, 75-114. CUVIER, FREDERIC. Description d'un orang-outang, et observations sur 1810. ses facultées intellectuelles. _Annales du Museum d'Histoire naturelle_, vol. 16, 46-65. DARWIN, C. Origin of species. 1859. 1871. The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. ELLIOT, D.G. A review of the primates. New York. 1913. FRANZ, S.I. On the functions of the cerebrum: the frontal lobes. 1907. _Archives of Psychology_, no. 2, 1-64. 1911. On the functions of the cerebrum: the occipital lobes. _Psychological Monographs_, vol. 13, 1-118. 1913. Observations on the preferential use of the right and left hands by monkeys. Journal of Animal Behavior, 3, 140-144. GARNER, R.L. The speech of monkeys. London. 1892. 1896. Gorillas and chimpanzees. London. 1900. Apes and monkeys; their life and language. Boston and London. HAGGERTY, M.E. Imitation in monkeys. _Journal of Comparative Neurology_ 1909. _and Psychology_, vol. 19, 337-455. HAMILTON, G.V. A study of trial and error reactions in mammals. 1911. _Journal of Animal Behavior_, vol. 1, 33-66. 1914. A study of sexual tendencies in monkeys and baboons. _Journal_ _of Animal Behavior_, vol. 4, 295-318. HIRSCHLAFF, L. Der Schimpanzee Konsul. _Zeit. f. päd. Psy_., vol. 7, 1. 1905. HOBHOUSE, L.T. Mind in evolution. London. 1915. HOLMES, S.J. Evolution of intelligence. New York. 1911. HRDLICKA, A. Anatomical observations on a collection of orang skulls 1907. from western Borneo; with a bibliography. _Proceedings of the United States National Museum_, vol. 31, 539-568. KINNAMAN, A.J. Mental life of two _Macacus rhesus_ monkeys in captivity. 1902. _American Journal of Psychology_, vol. 13, 98-148, 173-218. LASHLEY, K.S. and WATSON, J.B. Notes on the development of a young 1913. monkey. _Journal of Animal Behavior_, vol. 3, 114-139. MÖBIUS, K. Zur psychologie des Schimpanse. _Zool. Garten_., vol. 8, 1867. 279-280. MONTANÉ, L. Un chimpancé Cubano. Havana, _El Siglo XX_. 1915. MORGAN, C.L. Introduction to comparative psychology. London. 1906. PFUNGST, O. Zur Psychologie der Affen. _Ber. über d. V. Kongress f._ 1912. _exp. Psychol_., 200-205. ROMANES, G.J. Mental evolution in animals. New York. 1900. ROTHMANN, M. Ueber die errichtung einer Station zur psychologischen 1912. und hirn[?] physiologischen Erforschung der Menschenaffen. _Berliner klinische Wochenschr_., Nr. 42. SHEPHERD, W.T. Some mental processes of the rhesus monkey. 1910. _Psychologic Monographs_, vol. 12, 1-61. 1915. Some observations on the intelligence of the chimpanzee. _Journal of Animal Behavior_, vol. 5, 391-396. SOKOLOWSKY, A. Beobachtungen über die Psyche der Menschenaffen. 1908. Frankfurt a. M. THORNDIKE, E.L. The mental life of the monkeys. _Psychological_ 1901. _Monograph_, vol. 3, 1-57. 1911. Animal intelligence. New York. 1911. WALLACE, A.R. The Malay Archipelago. London. 1869. WASHBURN, M.F. The animal mind. New York. 1908. WATSON, J.B. The need of an experimental station for the study of 1906. certain problems in animal behavior. _Psychological_ _Bulletin_, vol. 3, 149-156. 1908. Imitation in monkeys. _Psychological Bulletin_, vol. 5, 169-178. 1909. Some experiments bearing upon color vision in monkeys. _Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology_, vol. 19, 1-28. WITMER, L. A monkey with a mind. _Psychological Clinic_, vol. 3, 179-205. 1909. 1910. Intelligent imitation and curiosity in a monkey. _Psychological_ _Clinic_, vol. 3, 225-227. YERKES, R.M. The study of human behavior. _Science_, vol. 39, 625-633. 1914. 1910. Maternal instinct in a monkey. _Journal of Animal Behavior_, vol. 5, 403-405. 1916. Provision for the study of the monkeys and apes. _Science_, vol. 43, 231-234. YERKES, R.M. and COBURN, C.A. A study of the behavior of the pig 1915. _Sus scrofa_ by the multiple-choice method. _Journal of_ _Animal Behavior_, vol. 5, 185-225. 
28874	----	Comments on the Taxonomy and Geographic Distribution of Some North American Rabbits BY E. RAYMOND HALL and KEITH R. KELSON University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 5, pp. 49-58 October 1, 1951 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 5, pp. 49-58 October 1, 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1951 [Illustration] 23-7436 Comments on the Taxonomy and Geographic Distribution of Some North American Rabbits BY E. RAYMOND HALL AND KEITH R. KELSON In preparing maps showing the geographic distribution of North American lagomorphs, some conflicting statements in the literature have led us to examine the pertinent specimens of the Florida cottontail and the Audubon cottontail with results as given below. The study here reported upon was aided by a contract between the Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy, and the University of Kansas (NR 161-791). Unless otherwise indicated, catalogue numbers are of the United States National Museum and most of the specimens are in the Biological Surveys collection of the Fish and Wildlife Service. Grateful acknowledgment is made to persons in charge of the collections for permission to use the collections under their charge. Sylvilagus floridanus similis Nelson 1907. _Sylvilagus floridanus similis_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 20:82, July 22. Some confusion has existed concerning the subspecific identity of the Florida cottontail in Nebraska because of the way in which Nelson recorded specimens in his "The Rabbits of North America" (N. Amer. Fauna, 29:fig. 11, and pp. 169-174, August 31, 1909). He (_op. cit._:174) listed the following specimens under the western subspecies, _S. f. similis_: Two topotypes (Nos. 87784 and 18738/25532) and of course the type; the specimen (No. 116288) from the Snake River [= Snake Creek of maps], 11 mi. NW Kennedy; two from Neligh (126074 and 151438); and one (probably 18680/25410) from Kennedy. But, he listed (_op. cit._:172) under _S. f. mearnsi_, the eastern subspecies, a specimen (10721) from Brownlee, and two from Kennedy. One of the two from Kennedy probably was the one that is recorded in the files of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as "identified by Cary. spec. in Univ. Nebraska". The other, or third, specimen from Kennedy, we judge, did not exist at all but was recorded by Nelson because a card in the reference file, under Kennedy, Nebraska, in addition to No. 18680/25410, carried a second entry, a number 3471X. The latter is the X-catalogue number of specimen No. 116288 from the Snake River! The X-catalogue is used in place of a field catalogue for specimens sent to the mammal collection of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, by persons who do not keep regular field numbers of their own. It seems that Nelson prepared (or had prepared) his lists of specimens, at least in part, from cards rather than from the labels on the specimens themselves. Some further confusion as to names that Nelson intended to apply to cottontails in Nebraska resulted from the fact that his map (_op. cit._:fig. 11) indicated that the localities mentioned above for _S. f. mearnsi_ were within the geographic range of _S. f. similis_. Our comparison of each of the Nebraskan specimens with specimens of _S. f. mearnsi_ in comparable pelage from Iowa and with the type and topotypes of _S. f. similis_ reveals that each of the specimens of which catalogue numbers are given above is clearly referable to _Sylvilagus floridanus similis_. Because some mammalogists have suspected that intergradation between _Sylvilagus floridanus similis_ and _Sylvilagus nuttallii grangeri_ occurs along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, we have examined specimens which may throw light on this matter. From _S. f. similis_ (holotype and three topotypes), _S. n. grangeri_ (eight practical topotypes from Redfern, South Dakota) differ as follows: Throat patch darker; hind foot shorter; ear (dry) from notch longer; rostrum narrower; posterior extension of supraorbital process enclosing a longer and wider space between it and the braincase; superior border of premaxilla straight in profile instead of convex dorsally; tympanic bullae more inflated; external auditory meatus larger (diameter of the meatus more, instead of less, than crown length of upper molars); posterior border of palate without, instead of with, spine. Specimens of the two species from places as near each other as extreme southeastern Montana (_S. f. similis_ from Boxelder Creek, Capitol and the Little Missouri River) and Devils Tower, Wyoming (_S. n. grangeri_), seem not to differ in the length of the hind foot and the ear and in the color of the spot on the chest. Also, the presence or absence of the spine on the posterior margin of the palate is subject to individual variation in these specimens but the other cranial differences, mentioned above, still are apparent. These same cranial differences are readily apparent between specimens of the two species taken only five miles apart in eastern Wyoming (for the precise localities, see the following paragraph). It is concluded, therefore, that _S. f. similis_ and _S. n. grangeri_ do not inter-grade along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains. Data on specimens from Laramie County in eastern Wyoming show that _S. f. similis_ is a heavier animal than _S. n. grangeri_ and also that _similis_ molts earlier. For example, an adult female (K.U. No. 15936) taken on July 13, 1945, three miles east of Horse Creek P.O., 6400 ft., weighed 1374 grams and is in fresh pelage, whereas an adult female of _S. n. grangeri_ (K.U. No. 15935), taken on July 17, 1945, two miles west of Horse Creek P.O., 6600 ft., weighed only 1149 grams, and still has some of the worn winter pelage on the upper parts. Sylvilagus floridanus holzneri (Mearns) 1896. _Lepus sylvaticus holzneri_ Mearns, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 18:554, June 24. 1904. _Sylvilagus floridanus holzneri_, Lyon, Smithsonian Miscl. Coll., 45:336, June 15. Examination of cottontail rabbits from Arizona in the Biological Surveys Collection and the United States National Museum indicates that _Sylvilagus audubonii_ can be distinguished from _Sylvilagus nuttallii_ and _Sylvilagus floridanus_ by the larger (more inflated) tympanic bullae. Topotypes of _Sylvilagus nuttallii pinetis_ and other specimens from Alpine, Mt. Thomas, Springerville, the Prieto Plateau at 9000 feet on the south end of the Blue Range, and the Tunitcha Mountains are characterized by a posteriorly pointed supraoccipital shield and a long, wide space between the braincase and the posterior extension of the supraorbital process. The cottontails with equally small tympanic bullae from more western and more southern localities are referable to _Sylvilagus floridanus holzneri_ on the basis of a posteriorly truncate or emarginate supraoccipital shield and a narrower and shorter space (usually a "foramen") between the braincase and the posterior extension of the supraorbital process. In _S. f. holzneri_ the posterior end of the posterior process fuses with the braincase whereas the posterior end of this process in Arizonan specimens of _S. n. pinetis_ merely lies against the braincase or projects free of it. In specimens from Arizona the difference in shape of the posterior border of the supraoccipital shield and the difference in size of the space between the braincase and the posterior extension of the supraorbital process are the only differences of taxonomic worth found by us. Many other features of the skull, of color of pelage, and of size of external parts all fell within the range of individual variation of a series of specimens from one locality. Specimens from the following localities in Arizona are referable to _Sylvilagus floridanus holzneri_ (Mearns). Hualpai Mts., Nos. 117461, 117462, 117488, 117490, 117495, 227735, and 227832; Ft. Whipple, No. 214157; Prescott, No. 34667/46752; Mayer, No. 247495; Reynolds Creek Ranger Station, Sierra Ancha Mts., Gila Co., No. 247734; Fish Creek, Tonto National Forest, 2000 ft., No. 212833; north base Mt. Turnbull, 4500 ft., No. 214339; Ash Creek, 6100 ft., Graham Mts., No. 204363; Pinery Canyon, 7500 ft., Chiricahua Mts., No. 247953; Thomas Cañon, 2 mi. E Baboquivari Mts., No. 244420; Pine Springs, 15 mi. south of Colorado Cañon, No. 2425 Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. On December 4, 1950, we removed the skull of No. 2425 to more certainly ascertain the identity of the individual. The specimens listed above include those that Nelson (N. Amer. Fauna, 29:211, August 31, 1909) listed from the Hualpai Mountains, Pine Springs, and Prescott under the name _Sylvilagus nuttallii pinetis_. Nelson (_op. cit._:Pl. X, fig. 2) figured one of these skulls from the Hualpai Mountains as _S. n. pinetis_ and the cranial measurements (_op. cit._:201) that he records for _S. nuttallii pinetis_ likewise are of these same specimens of _Sylvilagus floridanus holzneri_. Nelson's description (_op. cit._:207-210) seems to have been affected by the erroneous (as we see the matter) inclusion of these specimens of _S. f. holzneri_ in the materials identified by him as _Sylvilagus nuttallii pinetis_. The specimens so far mentioned from Arizona can be identified with ease. The identification becomes difficult, however, when the holotype of _S. f. holzneri_, from the Huachuca Mountains, is examined. The difficulty results from the holotype having a barely detectable emargination in the posterior border of the supraoccipital shield. In this respect the holotype is intermediate between _S. f. holzneri_ (as known by specimens from more western localities in Arizona) and _S. n. pinetis_ from the White Mountains to the northward. As noted above, _S. f. holzneri_ has a deep notch and _S. n. pinetis_ has none. This intermediacy of the holotype supports the possibility, mentioned by Nelson (_op. cit._:200), that intergradation occurs between _S. f. holzneri_ and _S. n. pinetis_. Additional evidence, however, is against this possibility; the notch in the supraoccipital is deeper in specimens (No. 66136, from Chiricahua Mts., and No. 204364, from Ash Creek in Graham Mts.) from mountains geographically intermediate between the Huachuca Mountains and the White Mountains. Also, the holotype of _S. f. holzneri_ differs from _S. n. pinetis_ and agrees with other specimens of _S. f. holzneri_ from farther southwest in Arizona in the robustness of the posterior extensions of the supraorbital processes and in the considerable degree of fusion of the tips of these processes with the squamosals. Additionally, the rostrum of the holotype is wide and deep as in other specimens of _S. floridanus_ from more eastern localities and is unlike the narrow and shallow rostrum of _S. n. pinetis_. If intergradation occurs in Arizona between the species _Sylvilagus floridanus_ and _Sylvilagus nuttallii_, as Nelson (_op. cit._:200) intimated it might, the intergrades probably will be found along the Tonto Rim or in the territory between the Blue Range and the Graham Mountains. Sylvilagus floridanus cognatus Nelson 1907. _Sylvilagus cognatus_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 20:82, July 22. We have examined the specimens recorded by Nelson (N. Amer. Fauna, 29:193, August 31, 1909) and conclude that Nelson (_op. cit._) accurately described them. We differ from Nelson on one point of interpretation; we prefer to use the trinomial, instead of the binomial, for _cognatus_ because the kind and amount of difference between it and subspecies of _Sylvilagus floridanus_ (_S. f. holzneri_ and possibly _S. f. llanensis_) is on the order of magnitude that distinguishes subspecies, and not full species, of _Sylvilagus_. The specimen (W.D. Hollister, original No. 208) from the Datil Mountains, lent to us by the Colorado Museum of Natural History, does have, as Nelson (_op. cit._) pointed out, larger tympanic bullae and a slenderer rostrum than do other specimens of _S. f. cognatus_. Nevertheless, No. 208, agrees with _cognatus_ and differs from _Sylvilagus nuttallii pinetis_ in the greater vertical depth of the zygoma, the greater transverse width of the first pair of upper incisors, the broader posterior extensions of the supraorbital processes, the fusion (instead of freedom from, or mere touching to, the braincase) of the tips of these extensions, the less upturned supraorbital processes, and the more nearly truncate posterior margin of the supraorbital shield. Therefore, the specimen is referable to _Sylvilagus floridanus cognatus_. The slender rostrum and large tympanic bullae of No. 208 are either individual variations or features peculiar to the population of _Sylvilagus floridanus_ in the Datil Mountains. Sylvilagus floridanus robustus Bailey 1905. _Lepus pinetis robustus_ V. Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 25:159, October 24. Nelson (N. Amer. Fauna, 29:194-195, August 31, 1909) described specimens from the Big Bend area of Texas. This was the only area from which Nelson had specimens. Our examination of these same specimens indicates that his description of them was accurate. Davis and Robertson (Jour. Mamm., 25:271, September 8, 1944) recorded a specimen, under the name _Sylvilagus robustus_, from "The Bowl, Guadalupe Mountains, Culberson County, Texas." Our examination of the skull of this specimen ([female] adult, No. 658, Mus. Zool., Louisiana State University) indicates that it is, among named kinds of rabbits, best referred to _robustus_. The specimen is morphologically as well as geographically intermediate between _S. f. cognatus_ and _S. robustus_. This morphological intermediacy is illustrated by certain of the following cranial measurements of three adult females: No. 108695 (_robustus_), Chisos Mts.; No. 658 from the Guadalupe Mts.; and No. 128651, NE slope Capitan Mts. Basilar length, 59.2, 54.2, 54.4; length of nasals, 33.9, 31.1, 32.2; breadth of rostrum above premolars, 19.3, 17.5, 17.0; depth of rostrum in front of premolars, 15.8, 14.8, 14.0; interorbital breadth, 20.4, 19.1, 19.7; parietal breadth, 27.2, 27.1, 26.5; diameter of bulla, 13.3, 12.2, 10.7. Considering the intermediate nature of specimen No. 648, and the kind and amount of difference between _Sylvilagus floridanus cognatus_ and _S. robustus_, it seems appropriate to us to use the name-combination _Sylvilagus floridanus robustus_. Actual intergradation, in the sense of interbreeding between individuals of a continuously distributed population of animals, probably does not occur regularly between _S. f. cognatus_ and _S. f. robustus_ nor between several populations within either one of these subspecies; in south-central Arizona and western Texas the animals are said to occur only in the higher parts of the mountains. Consequently a given population is separated from another by low-lying territory inhospitable to the species _Sylvilagus floridanus_. This low-lying territory is inhabited by another species, _Sylvilagus audubonii_. More intensive collecting in the region concerned may, however, show a continuous distribution of the species _Sylvilagus floridanus_ in several areas where it seems now to have an interrupted distribution. Sylvilagus audubonii neomexicanus Nelson 1907. _Sylvilagus audubonii neomexicanus_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 20:83, July 22. Nelson (N. Amer. Fauna, 29:230, August 31, 1909) listed under _Sylvilagus audubonii cedrophilus_ Nelson an adult female, skin with skull (U.S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll., No. 108698) from fifteen miles south of Alpine, Texas. Nelson (_loc. cit._) remarked that the "bleached" color of the back and the great lateral breadth of the tympanic bullae of No. 108698 were peculiarities not possessed by any other specimen examined. Geographically, the locality of capture is far south of other known occurrences of _S. a. cedrophilus_ and approximately on the boundary separating the range of _S. a. minor_ from that of _S. a. neomexicanus_. The large size, which may have induced Nelson to refer the specimen to _S. a. cedrophilus_, is not surprising considering that the individual is a female and fully adult. A combination of new and old fur on the upper parts presents a pattern that might be duplicated in other specimens of _S. a. neomexicanus_. The lateral inflation of the tympanic bullae can be interpreted as intergradation with the geographically adjacent _S. a. minor_ to the south; _S. a. minor_ has large bullae. There are no features otherwise which suggest that the specimen is anything other than _Sylvilagus audubonii neomexicanus_ and we refer it to that subspecies. Sylvilagus audubonii minor Mearns 1896. _Lepus arizonae minor_ Mearns, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 18:557, June 24. 1907. _S[ylvilagus]. a[uduboni]. minor_, Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 20:83, July 22. Nelson (N. Amer. Fauna, 29:230, August 31, 1909) listed, without comment, under _Sylvilagus audubonii cedrophilus_ Nelson, a skin with skull inside (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5419, [female] adult or sub-adult) from San Diego, Chihuahua, Mexico. We locate San Diego approximately 230 miles south and 60 miles east of El Paso, Texas. Thus, the specimen is from near the center of the geographic range of _Sylvilagus audubonii minor_. With the permission of Mr. G.G. Goodwin of the American Museum of Natural History we removed the skull. It differs in no essential features from those of other specimens of _S. a. minor_. For example, of specimens in the United States National Museum, Biological Surveys Collection, a female (No. 132002) from Guzman in Chihuahua, and a male (No. 51020) from Santa Rosalia in the same state, are almost indistinguishable from the San Diegan specimen. The specimen is without external measurements but the length of the hind foot and length of ear from the notch in the dry state (80 and 57, respectively) agree with the corresponding measurements of _S. a. minor_. Color of the skin furnishes no diagnostic character as between _S. a. minor_ and _S. a. cedrophilus_. We identify the specimen from San Diego as _Sylvilagus audubonii minor_. _Transmitted January 30, 1951._ 24-7436 
31046	----	A New Pocket Mouse (Genus Perognathus) from Kansas BY E. LENDELL COCKRUM University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 11, pp. 203-206 December 15, 1951 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 11, pp. 203-206 December 15, 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1951 23-8186 A New Pocket Mouse (Genus Perognathus) from Kansas BY E. LENDELL COCKRUM In studying the kinds of mammals known from Kansas, I had occasion to examine a series of _Perognathus flavus_ from the western part of the state. Comparisons of these specimens with topotypes of named subspecies revealed that the specimens from Kansas belong to a heretofore undescribed subspecies which ranges through western Nebraska, eastern Colorado, western Kansas, and western Oklahoma. This subspecies is named and described as follows. =Perognathus flavus bunkeri=, new subspecies _Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull; No. 11716, Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist.; Conard Farm, 1 mi. E Coolidge, Hamilton County, Kansas; 1 July 1936; obtained by F. Parks and C. W. Hibbard, original No. 894 of Hibbard. _Diagnosis._--Size large (see measurements). Color light, upper parts between Pinkish Buff and Cinnamon-Buff (capitalized color terms after Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912), sparsely mixed with black hairs; the effect at a distance of eight feet, is between Clay Color and Tawny-Olive; lateral line between Pinkish Buff and Cinnamon-Buff; postauricular spots near Pinkish Buff; small subauricular spots white; underparts white. Skull of medium size (see measurements); frontonasal and mastoidal regions much enlarged; interparietal transversely narrow. _Comparisons._--From topotypes of _P. f. flavus_ from El Paso, El Paso County, Texas, _P. f. bunkeri_ differs as follows: Averaging larger in all cranial measurements taken except in occipitonasal length, which is approximately the same, and in interparietal width, which is less; color more buffy, with fewer black hairs dorsally. From topotypes of _P. f. piperi_ from 23 miles southwest of Newcastle, Weston County, Wyoming, _P. f. bunkeri_ differs as follows: Smaller in frontonasal length, mastoidal breadth, and length of auditory bulla; color more buffy, with fewer black hairs dorsally. From topotypes of _P. f. sanluisi_ from nine miles east of Center, Alamosa County, Colorado, _P. f. bunkeri_ differs as follows: Averaging larger in all cranial measurements taken except interparietal width, which is smaller; color lighter and more buffy. _Remarks._--This is a brightly colored subspecies of _Perognathus flavus_, with less black dorsally than any adjacent one. The lateral line is well marked. Three young adult specimens taken from Wakeeney, Trego County, Kansas, are much brighter than other specimens from Kansas. The five specimens from Greeley, Weld County, Colorado, are much darker dorsally, like _P. f. piperi_, but are referable to _P. f. bunkeri_ on the basis of cranial characters. The name _P. f. bunkeri_ is proposed in recognization of the continued attention which the late Charles Dean Bunker, Curator of Birds and Mammals of the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, gave to building up the collection of mammals from Kansas. Acknowledgment is made of the assistance afforded me by a Research Assistantship with the Kansas Biological Survey. _Measurements._--Measurements of holotype and average of four adults (two males and two females) from the type locality are as follows: total length, 104, 105.2; length of tail, 44, 47.5; length of hind foot, 16, 16.7; length of ear, 7, 7.2; occipitonasal length, 20.6, 20.9; frontonasal length, 14.0, 13.9; mastoidal breadth, 12.1, 12.0; length of bulla, 8.0, 7.8; interorbital breadth, 4.5, 4.6; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth-row, 3.3, 3.1; interparietal width, 3.2, 3.2. All of the measurements listed above are available for each of the five specimens except that the occipitonasal length and frontonasal length are not available for the two males. _Specimens examined._--Total, 54, distributed by localities of capture as shown below. Those from Nebraska and Colorado are in the US Nat'l Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll., and those from Kansas are in the Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist. NEBRASKA:--_Box Butte Co._: Alliance, 1. COLORADO:--_Weld Co._: Greeley, 5. _Kit Carson Co._: Burlington, 1. _Fremont Co._: Canon City, 1. KANSAS:--_Cheyenne County_: 23 mi. [by road] NW St. Francis, 1. _Rawlins County_: 12 mi. NE McDonald, 1; 2 mi. NE Ludell, 1. _Decatur County_: 2 mi. S, 6 mi. W Oberlin, 1. _Logan County_: Vincent Ranch, N. Fork Smoky R., [= 4 mi. W and 8 mi. N McAllaster], 2; unspecified, 1. _Gove County_: Castle Rock, 1. _Trego County_: Wakeeney, 3. _Hamilton County_: 1 mi. E Coolidge, 8. _Stanton County_: 6 mi. W, 1-1/2 mi. S Manter, 1; 8-1/2 mi. W, 2-1/2 mi. S Manter, 1. _Kiowa County_: Rezeau Ranch, 5 mi. N Belvidere, 1. _Morton County_: 9 mi. N, 3 mi. E Elkhart, 18. _Meade County_: 9 mi. SW Meade, 1; 17 mi. SW Meade, 2. _Clark County_: Stephenson Ranch, 7 mi. S Kingsdown, 1. OKLAHOMA:--_Texas County_: 2 mi. E Eva, 1. _University of Kansas, Museum of Natural History, Lawrence, Kansas._ _Transmitted May 14, 1951._ 23-8186 * * * * * Transcriber's Notes Page 205: Changed underscribed to undescribed (belong to a heretofore underscribed subspecies). Bold text is shown within =equal signs=. Italic text is shown within _underscores_. 
30999	----	A New Chipmunk (Genus Eutamias) from the Black Hills BY JOHN A. WHITE University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 19, pp. 259-262 April 10, 1952 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1952 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 19, pp. 259-262 April 10, 1952 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1952 * * * * * A New Chipmunk (Genus Eutamias) from the Black Hills BY JOHN A. WHITE Study of the chipmunks from the eastern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains reveals that the chipmunks from northeastern Wyoming and from South Dakota which Howell (N. Amer. Fauna, 52:55, November 30, 1929) referred to _Eutamias minimus borealis_ actually belong to a heretofore unnamed subspecies which may be named and described as follows: #Eutamias minimus silvaticus# new subspecies _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin, No. 20050 Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas; from 3 mi. NW Sundance, 5900 ft., Crook County, Wyoming; obtained on July 4, 1947, by H. W. Setzer; original No. 1692. _Range._--Bear Lodge Mountains in northeastern Wyoming and the Black Hills of South Dakota. _Diagnosis._--Size large (see measurements); general tone of upper parts drab; sides Ochraceous Buff (capitalized terms are of Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912); lateral stripes Fuscus Black washed with Ochraceous Tawny; ventral side of tail near (14' _h_) Ochraceous Orange and fringed with black. _Comparisons._--From _Eutamias minimus pallidus_ (specimens from Buffalo in Johnson County, Ivy Creek, Rockypoint, Middle Butte, and South Butte in Campbell County, all in Wyoming, and Harrison, Sioux County, Nebraska), the subspecies to the southward, westward, and northward, _E. m. silvaticus_ differs in: General tone of upper parts markedly darker, more reddish and less grayish; dorsal stripes darker; crown markedly darker. External measurements, and measurements and characters of the skull of the two subspecies, do not differ significantly. Unless otherwise specified all comparative material is in the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas. From _Eutamias minimus cacodemus_ (topotypes in the United States National Museum), the subspecies to the southeastward, _E. m. silvaticus_ differs in the same manner in which it differs from _E. m. pallidus_, but the degree of difference is greater because _E. m. cacodemus_ is even paler than _E. m. pallidus_. From _Eutamias minimus confinis_ (specimens from 17-1/2 mi. E and 4-1/2 mi. S Shell, 8500 ft., Big Horn County, Wyoming), _E. m. silvaticus_ differs in: General tone of upper parts darker, more reddish and less grayish; sides of rump more reddish and less grayish; underside of tail more tawny; skull distinctly longer and broader across zygomata. From _Eutamias minimus borealis_ (specimens from 1 mi. NW of junction of Irons Creek and Laird River; N side Muskwa River, 4 mi. W Ft. Nelson, 1200 ft.; E side Minaker River, 1 mi. W Trutch; Beatton River, 115 mi. S Ft. Nelson; 5 mi. W and 3 mi. N Ft. St. John; S side Toad River, 10 mi. S and 21 mi. E Muncho Lake; all in British Columbia; and from Assineau River, 1920 ft., 10 mi. E and 1 mi. N Kinuso, Alberta), _E. m. silvaticus_ differs in: Under side of tail more reddish; dorsal stripes less blackish; sides slightly paler (less tawny); nasals distinctly shorter; skull distinctly shorter. _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of three adult males and 11 adult females of _E. m. silvaticus_ from the type locality are, respectively, as follows: Total length, 190 (189-190), 207 (202-220); length of tail, 85 (81-90), 97 (82-105); length of hind foot, 31 (30-33), 32 (31-34); length of ear, 14 (13-16), 15 (14-17); weight, 45.7 (44.6-46.5), 55.7 (50.0-68.0); greatest length of skull, 32.0 (31.5-32.6), 32.3 (31.5-33.1); zygomatic breadth, 18.5 (18.5-18.5), 18.6 (18.2-19.0); least interorbital constriction, 6.9 (6.8-7.1), 7.0 (6.4-8.1); length of nasals, 9.4 (9.2-9.6), 9.6 (9.3-10.1). _Measurements of the type._--Total length, 206; length of tail, 90; length of hind foot, 32; length of ear, 15; weight, 59.3; greatest length of skull, 32.6; zygomatic breadth, 18.6; least interorbital constriction, 6.4; length of nasals, 9.3. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 28. Specimens from South Dakota are in the United States National Museum, and those from Wyoming are in the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas. #South Dakota#: _Custer Co._: Custer, 3; _Lawrence Co._: Deadwood, 10. #Wyoming#: _Crook County_: 3 mi. NW Sundance, 5900 ft., 14; 15 mi. ENE Sundance, 3825 ft., 1. Acknowledgment is made of assistance, with the field work, received from the Kansas University Endowment Association. _Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Transmitted December 8, 1951._ 
31136	----	UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 7, No. 6, pp. 479-487 April 21, 1954 Distribution of Some Nebraskan Mammals BY J. KNOX JONES, JR. UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1954 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Robert W. Wilson Volume 7, No. 6, pp. 479-487 Published April 21, 1954 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1954 25-2530 Distribution of Some Nebraskan Mammals by J. Knox Jones, Jr. Because military service will interrupt my study of Nebraskan mammals, I am here placing on record certain information on the geographic distribution of several species--information that is thought pertinent to current studies of some of my associates. Most of this information is provided by specimens recently collected by me and other representatives of the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, although specimens from other collections provide some of the records herein reported. The other collections are the Biological Surveys Collection of the United States National Museum (USBS), the Hastings Museum (HM), the Nebraska Game, Forestation and Parks Commission (NGFPC), the University of California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (MVZ), the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology (MZ) and the University of Nebraska State Museum (NSM). Grateful acknowledgment hereby is made to persons in charge of these several collections for lending the materials concerned. Specimens mentioned in the following accounts are in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, except as otherwise stated. All measurements are in millimeters. Color terms are those of Ridgway (1912). A part of the funds for field work was made available by the National Science Foundation and the Kansas University Endowment Association. =Sorex cinereus haydeni.= (Baird). CINEREOUS SHREW.--Two male shrews were trapped on April 7, 1952, among rocks along an old railroad fill, 4 mi. N, 1/2 mi. E of Octavia, Butler County, thus extending the known geographic range of _S. c. haydeni_ approximately 60 miles southward from a line connecting Perch, Rock County, Nebraska, with Wall Lake, Sac County, Iowa (see Jackson, 1928:52-53), and providing the first record of occurrence in the Platte River Valley. Two additional specimens, taken on July 17, 1952, are from 2-1/2 mi. N of Ord, Valley County, along the Loup River, a tributary of the Platte from the north. =Blarina brevicauda carolinensis= (Bachman). SHORT-TAILED SHREW.--J. S. Findley and I, in a forthcoming paper, review the distribution of _Blarina brevicauda_ in the Great Plains region, recording _B. b. carolinensis_ from the extreme southeastern and southwestern counties of Nebraska. A series of five shrews of this species recently obtained from three miles south and two miles east of Nebraska City in Otoe County, average significantly smaller in both the cranial and the external measurements than typical _B. b. brevicauda_ and fall well within the range of _carolinensis_. Average and extreme external measurements of the four adults from Otoe County, three males and one female, are as follows: Total length, 110 (109-112); length of tail-vertebrae, 24.2 (22-26); length of hind foot, 13.8 (13-14). Another specimen from 3 mi. S, 1-1/2 mi. E of Peru, Nemaha County, also is referable to _carolinensis_. These recent records indicate that the range of _B. b. carolinensis_ extends up the Missouri River Valley, approximately to Nebraska City, Otoe County. Five specimens from Louisville, Cass County, the next county northward, along the River, are referable to _B. b. brevicauda_. =Eptesicus fuscus fuscus.= (Beauvois). BIG BROWN BAT.--One big brown bat was obtained on July 23, 1952, from one mile west of Niobrara, Knox County. While not so dark in dorsal coloration as some specimens of _E. f. fuscus_ from eastern Nebraska (Cass and Sarpy counties), this specimen is noticeably darker than a series of _E. f. pallidus_ from Ft. Niobrara Wildlife Refuge, 4 mi. E of Valentine, Cherry County, being near (16" _j_) Snuff Brown as opposed to near (16' _i_) Buckthorn Brown. Previous to the taking of this specimen, Webb and Jones (1952:277) reported as _E. f. pallidus_ a specimen, saved as a skull only, which was picked up dead at Niobrara. It seems best to assign these two bats from the vicinity of Niobrara, Knox County, to _E. f. fuscus_. =Sciurus carolinensis carolinensis= Gmelin. GRAY SQUIRREL.--An adult male gray squirrel shot by Mr. Terry A. Vaughan in the heavily timbered bluffs of the Missouri River, 3 mi. S, 2 mi. E of Nebraska City, Otoe County, on October 10, 1953, provides the only museum specimen of a gray squirrel from Nebraska known to me. Residents in the area concerned report small numbers of this squirrel as still occurring on the heavily wooded bluffs along the Missouri River in Nemaha, Otoe and Richardson counties, Nebraska, at least as far north as Nebraska City. Gray squirrels from Nebraska have been reported twice before in the literature as follows: "Mouth of Platte [River]" (Baird, 1858:262) and Barada, Richardson County (Jones and Webb, 1949:312). Swenk (1908:80), while listing no actual records, says of this squirrel, "Common in the timber along watercourses of southeastern Nebraska, but greatly outnumbered everywhere by [_Sciurus niger_] _rufiventer_. I have no records west of the 97th meridian nor north of the Platte." =Spermophilus franklinii= (Sabine). FRANKLIN GROUND SQUIRREL.--A specimen from 2 mi. NW of Lisco, in Morrill County (NSM 3324), extends the known geographic range of _S. franklinii_ approximately 200 miles westward along the Platte River Valley from Kearney, Buffalo County (see Howell, 1938:134), and suggests a westward movement of this ground squirrel along the Platte River in recent years. =Perognathus flavescens flavescens= Merriam. PLAINS POCKET MOUSE.--_P. f. flavescens_ occurs in the Sand Hills and adjacent mixed-grass plains of central Nebraska. Eastern marginal records of occurrence are: Neligh, Antelope County, 2 (MVZ 1, NSM 1); 1 mi. E of Ravenna, Buffalo County, 2 (MZ); unspecified locality in Adams County, 1 (HM). =Perognathus flavescens perniger= Osgood. PLAINS POCKET MOUSE.--This mouse occurs in northeastern Nebraska. Osgood (1904:127), in the original description of the subspecies, listed two specimens from Verdigris [Verdigre], Knox County. Additional records of occurrence are: Beemer, Cuming County, 2 (USBS); 1-1/2 mi. SE of Niobrara, Knox County, 3; 1-1/2 mi. S of Pilger, Stanton County, 2. The two specimens from Beemer are typical _perniger_. All of the other Nebraskan specimens are intergrades between _P. f. flavescens_, geographically adjacent to the west, and _P. f. perniger_ to the east but are best referred to _perniger_ on the basis of greater total length, larger cranial measurements and darker dorsal coloration. _P. f. perniger_ was originally described (Osgood, _op. cit._) on the basis of its darker dorsal coloration and encroachment of the lateral line on the posterior parts of the venter. The latter character is not present in all Nebraskan specimens. Mice from the two localities in Knox County have buffy underparts; those from other Nebraskan localities do not. Of nine specimens of _P. f. perniger_ examined from Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota, none has buffy underparts whereas a specimen from Randolph, Fremont County, Iowa (NSM) does. In addition, in two of five specimens of _P. f. flavescens_ from Kelso, Hooker County, (MZ) the lateral line encroaches on the underparts. The encroachment of the lateral line on the underparts, or failure of the line to do so, is thought to be only an individual variation and of no taxonomic use. =Perognathus flavus piperi= Goldman. BUFFY POCKET MOUSE.--In the description of _P. f. bunkeri_, Cockrum (1951:206) allocated to the new subspecies, without comment, a specimen from Alliance, Box Butte County. I have examined this specimen along with all other Nebraskan specimens known to me and, although all approach _bunkeri_ in cranial measurements, they seem best referred to _piperi_ on the basis of darker dorsal coloration and larger external measurements. Additional records of occurrence, several of them marginal to the eastward, are: 10 mi. S of Antioch, Garden County, 1 (MZ); Kelso, Hooker County, 4 (MZ); 5 mi. N of Bridgeport, Morrill County, 1 (MVZ); 6 mi. N of Mitchell, Scotts Bluff County, 1 (NSM). A specimen not seen by me that was reported from Valentine, Cherry County (Beed, 1936:21), is presumably also best referred to _P. f. piperi_. No specimens of _P. flavus_ are known to me from south of the Platte River in southwestern Nebraska although they probably occur there. If so, they may be referable to _P. f. bunkeri_, which is found in counties of Kansas adjoining the southwestern part of Nebraska. =Perognathus hispidus paradoxus= Merriam. HISPID POCKET MOUSE.--This subspecies occurs commonly in central-and western-Nebraska. Eastern marginal records of occurrence are: 2 mi. SE of Niobrara, Knox County, 1 (NGFPC); 4 mi. E, 2 mi. S of Ord, 1; Bladen, Webster County, 2 (HM). =Perognathus hispidus spilotus= Merriam. HISPID POCKET MOUSE.--Jones and Webb (1949:312) first reported this subspecies in Nebraska as from 5 mi. SE of Rulo, Richardson County. Additional records of occurrence are: 3 mi. SW of Barnston, Gage County, 1 (NGFPC); Bennet, 1 (NSM), 9 mi. NW of Lincoln, 1 (NSM), 1-1/2 mi. S of Lincoln, 1 (NSM), Lancaster County; Peru, Nemaha County, 1 (NGFPC); 3 mi. S, 2 mi. E of Nebraska City, Otoe County, 3; Barada, Richardson County, 1 (NSM); Pleasant Dale, Seward County, 1 (NSM); 1 mi. S of Williams, Thayer County, 1. Glass (1947:179) referred a specimen from 9 mi. NW of Lincoln, Lancaster County, to _P. h. paradoxus_. In discussing the zone of intergradation between _spilotus_ and _paradoxus_, geographically adjacent to the west, he wrote (_op. cit._:178), "It is evident that it proceeds northeastwards, toward the Missouri River since 2 specimens from eastern Nebraska, a juvenile from Webster County and an adult from Lancaster County, are both typical _paradoxus_." I have examined the specimen from Webster County referred to by Glass and agree that it is _paradoxus_. I have not seen the specimen from 9 mi. NW of Lincoln; however, another specimen from there, two others from Lancaster County, and one from Seward County (see above), are here referred to _P. h. spilotus_, rather than _P. h. paradoxus_, on the basis of notably darker dorsal coloration and smaller external and cranial measurements. The range of _P. h. spilotus_ in Nebraska, as presently known, therefore, is limited to the eastern, more humid part of the State, south of the Platte River. =Peromyscus maniculatus osgoodi= Mearns. DEER MOUSE.--Swenk (1908:95) reported this subspecies, under the name _Peromyscus nebrascensis_, from Glen, and Dice (1941:17) reported the subspecies from Agate, both localities being in Sioux County in the northwestern part of the State. Osgood (1909), however, did not mention Nebraskan specimens of this subspecies and excluded it from the State on his (_op. cit._) distribution map of the subspecies of _P. maniculatus_. In addition, Quay (1948:181) reports, as _P. m. nebrascensis_, deer mice obtained by him in the badlands of northern Sioux County and adjacent Niobrara County, Wyoming. Four deer mice referable to _P. m. osgoodi_ have been obtained from several localities on the Pine Ridge in Dawes County as follows: 3 mi. E of Chadron, 2; Chadron State Park, 1; 3 mi. SW of Crawford, 1. When compared with specimens of _P. m. nebrascensis_, geographically adjacent to the east, these mice are seen to be notably darker and less buffy than _nebrascensis_ and to average significantly larger in both external and cranial measurements. All deer mice from the Pine Ridge and adjacent badlands of extreme northwestern Nebraska probably are best referred to _P. m. osgoodi_. External measurements of two adult females are respectively: Total length, 180, 175; length of tail-vertebrae, 78, 74; length of hind foot, 19, 20; length of ear, 17, 16. =Neotoma floridana campestris= J. A. Allen. FLORIDA WOOD RAT.--Five wood rats from 5 mi. N, 2 mi. W of Parks, Dundy County, in extreme southwestern Nebraska, provide the first record of occurrence of this subspecies in Nebraska. These animals were trapped in outlying sheds at the Rock Creek State Fish Hatchery. Two large wood-rat houses were in a dense thicket of brush and young trees in a small draw on the west side of the most westwardly hatchery lake. Brown rats (_Rattus norvegicus_) inhabited a combination garage-storage barn at the hatchery and no wood rats were taken there. =Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus= (Ord). PENNSYLVANIA MEADOW MOUSE.--This subspecies occurs in eastern and central Nebraska (see Bailey, 1900:18 and Swenk, 1908:104). Additional records of occurrence are as follows: 5 mi. E of Rising City, Butler County, 5; 4 mi. SE of Laurel, Cedar County, 1; Wayne, 2, and 2-1/2 mi. E of Wayne, 1, Wayne County; 2-1/2 mi. N of Ord, Valley County, 4. =Synaptomys cooperi gossii= (Coues). COOPER LEMMING MOUSE.--Fichter and Hanson (1947:1-8) reported the first known occurrence of this microtine in Nebraska, recording specimens from several localities in Lancaster County and one from near Valentine, Cherry County. Recent records of this mouse which help to clarify its distribution in Nebraska are as follows: 4 mi. N, 1/2 mi. E of Octavia, Butler County, 1; 5 mi. N, 2 mi. W of Parks, Dundy County, 1; 1 mi. N of Pleasant Dale, Seward County, 1. An adult female from Dundy County provides the westernmost record of distribution of the species in North America. The animal was trapped on November 1, 1952, in association with _Microtus pennsylvanicus modestus_ in a marshy area at the Rock Creek State Fish Hatchery on spring-fed Rock Creek. The pelage on the back is notably darker than in _S. c. gossii_, and resembles _S. c. paludis_ from the Cimarron River drainage in Meade County, Kansas, but in the sum total of its characters it most closely resembles _S. c. gossii_ among named subspecies. =Mustela rixosa campestris= Jackson. LEAST WEASEL.--The least weasel occurs in eastern and central Nebraska (see Swenk, 1926:313-330 and Hall, 1951:192) but is known by only a single specimen from each locality of record save for the area around Inland, Clay County (Swenk, _op. cit._). Additional records of the distribution of this mustelid in Nebraska are: Hastings, Adams County, 1 (HM); Schuyler, Colfax County, 1 (NGFPC); Goehner, Seward County, 1 (NSM); 10 mi. S of Ord, Valley County, 1 (NGFPC). The last mentioned specimen, a skull only, was obtained from a pellet of an unidentified raptorial bird. LITERATURE CITED BAILEY, V. 1900. Revision of American voles of the genus Microtus. N. Amer. Fauna, 17:1-88, June 6. BAIRD, S. F. 1858. Explorations and surveys for a railroad route from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. War Department. 8 (Mammals, Part 1): xxxii + 757, July 14. BEED, W. E. 1936. A preliminary study of the animal ecology of the Niobrara Game Preserve. Bull. Conserv. Dept., Conserv. Surv. Div., Univ. Nebraska, 10:1-33, October. COCKRUM, E. L. 1951. A new pocket mouse (genus Perognathus) from Kansas. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:203-206, December 15. DICE, L. R. 1941. Variation of the deer mice (_Peromyscus maniculatus_) on the sand hills of Nebraska and adjacent areas. Contrib. Univ. Michigan Lab. Vert. Genetics, 15:1-19, July. FICHTER, E. H., and M. F. HANSON. 1947. The Goss lemming mouse, _Synaptomys cooperi gossii_ (Coues), in Nebraska. Bull. Univ. Nebraska State Mus., 3:1-8, September. GLASS, B. P. 1947. Geographic variation in Perognathus hispidus. Jour. Mamm., 28:174-179, June 1. HALL, E. R. 1951. American weasels. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 4:1-466, December 27. HOWELL, A. H. 1938. Revision of North American ground squirrels with a classification of the North American Sciuridae. N. Amer. Fauna, 56:1-256, May 18. JACKSON, H. H. T. 1928. A taxonomic review of the American long-tailed shrews. N. Amer. Fauna, 51:vi + 228, July 24. JONES, J. K. JR., and O. L. WEBB. 1949. Notes on mammals from Richardson County, Nebraska. Jour. Mamm., 30:312-313, August 17. OSGOOD, W. H. 1904. Two new pocket mice of the genus _Perognathus_. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:127-128, June 9. 1909. Revision of the mice of the American genus Peromyscus. N. Amer. Fauna, 28:1-285, April 17. QUAY, W. B. 1948. Notes on some bats from Nebraska and Wyoming. Jour. Mamm., 29:181-182, May 14. RIDGWAY, R. 1912. Color standards and color nomenclature. Washington, D. C. Privately printed, iv + 44, 53 pls. SWENK, M. H. 1908. A preliminary review of the mammals of Nebraska. Proc. Nebraska Acad. Sci., 8:61-144. 1926. Notes on Mustek campestris Jackson, and on the American forms of least weasels. Jour. Mamm., 7:313-330, November 23. WEBB, O. L., and J. K. JONES, JR. 1952. An annotated checklist of Nebraskan bats. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:269-279, May 31. _Transmitted January 11, 1954._ 25-2530 * * * * * Transcriber's Notes: Bold text is shown within =equal signs=. Italicized text is shown within _underscores_. 
31141	----	Four New Pocket Gophers of the Genus Cratogeomys from Jalisco, Mexico BY ROBERT J. RUSSELL University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 31, pp. 535-542 October 15, 1953 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1953 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, and Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 31, pp. 535-542 October 15, 1953 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1953 24-8662 Four New Pocket Gophers of the Genus Cratogeomys from Jalisco, Mexico By ROBERT J. RUSSELL In the course of my taxonomic study of the genus _Cratogeomys_, a high degree of variation was found between several populations of these gophers in central Jalisco. Two species, _C. gymnurus_ and _C. zinseri_, occur in this part of the state. Previously _C. gymnurus_ was known only from southern Jalisco and _C. zinseri_ only from extreme eastern Jalisco, but through the efforts of J. R. Alcorn specimens were obtained of both species in the central part of the state. These large gophers are difficult to collect, and I am grateful to him for securing this significant material. Costs of the field work were defrayed by the National Science Foundation and the Kansas University Endowment Association. Thanks are due also to those in charge of the United States Biological Surveys Collection for the loan of comparative material. Study of the recently acquired specimens taken in central Jalisco reveals two undescribed subspecies each of _C. gymnurus_ and _C. zinseri_. These may be known and described as =Cratogeomys gymnurus tellus= new subspecies _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin, No. 33454 Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas; from 3 mi. W Tala, 4300 ft., Jalisco, México; obtained on June 2, 1949, by J. R. Alcorn, original No. 9376. _Range._--North-central Jalisco; known from several localities in the vicinity of Tala. _Diagnosis._--Size large (see measurements); tail long, naked; hind foot small; color pale for species, upper parts Kaiser Brown (capitalized terms are of Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912), bases of individual hairs Plumbeous, tips Hazel, underparts creamy-white, bases of hairs Plumbeous; skull large, relatively narrow, rugose; zygomatic breadth narrower posteriorly than anteriorly; rostrum shallow, relatively broad in males, narrower in females; interorbital region broad; braincase narrow and flattened; basioccipital relatively wide, especially anteriorly; mastoid processes of squamosal large, knoblike; paroccipital processes long, extending laterally over more than half the width of mastoid bullae; upper incisors projecting anteriorly; maxillary teeth relatively large. _Comparisons._--From topotypes of _C. g. gymnurus_ from Zapotlan, Jalisco, the most closely related subspecies, _C. g. tellus_ differs in: Body smaller (total length averaging 338 instead of 341 in females and 356 instead of 369 in males); hind foot smaller (averaging 45 instead of 50 in females and 47 instead of 51 in males); color more brownish above, creamy-white rather than buffy below; skull smaller, especially in females (basilar length averaging 55.3 instead of 57.5 in females and 57.7 instead of 60.5 in males), narrower, and more rugose; zygomatic breadth less in females (averaging 42.5 compared with 46.2), greater in males (48.0 compared with 46.7); zygomata more nearly parallel; auditory bullae relatively smaller; mastoid processes of squamosal larger, knoblike; paroccipital processes longer, extending farther laterally; rostrum less massive; upper incisors projecting anteriorly, instead of being strongly recurved; maxillary teeth relatively larger. From near-topotypes of _C. g. inclarus_ from the Sierra Nevada de Colima, Jalisco, _C. g. tellus_ differs in: Hind foot smaller; color paler brownish above in contrast to glossy black, creamy-white below rather than buffy, feet clothed with whitish instead of brownish hairs; skull larger (basilar length averaging 55.3 in females compared with 53.2, no males available for comparisons); zygomatic breadth less; nasals longer, extending posterior to front edge of anterior roots of zygomata rather than ending even with, or slightly behind, them; rostrum more massive; mastoid processes of squamosal larger; paroccipital processes extending farther laterally; upper incisors projecting anteriorly, rather than recurved; maxillary teeth larger (length of maxillary tooth-row averaging 14.6 compared with 13.3). Close comparison with _C. g. imparilis_ from Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, is not needed, _but C. g. tellus_ differs especially in: Color of underparts and hairs of feet whitish rather than brownish; skull smaller; zygomatic breadth greater; interorbital constriction broader; nasals longer; maxillary tooth-row longer. _Measurements._--Averages of three adult females, including type, and the measurements of an adult male (in parentheses) from the type locality are: Total length, 338 (356); length of tail, 92 (87); length of hind foot, 45 (47); occipitonasal length of skull, 64.1 (68.7); basilar length, 55.3 (61.4); zygomatic breadth, 42.7 (48.0); interorbital breadth, 9.6 (11.4); greatest height of cranium, taken from palate perpendicular to line touching two highest points on top of skull, 23.9 (25.3); least depth of rostrum, 10.6 (11.7); breadth of rostrum, 14.7 (16.5); length of nasals, 23.6 (25.2); width across mastoid processes of squamosal, 43.8 (49.7); height of occiput, 18.1 (19.9); length of maxillary tooth-row, 14.6 (15.2). _Remarks._--The distribution of _C. gymnurus_ is spotty; its occurrence seemingly depends on edaphic conditions. The isolation of soils with textures suitable to this animal has resulted in the isolation of gopher populations. The distribution is similar to that of species occurring on islands. In this instance, however, the populations of gophers are separated by soils of heavy texture which render burrowing difficult or impossible for gophers. Such conditions have led to a high degree of subspeciation in a relatively short distance. For example, four subspecies of _C. gymnurus_ occur in Jalisco, and, all are within an area scarcely fifty miles in diameter. _Cratogeomys gymnurus tellus_ is the northernmost subspecies of _C. gymnurus_. It is known from only the vicinity of Tala, west of Guadalajara, and its range probably is not much more extensive than this because of the localized distribution of suitable soils. _Specimens examined._--Total number ten, as follows: 3 mi. W Tala, type locality, 5; 1 mi. NE Tala, 3; 1 mi. S El Refugio, 2. =Cratogeomys gymnurus atratus= new subspecies _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin, No. 31880 Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas; from Top of Cerro Viejo de Cuyutlán, 9700 ft., 19 mi. S and 9 mi. W Guadalajara, Jalisco, México; obtained on February 17, 1949, by J. R. Alcorn, original No. 7902. _Range._--Known only from the type locality on the Cerro Viejo. _Diagnosis._--Size small (see measurements); tail long; hind foot small; color dark, upper parts glossy Blackish Brown, bases of hairs Plumbeous, sides Chestnut Brown, underparts Pale Ochraceous-Buff or Warm Buff mixed with Plumbeous of the hair bases; skull small, lightly constructed, relatively deep; zygomata relatively weak; zygomatic breadth wider posteriorly than anteriorly; rostrum relatively wide, especially in males; nasals relatively long, truncate posteriorly; interorbital constriction narrow; braincase inflated; mastoid processes of squamosal only slightly wider than zygomatic breadth; auditory bullae relatively large; paroccipital processes weakly constructed, but extend laterally over half the width of mastoid bullae; upper incisors projecting anteriorly, rather than being strongly recurved; maxillary teeth small. _Comparisons._--From topotypes of _C. g. gymnurus_ from Zapotlan, Jalisco, _C. g. atratus_ differs in: Body smaller (total length averaging 300 in females compared with 341, a male measured 315 compared with an average of 363); tail shorter, hind foot smaller; color of upper parts darker, glossy Blackish-Brown rather than reddish brown, underparts paler; skull smaller (basilar length averaging 48.6 compared with 57.5, a male measured 50.0 compared with an average of 59.0); zygomata more weakly constructed; zygomatic breadth less, and wider posteriorly than anteriorly; braincase more inflated; nasals shorter; rostrum relatively narrower and shallower; width across mastoid processes of squamosals less; paroccipital processes less strongly constructed, extending farther laterally; upper incisors projecting anteriorly rather than being strongly recurved; maxillary teeth smaller (length of maxillary tooth-row averaging 11.2 compared with 14.9). From _C. g. tellus_, that occurs to the northwest, _C. g. atratus_ differs in: Body smaller; hind foot slightly smaller; upper parts darker; underparts Pale Ochraceous-Buff rather than creamy-white; skull smaller (see measurements); zygomatic breadth less, and wider posteriorly than anteriorly; nasals shorter, truncate posteriorly rather than emarginate; rostrum narrower and shallower; maxillary teeth smaller. From near-topotypes of _C. g. inclarus_ from the Sierra Nevada de Colima, _C. g. atratus_ differs in: Body slightly smaller; hind foot smaller (averaging 42 compared with 49); color of upper parts near the same, underparts paler; skull smaller, narrower, weaker in construction; zygomatic breadth less; nasals relatively longer, but actually shorter (averaging 19.7 compared with 20.3); upper incisors projecting anteriorly rather than being recurved; maxillary teeth smaller. _Measurements._--The type and an adult female (its measurements in parentheses) yield measurements as follows: Total length, 300 (299); length of tail, 78 (83); length of hind foot, 43 (40); occipitonasal length of skull, 56.3 (55.5); basilar length, 49.3 (47.8); zygomatic breadth, 37.9 (36.5); interorbital breadth, 8.7 (8.1); greatest height of cranium, as explained above, 21.6 (20.7); least depth of rostrum, 9.2 (8.8); breadth of rostrum, 12.8 (12.7); length of nasals, 19.4 (20.0); width across mastoid processes of squamosal, 38.2 (37.1); height of occiput, 16.9 (17.3); length of maxillary tooth-row, 11.9 (11.3). _Remarks._--_Cratogeomys gymnurus atratus_ is the smallest subspecies known for the species, and is so distinct from other described subspecies, that it is difficult to select one as the closest relative. In color, _C. g. atratus_ closely resembles _C. g. inclarus_, which occurs at comparable elevations in the Sierra Nevada, but the skulls are unlike. Among named subspecies of _C. gymnurus_, the skull of _tellus_ most closely resembles that of _atratus_, and, although they differ greatly in size, _C. g. tellus_ seems to be the closest relative of _C. g. atratus_. This newly described subspecies is known only from Cerro Viejo and is probably restricted to the higher elevations on this mountain. _Specimens examined._--Seven, Top of Cerro Viejo de Cuyutlán, 19 mi. S and 9 mi. W Guadalajara. =Cratogeomys zinseri zodius= new subspecies _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin, No. 31879 Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas; from 13 mi. S and 15 mi. W Guadalajara, Jalisco, México; obtained on February 6, 1949, by J. R. Alcorn, original No. 7747. _Range._--Known only from the type locality. _Diagnosis._--Size small (see measurements); tail short; hind foot small; upper parts Sayal Brown, underparts Pinkish Buff, hind foot whitish; skull small, narrow; outline of dorsal profile of skull concave; zygomatic breadth narrow; nasals actually short, but relatively long; width across mastoid processes of squamosal short; auditory bullae inflated; interorbital constriction narrow; maxillary teeth relatively large. _Comparisons._--From topotypes of _C. z. zinseri_ from Lagos, Jalisco, _C. z. zodius_ differs in: Body smaller (see measurements); tail shorter, hind foot smaller; upper parts dull brownish instead of reddish-brown, underparts paler, hairs of feet whitish instead of brownish; skull smaller, especially in females, narrower; dorsal profile of skull concave or flat (females) rather than convex; zygomatic breadth less; rostrum narrower and shallower; nasals actually shorter, but relatively longer in relation to length of skull; width across mastoid processes of squamosal shorter; maxillary teeth smaller. _Measurements._--The type and an adult male (his measurements in parentheses) yield measurements as follows: Total length, 318 (324); length of tail, 95 (89); length of hind foot, 41 (41); occipitonasal length of skull, 60.5 (59.1); basilar length, 52.4 (51.8); zygomatic breadth, 40.6 (39.0); interorbital breadth, 8.3 (8.8); greatest height of cranium, as explained above, 22.6 (22.4); least depth of rostrum, 11.2 (10.4); breadth of rostrum, 13.3 (13.9); length of nasals, 21.7 (21.2); width across mastoid processes of squamosal, 37.1 (36.8); height of occiput, 17.7 (17.9); length of maxillary tooth-row, 13.0 (13.3). A nearly adult female measured: Total length, 292; length of tail, 81; length of hind foot, 39; occipitonasal length of skull, 53.3; basilar length, 46.5; zygomatic breadth, 34.1; interorbital breadth, 7.8; greatest height of cranium, 21.0; least depth of rostrum, 9.8; length of nasals, 18.0; width across mastoid processes of squamosal, 32.2; depth of occiput, 15.9; length of maxillary tooth-row, 12.1. _Remarks._--This newly described subspecies is the smallest of known races of _C. zinseri_, and it is seemingly more closely related to _C. z. zinseri_ than to the subspecies newly named below from the north end of Lago Sayula. The skulls of females are especially small and delicate in structure; the males are larger with more massive skulls. _C. z. zodius_ is known to occur in the foot hills north of the Cerro Viejo, the mountain from which _C. g. atratus_ was described above. _Specimens examined._--Seven, 13 mi. S and 15 mi. W Guadalajara. =Cratogeomys zinseri morulus= new subspecies _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin, No. 36679 Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas; from N end Lago Sayula, 4400 ft., 9 mi. N and 2 mi. E Atoyac, Jalisco, México; obtained on March 23, 1950, by J. R. Alcorn, original No. 10889. _Range._--Known only from the type locality in central Jalisco. _Diagnosis._--Size large (see measurements); tail short; hind foot large; upper parts Fuscous-Black, strongly mixed with Walnut Brown, underparts Cinnamon-Buff, bases of all hairs Plumbeous; skull large, broad, rugose; outline of dorsal profile slightly concave, almost flat; zygomata strongly constructed, maxillary arm almost touching squamosal arm over jugal; wide across zygomata; nasals actually and relatively long; rostrum relatively narrow; auditory bullae inflated, relatively large; maxillary teeth relatively large. _Comparisons._--From topotypes of _C. z. zinseri_ from Lagos, Jalisco, _C. z. morulus_ differs in: Tail shorter (averaging 96 in females compared with 101, 94 in males compared with 115); color darker above, Fuscous-Black instead of Cinnamon-Rufous, underparts paler; skull larger (occipitonasal length 63.7 rather than averaging 58.5 in females and 68.6 rather than 63.1 in males); wide across zygomata; nasals actually and relatively longer; rostrum relatively narrower; wider across mastoid processes of squamosal; auditory bullae inflated, relatively larger; maxillary teeth larger. From _C. z. zodius_, that occurs to the northeast, _C. z. morulus_ differs in: Body larger (see measurements); hind foot larger; color of upper parts darker, underparts paler; skull much larger, broader, more rugose; dorsal profile of skull slightly concave rather than convex; wider across zygomata; nasals actually and relatively longer; rostrum broader, more massive; wider across mastoid processes of squamosal; auditory bullae larger; maxillary teeth larger. _Measurements._--The type and an adult female (her measurements in parentheses) from the type locality measure: Total length, 358 (338); length of tail, 94 (97); length of hind foot, 49 (45); occipitonasal length of skull, 68.6 (63.7); basilar length, 58.0 (55.6); zygomatic breadth, 49.3 (45.0); interorbital breadth, 9.6 (8.9); greatest height of cranium, as explained above, 26.1 (24.6); least depth of rostrum, 12.5 (10.8); breadth of rostrum, 14.5 (13.7); length of nasals, 25.9 (22.5); width across mastoid processes of squamosal, 47.7 (42.8); height of occiput, 19.8 (17.8); length of maxillary tooth-row, 13.9 (13.8). _Remarks._--_Cratogeomys zinseri morulus_ is the darkest subspecies known of _C. zinseri_. It differs widely from other subspecies of this species in color and the large size of the skull. _Cratogeomys zinseri_ occurs over the same general area as _C. gymnurus_ in central Jalisco, although these two species seemingly do not share the same local habitat. _C. zinseri_ differs from _C. gymnurus_ as follows: Tail relatively longer; skull wider across zygomatic arches than across mastoid processes of squamosal (reverse true in _C. gymnurus_); zygomata strongly bowed outward anteriorly; maxillary arm of zygomata almost touching squamosal arm (instead of widely separated from each other) above jugal; rostrum relatively narrower, less massive; border of nasals parallel or laterally swollen instead of gradually tapering. _Specimens examined._--Four, N end of Lago Sayula, 9 mi. N and 2 mi. E Atoyac. _Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence. Transmitted June 12, 1953._ 24-8662 * * * * * Transcriber's Notes: Page 538: Changed lead to led (conditions have lead to a high degree). Bold text is shown within =equal signs=. Italicized text is shown within _underscores_. 
31035	----	UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 14, No. 3, pp. 29-67, pls. 1 and 2, 3 figs. in text July 24, 1961 Mammals of Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado BY SYDNEY ANDERSON UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1961 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch, Robert W. Wilson Volume 14, No. 3, pp. 29-67, pls. 1 and 2, 3 figs. in text Published July 24, 1961 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED IN THE STATE PRINTING PLANT TOPEKA, KANSAS 1961 28-7577 Mammals of Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado BY SYDNEY ANDERSON INTRODUCTION A person standing on the North Rim of the Mesa Verde in southwestern Colorado sees a vast green plain sloping away to the south. The plain drops 2000 feet in ten miles. On a clear evening, before the sun reaches the horizon, the rays of the sun are reflected from great sandstone cliffs forming the walls of deep canyons that appear as crooked yellow lines in the distance. Canyon after canyon has cut into the sloping green plain. These canyons are roughly parallel and all open into the canyon of the Mancos River, which forms the southern boundary of the Mesa Verde. If the observer turns to the north he sees the arid Montezuma Valley 2000 feet below. A few green streaks and patches in the brown and barren low country denote streams and irrigated areas. To the northeast beyond the low country the towering peaks of the San Miguel and La Plata mountains rise more than 4000 feet above the vantage point on the North Rim at 8000 feet. To the northwest, in the hazy distance 90 miles away in Utah, lie the isolated heights of the La Sal Mountains, and 70 miles away, the Abajo Mountains (see Fig. 1). In the thirteenth century, harassed by nomadic tribes and beset by years of drouth, village dwelling Indians left their great cliff dwellings in the myriad canyons of the Mesa Verde, and thus ended a period of 1300 years of occupancy. The story of those 1300 years, unfolded through excavation and study of the dwellings along the cliffs and earlier dwellings on the top of the Mesa, is one of the most fascinating in ancient America. To stop destructive commercial exploitation of the ruins, to preserve them for future generations to study and enjoy, and to make them accessible to the public, more than 51,000 acres, including approximately half of the Mesa, have been set aside as Mesa Verde National Park, established in 1906. The policies of the National Park Service provide protection, not only for the features of major interest in each park, but for other features as well. Thus the policy in Mesa Verde National Park is not only to preserve the many ruins, but also the wildlife and plants. Five considerations prompted me to undertake a study of the mammals of Mesa Verde National Park: First, the relative lack of disturbance; second, the interesting position, zoogeographically, of the Mesa that extends as a spur of higher land from the mountains of southwestern Colorado and that is almost surrounded by arid country typical of much of the Southwest; third, the discovery in the Park of _Microtus mexicanus_, a species of the Southwest until then not known from Colorado; fourth, the co-operative spirit of the personnel at the Park when I visited there in 1955; and finally, the possibility of making a contribution not only to our knowledge of mammals, but to the interpretive program of the Park Service. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Map of the "four corners" region showing the position of Mesa Verde National Park (in black) relative to the mass of the Southern Rocky Mountains above 8000 feet elevation (indicated by stippled border) to the northeast in Colorado, and the positions of other isolated mountains in the region.] A Faculty Research Grant from The University of Kansas provided some secretarial help and field expenses for August and early September, 1956, when my wife, Justine, and I spent our vacation enjoyably collecting and studying animals in the Park. The co-operation of Dr. E. Raymond Hall is greatly appreciated; a grant to him from the American Heart Association provided field expenses for work by Mr. J.R. Alcorn, collector for The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, in 1957. Mr. Harold R. Shepherd of Mancos, Colorado (Senior Game Biologist for the State of Colorado, Department of Game and Fish), provided advice in the field, helped in identifying plants, and saved specimens of rodents (in 1958 and 1959) taken in his studies of the effect of rodents on browse utilized by deer. Mr. J.D. Hart, Assistant Director of the Department of Game and Fish, issued a letter of authority to collect in Colorado; and Superintendent O.W. Carlson approved my appointment as a collaborator. Mr. "Don" Watson, then Park Archeologist, and Mrs. Jean M. Pinkley, now Park Archeologist, assisted us in 1956, and since then have provided advice and assistance, and have reviewed the manuscript of this report. Geologically, the Mesa Verde is the northern edge of a Cretaceous, coal-bearing, sandstone deposit called the Mesaverde group, which dips beneath the San Juan Basin of New Mexico. An abrupt retreating escarpment commonly forms on arid plateaus underlain by horizontal rocks of unequal strength, and characterizes the borders of mesas. Such an escarpment forms the North Rim of the Mesa Verde. However, the dip of the rocks has channelled drainage southward and erosion has cut numerous, deep, parallel-sided canyons rather than a simple, retreating escarpment. The Mesa Verde therefore is, technically speaking, a cuesta rather than a mesa. The remnants of the plateau left between the canyons are also (and again incorrectly in the technical sense) called mesas; Chapin Mesa and Wetherill Mesa are examples. Climatically, the Mesa Verde is arid; precipitation averaged 18.41 inches per year for a period of 37 years. Precipitation may be scattered through the year, and more important, may be erratic from month to month and from year to year. In addition to low precipitation and periods of drouth, a great amount of sunshine, and thin, well-drained soils on all but the more sheltered parts of the Mesa favor vegetation that requires neither great amounts of, nor a continuous supply of, water. The vegetation of the Mesa is illustrated in Plates 1 and 2, and consists predominantly of pinyon pine, _Pinus edulis_ Engelm., and Utah juniper, _Juniperus osteosperma_ (Torr.) Little. More sheltered areas along the North Rim and in most of the canyons support scattered small stands of Douglas fir, _Pseudotsuga menziesii_ (Merb.) Franco. These are the "spruce trees" of Spruce Tree Canyon. An occasional ponderosa pine, _Pinus ponderosa_ Laws., represents a vestige of more montane species of plants and animals in the Park. The dusky grouse, _Dendragapus obscurus_ (Say), occurs along the North Rim in oak-chaparral, and is one of the few montane species of birds; several montane mammals are discussed later. The vegetation of the Mesa Verde has not changed appreciably in the last thousand years. The tree rings of 13 centuries show that Douglas fir has grown essentially as it does now, varying with precipitation from year to year, and periodically suffering from drouth (Schulman, 1946:18). Surface ruins yield mostly pinyon and juniper; cave ruins yield more Douglas fir than surface ruins; and "only rarely does yellow pine [_Pinus ponderosa_] occur in the ruins, indicating that then, as now, this tree grew only in the northern and higher parts of the Mesa Verde, remote from most of the ruins" (Getty, 1935:21). Not all areas within the Park are undisturbed. The rights of way of roads are kept clear, as are campgrounds and other facilities in the area of headquarters. Part of the Mancos Valley within the Park is privately owned and is still in agricultural use. Cattle from land belonging to the Ute Indians wander into the Park from the Mancos Canyon along the floor of the canyon above the mouth of Weber Canyon. In addition to the pasture near headquarters, Prater Canyon below a fence across the canyon above Middle Well is used to pasture horses used by visitors to the Park and belonging to the pack and saddle concessioner. In 1956, the floor of Long Canyon was grazed by stock belonging to Utes, and horses ranged freely onto Wetherill Mesa as far as the North Rim. Occasionally livestock enter the floor of other canyons, for example Navajo, Soda, Prater, Morfield, and Waters canyons, owing to inadequate fencing, or no fencing. [Illustration: FIG. 2. Map of Mesa Verde National Park and vicinity. The map and this legend provide the names of places mentioned in the following accounts of mammals. Localities from which specimens have been preserved are indicated by dots. Localities within 1/2 mile of each other are not indicated by separate dots. Unnumbered dots designate some of the places from which specimens were obtained. The numbered dots are: (1) Prater Grade; (2) Upper Well, Prater Canyon, 7575 ft.; (3) Chickaree Draw, 8200 ft.; (4) 1/4 mi. N Middle Well, 7500 ft., Prater Canyon; (5) east side of Morfield Canyon about one mile below the well; (6) Lower Well, Prater Canyon; (7) Sect. 27, head of east fork Navajo Canyon; (8) Far View, designated on various specimens as Far View Ruins, Far View Point, and Far View House, 7700 ft.; (9) localities designated Utility Area, and Well, "Park Well," or "Old Park Well"; (10) Headquarters, including the designations 25 mi. [by road] SW Mancos, Museum, Hospital, head of Spruce Tree Canyon, Spruce Tree House, and Spruce Tree Lodge; (11) Cliff Palace, across the canyon about 1/4 mile southwest are Sun Temple and Oak Tree Ruin; (12) Square Tower House; (13) Balcony House; (14) Indian Cornfield, "Cornfield," or "Garden."] The first mammals from the Mesa to be preserved for scientific study were seven specimens in the United States National Museum (designated USNM in lists of specimens examined) obtained by Merritt Cary in 1907, and mentioned in his "Biological Survey of Colorado" (Cary, 1911). In 1931 and 1932, R.L. Landberg obtained a few specimens that are in the Denver Museum of Natural History. In 1935, C.W. Quaintance, Lloyd White, Harold P. Pratt, and A.E. Borell prepared specimens, some of which remain in the museum at the Park (all specimens in the museum at the Park are designated by "MV" for Mesa Verde and by their catalogue numbers), and some are in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at the University of California at Berkeley (designated "MVZ" in the following accounts). Specimens in The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History are referred to by catalogue numbers only. Specimens prepared by D. Watson bear dates from 1936 until 1955. In 1938, Raymond F. Harlow prepared some specimens; his Student Technician's Report of 7 typescript pages, for July 8 to September 9, 1938, is on file at Mesa Verde National Park. In 1944 and 1945, Dr. D.A. Sutton, then a student at the University of Colorado, collected chipmunks for his own study, and also some other specimens that are in the University of Colorado Museum and the Park Museum. In 1949, Dr. R.B. Finley, then a student at The University of Kansas, collected in and near the Park and obtained a few specimens preserved in The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. Rodents preserved by Harold R. Shepherd have been mentioned. I have examined 244 specimens that were collected by the above persons. Between August 8 and September 4, 1956, and on July 17, 1960, I collected 216 mammals from Mesa Verde National Park. Between November 3, and 12, 1957, J.R. Alcorn collected 275 mammals from the Mesa. The total of specimens examined is 735. Written reports by C.W. Quaintance, H.P. Pratt, and R. Harlow have been of considerable use. A typescript report of 13 pages by Wildlife Technician H.P. Pratt for the period from September 9 to October 15, 1935, and monthly reports comprising 40 typescript pages and 4 pages with photographs by C.W. Quaintance for the period from February 18 through July 17, 1935, are on file at offices of Region Four, National Park Service, 180 New Montgomery Street, San Francisco 5, California. Chief Ranger Wade has kindly made available the files in his office, including reports of the Superintendent and reports of the Chief Ranger in earlier years, and Annual or Biennial Animal Census Reports since 1930. Special reports on prairie dogs, porcupines, and deer are in the files. These reports, and random reports that were regarded as reliable, are recorded on card files in both the Chief Ranger's office and Park Archeologist's office. Most of the information reported here on the larger mammals was gleaned from the above sources. A study of population fluctuations in porcupines by Donald A. Spencer and perhaps a study of movements of porcupines by Spencer, Wade and Fitch are to be published elsewhere. Other studies still in progress are mentioned in the following accounts. ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES Sorex merriami leucogenys Osgood Merriam's Shrew _Specimen_: MV 7898/507, head of Navajo Canyon (locality No. 7 in Fig. 2), October 21, 1954. This was the third reported specimen of the rare Merriam's shrew from Colorado (Rodeck and Anderson, 1956:436). Sorex vagrans obscurus Merriam Wandering Shrew _Specimens examined._--Total, 8: Morfield Canyon, 7600 ft., 75972, 75973; Upper Well, Prater Canyon, 7575 ft., 69235-69238; 1/4 mi. N Middle Well, Prater Canyon, 7500 ft., 69239-69240. The specimens from Prater Canyon were trapped in the grasses and sedges of the meadow comprising the floor of the canyon. The ground and vegetation were dry at the time of capture, September 2, 3, and 4, 1956. _Microtus montanus_ was the only other species taken in the mouse traps in the sedge and grass. Five of the six specimens from Prater Canyon are young, having slightly worn teeth; the sixth is an old adult male the teeth of which are so much worn that only a few traces of the reddish-brown pigment remain. His testes were 5 mm. long. These specimens are from an area of intergradation between _S. v. obscurus_ and _S. v. monticola_. The length of the maxillary tooth-row in these six specimens averaged 6.23 (6.1-6.4) millimeters. Comparison with average measurements of 6.6 and 6.8 in samples of _S. v. obscurus_, and of 5.9 in a sample of _S. v. monticola_ (Findley, 1955:64, 65) reveals the intermediate size of the specimens from the Mesa Verde. The gap between habitat suitable for _Sorex vagrans_ on the Mesa Verde and the nearest record-station for _S. v. monticola_ to the south and west in the Chuska Mountains is wider than the gap between the Mesa Verde and the nearest record-station for _S. v. obscurus_ to the north and east, one mile west of Mancos, 75971, 7000 feet, or at Silverton. On geographic grounds the specimens from the Mesa Verde are referred to _S. v. obscurus_. The two specimens from Morfield Canyon were trapped on November 4, 1957, and are grayish above and silvery below. Their pelage contrasts markedly with the dorsally brownish and ventrally buffy pelage of the September-taken specimens from Prater Canyon. Myotis californicus stephensi Dalquest California Myotis _Specimens examined._---Total, 3: Rock Springs, 7400 ft., 69243, 69246, August 21 and 22, 1956; 4505 Denver Museum, within the Park (exact locality not recorded), R.L. Landberg, July 27, 1931. The specimens from Rock Springs were an adult male and a non-pregnant adult female. Both were shot over the road in pinyon and juniper. The specimens are referred to _M. c. stephensi_ on account of their paleness, _stephensi_ being paler than _M. c. californicus_ from east of Mesa Verde in Colorado. Myotis evotis evotis (H. Allen) Long-eared Myotis _Specimens examined._--Total, 4: Chickaree Draw, Prater Canyon, 8200 ft., MV 7841/507, probably in the summer of 1935; Rock Springs, 7400 ft., 69241, August 23, 1956, and 69249, August 18, 1956; Museum, Headquarters, 6950 ft., 69251, August 24, 1956. An adult male (69241) was taken in a Japanese mist net stretched fifteen feet across a dirt road where it entered the stand of pinyon and juniper at the south edge of the burn on Wetherill Mesa between 7:20 and 8:30 p.m.; at the same place and time I captured five other bats of four species: _Myotis thysanodes_, _Myotis subulatus_, _Eptesicus fuscus_, and _Plecotus townsendii_. A piece of mist net attached to an aluminum hoop-net two and one half feet in diameter was used to good advantage in capturing bats rebounding from the larger mist net, and in frightening bats into the larger net when they approached closely. An adult male (69249) was shot at 7:20 p.m. while flying six to eight feet from the ground between pinyon trees up to 20 feet high; the air temperature was 70° F. A female (69251) was found seemingly exhausted on the floor in the museum at Park Headquarters in the daytime, and was immature as indicated by small size, open basicranial sutures, unworn teeth, weakly ossified zygoma, and open epiphyseal sutures of phalanges. Myotis subulatus melanorhinus (Merriam) Small-footed Myotis _Specimens examined._--Total, 8: Rock Springs, 7400 ft., 69242, 69244, 69245, 69247, 69248, August 21 to 23, 1956; Hospital, Park Headquarters, MV 7886/507, [Male], July 12, 1939; Headquarters, MV 7877/507, [Female], August 30, 1938; 4504 Denver Museum, within the Park (exact locality not recorded), R.L. Landberg, July 27, 1931. The specimens from Rock Springs are two adult males that were shot, and one adult male, one adult female, and one young male that were netted at the place described in the account of _Myotis evotis_. The three adult males are near the average color of _M. s. melanorhinus_, and distinctly darker than the _Myotis californicus_ from the Mesa Verde. In the female the pelage is paler and brighter, and the ears and membranes are darker, than in _M. californicus_. Myotis thysanodes thysanodes Miller Fringed Myotis _Specimen_: Rock Springs, 7400 ft., 69250, ad. [Female], August 23, 1956; taken in net as noted in account of _Myotis evotis_. Myotis volans interior Miller Long-legged Myotis _Specimen_: Rock Springs, 7400 ft., 69252, ad. [Female], August 21, 1956; shot over road. Eptesicus fuscus pallidus Young Big Brown Bat _Specimen_: Rock Springs, 7400 ft., 69253, ad. [Female], August 23, 1956; taken in net as noted in account of _Myotis evotis_. Plecotus townsendii pallescens (Miller) Townsend's Big-eared Bat _Specimens examined._--Total, 5: Rock Springs, 7400 ft., 69254, ad. [Female], non-pregnant, August 23, 1956; Square Tower House, 6700 ft., 69255-69258, March, 1955. The specimen from Rock Springs was taken in a net as noted in the account of _Myotis evotis_. The specimens from Square Tower House were obtained by D. Watson in a dimly lighted chamber formed by fracture in the rocks at the bottom of the canyon wall, above the talus slope. The bats were suspended from the wall of the chamber, which was at least six feet wide and fifteen feet long. Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana (Saussure) Brazilian Free-tailed Bat _Specimens examined._--Total, 2: Cliff Palace, 6800 ft., MV 7862/507 and 7863/507, males, both collected by A.E. Borell, on August 23, 1936. Lepus californicus texianus Waterhouse Black-tailed Jackrabbit The black-tailed jackrabbit inhabits the Montezuma Valley to the north of the Mesa Verde and the Mancos Valley to the northeast, and has been seen occasionally on the top of the Mesa according to reports with date and locality noted in the files at the Park for the years 1941, 1942, 1947, 1948, 1950, and 1951. In 1942 four observations were made, in 1950 and 1951 two observations were recorded each year, and in other years only one observation was recorded each year. Nine observations are for Chapin Mesa south of Far View; only two observations are for higher elevations on the North Rim. Sylvilagus audubonii warreni Nelson Desert Cottontail _Specimens examined._--Total, 2: Head of Prater Canyon, MV 7850/507; Far View Ruins, 75974, ad. [Female], non-pregnant, November 8, 1957. One specimen was shot, while it was sitting near a pile of logs, by J.R. Alcorn by means of a bow and arrow. Although _S. audubonii_ occurs on the Mesa along with _S. nuttallii_, _S. audubonii_ is the species of the lowlands throughout the western United States at the latitude of Mesa Verde National Park. For example, _S. a. warreni_ (69260) but not _S. n. pinetis_ was obtained along the east side of the Mancos River at 6200 feet elevation (less than 50 yards outside the Park) and the same was true at the same elevation at a place 4-1/2 mi. N of the Park (No. 69259 from 2 mi. E Cortez). Sylvilagus nuttallii pinetis (J.A. Allen) Nuttall's Cottontail _Specimens examined._--Total, 3: ad. [Male], 69263, skull only, dead on road, 1-3/4 mi. N Park Headquarters, 7275 feet, August 9, 1956; ad. [Female], 69261, no embryos, dead on road, 3/4 mi. S and 1-3/4 mi. W Park Point, 8000 ft, August 8, 1956; ad. [Male], 69262, shot in brushy area on the burn on Wetherill Mesa 2 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 7900 ft., August 24, 1956. Nuttall's cottontail in Colorado is in general the cottontail of the highlands, and the three localities just mentioned are on the top of the Mesa Verde. Sciurus aberti mimus Merriam Abert's Squirrel _Specimens examined._--Total, 2: [Male], MV 7872/507, prepared by D. Watson, killed by a car "near" the Park Well on September 24, 1937; [Female] (an unnumbered cased skin only), found dead "near" the Park Well on June 21, 1937. Since 1934 these squirrels have been observed and recorded each year except in 1938, 1943, 1947, 1953, 1957, and 1958. The 77 reported observations can be grouped as follows: 11 from within a mile of the entrance to the Park, 14 from the North Rim or higher parts of canyons adjacent to it, 38 from Chapin Mesa south of Far View, and 14 not classifiable. The large number of observations on Chapin Mesa, chiefly in the vicinity of Park Headquarters, indicates the presence of more observers rather than more squirrels in this area. Tamiasciurus hudsonicus fremonti (Audubon and Bachman) Red Squirrel _Specimens examined._--Total, 2: MV 7843/507, Chickaree Draw, Prater Canyon, 1935, C.W. Quaintance and Lloyd White; [Female], 69264, no embryos, 1/4 mi. NNW Middle Well, Prater Canyon, 7600 ft., August 31, 1956. Red squirrels, or chickarees as they are called in Colorado, are known from only one place on the Mesa Verde, a side canyon on the west side of Prater Canyon above Middle Well. This side canyon has been named Chickaree Draw by C.W. Quaintance, who, with Lloyd White, studied the chickaree there in 1935. Quaintance reported the small colony at 7800 feet elevation in Douglas fir beneath which were found piles of cones from which the seeds had been eaten by the chickarees. On May 29, 1935, White observed a chickaree eating green oak leaves. On June 3, 1935, a nest was found in an old hollow snag up under the rim rock; there were four young squirrels in the nest. At least one nest was in a juniper and was composed mostly of oak leaves and grass. One nest twenty-five feet from the ground in a Douglas fir was composed of oak leaves and finely shredded cedar bark. In August, 1956, I found these squirrels in the same area and I shot one specimen. Other chickarees were seen and heard and the characteristic piles of parts of Douglas fir cones still attest to their presence. On September 1, 1953, D. Watson observed a pair of chickarees in Prater Canyon. The only other specific record in the files at the Park is of two seen in a branch of Soda Canyon in late 1956. Jean Pinkley tells me that chickarees have been observed in 1958 and 1959 at several other localities from Prater Canyon to the hill at the head of Navajo Canyon. The extent to which increased observations indicate an increase in number of chickarees is uncertain, since the amounts of time spent in the field and the percentage of observations recorded are not known. Marmota flaviventris luteola A.H. Howell Yellow-bellied Marmot Records are available of observations at 14 different places in the Park and in 19 different years between 1930 and 1960. Approximately two-thirds of the observations have been on Prater Grade or in upper Prater Canyon or in upper Morfield Canyon. On the morning of August 24, 1956, Harold Shepherd and I heard the whistle of an animal that he was certain was a marmot, 2 mi. NNW of Rock Springs at the west rim of Wetherill Mesa. Mr. Shepherd has worked in areas occupied by marmots for years in southwestern Colorado. Wetherill Mesa is the locality farthest west in the Park where marmots are known to occur. They occur as far south as Cliff Palace. Cynomys gunnisoni zuniensis Hollister Gunnison's Prairie Dog _Specimens examined._--Total, 3: MV 7836/507, Prater Canyon, 7600 ft., C.W. Quaintance and L. White, May 24, 1935; [Female], MV 7847/507, head of Prater Canyon, June 13, 1935, C.W. Quaintance (the skin is on display); MV 7887/507, Prater Canyon, September 1, 1939. C.W. Quaintance in reports on the results of his work in 1935 included the following information: On February 20 in Prater Canyon Ranger Markley noticed that prairie dogs were active although about three feet of snow lay on the ground. Between April 15 and May 15 approximately 500 prairie dogs were in Prater Canyon above Lower Well; through field glasses 350 were counted. Young were first noted in Prater Canyon on July 12. Quaintance and Lloyd White had under observation two bulky nests of the red-tailed hawk in the tops of tall Douglas firs in side draws of Prater Canyon. Quaintance found near the rimrock a quarter of a mile from the prairie-dog town the skeletons of two prairie dogs between a sliver of a dead pinyon branch and the branch itself. Another skeleton lay on a dead limb fifteen feet from the ground. A red-tailed hawk once was observed to swoop down, seize a prairie dog and fly down the canyon. The four colonies found in the Park were in Prater Canyon, in Morfield Canyon, in the east fork of School Section Canyon, and in Whites Canyon. The last two were smaller colonies than the first two. Prairie dogs were observed away from these colonies. On June 20 a young prairie dog ran into a culvert on the Knife Edge Section of the road. Others were observed on the north side of the road, at the head of the east prong of School Section Canyon, on the road west of Park Point, and on the road at the head of Long Canyon five miles from the nearest known colony in the Park. Possibly this last individual came from the Montezuma Valley north of the Park. Mr. Prater, after whom Prater Canyon is named, homesteaded on the Mesa Verde in 1899. He informed Quaintance that prairie dogs were present in Morfield Canyon prior to 1900 but were not in Prater Canyon in 1899. Prater said he drowned out a few that came into Prater Canyon before 1914. In 1942, Chief Ranger Faha wrote in his Annual Animal Census Report that he had interviewed an old time resident (name not noted) who stated that prairie dogs were not present on the Mesa Verde until about 1905 or 1906 and that Helen Morfield, the daughter of Judge Morfield who homesteaded in Morfield Canyon, brought the first prairie dogs on the Mesa Verde. Estimates of the prairie-dog population in the Annual Animal Census Reports for 1935 through 1941 were: 1935--800, 1936--650, 1937--650, 1938--650, 1939--no report, 1940--1500 and increasing, 1941--slight decrease. After 1942 more adequate records were kept by Chief Ranger Wade and other Park Service personnel. On August 9, 1943, occupied burrows of prairie dogs were found to be thinly scattered down Prater Canyon from the head of the canyon at the Maintenance Camp to a point about one hundred feet below the lower well. The largest concentration was in the vicinity of the upper well near Prater's Cabin. Little new digging that would indicate a spreading population was noticed. Seemingly desirable, but unoccupied, habitat extended at least two miles south of the inhabited area. In Morfield Canyon, burrows were found from a point one hundred yards north of the fence at the south boundary of Section 17, south for a mile and one-half to a point one-third of a mile into Section 29. The greatest concentration was in the vicinity of Morfield Well. South of this point the burrows were found only along the narrow dry sides of the canyon and in sage-covered areas at slightly higher elevations than the rest of the floor of the canyon. Seemingly desirable habitat extended at least three miles to the south and one mile to the north of the occupied area. The report of the study in 1943 concluded with the statement that artificial control by poisoning would be unwise and unnecessary. Requests were being made at that time to exterminate prairie dogs in the Park on the basis of the unproved assumption that prairie dogs move from the Park to surrounding range land where extermination was then being attempted by poisoning. On August 10, 1944, no occupied burrows were found in Whites Canyon or the east fork of School Section Canyon. A heavy rain on August 9 made accurate count of occupied burrows possible. In Prater Canyon the occupied area extended 200 feet south of the area occupied in 1943. In Morfield Canyon no change had occurred. North of the fence in Morfield Canyon 130 occupied burrows were counted. More than one hole, if judged to be part of the same burrow system, were counted as one. The vegetation within the colony had continued to improve in spite of the large population of prairie dogs. On August 8 and 14, 1945, although a careful search was made, the only prairie dogs found in Prater Canyon were living in one burrow fifty yards from the Maintenance Camp. In Morfield Canyon the colony had decreased. Occupied burrows were found on the west side of the canyon near the fence and above the well (17 burrows), and below the well on the west side (estimated 30 burrows). The total population in both canyons was estimated to be 100, compared with 800 in the preceding year. The ground-water table was thought to be rising, and vegetation was increasing. On August 12, 1946, two prairie dogs were observed in Prater Canyon, one near the Maintenance Camp, and the other a mile to the south. In Morfield Canyon 18 occupied burrows were found north of the fence and 36 below the well, in the same two areas occupied in 1945. On August 12, 1947, two animals were seen at one of the localities occupied a year earlier in Prater Canyon, and three burrows were occupied. In Morfield Canyon 119 occupied burrows were counted. At least 12 dens occupied by badgers were present in 1946, and four in 1947. On August 9, 1948, no evidence of living prairie dogs was found in Prater Canyon. In Morfield Canyon 45 burrows were counted north of the fence. The grass had been increasing in abundance for several years. On August 18, 1949, no evidence of living prairie dogs was found in either canyon. In 1951 five prairie dogs were said to have been seen in Prater Canyon in June and July. No other observations have been recorded. On June 22, 1956, 13 pups and 7 adult prairie dogs were released in an enclosure in Morfield Canyon. Periodic inspections in the summer revealed that the colony was surviving and healthy. By the following spring no prairie dogs remained. Another reintroduction is planned this year (1960). Both the history of the prairie dogs and the history of the viewpoint of people toward them are interesting. Individual views have ranged from a desire to exterminate all the prairie dogs to a desire to leave them undisturbed by man. In review: The early history of prairie dogs on the Mesa Verde is not well documented but reports are available of the absence of prairie dogs before settlement by white men, and of introductions of prairie dogs. Other reports indicate that prairie dogs have been observed far from established colonies; therefore natural invasion may account for the establishment of prairie dogs on the Mesa. Grazing of moderate to heavy intensity by livestock continued in Morfield Canyon until 1941. Cessation of grazing and above average precipitation were accompanied by increased growth of vegetation in the colonies of prairie dogs. Mr. Wade has suggested that flooding of burrows by ground water drove prairie dogs from some lower parts of the floors of the canyons, and that increased vegetation favored predators, primarily badgers and coyotes, which further reduced the population. The abruptness of the decline, especially in Prater Canyon, is consistent with the theory that some epidemic disease occurred. This possibility was considered at the time of the decline, and a Mobile Laboratory of the United States Public Health Service spent from June 5 to June 25, 1947, in the Park collecting rodents and their fleas for study. The primary concern was plague, which had been detected in neighboring states. No evidence of plague or of tularemia was reported after study of 494 small rodents obtained from 13 localities in the Park. Only six prairie dogs (all from Morfield Canyon) were studied. The negative report does not prove that tularemia or some other disease was not a factor in the decimation of the colony in Prater Canyon the year before. If prairie dogs were able to survive primarily because of over-grazing by domestic animals, future introductions may fail. If disease was the major factor in their disappearance, reintroductions may succeed. Spermophilus lateralis lateralis (Say) Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel _Specimens examined._--Total, 10: highway at School Section Canyon, MV 7894/507; Sect. 27, head of east fork of Navajo Canyon, 7900 ft., 69265; and Prater Canyon, 7600 to 7800 ft., MV 7835/507, 7837/507, 7846/507, 7874/507, 7875/507, MVZ 74411-74413. In 1956, I observed _S. lateralis_ 1/2 mi. W of Park Point, 3/4 mi. WSW Park Point, in the public campground at Park Headquarters, at the lower well in Prater Canyon, and at two other places on the North Rim. Other observations on file were made at Prater Grade, Park Point, "D" cut (on North Rim 1 mi. WSW Park Point), and Morfield Canyon. A juvenile was noted at Park Point on June 28, 1952, by Jean Pinkley, and five young were seen together at "D" cut on July 3, 1935. The earliest observation, also recorded by Jean Pinkley, was on February 1, 1947. All of the localities with the exception of Park Headquarters are above 7500 feet, and most of the localities are in vegetation that is predominantly oak-brush. Spermophilus variegatus grammurus (Say) Rock Squirrel _Specimens examined._--Total, 6: Head of Prater Canyon, MV 7876/507; Chickaree Draw, Prater Canyon, MV 7843/507, 7844/507; Headquarters Area, MV 7888/507; Ruins Road 1/2 mi. NE of Cliff Palace, MV 7893/507; and Spruce Tree House, 4334 in Denver Museum. Specimen number 7893/507 had 360 Purshia seeds in its cheek-pouches according to a note on the label. On July 18, 1960, I found a young male rock squirrel dead on the road a mile north of headquarters that had 234 pinyon seeds in its cheek-pouches. Young, recorded as "half-grown," have been observed in May and July. The first appearance may be as early as January. In 1950, D. Watson thought that they did not hibernate, except for a few days when the weather was stormy. I observed a rock squirrel in August in the public campground at Park Headquarters sitting on its haunches on a branch of a juniper some twelve feet from the ground and eating an object held in its forefeet. The rock squirrel ranges throughout the Park in all habitats. Eutamias minimus operarius Merriam Least Chipmunk _Specimens examined._--Total, 17: North Rim above Morfield Canyon, MV 7856/507; Morfield Canyon, 7600 ft. (obtained on Nov. 4, 1957), 75976; Middle Well in Prater Canyon, 7500 ft, MV 7855/507; Prater Canyon, 7600 ft., MVZ 74414; Park Point, 8525 ft., 69267-69270; 1/4 mi. S, 3/4 mi. W Park Point, 8300 ft., 69271-69272; Sect. 27, head of east fork of Navajo Canyon, 7900 ft., 69273; Far View Ruins, 7700 ft., 69274-69275, and two uncatalogued specimens in preservative; 3 mi. N Rock Springs, 8200 ft., 69276-69277. Five of the fourteen specimens of known sex are females, all of which were taken in August and September, and none of which is recorded as having contained embryos. The skulls of the eight August-taken specimens also suggest that young are born in late spring or early summer: the largest skull had well-worn teeth that might indicate an age of more than one year; four others had complete adult dentitions that were barely worn; and three had not yet acquired complete adult dentitions. The records of _E. minimus_, like those of _Spermophilus lateralis_, indicate greatest abundance in the higher parts of the Mesa Verde and in areas of predominantly brushy vegetation. Eutamias quadrivittatus hopiensis Merriam Colorado Chipmunk _Specimens examined._--Total, 13: Prater Canyon, 7600 ft., MV 7838/507; Lower Well, Prater Canyon, 69278; Park Headquarters, MV 7889/507; near the old Park Well, 7300 ft., 5468 in Univ. of Colorado collection; Utility Area, 5469 and 5470 in Univ. of Colorado collection; Spruce Tree House, 4352-4355 in Denver Museum; Mesa Verde, 25 mi. [by road] SW Mancos, 149080-149081 USNM; Square Tower House, 7000 ft., 5467 in Univ. of Colorado collection. Although both species occur in some of the same areas, _E. q. hopiensis_ is more abundant than is _E. minimus_ in stands of pinyon and juniper, along cliffs, and at low elevations. (A specimen of _hopiensis_, MV 7849/507, from 3 mi. S of the Park boundary where the 6000 foot contour line cross the Mancos River is indicative of the occurrence at low elevations.) Thomomys bottae aureus J.A. Allen Botta's Pocket Gopher _Specimens examined._--Total, 35: Prater Canyon, 7600 ft., 74408-74410 MVZ; Upper Well, Prater Canyon, 7575 ft., 69279; 1/4 mi. N Middle Well, Prater Canyon, 7500 ft., 69280; Middle Well, Prater Canyon, 7500 ft., 69281-69285, 75977; Morfield Canyon, 7600 ft., 75978; 3/4 mi. S, 1-3/4 mi. W Park Point, 8000 ft, 69286-69288; 1-1/4 mi. S, 1-3/4 mi. W Park Point, 8000 ft., 69289; 1-1/2 mi. S, 2 mi. W Park Point, 8075 ft., 69290; Sect. 27, head of east fork Navajo Canyon, 7900 ft, 69291-69292; 1/2 mi. N Far View Ruins, 7825 ft, 69293; Far View Ruins, 7700 ft., 69294, MV 7852/507, 7853/507; 3 mi. N Rock Springs, 8200 ft., 69295-69298; 2-1/2 mi. N, 1/2 mi. W Rock Springs, 8100 ft., 69299-69301; 2 mi. N, 1/4 mi. W Rock Springs, 69302-69303; 1 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 69304; 1/2 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 69305; Mesa Verde, northern end, 8100 ft., 149087 USNM. The pocket gophers of the Mesa Verde and vicinity are of one species, _Thomomys bottae_. The distribution and variation of this species in Colorado have been studied recently by Youngman (1958) who referred all specimens from the Mesa Verde to _T. b. aureus_. He noted that some specimens have dark diffuse dorsal stripes that are wide in specimens from the Mancos River Valley. The generally darker color of the specimens from the Mancos Valley as compared with that of specimens from on the Mesa was noticed in the field, and is another example of the local variability of pocket gophers. The nine specimens listed by Youngman (1958:372) as from "Mesa Verde National Park," Mancos River, 6200 ft., are not here listed among "specimens examined" because possibly some, or all, of the nine were trapped on the east side of the River and therefore outside the Park. None was, however, farther than 30 yards east of the Park. In the Park, pocket gophers occur both on mesa tops and in canyons. Most of the localities listed above and others at which mounds were seen are areas of disturbance such as the old burn on Wetherill Mesa, the rights of way for roads, the river valley, and the grazed floor of Prater Canyon. Little evidence of pocket gophers was found on unusually rocky slopes, steep slopes, or in stands of pinyon and juniper or in relatively pure stands of oak-brush. In addition to workability of the soil, the presence of herbaceous plants, many of them weedy annuals, is probably the most important factor governing the success of pocket gophers in a local area. No female was recorded to have contained embryos, but two had enlarged uteri or placental scars. This fact and the capture of nine half-grown individuals indicate breeding prior to late August when most specimens were trapped. Dipodomys ordii longipes (Merriam) Ord's Kangaroo Rat Kangaroo rats have been seen crossing the highway in the Park less than one mile from the Park entrance by Jean Pinkley. Castor canadensis concisor Warren and Hall Beaver In 1935 Quaintance and White spent June 16 to June 20 in the Mancos River Bottoms at the mouth of Weber Canyon, looking for sign of fresh beaver work. They found none. Annual Animal Census Reports include the following information based on patrols along the Mancos River at the east boundary of the Park: 1937--estimate 4 beaver present, 1938--8, 1941--numerous bank burrows, 1942--uncommon, 1944--uncommon, 1945--most concentrated at southeast corner, 1946--runs and two small dams seen (flood had washed out larger dams), 1947--only in 1-1/2 miles north of boundary with Ute Reservation, 1949--two separate colonies (each with dams and one with a large house), 1950--none, owing to drouth and diversion of water upstream completely drying the river at times, 1951--none, 1953--present, 1955--present. On the Mancos River, 6200 ft., in late August, 1956, sign of beaver was abundant, numerous trees had been cut but none within a week, and a bank den was found on the west side of the river extending back 50 feet from the stream and caved in at three places. In 1959 dens were still present. Reithrodontomys megalotis aztecus J.A. Allen Western Harvest Mouse _Specimens examined._--Total, 38: North end Mesa Verde National Park, 7000 ft, 75984-75986; Park Point, 8525 ft., 69316-69317; Far View Ruins, 7700 ft, 69318-69319, 79220, MV 7897/507, and 23 uncatalogued specimens in preservative; 3 mi. N Rock Springs, 8200 ft., 69320-69321; 2 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 7900 ft., 69322-69323; 1 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 7600 ft., 69324; 1/2 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 7500 ft., 69325. The specimen listed last (69325) was an adult male recovered from the stomach of a small (snout-vent length 334 mm., wt. 26.0 gms.) _Crotalus viridus_ that was trapped in a Museum Special mouse-trap on a rocky slope mostly barren of vegetation. The availability of samples taken in August (by Anderson in 1956), in September (by Shepherd in 1958), and in November (by Alcorn in 1957) makes the following comparison of age and reproductive condition possible. The sample from November includes some specimens from outside the Park as follows: 1 mi. W Mancos, Colorado, 75979-75983, and 2 mi. N La Plata [not shown on Fig. 2], San Juan County, New Mexico, some 18 miles southeast of the Park, 75987-76000. The data shown in Figure 3 indicate that females are pregnant at least from in August into November. A smaller percentage of females was pregnant in November than in August or September. The fact that all females more than 130 mm. long were pregnant in September suggests an autumnal peak in breeding activity. A change in the ratio of small individuals (less than 130 mm. in length) to large individuals (130 mm. or more in length) is indicative of a sustained breeding period throughout the time shown. In August the ratio was 1 to 2.3, in September the ratio was 1 to 1.2, and the ratio was 1 to 0.7 in November. The western harvest mouse is found usually in grassy areas. Peromyscus boylii rowleyi (J.A. Allen) Brush Mouse _Specimens examined._--Total, 14: North end Mesa Verde National Park, 7000 ft., 76002-76003; Far View House, 7700 ft., MV 7851/507, 7854/507; Far View Point, 5 uncatalogued specimens in preservative; 1/2 mi. N Spruce Tree Lodge, 34742; 25 mi. [by road] SW Mancos, 149094 and 149096 USNM; Oak Tree Ruin, 6700 ft., MV 7870/507; and Cliff Palace, 6800 ft., MV 7864/507. The specimens were taken in August, September, and November. One adult female trapped on September 10, 1958, had six embryos. Peromyscus crinitus auripectus (J.A. Allen) Canyon Mouse _Specimens examined._--Total, 3: Mesa Verde [Spruce Tree Cliff Ruins], 149095 USNM; Balcony House, MV 7865/507, 7866/507. Peromyscus maniculatus rufinus (Merriam) Deer Mouse _Specimens examined._--Total, 396: North end Mesa Verde National Park, 7000 ft., 76004-76100; Prater Canyon, 7600 ft., 76101-76144, MV 7839/507, 7840/507; Upper Well, Prater Canyon, 7575 ft., 69328-69329; Morfield Canyon, 7600 ft., 76145-76184; Park Point, 8525 ft., 69330-69342, 69344-69360; 1-1/2 mi. E Waters Cabin, 6400 ft. (labels on some specimens read "West Bank Mancos River, Northeast side Mesa Verde National Park"), 69361-69376, 76185-76204; Sect. 27, head of east fork Navajo Canyon, 7900 ft., 69377-69380, 69422-69426; 3 mi. N Rock Springs, 8200 ft., 69403-69410; 2 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 7900 ft., 69411-69412; 1 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 7600 ft., 69413-69418; 1/2 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 7500 ft., 69419-69421; Far View Ruins, 7700 ft., 69386-69402; Far View Point, 76530-76531, 79221 and 90 uncatalogued specimens in preservative; Mancos River, 6200 ft., 69382-69385; back of Park Museum, 6930 ft., MV 7857/507; Mesa Verde, 25 mi. [by road] SW Mancos, 149093 USNM; Cornfield, MV 7878/507. The most abundant mammal is the ubiquitous deer mouse. Series of specimens taken in August (by Anderson in 1956), in September (by Shepherd in 1958 and 1959), and in November (by Alcorn in 1957) make possible the following comparisons of age, reproductive conditions, and molts. The specimens obtained in August and November were placed in five categories according to age (as judged by wear on the teeth). These categories correspond in general to those used by Hoffmeister (1951:1) in studies of _Peromyscus truei_. From his descriptions I judge that wear in _Peromyscus maniculatus_ differs from wear in _Peromyscus truei_ in that the last upper molar is not worn smooth before appreciable wear appears on the first two molars, and the lingual and labial cusps wear more nearly concurrently. The five categories differ as follows: category 1, last upper molar in process of erupting, showing no wear; category 2, some wear apparent on all teeth, but most cusps little worn; category 3, greater wear on all teeth, lingual cusps becoming rounded or flattened; category 4, lingual cusps worn smooth, labial cusps show considerable wear; category 5, all cusps worn smooth. The condition of the pelage was noted for each prepared skin. Hoffmeister (_op. cit._: 4) summarized changes in pelage that he observed in _Peromyscus truei_, and he summarized earlier work by Collins with _Peromyscus maniculatus_. In _P. maniculatus_ a grayish juvenal pelage is replaced by a postjuvenal pelage in which the hairs are longer and have longer, pale, terminal or subterminal bands giving a paler and more buffy or ochraceous hue to the dorsal pelage. The postjuvenal pelage is replaced by an adult pelage that is either brighter or, in some cases, is not distinguishable with certainty from the postjuvenal pelage. Not only is the juvenal pelage distinguishable from the postjuvenal pelage, but the sequence of ingrowth of postjuvenal pelage follows a regular pattern that is usually different from that of subsequent molts. The loss of juvenal hair is less readily observed than the ingrowth of new postjuvenal hair on account of the greater time required for the growth of any individual hair than for the sudden loss of a hair. Molt was observed in some individuals no longer having juvenal pelage; some new pelage was observed on the skins of seven mice collected in August. Each of these was in category 4 or 5 and probably had been born in the previous calendar year. These seven molting individuals make up nearly 17 per cent of 42 individuals that had completed the juvenal to postjuvenal molt. In November, 80 per cent of individuals (92 of 115) that had previously obtained their postjuvenal or adult pelage were molting. These mice were in age-categories 3, 4, and 5. Some of the individuals in category 3 were developing new hair beneath a relatively unworn bright pelage that I judge to be an adult pelage rather than a postjuvenal pelage. If this judgment be correct and if the relatively unworn dentition (category 3) means that these animals are young of the year, we must conclude that individuals born in early summer may molt from juvenal to postjuvenal, then to adult pelage, and finally in the autumn into another adult pelage. Other individuals, six in number and of categories 2 and 3, are simultaneously completing the juvenal to postjuvenal molt and beginning the postjuvenal to adult molt. The juvenal to postjuvenal molt begins, as has been described by various authors, along the lateral line and proceeds dorsally and ventrally and anteriorly and posteriorly, and the last patch to lose the gray juvenal color is the top of head and nape, or less frequently the rump. In some individuals a gray patch on the nape remained but emerging hair was not apparent; perhaps the molt had been halted just prior to completion. The progressing band of emerging hair is narrow in most specimens but in some up to one-fifth of the circumference of the body has hair at the same degree of emergence. Subsequent molts, both from postjuvenal to adult pelage and between adult pelages, are less regular in point, or points, of origin, width of progressing molt, and amount of surface molting at one time. Half or more of the dorsum is oftentimes involved in the same stage of molt at once. In some specimens the molt begins along the lateral line, and in others in several centers on the sides. In some skins distinct lines of molt are visible without parting the hair, and in some others the molt is patchy in appearance. Growth of new hair is apparent at various times of the year as a result of injury such as that caused by bot fly larvae, cuts, scratches, or bites of other mice. Abrasion, wear, irritation by ectoparasites, and other kinds of injury to the skin may play a part in the development of a patchy molt. Both breeding and molting are sources of considerable stress, and the delay of the peak of molting activity until November when breeding activity has decreased seems of benefit to the mice. A change in the ratio of young mice (categories 1, 2, and 3) to old mice (categories 4 and 5) between August and November was noted. In August, 29 per cent of the population is composed of old mice, and in November only 6 per cent. This change results from birth of young as well as death of old mice, but may indicate that a mouse in November has less than one chance in ten of being alive the following November. Some females born early in the reproductive season breed in their first summer or autumn. For example, a female of category 2, taken on August 12, and probably in postjuvenal pelage, had placental scars. Undoubtedly the young of the year contribute to the breeding population, especially late in the season. [Illustration: FIG. 3. Frequency distributions, according to size, of _Reithrodontomys megalotis_ and _Peromyscus maniculatus_ in three samples taken in August, September, and November. Sexes and pregnancy or nonpregnancy of females are indicated. See discussion in text.] In Figure 3 the proportion of females bearing embryos in August, September, and November is shown. Of the females trapped in August, 11 of 32 that were more than 144 mm. in total length contained embryos; an additional 14 females were lactating or possessed placental scars or enlarged uteri. Therefore, approximately 80 per cent of the larger females were reproducing in August. In September two females were pregnant and an additional sixteen of the 44 females examined showed other evidence of reproduction; these eighteen females make up 41 per cent of those more than 144 mm. in total length. The only reproductive data available for November pertain to the presence or absence of embryos. No female was pregnant although 35 females more than 144 mm. in total length were examined. Some of the skins show prominent mammae indicative of recent nursing, and juveniles less than a month old were taken. The reproductive activity of deer mice on the Mesa Verde seems to be greatly reduced in autumn. Peromyscus difficilis nasutus (J.A. Allen) Rock Mouse _Specimen_: 1 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 7600 ft., 69413, a young individual completing the molt from juvenal to postjuvenal pelage. Peromyscus truei truei (Shufeldt) Pinyon Mouse _Specimens examined._--Total, 42: North end Mesa Verde National Park, 7000 ft., 76220-76232; Far View Ruins, 7700 ft., 69326-69327, 79222, and 8 uncatalogued specimens in preservative; Far View Point, 76532-76535; Far View House, 7700 ft., 74416 MVZ; 1/2 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 7500 ft., 69429-69430; Rock Springs, 7400 ft., 69431-69435; Park Well, 7450 ft., 69428; Headquarters, MV 7882/507; back of Museum, MV 7879/507, 7880/507, 7881/507; Square Tower House, 6700 ft., 69438. In August three females were pregnant or lactating, or both. None of seven adult females taken in November was pregnant. Neotoma cinerea arizonae Merriam Bushy-tailed Wood Rat _Specimen_: Head of Prater Canyon, MV 7873/507. Another, in the Denver Museum, from Spruce Tree House, was reported by Finley (1958:270). _Neotoma cinerea_ prefers vertical crevices in high cliffs but occupies other areas. Neotoma mexicana inopinata Goldman Mexican Wood Rat _Specimens examined._--Total, 10: Headquarters, MV 7890/507 and probably 7861/507, 74421 MVZ; Spruce Tree Lodge, 6950 ft., 34802-34803; Spruce Tree House, 74419-74420 MVZ; Square Tower House, MV 7869/507; Cliff Palace, 74422 MVZ; Balcony House, MV 7868/507. The Mexican wood rat is the most common species of wood rat on the Mesa Verde. The two specimens from Spruce Tree Lodge obtained by R.B. Finley on September 2, 1949, are young individuals. Another species of the genus, the white-throated wood rat, _Neotoma albigula_, may occur within the Park, since three specimens (34757-34759) from the Mesa Verde were trapped on September 15, 1949, by R.B. Finley, approximately 4-1/2 miles south of the Park [6 mi. E, 17 mi. S Cortez, 5600 ft.--south of the area shown in Figure 2]. Finley (1958:450) stated that at that locality he trapped _Neotoma mexicana_ [No. 34801], that _N. albigula_ was perhaps more common there than _N. mexicana_, that dens of _N. albigula_ were more common than those of _N. mexicana_ under large rocks in the talus on the south slope of the Mesa, and that dens of _N. mexicana_ seemed to be more numerous in crevices of ledges in the bedrock and cliffs. Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis (Lord) Muskrat D. Watson (in letter of January 16, 1957) reported that he has seen muskrat tracks many times along the Mancos River. He also relates a report received from Chief Ranger Wade and D.A. Spencer who saw a muskrat, no doubt a wanderer, on the Knife Edge Road on a cold winter night. These men, both reliable observers, stopped and saw the muskrat at a distance of two feet, where it took shelter under a power shovel parked beside the road. Reports of dens seen along the Mancos River are available for 1944, 1945, 1946, and 1947. Microtus longicaudus mordax (Merriam) Long-tailed Vole _Specimens examined._--Total, 36: North end Mesa Verde National Park, 7000 ft., 76233-76237; entrance to Mesa Verde National Park, 5123-5126 in Denver Museum; Prater Canyon, 7600 ft., 76238-76244; Upper Well, Prater Canyon, 7575 ft., 69441; Morfield Canyon, 7600 ft., 76245-76259, 76261-76263; west bank Mancos River, northeast side Mesa Verde National Park, 76260. The vegetation at the above-named localities is a combination of brush and grasses that are both more luxuriant than in areas dominated by pinyon and juniper on the more southern and altitudinally lower part of the top of the Mesa where no _M. longicaudus_ was taken. Microtus mexicanus mogollonensis (Mearns) Mexican Vole _Specimens examined._--Total, 22: Prater Canyon, 7600 ft., 76283-76287; Sect. 27, head of east fork of Navajo Canyon, 7900 ft., 69442; Far View Ruins, 7700 ft., 69443, 79223-79224; 2 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 7900 ft., 69444-69446; Park Well, 7450 ft., 69447-69453; rock ledge at head of Spruce Tree Canyon, unnumbered specimen in Denver Museum; Headquarters, MV 7895/507, 7896/507. The first specimen of the Mexican vole from Colorado was obtained on the Mesa Verde and has been reported by Rodeck and Anderson (1956:436). Specimens have now been taken at seven localities on the Mesa. Prater Canyon is the only one of these localities at which any other species of vole was taken. There _Microtus longicaudus_ and _Microtus montanus_ were also obtained. Judging from the vegetation at the above localities, _M. mexicanus_ is to be expected in drier areas with less cover than _M. montanus_ inhabits, and in areas having less cover than those inhabited by _M. longicaudus_. Microtus montanus fusus Hall Montane Vole _Specimens examined._--Total, 16: Upper Well, 7575 ft., 69454-69465; 1/4 mi. N Middle Well, 7500 ft., 69466-69469. The voles were trapped in the dry but dense meadow of grass and sedge covering the floor of the canyon (see Plate 1). _Sorex vagrans_ was trapped in the same places. Four of the females of _M. montanus_ trapped on September 3, 1956, were pregnant. Erethizon dorsatum couesi Mearns Porcupine _Specimens examined._--Total, 2: 69470, old [Female], and 69471, her young male offspring, both obtained on August 28, 1956, in the canyon of the Mancos River, 6200 feet, along the western side of the River. I saw no other porcupine in the Park. In 1935, C.W. Quaintance took special notice of porcupines because of the possibility, then being considered, of their being detrimental to habitat conditions thought to be favorable to wild turkeys. Porcupines were suspected of killing ponderosa pine, which occurred in only a few places, and which was thought to be necessary for wild turkeys. Porcupines were recorded as follows: one found dead on the road at the North Rim on March 16; one killed in oak brush along the North Rim; one killed between April 15 and May 15; oak brush damaged by porcupines in Soda Canyon below the well; one seen on July 4 on the Poole Canyon Trail; one seen at the foot of the Mesa on June 26; one seen by Lloyd White in Moccasin Canyon on June 27; and one seen by Mrs. Sharon Spencer on July 1 in Prater Canyon. After four months on the Mesa Verde, Quaintance concluded that there were not so many porcupines as had been expected and that there were more ponderosa pines than had been expected. In 1946, Donald A. Spencer began a study of porcupines on the Mesa Verde and in 1958 deposited, in the University of Colorado Library, his results in manuscript form as a dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a higher degree ("Porcupine population fluctuations in past centuries revealed by dendrochronology," 108 numbered and 13 unnumbered pages, 39 figures, and 13 tables). Dendrochronology, or the dating of trees by studying their rings, is a technique widely used in the southwest by archeologists, climatologists, and others. Spencer found that porcupines damage trees in a characteristic manner, and that damage to a pinyon pine was evident as long as the tree lived. By dating approximately 2000 scars and plotting the year for each scar, Spencer observed three peaks since 1865; these were in about 1885, 1905, and 1935. The increase and decrease each time were at about the same rate. The study did not yield precise population estimates. Some porcupines were destroyed but Spencer is of the opinion that the decline that came in following years was independent of the control measures. Spencer thinks that activities of porcupines on the Mesa Verde are a major factor in maintaining a forest cover of relatively young trees, and also in preventing invasion of trees into areas of brush. The general policy in regard to porcupines from 1930 to 1946 was to kill them because they eat parts of trees. In at least the following years porcupines were killed: 1930, 1933, 1935, 1940, 1943, 1944, and 1946. The largest number reported killed in one year is 71 in 1933 when a crew of men was employed for this purpose. The amount of effort devoted to killing porcupines varied from year to year. The most frequently voiced alarm was that the scenic value of the areas along the entrance highway and near certain ruins was being impaired. The direst prediction was that all pine trees on the Mesa Verde were doomed to extinction in the near future. The last prediction has not come to pass, nor has this extinction occurred in the past thousand years and more during which pine trees and porcupines have existed together on the Mesa Verde. In 1946 the studies of Spencer, Wade, and Fitch began. Much effort was expended in obtaining and dating scars for analysis, and the interesting results mentioned above were the reward. Also many porcupines were captured alive and marked with ear-tags so that they could be recognized later. For example, in the winter of 1946 and 1947, 117 were marked in Soda Canyon. A decline in numbers in recent years reduced the impetus for continuation of the study by reducing the results obtained for each day spent searching for porcupines. Information obtained on movements of porcupines relative to season and weather conditions in these studies may be summarized and published later. Data regarding ratio of young to adult animals from year to year are also of interest. The effect of a porcupine on a single tree is often easy to assess. The effect of a fluctuating population of porcupines on a mixed forest is not so easy to assess, but is of more intrinsic interest. It is desirable that studies designed to evaluate the latter effect continue while the population remains low and also when the next cyclic increase begins. Publication of Spencer's results would be a major step forward. Cahalane (1948:253) mentions the difficulty that has been experienced in protecting aesthetically desirable trees around cliff dwellings. Perhaps in a local area removal of porcupines is sometimes warranted, but control of the porcupine seems undesirable to me, as a general policy, because one purpose of a National Park is to preserve natural conditions and that implies naturally occurring changes. What is needed is continued careful study of the ecological relationships of animals and of plants. National parks provide, to the extent that they are not disturbed or "controlled," especially favorable places for studies of this sort. Mus musculus subsp. House Mouse _Specimens examined._--Total, 7: North end Mesa Verde National Park, 7000 ft, 76290; west bank Mancos River northeast side Mesa Verde National Park, 76291-76296. Canis latrans mearnsi Merriam Coyote _Specimens examined._--Total, 3: 69472, skull only of a young individual, found dead at the top of the bank of the Mancos River, 1-1/2 mi. E Waters Cabin, 6400 ft., August 29, 1956, probably killed by man; ad. [Male], 76298, taken by J.R. Alcorn, November 10, 1957, on the top of the Mesa at Square Tower House; and skin and skull, MV 7858/507, without data. Tracks or scats of the coyote were seen in all parts of the Park visited. Coyotes range throughout the area. On September 3, 1956, 35 coyote scats were found on the dirt roads in Prater and Morfield canyons above 7300 feet elevation and on the road crossing the divide between these canyons. Probably none of these scats was more than a month old. Coyote tracks were seen at some of the fresher scats. Scats associated with fox tracks and scats of small size were not picked up. Nevertheless, a few of the scats studied may have been those of foxes. Judging from the contents of scats that were certainly from foxes, the effect of inadvertent inclusion of fox scats would be to elevate the percentage of scats containing berries (but not more than five percentage points). Each scat was broken up and the percentage of scats containing each of the following items was noted (figures are to the nearest per cent). Remains of deer occurred in 48 per cent of scats, gooseberries (_Ribes_) in 34 per cent, porcupines in 29 per cent, insects in 11 per cent, birds in 11 per cent, unidentified hair in 9 per cent, and unidentified material in 6 per cent. One scat (3 per cent) contained an appreciable amount of plant debris, one contained _Microtus_ along with other items, and one contained only _Sylvilagus_; 14 scats had material of more than one category. The percentage in each category of the volume of each scat was estimated. Data on volume warrant no conclusion other than one that can be drawn from the percentages of occurrence, namely that the major food sources used in August, 1956, by coyotes in these canyons were deer, berries, and porcupines and that other sources, though used, were relatively unimportant. Deer were common in the area. It is fortunate that coyotes remain to help regulate the deer population. Wolves, _Canis lupus_, which at one time occurred in the Park, are now gone. The coyote and mountain lion are the only sizeable predators that remain. Vulpes vulpes macroura Baird Red Fox D. Watson (in letter of January 16, 1957) reported that red foxes have been seen on the Mesa by several employees of the Park. These persons know the gray fox, which often is seen in winter feeding at their back doors, and Mr. Watson considers the reports reliable. In the early morning of October 24, 1943, a reddish-yellow fox having a white-tipped tail was observed by three men, one of whom was Chief Ranger Wade, at Park Point. In 1948, 1950, and 1953 black foxes have been reported. Urocyon cinereoargenteus scottii Mearns Gray Fox _Specimens examined._--Total, 3: [Male], MV 7867/507, 2 mi. N of Headquarters, 7400 ft., September 24, 1935, H.P. Pratt; [Male], 76299, November 9, and [Female], 76300, trapped on November 12, 1957, by J.R. Alcorn at Square Tower House. The gray fox is common on the Mesa. Ursus americanus amblyceps Baird Black Bear From 1929 through 1959 at least 151 observations of bears were recorded. Observations were unrecorded in only five years--1952, 1953, 1954, 1956, and 1958. Most observations were in the 1940's and the peak was in 1944 (18 observations) and 1945 (21 observations). Cubs have been recorded in 10 different years. If dated reports are tabulated by months the following figures are obtained for the 12 months beginning with January: 0, 0, 0, 4, 15, 19, 19, 9, 10, 9, 3, 0. The peak in the summer months and the absence of observations in the winter months are significant. Individual bears probably enter and leave the Park in the course of their normal wanderings; however bears probably hibernate, breed, and bear young within the Park and should not be regarded as merely occasionally wandering into the Park. Procyon lotor pallidus Merriam Raccoon In December, 1959, three raccoons were seen on Prater Grade and later three were seen in Morfield Canyon near the tunnel. I saw a dead raccoon at the side of the highway 3 mi. WSW of Mancos, 6700 feet, on August 8, 1956. This locality is outside of the Park and not on the Mesa, but is mentioned because it indicates that the raccoon probably occurs along the Mancos River, which forms the eastern boundary of the Park. The raccoon is rare in the area. Some local persons were surprised to hear of its presence; other persons told me that raccoons were present, but rare. Bassariscus astutus flavus Rhoads Ringtail _Specimens examined._--Total, 4: MV 7884/507 and 7885/507, trapped in Balcony House and prepared by D. Watson in 1939; MV 7901/507 and 7902/507, without data. The cliff dwellings are favored by ringtails and in some years they are common near occupied dwellings in the area of headquarters. Ringtails have been seen in each major habitat within the Park. Mustela frenata nevadensis Hall Long-tailed Weasel _Specimens examined._--Total, 5: MV 7891/507, [Male], from the "Garden" [= Indian Cornfield]; [Female], MV 7892/507, also from the "Cornfield"; MV 7859/507, "Killed by car on Prater Grade"; [Male], MV 7871/507, in winter pelage, from the North Rim; and [Male], 83464, killed on the road 1/2 mi. NE of the tunnel, Morfield Canyon. C.W. Quaintance in 1935 reported that on January 11, he and Mr. Nelson saw a weasel attack a cottontail, and on March 9, while on the snow plow, Mr. Nelson witnessed another cottontail being killed by a weasel. Weasels in white winter pelage have been recorded in December and January. The brown pelage has been seen as late as November. Mustela vison energumenos (Bangs) Mink D. Watson (in letter of January 16, 1957) wrote: "When Jack Wade, now Chief Ranger, was doing patrol work in the Mancos Canyon back in the 1930's, he saw mink along the river at the east side of the Park. Several years ago, the people who lived on the ranch where Weber Canyon joins the Mancos trapped a mink." Tracks have been reported along the Mancos River in several years. Spilogale putorius gracilis Merriam Spotted Skunk _Specimen_: Immature [Male], MV 7860/507, Cliff Palace, August 22, 1936, prepared by A.E. Borrell. In some years these little skunks have become so numerous in the area of headquarters that they were a nuisance, and were captured in garbage cans and released in other parts of the Park. Mephitis mephitis estor Merriam Striped Skunk D. Watson advises me that striped skunks are fairly common around the entrance to the Park, along the foot of the Mesa, and along the Mancos River. Striped skunks have been reported in 1951 in Morfield Canyon, in 1952 on the Knife Edge, in 1953 at Windy Point (1/4 mi. N of Point Lookout), and in 1959 at the head of Morfield Canyon. [Illustration: PLATE 1 UPPER: View of the North Rim of Mesa Verde, looking west from Park Point, the highest place on the North Rim. The south-facing slope on the left is covered with brushy vegetation, mostly oak. Sheltered parts of the north-facing slope support stands of Douglas fir, and at a few places some ponderosa pines. Photo taken in August, 1956, by S. Anderson. LOWER LEFT: View of Rock Canyon from Wetherill Mesa, looking southwest from a point 2 mi. NNW Rock Springs. The area in the foreground on Wetherill Mesa was burned in 1934. Photo taken in August, 1956, by S. Anderson. LOWER RIGHT: Prater Canyon, at Upper Well, 7575 feet. In the matted grasses and sedges on the floor of the canyon _Microtus montanus_ and _Sorex vagrans_ were captured. _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_ was found in a side canyon, Chickaree Draw, one half mile southwest of the place shown. Chickaree Draw is more sheltered than the slope in the background and has a denser stand of Douglas fir than occurs here. Photo taken in August, 1956, by S. Anderson.] [Illustration: PLATE 2 UPPER: Relatively undisturbed stand of pinyon pine and Utah juniper 1/4 mi. N Rock Springs, at 7400 feet elevation on Wetherill Mesa along a service road. The vegetation shown is characteristic of the lower more exposed parts of the top of the Mesa Verde. Photo taken in August, 1956, by S. Anderson. LOWER: Wetherill Mesa, 1/2 mi. NNW Rock Springs, 7500 feet elevation. This area burned in 1934. It contained no pine or juniper in 1956 despite attempted reforestation in the thirties and the presence of a stand of pinyon and juniper (shown above) only one quarter of a mile away. Possibly fire in the last three or four hundred years on the higher parts of the Mesa has been a factor in producing chaparral there, rather than pinyon and juniper. Photo taken in August, 1956, by S. Anderson.] Taxidea taxus berlandieri Baird Badger Several reports, but no specimens, of the badger have been obtained. In 1935, C.W. Quaintance wrote that in School Section Canyon tracks of cougar, bobcat, coyote, and deer were found, and that pocket gophers, badgers, and cottontail rabbits were present. Later in 1935, H.P. Pratt wrote that he had found evidence of badgers "at the lower well in Prater Canyon, where on September 23, there were extensive badger diggings and fresh tracks in the vicinity of the prairie dog colony there." Badgers are common in the lowlands around the Mesa and they are common enough on the Mesa to be regarded as nuisances by archeologists on account of badgers digging in ruins. Badgers have been seen from three to six times each year from 1950 to this date, most of them in the vicinity of the North Rim. Felis concolor hippolestes Merriam Mountain Lion Mountain lions range throughout the Park. There are reliable sight records of lions and lion tracks, but no specimen has been preserved. Early records of observations include the report of tracks seen in Navajo Canyon by Cary (1911:165), and a lion seen in 1917. Since 1930 the more adequate records include reports of from one to eight observations each year for 26 of the 30 years. Young animals (recorded as "half-grown") or cubs have been reported in four of these years. The tabulation of dated reports by month beginning with January is: 2, 0, 3, 2, 8, 4, 6, 7, 4, 9, 5, 7. Mountain lions range more widely than bears in their daily and seasonal activities, but like bears probably breed, bear young, and feed in the Park. Although at any one time lions may or may not be within the Park, it is part of their normal range and the species should be regarded as resident and is not uncommon. Lynx rufus baileyi Merriam Bobcat _Specimens examined._--Total, 2: A specimen (now mounted in Park Museum) from the Knife Edge Road; and ad. [Female], 76302, Prater Canyon, 7500 ft., November 12, 1957, obtained by J.R. Alcorn. Bobcats are present throughout the Park. Approximately 80 observations of bobcats are on file, from all parts of the Park and in all months. Probably the bobcat and the gray fox are the most abundant carnivores in the Park. In addition to known predation by mountain lions and coyotes on porcupines, the bobcat kills porcupines. A dead porcupine and a dead bobcat with its face, mouth, and one foot full of quills were found together on January 31, 1952, under a boulder in front of Cliff Palace. On August 20, 1956, I saw a bobcat hunting in sage in a draw near a large clump of oak-brush, into which it fled, at the head of the east fork of Navajo Canyon, Sect. 21, near the North Rim, 8100 feet. Odocoileus hemionus hemionus (Rafinesque) Mule Deer _Specimens examined._--Total, 2: Young [Male], 76303, November 8, 1957, Far View Ruins; [Female], 76304, November 12, 1957, Spruce Tree House Ruin, both obtained by J.R. Alcorn. In all parts of the Park, mule deer are common. Five projects concerning deer are in progress or have been concluded recently on the Mesa. One is a study of the responses of different species of plants to browsing and was begun in 1949 by Harold R. Shepherd for the Colorado Department of Game and Fish. A number of individual plants and in some instances groups of plants were fenced to exclude deer. Systematic clips of 20, 40, 60, 80, or 100 per cent of the annual growth are made each year. The results of the first ten years of this study are being prepared for publication by Shepherd. A study of browsing pressure was initiated in 1952 by Regional Biologist C.M. Aldous, on eight transects in the Park. Each transect consists of 15 plots at intervals of 200 feet. The amount of use of each plant species was recorded from time to time. The study was terminated in 1955. I have seen no summary of results of this study. A trapping program was begun in 1953 with the co-operation of the Colorado Department of Game and Fish. Deer are trapped, marked, and released. Some are released in areas other than where trapped. In this way the excessive size of the herd near headquarters has been reduced. Recoveries of marked deer outside the Park by hunters and retrapping results in the Park should provide information about movements of deer and about life expectancy. The "Deer Trend Study" was initiated in 1954. From November to May, twice a day, at the same time, a count is made along the entrance road from the Park Entrance to Headquarters. Ten drainage areas traversed are tabulated separately. The results of four years of this study indicate that the greatest number of deer are present in November, December, and January, and that only about one-fourth as many are present in February and March. Depending on severity of weather, the yearly pattern varies, the deer arriving earlier, or leaving earlier. This change in numbers, the recovery outside of the Park of animals marked in the Park, and direct observations of movement indicate that the Mesa Verde is an intermediate range rather than a summer-range or winter-range. In summer deer tend to move northward and eastward out of the Park, and in winter they move back through the Park toward lower and more protected areas in canyons both in the Park and south of the Park on the Ute Reservation. Some deer remain in the Park the entire year. Close co-operation between personnel of the Park Service and of the Colorado Department of Game and Fish has regulated hunting outside the Park in such a way as to provide satisfactory control of the deer within the Park. A study of the effect of rodents on plants used by deer was initiated in 1956 by Harold R. Shepherd. Three acres were fenced in a fashion designed to exclude rodents but not deer. An adjacent three acres were fenced as a control, but not so as to exclude rodents or deer. Eight trap lines nearby provide an index of rodent fluctuations from year to year. These studies will need to be continued for a period of ten years or more, and should provide much information concerning not only deer but also rodents and their effect on vegetation. Cervus canadensis nelsoni V. Bailey Wapiti Wapiti are seen periodically; probably they wander in from the higher mountains to the northeast and do not remain for long. The following note was included in the 1921 report of Mr. Jesse L. Nusbaum, then Superintendent of the Park: "The first elk ever seen in the Park made his appearance near the head of Navajo Canyon, August 15 of this year, and travelled for two miles in front of a Ford car down the main road before another car, travelling in the opposite direction, scared him into the timber." Additional observations have been recorded as follows: School Section Canyon ("fall" 1935), Knife Edge Road (July, 1940), West Soda Canyon and Windy Point (December, 1949), Long Canyon (July, 1959), and Park Entrance (December, 1959). Three of the six observations are in July and August; therefore movement by wapiti into the Park can not be attributed entirely to disturbance during the hunting season. Ovis canadensis canadensis Shaw Bighorn Some early records of the bighorn were mentioned by C.W. Quaintance (1935): In a letter of January 20, 1935, John Wetherill said that a "Mountain Sheep Canyon" (now Rock Canyon) was named for a bunch of sheep that wintered near their camp; and Sam Ahkeah, a Navajo, says the Indians occasionally find remnants of sheep on the Mesa, which they take back to their hogans. Cahalane (1948:257) reported that hunting presumably had eliminated bighorns from the Mesa by 1896; however Jean Pinkley reports that a large ram was killed on Point Lookout in 1906. On January 30, 1946, 14 sheep (3 rams, 7 ewes, and 4 lambs) from the herd at Tarryall, Colorado, were obtained through the Colorado Department of Game and Fish and were released at 8:30 a.m. at the edge of the canyon south of Spruce Tree Lodge. The sheep, instead of entering the canyon as expected, turned north, passed behind the museum, and eventually disappeared northward on Chapin Mesa. The sheep evidently divided into at least two bands. On April 24, 1946, three sheep were seen 2-1/2 mi. N of Rock Springs, and on June 19, 1947, tracks were seen in Mancos Canyon. In 1947, 1948, and 1949 farmers in Weber Canyon reported seeing sheep many times on Weber Mountain, and watering at the Mancos River. In May, 1949, an estimate of 27 sheep on Weber Mountain was made after several days study by men from the state game department. The herds continued to increase. In 1956 I saw two bighorns. On August 18, at 6:20 a.m., my wife and I briefly observed a bighorn on the rocks below Square Tower Ruins. On August 24, I was digging with a small shovel in rocky soil behind the cabin at Rock Springs, when hoof beats were heard approaching in the rocky head of the canyon to the east. An adult ewe came up to the fence around the cabin area and looked at me, seemingly curious about the noise my shovel had been producing. I remained motionless and called to my wife, Justine, to come from the cabin and see the sheep. The ewe seemed not to be disturbed by my voice, but took flight, returning in the direction from which she had come, the moment Justine appeared from behind the cabin. Sheep can now be seen on occasion in any of the deep canyons across the southern half of the Park. The sheep have caused slight damage in some of the ruins by bedding down there, and by climbing on walls. As the sheep increase in numbers this activity may be regarded as a problem. In 1959 an estimated 75 to 100 sheep were in the Park and adjacent areas. DISCUSSION The distributions of animals are influenced by geographic, vegetational, and altitudinal factors. The Mesa Verde is intermediate in geographic position and altitude between the high Southern Rocky Mountains and the low southwestern desert. For this reason, we find on the Mesa Verde (1) a preponderance of species having wide distributions in this part of the country, and having relatively wide ranges of tolerance for different habitats, (2) a lesser number of exclusively montane or boreal species than occur in the higher mountains to the northeast of the Mesa and that may reach the limits of their ranges here, and (3) a small number of species of southern or Sonoran affinities. Fifty-four species are recorded above. Forty-one of these species are represented by specimens from the Park. Thirteen additional species in the list have been seen in the Park. On the Grand Mesa, which is more elevated than, and some 110 miles north of, the Mesa Verde (see Figure 1), 55 per cent of the species of mammals have boreal affinities and the other 45 per cent are wide-spread species (Anderson, 1959:414). Boreal species from the Mesa Verde are _Sorex vagrans_, _Sylvilagus nuttallii_, _Spermophilus lateralis_, _Marmota flaviventris_, _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, _Microtus montanus_, and _Microtus longicaudus_. These seven species comprise only thirteen per cent of the mammalian fauna of the Mesa Verde. Other boreal species that occur in the mountains of Colorado on the Grand Mesa or elsewhere (Findley and Anderson, 1956:80) and that do not occur on the Mesa Verde are _Sorex cinereus_, _Sorex palustris_, _Ochotona princeps_, _Lepus americana_, _Clethrionomys gapperi_, _Phenacomys intermedius_, _Zapus princeps_, _Martes americana_, _Mustela erminea_, and _Lynx canadensis_. The 47 species from the Mesa Verde that are not exclusively boreal make up 87 per cent of the mammalian fauna. Most of these are wide-spread species and are more abundant in the deserts or other lowlands than in the coniferous forests of the highlands, for example the eight species of bats, and _Sylvilagus audubonii_, _Thomomys bottae_, _Taxidea taxus_, _Bassariscus astutus_, _Canis latrans_, _Cynomys gunnisoni_, _Reithrodontomys megalotis_, and _Lepus californicus_. A few of the wide-spread species are more common in the highlands than in the lowlands, for example _Ursus americanus_, _Felis concolor_, _Castor canadensis_, _Erethizon dorsatum_, and _Cervus canadensis_, and the ranges of three of these, the bear, mountain lion and wapiti, are more restricted today than formerly. A few species find their favorite habitat and reach their greatest abundance in altitudinally and vegetationally intermediate areas such as upon the Mesa Verde, or in special habitats, such as the rock ledges, and crevices that are so abundant on the Mesa. Examples of this group of species are _Spermophilus variegatus_, _Peromyscus crinitus_, _Peromyscus truei_, _Neotoma cinerea_, and _Neotoma mexicana_. One species, _Dipodomys ordii_, is restricted to the desert. Species that are restricted to the desert and that occur in Montezuma County, Colorado, but that are not known from the Mesa Verde are _Ammospermophilus leucurus_, _Perognathus flavus_, and _Onychomys leucogaster_. Species known to have changed in numbers in the past 50 years are the mule deer that has increased, and the prairie dog that has decreased. Possibly beaver have increased along the Mancos River. The muskrat, mink, beaver, and raccoon usually occur only along the Mancos River, as there is no other permanent surface water in the Park. Species such as the bighorn and the marmot that are rare within the Park, or those such as the chickaree, the prairie dog, the wandering shrew, the montane vole, and the long-tailed vole that occupy only small areas of suitable habitat within the Park are the species most likely to be eliminated by natural changes, or through the activities of man. For example parasites introduced through domestic sheep that wander into the range of bighorns within the Park might endanger the bighorn population. An increase in grazing activity, road building, and camping in Prater and Morfield canyons might eliminate the small areas of habitat occupied by the montane vole and the wandering shrew. Fire in Chickaree Draw could destroy all the Douglas fir there, and consequently much of the habitat occupied by the chickaree. Probably some species inhabit the Mesa that have not yet been found, but they are probably few, and their discovery will not alter the faunal pattern in which the few boreal species occupy restricted habitats in the higher parts of the Mesa, and a preponderance of geographically wide-spread species occupy all or most of the Mesa, and surrounding areas. Additional bats are the species most likely to be added to the list. 28-7577 LITERATURE CITED ANDERSON, S. 1959. Mammals of the Grand Mesa, Colorado. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist, 9(16):405-414, 1 fig. in text. CAHALANE, V.H. 1948. The status of mammals in the U.S. National Park System, 1947. Jour. Mamm., 29(3):247-259. CARY, M. 1911. A biological survey of Colorado. N. Amer. Fauna, 33:1-256, 39 figs., frontispiece (map). FINDLEY, J.S. 1955. Speciation of the Wandering Shrew. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 9(1):1-68, figs. 1-18. FINDLEY, J.S. and ANDERSON, S. 1956. Zoogeography of the montane mammals of Colorado. Jour. Mamm., 37(1):80-82,1 fig. in text. FINLEY, R.B. 1958. The wood rats of Colorado, distribution and ecology. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 10(6):213-552, 34 plates, 8 figs., 35 tables in text. GETTY, H.T. 1935. New dates from Mesa Verde. Tree-ring Bulletin, 1(3):21-23. HOFFMEISTER, D.F. 1951. A taxonomic and evolutionary study of the piñon mouse, Peromyscus truei. Illinois Biol. Monogr., vol. XXI(4), pp. ix + 104, 24 figs., 4 tables and 5 plates in text. RODECK, H.G. and ANDERSON, S. 1956. _Sorex merriami_ and _Microtus mexicanus_ in Colorado. Jour. Mamm., 37(3):436. SCHULMAN, E. 1946. Dendrochronology at Mesa Verde National Park. Tree-ring Bulletin, 12(3):18-24, 2 figs., 1 table in text. YOUNGMAN, P.M. 1958. Geographic variation in the pocket gopher, Thomomys bottae, in Colorado. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 9(12):363-387, 7 figs. in text. _Transmitted April 11, 1961._ UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATIONAL HISTORY Institutional libraries interested in publications exchange may obtain this series by addressing the Exchange Librarian, University of Kansas Library, Lawrence, Kansas. Copies for individuals, persons working in a particular field of study, may be obtained by addressing instead the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. There is no provision for sale of this series by the University Library, which meets institutional requests, or by the Museum of Natural History, which meets the requests of individuals. However, when individuals request copies from the Museum, 25 cents should be included, for each separate number that is 100 pages or more in length, for the purpose of defraying the costs of wrapping and mailing. * An asterisk designates those numbers of which the Museum's supply (not the Library's supply) is exhausted. Numbers published to date, in this series, are as follows: Vol. 1. Nos. 1-26 and index. Pp. 1-638, 1946-1950. *Vol. 2. (Complete) Mammals of Washington. By Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text. April 9, 1948. Vol. 3. *1. The avifauna of Micronesia, its origin, evolution, and distribution. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 1-359, 16 figures in text. June 12, 1951. *2. A quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds. By George H. Lowery, Jr. Pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text. June 29, 1951. 3. Phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. By M. Dale Arvey. Pp. 478-530, 49 figures in text, 18 tables. October 10, 1951. 4. Birds from the state of Veracruz, Mexico. By George H. Lowery, Jr., and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 531-649, 7 figures in text, 2 tables. October 10, 1951. Index. Pp. 651-681. *Vol. 4. (Complete) American weasels. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 1-466, 41 plates, 31 figures in text. December 27, 1951. Vol. 5. Nos. 1-37 and index. Pp. 1-676, 1951-1953. *Vol. 6. (Complete) Mammals of Utah, _taxonomy and distribution_. By Stephen D. Durrant. Pp. 1-549, 91 figures in text, 30 tables. August 10, 1952. Vol. 7. *1. Mammals of Kansas. By E. Lendell Cockrum. Pp. 1-303, 73 figures in text, 37 tables. August 25, 1952. 2. Ecology of the opossum on a natural area in northeastern Kansas. By Henry S. Fitch and Lewis L. Sandidge. Pp. 305-338, 5 figures in text. August 24, 1953. 3. The silky pocket mice (Perognathus flavus) of Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 339-347, 1 figure in text. February 15, 1954. 4. North American jumping mice (Genus Zapus). By Philip H. Krutzsch. Pp. 349-472, 47 figures in text, 4 tables, April 21, 1954. 5. Mammals from Southeastern Alaska. By Rollin H. Baker and James S. Findley. Pp. 473-477. April 21, 1954. 6. Distribution of Some Nebraskan Mammals. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 479-487. April 21, 1954. 7. Subspeciation in the montane meadow mouse. Microtus montanus, in Wyoming and Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 489-506, 2 figures in text. July 23, 1954. 8. A new subspecies of bat (Myotis velifer) from southeastern California and Arizona. By Terry A. Vaughan. Pp. 507-512. July 28, 1954. 9. Mammals of the San Gabriel mountains of California. By Terry A. Vaughan. Pp. 513-582, 1 figure in text, 12 tables. November 15, 1954. 10. A new bat (Genus Pipistrellus) from northeastern Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 583-586. November 15, 1954. 11. A new subspecies of pocket mouse from Kansas. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 587-590. November 15, 1954. 12. Geographic variation in the pocket gopher, Cratogeomys castanops, in Coahuila, Mexico. By Robert J. Russell and Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 591-608. March 15, 1955. 13. A new cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) from northeastern Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 609-612. April 8, 1955. 14. Taxonomy and distribution of some American shrews. By James S. Findley. Pp. 613-618. June 10, 1955. 15. The pigmy woodrat, Neotoma goldmani, its distribution and systematic position. By Dennis G. Rainey and Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 619-624, 2 figures in text. June 10, 1955. Index. Pp. 625-651. Vol. 8. Nos. 1-10 and index. Pp. 1-675, 1954-1956. Vol. 9. 1. Speciation of the wandering shrew. By James S. Findley. Pp. 1-68, 18 figures in text. December 10, 1955. 2. Additional records and extensions of ranges of mammals from Utah. By Stephen D. Durrant, M. Raymond Lee, and Richard M. Hansen. Pp. 69-80. December 10, 1955. 3. A new long-eared myotis (Myotis evotis) from northeastern Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker and Howard J. Stains. Pp. 81-84. December 10, 1955. 4. Subspeciation in the meadow mouse, Microtus pennsylvanicus, in Wyoming. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 85-104, 2 figures in text. May 10, 1956. 5. The condylarth genus Ellipsodon. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 105-116, 6 figures in text. May 19, 1956. 6. Additional remains of the multituberculate genus Eucosmodon. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 117-123, 10 figures in text. May 19, 1956. 7. Mammals of Coahuila, Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker, Pp. 125-335, 75 figures in text. June 15, 1956. 8. Comments on the taxonomic status of Apodemus peninsulae, with description of a new subspecies from North China. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 337-346, 1 figure in text, 1 table. August 15, 1956. 9. Extensions of known ranges of Mexican bats. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 347-351. August 15, 1956. 10. A new bat (Genus Leptonycteris) from Coahuila. By Howard J. Stains. Pp. 353-356. January 21, 1957. 11. A new species of pocket gopher (Genus Pappogeomys) from Jalisco, Mexico. By Robert J. Russell Pp. 357-361. January 21, 1957. 12. Geographic variation in the pocket gopher, Thomomys bottae, in Colorado. By Phillip M. Youngman. Pp. 363-387, 7 figures in text. February 21, 1958. 13. New bog lemming (genus Synaptomys) from Nebraska. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 385-388. May 12, 1958. 14. Pleistocene bats from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo León, Mexico. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 389-396. December 19, 1958. 15. New subspecies of the rodent Baiomys from Central America. By Robert L. Packard. Pp. 397-404. December 19, 1958. 16. Mammals of the Grand Mesa, Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 405-414, 1 figure in text. May 20, 1959. 17. Distribution, variation, and relationships of the montane vole, Microtus montanus. By Emil K. Urban. Pp. 415-511. 12 figures in text, 2 tables. August 1, 1959. 18. Conspecificity of two pocket mice, Perognathus goldmani and P. artus. By E. Raymond Hall and Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie. Pp. 513-518, 1 map. January 14, 1960. 19. Records of harvest mice, Reithrodontomys, from Central America, with description of a new subspecies from Nicaragua. By Sydney Anderson and J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 519-529. January 14, 1960. 20. Small carnivores from San Josecito Cave (Pleistocene), Nuevo León, Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 531-538, 1 figure in text. January 14, 1960. 21. Pleistocene pocket gophers from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo León, Mexico. By Robert J. Russell. Pp. 539-548, 1 figure in text. January 14, 1960. 22. Review of the insectivores of Korea. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., and David H. Johnson. Pp. 549-578. February 28, 1960. 23. Speciation and evolution of the pygmy mice, genus Baiomys. By Robert L. Packard. Pp. 579-670, 4 plates, 12 figures in text. June 16, 1960. Index Pp. 671-690. Vol. 10. 1. Studies of birds killed in nocturnal migration. By Harrison B. Tordoff and Robert M. Mengel. Pp. 1-44, 6 figures in text, 2 tables. September 12, 1956. 2. Comparative breeding behavior of Ammospiza caudacuta and A. maritima. By Glen E. Woolfenden. Pp. 45-75, 6 plates, 1 figure. December 20, 1956. 3. The forest habitat of the University of Kansas Natural History Reservation. By Henry S. Fitch and Ronald R. McGregor. Pp. 77-127, 2 plates, 7 figures in text, 4 tables. December 31, 1956. 4. Aspects of reproduction and development in the prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster). By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 129-161, 8 figures in text, 4 tables. December 19, 1957. 5. Birds found on the Arctic slope of northern Alaska. By James W. Bee. Pp. 163-211, pls. 9-10, 1 figure in text. March 12, 1958. 6. The wood rats of Colorado: distribution and ecology. By Robert B. Finley, Jr. Pp. 213-552, 34 plates, 8 figures in text, 35 tables. November 7, 1958. 7. Home ranges and movements of the eastern cottontail in Kansas. By Donald W. Janes. Pp. 558-572, 4 plates, 3 figures in text. May 4, 1959. 8. Natural history of the salamander, Aneides hardyi. By Richard F. Johnston and Schad Gerhard. Pp. 573-585. October 8, 1959. 9. A new subspecies of lizard, Cnemidophorus sacki, from Michoacán, Mexico. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 587-598, 2 figures in text. May 2, 1960. 10. A taxonomic study of the Middle American Snake, Pituophis deppei. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 599-612, 1 plate, 1 figure in text. May 2, 1960. Index Pp. 611-626. Vol. 11. 1. The systematic status of the colubrid snake, Leptodeira discolor Günther. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 1-9, 4 figs. July 14, 1958. 2. Natural history of the six-lined racerunner, Cnemidophorus sexlineatus. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 11-62. 9 figs., 9 tables. September 19, 1958. 3. Home ranges, territories, and seasonal movements of vertebrates of the Natural History Reservation. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 63-326, 6 plates, 24 figures in text, 3 tables. December 12, 1958. 4. A new snake of the genus Geophis from Chihuahua, Mexico. By John M. Legler. Pp. 327-334, 2 figures in text. January 28, 1959. 5. A new tortoise, genus Gopherus, from north-central Mexico. By John M. Legler. Pp. 335-343. April 24, 1959. 6. Fishes of Chautauqua, Cowley and Elk counties, Kansas. By Artie L. Metcalf. Pp. 345-400, 2 plates, 2 figures in text, 10 tables. May 6, 1959. 7. Fishes of the Big Blue River Basin, Kansas. By W.L. Minckley, Pp. 401-442, 2 plates, 4 figures in text, 5 tables. May 8, 1959. 8. Birds from Coahuila, Mexico. By Emil K. Urban. Pp. 443-516. August 1, 1959. 9. Description of a new softshell turtle from the southeastern United States. By Robert G. Webb. Pp. 517-525, 2 pls., 1 figure in text. August 14, 1959. 10. Natural history of the ornate box turtle, Terrapene ornata ornata Agassiz. By John M. Legler. Pp. 527-669, 16 pls., 29 figures in text. March 7, 1960. Index Pp. 671-703. Vol. 12. 1. Functional morphology of three bats: Eumops, Myotis, Macrotus. By Terry A. Vaughan. Pp. 1-153, 4 plates, 24 figures in text. July 8, 1959. 2. The ancestry of modern Amphibia: a review of the evidence. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Pp. 155-180, 10 figures in text. July 10, 1959. 3. The baculum in microtine rodents. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 181-216, 49 figures in text. February 19, 1960. 4. A new order of fishlike Amphibia from the Pennsylvanian of Kansas. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr., and Peggy Lou Stewart. Pp. 217-240, 12 figures in text. May 2, 1960. More numbers will appear in volume 12. Vol. 13. 1. Five natural hybrid combinations in minnows (Cyprinidae). By Frank B. Cross and W.L. Minckley. Pp. 1-18. June 1, 1960. 2. A distributional study of the amphibians of the isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 19-72, pls. 1-8, 3 figs. August 16, 1960. 3. A new subspecies of the slider turtle (Pseudemys scripta) from Coahuila, Mexico. By John M. Legler. Pp. 73-84, pls. 9-12, 3 figures in text. August 16, 1960. 4. Autecology of the Copperhead. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 85-288, pls. 13-20, 26 figures in text. November 30, 1960. 5. Occurrence of the Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains. By Henry S. Fitch and T. Paul Maslin. Pp. 289-308, 4 figures in text. February 10, 1961. 6. Fishes of the Wakarusa River in Kansas. By James E. Deacon and Artie L. Metcalf. Pp. 309-32 2, 1 figure in text. February 10, 1961. 7. Geographic variation in the North American Cyprinid Fish, Hybopsis gracilis. By Leonard J. Olund and Frank B. Cross. Pp. 323-348, pls. 21-24, 2 figures in text. February 10, 1961. 8. Descriptions of two species of frogs, Genus Ptychohyla--studies of American hylid frogs, V. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 349-357, pls. 25, 2 figures in text. April 27, 1961. More numbers will appear in volume 13. Vol. 14. 1. Neotropical bats from western Mexico. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 1-8. October 24, 1960. 2. Geographic variation in the harvest mouse Reithrodontomys megalotis on the central Great Plains and in adjacent regions. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. and B. Mursaloglu. Pp. 9-27, 1 figure in text. July 24, 1961. 3. Mammals of Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 29-67, pls. 1-2, 3 figures in text. July 24, 1961. More numbers will appear in volume 14. 
28864	----	A New Subspecies of Microtus montanus from Montana and Comments on Microtus canicaudus Miller BY E. RAYMOND HALL and KEITH R. KELSON University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 7, pp. 73-79 October 1, 1951 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 7, pp. 73-79 October 1, 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1951 23-7438 A New Subspecies of Microtus montanus from Montana and Comments on Microtus canicaudus Miller BY E. RAYMOND HALL AND KEITH R. KELSON In 1949, for the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas, Mr. John A. White collected two specimens of the species _Microtus montanus_ in the Bitterroot Valley of Montana, that did not fit the description of any named subspecies. These were laid aside until we could examine the additional specimens from Montana in the Biological Surveys collection in the United States National Museum, some of which previously had been reported by Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 17:31, June 6, 1900) under the name _Microtus nanus canescens_ Bailey [=_Microtus montanus canescens_]. Our examination reveals that the animals from the Bitterroot and Flathead valleys belong to an heretofore unrecognized subspecies which is named and described below. Microtus montanus pratincolus new subspecies _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin, No. 34004, Univ. Kansas, Mus. Nat. Hist.; from 6 mi. E Hamilton, 3700 ft., Ravalli County, Montana; obtained on August 14, 1949, by John A. White; original number 477. _Geographic distribution._--Flathead and Bitterroot valleys of western Montana. _Diagnosis._--Size small for the species (see measurements). Color: Essentially as in _Microtus montanus nanus_. Skull: Small, slender, and comparatively smooth; rostrum moderately depressed distally; nasals moderately inflated distally and extending posteriorly not quite to tips of premaxillary tongues; nasals usually truncate posteriorly, but rounded in some individuals; premaxillary tongues terminating posteriorly in a short medial spine; zygomatic arches lightly constructed and usually more widely spreading posteriorly than anteriorly; interparietal comparatively long and terminating in a small, but distinct, medial spine, otherwise approximately rectangular in shape; exposed parts of upper incisors short and, for the species, only slightly procumbent; molar dentition weak and, in most specimens, especially so posteriorly; tympanic bullae large and well inflated, especially ventrolaterally; basioccipital narrow owing to the encroachment of the tympanic bullae. _Comparison._--Among named forms, _Microtus montanus pratincolus_ most closely resembles _Microtus montanus nanus_. The geographic range of _M. m. nanus_ adjoins that of _M. m. pratincolus_ on three sides; there is no conspecific subspecies adjoining the range of _M. m. pratincolus_ on the north. From _M. m. nanus_, _M. m. pratincolus_ differs as follows (measurements are all of males, those of _M. m. nanus_ being of nine topotypes and near topotypes from central Idaho): size smaller (149 mm. as opposed to 165), tail shorter (37 as opposed to 39), hind foot shorter (19 as opposed to 20), upper molar series shorter (expressed as a percentage of basilar length, 25.5 as opposed to 26.3), mastoidal region broader (expressed as a percentage of basilar length, 48.6 as opposed to 46.7), braincase slightly more vaulted (depth of braincase expressed as a percentage of basilar length, 31.3 as opposed to 30.4) and more inflated laterally; tympanic bullae more inflated, this inflation being the most conspicuous difference between the two subspecies. The tympanic bullae of _M. m. pratincolus_ have approximately a fourth more volume than those of _M. m. nanus_. _Remarks._--Northwardly in the Bitterroot Valley, specimens of _M. m. pratincolus_ morphologically approach _M. m. nanus_, especially in the reduced degree of inflation of the tympanic portion of the bullae. On geographic grounds we think that the geographic range of _M. m. pratincolus_ extends southward to the southern end of the Bitterroot Valley; we have not seen specimens from that area. Although we have not examined the specimen reported upon by Davis (Murrelet, 18:26, September 4, 1937) from Canyon Creek, "a few miles west of Hamilton", Montana, we think that it will be found to belong to _M. m. pratincolus_. Our examination of specimens from localities in Montana east of the range here ascribed to _M. m. pratincolus_ indicates that, among named kinds of _Microtus_, those specimens are best referred to _M. m. nanus_. These specimens are listed below under comparative materials. It should be mentioned here that although Bailey (_loc. cit._) applied the name _Microtus nanus canescens_ to Montanan specimens from Flathead Lake and Hot Springs Creek, the subspecies _M. montanus canescens_ now is thought to be restricted to Washington and the adjoining part of British Columbia; _M. m. canescens_ does not occur so far east as Montana. Grateful acknowledgment is made to those persons in charge of the Biological Surveys collection for permission to study the specimens in that collection, and to the Kansas Endowment Association for support of the field work which yielded the specimens from six miles east of Hamilton, Montana. The study here reported upon was aided also by a contract between the Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy, and the University of Kansas (NR 161-791). _Measurements._--The following measurements in millimeters are those of the holotype and the average, maximum, and minimum, respectively, of eleven adult males from various places in the range of the subspecies. Except as noted below, we are unable to detect significant morphological differences in the populations sampled and believe that pooling of the measurements is justifiable in this case. Measurements are: Total length, 129, 149 (156-141); length of tail-vertebrae, 27, 37 (39-31); length of hind foot, 18, 19 (20-18) (all preceding measurements are those of the collectors); basilar length, 22.2, 24.5 (25.7-23.4); greatest length of nasals, 6.7, 6.9 (7.4-6.4); zygomatic breadth, 14.2, 14.6 (14.9-13.9); mastoidal breadth, 11.3, 11.8 (12.3-10.8); alveolar length of upper molar series, 6.0, 6.2 (6.5-5.9); depth of braincase (shortest distance from ventral surface of basioccipito-basisphenoidal suture to the dorsal surface of the cranium, and not perpendicular to the long axis of the skull), 7.7, 7.7 (7.9-7.5); width of rostrum, 4.7, 4.8 (5.0-4.6); interorbital breadth, 3.2, 3.4 (3.6-3.2). Measurements of females, other than those of the holotype, are not given owing to the lack of sufficient material. Females, however, do not appear to differ appreciably in measurements from males. _Specimens examined_ (in U.S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll., except as otherwise indicated).--Total, 26, all from Montana, as follows: _Sanders Co._: Hot-springs Cr., 4. _Lake Co._: end of W arm Flathead Lake, 5; Ravalli, 8. _Ravalli Co._: Florence, 2; 8 mi. NE Stevensville, 4000 ft., 1; Corvallis, 4; 6 mi. E Hamilton, 3700 ft., 2(K.U.). _Comparative materials_ (in U.S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.).--_Microtus montanus nanus_: Total, 72, as follows: IDAHO: _Lewis Co._: Nez Perce, 3. _Idaho Co._: Seven Devils Mts., 3550 ft., 3. _Custer Co._: Challis, 7; Pahsimeroi Mts. (9300 ft., 8; 9700 ft., 4), 12. _Butte Co._: Lost River Mts., 1. _Canyon Co._: Nampa, 1; Bowmont, 1. _Ada Co._: Boise, 1. _Blaine Co._: Sawtooth Lake, 2; Alturas Lake, 3. _Owyhee Co._: Three Cr., 3. _Minidoka Co._: Heyburn, 2. _Bannock Co._: Pocatello, 4. _Bear Lake Co._: Montpelier Cr., 3. MONTANA: _Fergus Co._: Big Snowy Mts., 11. _Gallatin Co._: West Fork of West Fork, Gallatin River, 1. _Park Co._: Lamar River, 7000 ft., 2; Gardiner, 1. _Sweetgrass Co._: "near" head Big Timber Cr., Crazy Mts., 1; Big Timber Cr., 5200 ft., Crazy Mts., 1; 14 mi. S Big Timber, 1; West Boulder Cr., 18 mi. SE Livingston, 2; McLeod, 1. _Carbon Co._: Beartooth Mts., 2; Beartooth Lake, 1. WYOMING: _Park Co._: N end Lake, Yellowstone Nat'l Park, 2. Microtus montanus canicaudus Miller 1897. _Microtus canicaudus_ Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:67, April 21, type from McCoy, Willamette Valley, Polk County, Oregon. In 1938 when one of us (Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 51:131-134, August 23, 1938) arranged several nominal species of _Microtus_ as subspecies of the species _Microtus montanus_, _Microtus canicaudus_ was not included because that writer had not examined representative specimens. In the U.S. Biological Surveys collection in the U.S. National Museum we have examined specimens of _M. m. canicaudus_, all from Oregon, as follows: Hood River (Catalogue Nos. 262583-262586); Canby (262577, 262578); Wapinitia (79985-79988); Sheridan (69779, 69780); McCoy (75834-75842, 77744); Salem (246736); Albany (161554); and Corvallis (242552). The four specimens from Wapinitia seem to be those that Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 17:29, June 6, 1900) listed as _Microtus montanus_. The diagnostic characters mentioned by Miller in the original description (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:67, April 21, 1897) included the following: size approximately the same as in _Microtus [montanus] nanus_; upper parts yellowish; tail usually nearly uniform grayish above and below; auditory bullae much inflated; lateral pits at posterior edge of bony palate unusually shallow. Because the tails of the original series were understuffed and variously rotated, they seemed to be less sharply bicolored than is the case, as shown by subsequently collected specimens. Otherwise we find that the characters mentioned above differentiate _canicaudus_ from its nearest relatives, _Microtus montanus canescens_ to the northward, _M. m. nanus_ to the eastward, and _M. m. montanus_ to the southward. In _canicaudus_ we have noted one additional differential character; the interpterygoid space is acuminate anteriorly. In this feature and in each of the other features mentioned above, intergradation with _Microtus montanus nanus_ is seen in the specimens from Hood River and Wapinitia. In the specimens from Hood River the auditory bullae are only slightly less inflated than in those topotypes of _canicaudus_ having the smallest bullae; there is appreciable variation in size of the bullae in the topotypes. Even so, the minimum size of bullae among the topotypes is larger than the maximum size in the specimens from Wapinitia. The four specimens from Wapinitia have the yellowish color of _canicaudus_ to a considerable degree, and show intergradation between _canicaudus_ and _nanus_ in depth of the palatal pits and shape of interpterygoid space. The slightly larger size of these specimens from Wapinitia suggests intergradation with _M. m. montanus_. The tympanic bullae in the specimens from Wapinitia seem to be smaller than in specimens of _canicaudus_, _nanus_, or _montanus_. Because of the intergradation described above between _Microtus montanus nanus_ and _M. canicaudus_, the latter should stand as _Microtus montanus canicaudus_. * * * * * Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 55:206, August 29, 1936) recorded _canicaudus_ from Warm Springs in the Deschutes Valley of Oregon and from the state of Washington. Other authors also have recorded _canicaudus_ from the state of Washington. Our examination of specimens leads us to conclude, as did Dalquest (Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 2:348, 349, April 9, 1948), that _canicaudus_ does not occur in Washington. The reported occurrence of _M. canicaudus_ at Warm Springs, Deschutes Valley, Oregon, seems to be the result of an error in identification. The specimens concerned seem to be two _Microtus longicaudus mordax_ (Nos. 207060 and 207082 U.S.N.M.). They are labeled as collected at "Warm Springs (Mill Cr.--20 Mi. W of)". Bailey's (_op. cit._, fig. 46, p. 209) map showing the distribution in Oregon of _Microtus mordax mordax_ [=_Microtus longicaudus mordax_] has a locality-dot at Warm Springs itself. Bailey seems to have erred; he should have placed this dot 20 miles farther west, we think. When preparing his map (_op. cit._, fig. 43, p. 205) showing the geographic distribution of _Microtus canicaudus_, Bailey seems to have misidentified these same two specimens as _M. canicaudus_, and for them placed a locality-dot on his map 20 miles east (instead of west) of Warm Springs. In brief, Bailey probably did not see any specimens of _canicaudus_ or specimens of any other subspecies of _Microtus montanus_ from Warm Springs. _Transmitted February 15, 1951._ 23-7438 
31147	----	UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 14, No. 13, pp. 161-164, 1 fig. May 21, 1962 A New Bat (Myotis) From Mexico BY E. RAYMOND HALL UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1962 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch, Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Volume 14, No. 13, pp. 161-164, 1 fig. Published May 21, 1962 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY JEAN M. NEIBARGER, STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1962 29-3265 A New Bat (Myotis) from Mexico BY E. RAYMOND HALL A single specimen of little brown bat from the northern part of the state of Veracruz seems to be of an heretofore unrecognized species. It is named and described below. =_Myotis elegans_= new species _Holotype._--Female, adult, skin and skull, No. 88398 Museum of Natural History, The University of Kansas; 12-1/2 mi. N. Tihuatlán, 300 ft. elevation, Veracruz, Mexico; obtained on September 24, 1961, by Percy L. Clifton, original No. 985. _Geographic distribution._--Known only from the type locality. _Diagnosis._--A small-footed species having a short tail and small skull. Pelage on upper parts near (16' _l_) Prout's Brown (capitalized color terms after Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912), and more golden on underparts; ears pale brownish and flight-membranes only slightly darker; thumb small (7.5 mm. including wrist); tragus slender but deeply notched. Longitudinal, dorsal profile of skull relatively straight but frontal region elevated from rostrum and lambdoidal region elevated from posterior part of parietal region; posterior margin of P4 (in occlusal view) notched. _Comparisons._--Among named kinds of _Myotis_, _M. elegans_ shows most resemblance to the species _M. californicus_ and _M. subulatus_. Differences from the latter include shorter tail and ear, more golden color on underparts, pale (not blackish) lips, ears and flight membranes, more slender tragus, shorter skull, posterior border of P4 (in occlusal view) more deeply notched, and longitudinal dorsal profile of skull higher in frontal and lambdoidal regions. Differences from _M. californicus_ include shorter tail, more golden color on underparts, deeper notch in tragus, shorter skull, notched instead of smooth posterior border of P4 (in occlusal view), longitudinal, dorsal profile of skull less abruptly elevated in frontal region and with (instead of without) prelambdoidal depression. From _M. c. mexicanus_ that occurs to the north, west, and south of the type locality of _M. elegans_ the latter further differs in darker color, paler ears, paler flight membranes, and lesser size, including skull. Differences from _M. nigricans_ of the same region include reddish instead of black pelage, smaller hind foot, smaller skull, rostrum smaller in relation to remainder of skull, narrower interorbital region, and absence of a sagittal crest. _Measurements._--Total length, 79; length of tail, 34; length of hind foot, 7.5; length of ear from notch, 12; length of tragus, 6.5; weight, 4 grams; length of forearm, 33.0; greatest length of skull, 12.4; condylobasal length, 11.9; interorbital constriction, 3.2; breadth of braincase, 6.1; occipital depth, 4.5; length of mandible, 8.9; length of maxillary tooth-row, 4.6; maxillary breadth at M3, 4.9; length of mandibular tooth-row, 5.0. Degree of wear on teeth, stage 2 (in terminology of Miller and Allen, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 144, May 25, 1928). _Remarks._--The longitudinal dorsal profile of the skull and the deeply notched posterior border of P4 seem to be distinctive of _elegans_. When the characters of _elegans_ first were tabulated it was felt that it probably was only subspecifically different from some previously named species. But further study of the distinctive characters indicates that they are outside the range of variation of any near relative of _elegans_ and it, therefore, is here accorded specific rank. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Lateral view (left) and dorsal view (right) of the holotype of _Myotis elegans_, × 2.] _Material examined._--Known only from the holotype. _Transmitted April 2, 1962._ 29-3265 
31148	----	A New Subspecies of Wood Rat (Neotoma mexicana) From Colorado BY ROBERT B. FINLEY, JR. University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 30, pp. 527-534, 2 figures in text August 15, 1953 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1953 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 30, pp. 527-534, 2 figures in text August 15, 1953 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence 1953 PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1953 [Illustration] 24-7674 A New Subspecies of Wood Rat (Neotoma mexicana) from Colorado By ROBERT B. FINLEY, JR. Field and museum studies of the wood rats of Colorado have revealed the existence of an unnamed subspecies of _Neotoma mexicana_ in eastern Colorado south of the Arkansas River. The characters of the new subspecies are most distinctive in the northeastern part of its range near Two Buttes and Higbee. It differs in cranial characters from _N. m. fallax_ and _N. m. inopinata_ and averages slightly larger, but cannot be distinguished by coloration of the pelage. This heretofore undescribed subspecies may be known as: #Neotoma mexicana scopulorum# subsp. nov. _Type._--Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas, No. 37137, old adult male, skin and skull; from 37° 47' N, 103° 28' W, three miles northwest of Higbee, 4300 feet, Otero County, Colorado; trapped 16 May 1950 by R. B. Finley, Jr., original number 500516-1. _Range._--Cañons, mesas, and foothills south of the Arkansas River, east to Two Buttes, Colorado, and south to Clayton, New Mexico. The extent of the range to the southwest in New Mexico has not been determined. _Diagnosis._--Size large for the species; interorbital constriction near middle of frontal rather than anteriorly; supraorbital ridges of frontal concave laterally; skull large, strongly arched at base of rostrum; rostrum wide; nasals wide anteriorly; upper incisors wide, light yellow; molars large, tooth-rows long; zygomatic arches wide and heavy; interparietal short, wide, and posterior margin straight or with a slight posterior median angle. _Description._--Adults in dense unworn pelage taken in February at Two Buttes Reservoir: size large for the species; tail approximately 76 per cent as long as head and body; hind feet of medium length. Pelage: moderately long, thick; tail covered with short hairs; longest vibrissae 80 mm. Color: sides near Raffia (11 E 6) (capitalized color names and designators are of Maerz and Paul, A Dictionary of Color, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1930) overlaid with black, the general effect being grayish buff (13 G 6); back darker, moderately to heavily overlaid with black; indistinct dark eye ring; underparts whitish, fur basally gray except patch of fur pure white to base almost always present on upper throat; dark line around mouth; tail bicolor, black above, whitish below; feet white to ankles. Skull: large for the species, strongly arched at base of rostrum; rostrum heavy; zygomatic arches widely spreading, heavy, squarish; braincase moderately ridged and angular; nasals wide anteriorly, lateral margins nearly parallel or converging evenly posteriorly, tapered abruptly at posterior ends which reach posteriorly beyond anterior plane of orbits; dorsal branches of premaxillae extending 0.5 to 1.2 mm. posterior to nasals; interorbital region moderately channeled, narrowly constricted near middle of frontal (instead of anteriorly); supraorbital ridges concave laterally, diverging more strongly posterior to interorbital constriction (frontal 8.7 to 9.5 mm. wide at posterior ends of supraorbital ridges); temporal ridges widely flaring on parietals; occipital ridges prominent; interparietal broadly rectangular between temporal ridges, usually short in median line of skull, posterior margin straight or with slight median posterior angle; incisive foramina tapered toward both ends, sometimes narrower anteriorly than posteriorly; anterior palatal spine usually forming a blade thickened on ventral edge, and right and left sides usually incompletely fused; nasal septum with a posterior notch separating vomer from maxillary; posterior margin of palate usually bearing single or double point, sometimes straight; interpterygoid fossa moderately wide, lateral margins concave; sphenopalatine vacuities large; auditory bullae of medium size; basioccipital with low median ridge or crest; upper incisors wide, yellow or yellow-orange; molars large, M1 wider than M2; maxillary tooth-rows long, nearly parallel; anterointernal fold of M1 deep, cutting more than half way across first enamel loop. [Illustration: FIGS. 1-6. Skulls of _Neotoma mexicana_. All × 1. FIGS. 1-2. _Neotoma mexicana scopulorum_, holotype. FIGS. 3-6. _Neotoma mexicana fallax_, 1-1/2 mi. NW Golden, 6200 ft., Jefferson County, Colorado, 8 June 1948, [Male] No. 29182 KU.] Adult in worn pelage taken in May at Two Buttes peak: no molt in evidence; pelage thinner and rougher than in adults of same tooth wear taken in February in unworn pelage (described above); upper parts duller, less heavily overlaid with black; sides less richly yellowish, slightly more pinkish in hue; underparts with no fur white to base (as usual for the species). The skull of this rat has narrower nasals than other adults from Two Buttes and a longer interparietal with a posterior median angle. Subadult taken in April at Regnier: completing postjuvenal (first) molt; new pelage fairly long and thick everywhere except on neck and upper back, where covered by remaining juvenal pelage; upper parts of new pelage duller than in adults, sides less buffy, more grayish; juvenal pelage grayer than new pelage; new pelage indistinguishable from same pelage (second pelage of first year) of _N. m. fallax_. _Comparisons._--_N. m. scopulorum_ is extremely variable in color but averages lighter and richer in color than _N. m. fallax_, and about the same as _N. m. inopinata_. _N. m. scopulorum_ can be separated from either by the following cranial differences: skull larger, more strongly arched at base of rostrum, interorbital constriction more posterior; supraorbital ridges concave laterally (in contrast to straight, diverging); interparietal shorter in median line, more widely spreading and rectangular; zygomatic arches more widely spreading and heavier; upper incisors wider; and molars larger. _N. m. scopulorum_ differs from _inopinata_ also in paler upper incisors and less prominent basicranial ridges. _N. m. scopulorum_ is paler than _N. m. pinetorum_. The skulls of these two subspecies are of about the same size, but the subspecies differ in other respects as _scopulorum_ differs from _fallax_ and _inopinata_. Judging from the description and photograph of _mexicana_ in Goldman's revision of the genus _Neotoma_ (N. Amer. Fauna, 31: 54-56, Pl. IV, 19 October 1910), _scopulorum_ differs from _N. m. mexicana_ in: larger skull; longer nasals and dorsal branches of premaxillae; more posterior interorbital constriction (supraorbital ridges more concave laterally); wider upper incisors; and larger molars. _Measurements._--Mean and extreme measurements in millimeters of 6 males and 5 females from 3 mi. NW Higbee and the vicinity of Two Buttes are, respectively, as follows: total length, 357 (345-368), 345 (310-379); length of tail, 147 (140-158), 159 (138-178); length of hind foot, 35 (32-38), 36.4 (35-38); length of ear, from notch, 25.5 (25-26), 25.7 (25-27); weight (in grams), 234 (213-253), 206 (161-246); basilar length, 37.9 (36.8-38.9), 36.2 (34.5-38.6); length of nasals, 19.0 (18.2-20.0), 17.9 (16.4-19.6); zygomatic breadth, 23.9 (23.0-24.5), 23.3 (22.3-24.0); interorbital breadth, 5.3 (4.9-5.6), 5.1 (5.0-5.3); breadth of rostrum, 7.2 (6.8-7.7), 6.8 (6.7-6.9); diastema, 12.8 (12.3-13.3), 12.2 (11.1-13.7); alveolar length of maxillary tooth-row, 9.5 (9.2-9.8), 9.4 (9.0-9.7); length of incisive foramina, 9.7 (9.2-10.2), 9.2 (8.6-10.2); length of palatal bridge, 8.8 (8.4-9.2), 8.5 (8.0-8.9). _Measurements of the type._--Total length, 348; length of tail, 143; length of hind foot, 35; length of ear, from notch, 25; weight (in grams), 230; basilar length, 38.1; length of nasals, 18.8; zygomatic breadth, 24.2; interorbital constriction, 5.5; breadth of rostrum, 7.2; diastema, 13.0; alveolar length of maxillary tooth-row, 9.2; length of incisive foramina, 9.7; length of palatal bridge, 8.9. _Remarks._--The large size and distinctive cranial characters of _N. m. scopulorum_ are fairly constant in the northeastern part of its range, but there is a wide range of variation in color. The only two skins from the type locality differ markedly in color. Both specimens (the type and KU 37138, adult male) were collected on 16 May 1950 and are in moderately worn pelage. The upper parts of the holotype are much more yellowish than in KU 37138, and are even lighter buff than adults in unworn pelage from Two Buttes. The underparts of the holotype are more extensively white than in almost any other specimen seen of _Neotoma mexicana_. The basal gray coloration, where it is present along the sides of the venter, forms only a narrow intermediate color band extending not more than one third the length of the hairs. An extensive area of the throat, breast, axillae, median belly, and inguinal region is covered by hairs pure white to the skin. The dark line around the mouth is present, as usual for the species. The upper parts of KU 37138 are like those of the adult in worn pelage from Two Buttes peak, described above; the underparts have only small patches of pure white fur on the throat and inguinal region, being elsewhere gray at the base of the fur, as is usual for the species. The molars of the type specimen are in an advanced state of wear, having the pattern of the enamel folds still discernible but the depth of remaining enamel slight. A large alveolar abscess surrounds the abnormal left M1. There are two, much worn, peglike fragments of the tooth projecting slightly from an ovoid alveolar cavity 5.1 mm. long and 4.3 mm. wide. As a result of the reduction of wear on the opposing m1, the crown of m1 is much less worn than those of the other lower molars and projects 0.8 mm. above the occlusal level of the two posterior molars. A few barbed cactus glochids (bristles) are inbedded in the cavity around the base of the molar remnants. Although glochids are of rather frequent and normal occurrence between the teeth of _Neotoma albigula_ and _N. micropus_, they are not so commonly found in _N. mexicana_ and possibly induced the alveolar infection in this individual. In addition to the skins in unworn and worn pelages already described from Two Buttes, an extremely dark specimen is at hand from Two Buttes peak, taken on 9 May 1950. This specimen (KU 37141 [Female]) is an adult in moderately worn pelage. The back is dark brownish gray (Taupe, 16 A 6), the sides lighter (a shade lighter than Beaver, 15 A 6). The entire underparts are washed with reddish buff (Grain, 11 B 5) over the gray basal coloration, with a patch of white only in the genital region. The dark eye ring and dark line around the mouth are heavier than usual. The underside of the tail is light gray. The white hind feet are sharply set off from the dark gray ankles. Each of four skulls from Regnier (three adults and one subadult) differs from skulls from Two Buttes in having a longer interparietal with a posterior angle. The skins of five adults collected in December at Trinchera are less richly colored on the sides than skins from Two Buttes and look more nearly like topotypes of _N. m. fallax_. The skull of one of the five from Trinchera differs from skulls from Two Buttes in much narrower nasals anteriorly, narrower rostrum, much narrower upper incisors, and smaller zygomatic breadth, these characters being as in _fallax_. Four adults and one subadult from Trinidad are intergrades between _N. m. scopulorum_ and _N. m. fallax_, perhaps more nearly resembling the former. In pelage they are indistinguishable from specimens of _fallax_ from Gold Hill (the type locality), less buff than most individuals of _scopulorum_ from Otero, Prowers, and Baca counties. The skulls of the three fully mature adults are large with a wide zygomatic breadth, large rostrum, and large upper incisors as in _scopulorum_; but the upper molars are small and the bullae are rather small and narrow as in _fallax_. In the degree of arching at the base of the rostrum, the shape of the frontal, the shape of the interparietal, and the size of the upper molars, the specimens from Trinidad are intermediate. It seems to me best to refer them to _scopulorum_. Two first-year adults from Fisher Peak and Long Cañon are indistinguishable from topotypes of _fallax_ of similar age and also resemble a young adult and a subadult from Trinidad, but all are insufficiently mature to show subspecific characters distinctly. Until adequate series are available from southwestern Las Animas County it seems best to regard all specimens from the three localities as representatives of a single uniform population which is intermediate between _fallax_ and _scopulorum_ but more nearly like the latter. Unfortunately no other specimens are available from the foothill zone south of the Arkansas River where morphological intergradation and ecological transition between _fallax_ and _scopulorum_ might reasonably be expected to occur. Three specimens from the north side of the Arkansas River, about 26 miles below Canon City, Pueblo County, are like _fallax_ in size, dorsal profile of the skull, and shape of the interorbital constriction; but they approach _scopulorum_ in shape of the interparietal, size of the rostrum, and size of the molars. They are intergrades referrable to _fallax_. _Neotoma mexicana_ was first reported from Oklahoma by W. Frank Blair in 1939 (Amer. Midl. Nat., 22:126) who referred a specimen from Tesequite Canyon, Cimarron County, to _N. m. fallax_. I have seen one specimen (MZ 80469) from Tesequite Canyon and refer it to _scopulorum_. Of _scopulorum_, each of eight skulls, of the 28 skulls examined, has an anteroexternal enamel fold on the m3 and one (BSC 35222/47487 [Male]) has an anterointernal fold on the m3. Of the other 19 mandibles, a few are too old to show such a fold, which tends to be obliterated with wear in later age, and the others lack the fold. Two other wood rats (_N. albigula warreni_ and _N. micropus canescens_) occur at many of the same localities as _N. m. scopulorum_. The dens of _scopulorum_ almost always are situated among rocks, but the dens of _warreni_ and _canescens_ are in a variety of other situations as well as among rocks. Houses of sticks or cactus joints piled up around the base of a juniper (_Juniperus monosperma_), thicket of skunkbush (_Rhus trilobata_), clump of soapweed (_Yucca glauca_) or tree cactus (_Opuntia arborescens_) have been found to shelter only _N. a. warreni_ or _N. micropus canescens_. When these wood rats are associated with _scopulorum_ among the rocks, their dens can be recognized by the compact midden of innumerable cactus spines. The dens of _scopulorum_ have only a few loosely scattered spine areoles or none at all. I am grateful to the officials of the following institutions for permission to examine specimens from the collections under their care: Denver Museum of Natural History; Biological Survey Collection, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; American Museum of Natural History; Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California; Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. The drawings of the skulls were made by Victor Hogg. _Specimens examined._--Total 66, distributed as follows: #Colorado.# _Baca County_: "Furnace Canyon" [= Furnish Canyon], 1 (DMNH); Regnier, 4500 ± ft., 4 (2 DMNH, 2 KU); Two Buttes Reservoir, 4200 ± ft., 5 (3 DMNH, 2 KU). _Las Animas County_: Fisher Peak, "about 8000 ft." [6 mi. SE Trinidad], 1 (BSC); Long Cañon (near Martinsen), 1 (BSC); Mesa de Maya, 1 (MZ); 9 mi. W jct. Purgatory [= Purgatoire] & Chaquaqua [= Chacuaco] rivers ("Red Rock Canyon," collector's field notes), 1 (MVZ); Trinchera, 6 (5 DMNH, 1 AMNH); Trinidad, 5 (BSC); 20 mi. E Walsenburg, "Huerfano Co." [probably Las Animas County], 1 (DMNH). _Otero County_: 3 mi. NW Higbee, 4300 ft., 4 (KU). _Prowers County_: Two Buttes peak, 4600 & 4650 ft., 2 (KU). #New Mexico.# _Union County_: Clayton, 9 (BSC); 9 mi. NE Des Moines on the "Carramba River" [= Cimarron River], 1 (DMNH); Folsom, 6 (BSC); Raton Range (Oak Cañon), 8 (BSC); Sierra Grande, 9 (BSC). #Oklahoma.# _Cimarron County_: Tesequite Canyon, 1 (MZ). _Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence. Transmitted April 20, 1953._ 24-7674 
31280	----	UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 9, No. 16, pp. 405-414, 1 fig. May 20, 1959 Mammals of the Grand Mesa, Colorado BY SYDNEY ANDERSON UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1959 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch, Robert W. Wilson Volume 9, No. 16, pp. 405-414, 1 fig. Published May 20, 1959 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED IN THE STATE PRINTING PLANT TOPEKA, KANSAS 1959 27-7472 Mammals of the Grand Mesa, Colorado BY SYDNEY ANDERSON The Grand Mesa of Colorado is a westward extension of the mountains of central Colorado, standing more than five thousand feet above the valleys of the Colorado and the Gunnison rivers. To certain montane mammals the mesa is a peninsula of cool, moist, forest surrounded by inhospitable, hot, dry, barren lowland. Few mammals previously have been preserved or reported from the Grand Mesa. Of the species here reported, Warren (1942, The Mammals of Colorado, Univ. Oklahoma Press) mentioned only four from the counties in which the Grand Mesa is located. Twenty-two species are here recorded from the Grand Mesa, and two localities below the rim of the Mesa on the north slope, on the basis of specimens preserved, and five additional species on the basis of observations. Many of these species are limited to a montane habitat or find their optimum conditions there. The known geographic ranges of some subspecies are extended westward. Specimens and notes were obtained by members of a field party from the Museum of Natural History led by Dr. Harrison B. Tordoff. The party, including also R. Gordon Cliffgard, John M. Legler, Olin L. Webb, and Glen E. Woolfenden, was in the area from June 17 to July 5, 1954, and obtained all of the specimens listed excepting those from 28 miles east of Grand Junction (Sect. 29, T. 11S, R. 95W), Mesa County, that were obtained from June 13 to July 2, 1956, by Phillip M. Youngman, and those from Land's End Road that were obtained on May 13 and 14, and on October 1, 1948, by D. A. Sutton. Localities designated by numbers in the accounts to follow are listed in the legend for Figure 1. Localities 1 and 3 lie below the rim of the Mesa on the north side. Catalogue numbers are of the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas, unless noted otherwise. =_Sorex cinereus cinereus_= Kerr.--Two male (59642-59643) Masked Shrews weighing 4.8 and 4.9 grams were trapped on June 17 at locality 10, and a nonpregnant female (59644) was trapped on June 26 at locality 6. _Sorex cinereus_ seemed to be less abundant on the Mesa than _Sorex vagrans_; more individuals of _S. vagrans_ than of _S. cinereus_ were trapped on June 17 at locality 10 and on June 26 at locality 6, and _S. vagrans_ was trapped at three localities where no _S. cinereus_ was obtained. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Map of the Grand Mesa (for purposes of this paper the area above 7500 feet on each side of the northern boundary of Delta County). The inset of the western three-fourths of Colorado shows the Grand Mesa in relation to the larger areas of mountains in the state (areas above 9000 feet are stippled). The following collecting localities are indicated by numbered, black dots: (1) 2 mi. N, 9 mi. E Collbran, 7000 ft., Mesa County. (2) Land's End Road to Grand Mesa, 6800 to 8050 ft., Mesa County. (3) 3 mi. E, 4 mi. S Collbran, 6800 ft., Mesa County. (4) 3 mi. E, 9 mi. S Collbran, 10,200 ft., Mesa County. (5) 5-1/2 mi. E, 11-1/2 mi. S Collbran, _in_ Delta County. (6) 5-1/2 mi. E, 12 mi. S Collbran, 9600 to 10,400 ft., _in_ Delta County. (7) 28 mi. E Grand Junction (Sec. 29, T. 11S, R. 95W), Mesa County. (8) 6 mi. E Skyway, 10,000 to 10,500 ft., _in_ Delta County. (9) 7 mi. E Skyway, _in_ Delta County. (10) 8 mi. E, 1/2 mi. S Skyway, 9500 to 10,200 ft., _in_ Delta County. (11) 8 mi. E, 3/4 mi. S Skyway, 10,200 ft., _in_ Delta County. (12) 8 mi. E, 1 mi. S Skyway, 10,000 to 10,200 ft., _in_ Delta County. (13) 8 mi. E, 1-1/2 mi. S Skyway, 8500 to 9600 ft., _in_ Delta County. (14) 8 mi. E, 2 mi. S Skyway, 9000 ft., _in_ Delta County. (15) 8 mi. E, 2-1/2 mi. S Skyway, 9600 ft., _in_ Delta County. (16) 1 mi. S, 4 mi. W Skyway, 10,200 ft., Mesa County.] =_Sorex vagrans obscurus_= Merriam.--Fifteen specimens of the Vagrant Shrew (59645-59655, 59665-59668) were trapped in Delta County from localities 6, 10, 12, 13, and 14. The fourteen specimens having skulls fell into two distinct age-classes based on wear of the teeth as described by Findley (1955, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:8); 5 were in the younger group and 9 in the older group. Weights in grams of the younger shrews were 4.6, 5.5, 5.7, 5.8, and 6.4; weights of the older shrews were 6.4, 6.8, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 8.0, 8.3, and 8.8. One of the seven females was lactating; none contained embryos. =_Sorex palustris navigator_= (Baird).--Six Water Shrews (59633-59638) were trapped in Delta County at localities 10, 13, 14, and 15. The one specimen from locality 10 was trapped on June 17; all others were taken on June 21. None was pregnant or lactating. Two are young, weighing 11.0 and 12.9 grams; the other four are older, weighing 16.6, 17.0, 19.2, and 21.5 grams. =_Myotis evotis evotis_= (H. Allen).--One female Long-eared Myotis (59671), containing no embryos, was shot at dusk on July 2, at locality 3, which is below the rim of the Mesa. =_Myotis volans interior_= Miller.--One female Long-legged Myotis (70016), containing no embryos, was shot at locality 7 on July 1, 1956. =_Ochotona princeps figginsi_= J. A. Allen.--Six specimens of the Pika (59672-59675, 70018-70019) from localities 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 extend the known range of the subspecies approximately 55 miles to the westward from Irwin in Gunnison County. Each of two females taken on June 18 and 26 contained three embryos, which measured 20 millimeters in the latter; a third female on June 29 contained two embryos 35 millimeters in length. =_Lepus americanus bairdii_= Hayden.--No Snowshoe Rabbit was taken, but one individual was observed by H. B. Tordoff on June 18, 1954, at locality 8. Droppings of a large lagomorph were seen in the woods, and tracks were seen in the snow. =_Marmota flaviventris luteola_= A. H. Howell.--The seven specimens of the Yellow-bellied Marmot (59731-6, 70022, four adult and two young, each a skin and skull, and one skull only of an adult) are referable on the basis of size, color, and locality as discussed by Warren (1936, Jour. Mamm., 17:394) to _M. f. luteola_. The total lengths in millimeters are as follows: young male 582; adult males 640, 655; young females 460, 520; adult female 630. The color and condition of the pelage is the same in all the specimens except that the two largest males are much more worn and show irregular patches of new hair on the back, and the two young females are paler especially on the back and tail. These marmots were taken at localities 4, 7, 8, 10, and 16. =_Spermophilus lateralis lateralis_= (Say).--Eleven specimens of the Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel (59748-59756, 59763-59764) were taken at localities 1, 3, and 4. Young were born before late June; three young of the year were taken at locality 3 on June 29 and 30, and none of the adult females taken at locality 1 (1 female) and at locality 4 (3 females) was pregnant. Most adults of both sexes at all elevations represented (6800 to 10,200 ft.) showed molt in progress and proceeding from anterior to posterior. All specimens were obtained from June 25 to July 4. =_Spermophilus variegatus grammurus_= (Say).--Three Rock Squirrels (59738-59739, 59742) were obtained at locality 3. One of these specimens was a skull found near a wood rat nest. The other two were nonpregnant females; the adult measured 485 millimeters in total length, and the younger individual measured 413 millimeters. The two skins are characteristic of _S. v. grammurus_ in their paleness. =_Eutamias minimus consobrinus_= (J. A. Allen).--The 63 specimens of the Least Chipmunk (59770-59824, 60105-60108, 70024-70025, and nos. 5194 and 5196 in Univ. of Colorado Museum) were taken at localities 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13, and 15. The reproductive condition at time of death had been noted for 20 females obtained from June 17 to July 2 at elevations from 9500 to 10,400 feet. Eleven of these had no embryos, but six have mammae that are still prominent on the dried skins and may have had litters prior to their capture. Nine females contained embryos, numbering 3 in two specimens, 5 in four specimens, 6 in two specimens, and 7 in one specimen. =_Eutamias quadrivittatus hopiensis_= Merriam.--Four specimens of the Colorado Chipmunk were obtained by D. A. Sutton at locality 2, at 6800, 6900, 7175, and 8050 feet elevation. All are males taken on May 13 and 14, 1949; the specimens bear numbers 5197, 5198, 5199, and 5201 in the collection of the University of Colorado Museum. =_Thomomys talpoides fossor_= J. A. Allen.--The 27 specimens of the Northern Pocket Gopher (59840-59849, 70086-70102) were trapped at localities 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, and 13. The eight skins from locality 7 differ from those from the other localities on the Mesa in being uniformly duller in color dorsally. No significant difference in size or cranial characters was observed. Specimens assigned to _T. t. fossor_, in the collection of the Museum of Natural History, from other localities in Colorado differ in color from any of the specimens from the Grand Mesa. Until larger numbers of _Thomomys talpoides_ from other localities in Colorado and from the type locality of _T. t. fossor_, stated to be at Florida, in southern Colorado, have been studied, the specimens from the Grand Mesa seem best referred to _T. t. fossor_. Three females from localities 7, 10, and 11 contained embryos (2, 4, and 5 in number), and seven other females from localities 6 and 7 show distinct mammae on the dried skins or were recorded by the collectors as lactating. =_Castor canadensis concisor_= Warren and Hall.--Dams constructed by beavers were seen at locality 4 on June 23, 1954. No specimen was taken. =_Peromyscus maniculatus rufinus_= (Merriam).--The 36 specimens of the Deer Mouse (59921-59956) are from seven localities (3, 4, 6, 10, 12, 14, and 15). The mice vary considerably in color; most of them are like mice of the highlands of Colorado and unlike the paler mice inhabiting the lower areas immediately to the west of the Grand Mesa. Young individuals trapped on June 20, 21, and 22 and judged to range from a month through two months in age, and females containing embryos, attest to a somewhat protracted breeding season on the Grand Mesa. =_Neotoma cinerea arizonae_= Merriam.--Two immature Bushy-tailed Wood Rats (60000-60001) were obtained at locality 3 on July 3. =_Clethrionomys gapperi galei_= (Merriam).--The 22 specimens (60005-60025, 70133) of Gapper's Red-backed Vole were taken at localities 6, 7, and 10, and are clearly referable to _C. g. galei_, rather than to _Clethrionomys gapperi gauti_ to the south, on the basis of generally dark dorsal pelage, indistinctly bordered broad dorsal stripe, and cranial features. _C. g. gauti_ was described by Cockrum and Fitch (1952, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:289) on the basis of 14 specimens from southern Colorado and northern New Mexico. Twenty-one additional specimens from five miles south and one mile west of Cucharas Camps, Huerfano County, were obtained from the seventh to the fourteenth of July by the field party led by Tordoff after the party left the Grand Mesa. These specimens substantiate the subspecific distinctness of _C. g. gauti_ in that they agree in external and in cranial appearance with the description of typical _C. g. gauti_, and are distinct in appearance from specimens of _C. g. galei_ from the Grand Mesa and from other localities in northern Colorado. The six specimens from two localities in Colorado available to Cockrum and Fitch exhibited evidence of intergradation at one locality, and atypical smallness at the other locality. A specimen (70134) taken on June 26, 1956, by Phillip M. Youngman on the Black Mesa, nine miles WNW of Sapinero, 9500 ft., Gunnison County, Colorado, is almost identical in color to the two specimens from Saguache County regarded by Cockrum and Fitch as intergrades between _C. g. galei_ and _C. g. gauti_, but in small size of auditory bullae and narrowness of braincase resembles _C. g. galei_, to which it seems best referred. The specimens from the Grand Mesa extend the known range of _C. g. galei_ approximately 50 miles westward in central Colorado from Gothic. Three females were pregnant; two trapped on June 17 and June 25 contained 6 embryos each, and one trapped on June 25 contained 5 embryos. Four of the females taken in Huerfano County were pregnant; one contained 3 embryos, two contained 5 embryos, and one contained 7 embryos. Immature individuals are present in the sample from Huerfano County also. =_Phenacomys intermedius intermedius_= Merriam.--Three Heather Voles (60048, 60049, 70135) were trapped at localities 6, 7, and 10. All were adult females; one, taken on June 25 at locality 6, contained seven embryos five millimeters in length, and one, taken on July 2 at locality 7, contained seven embryos nine millimeters in length. These specimens extend the known range of the species approximately 55 miles west from Gothic (Pruitt, Jour. Mamm., 35:450, 1954). =_Microtus longicaudus mordax_= (Merriam).--Ten Long-tailed Voles (60070-60079) represent localities 3, 6, 12, 13, 14, and 15. =_Microtus montanus fusus_= Hall.--Ten Montane Voles (60060-60068, 70145) represent localities 3, 6, 7, and 15. =_Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis_= (Lord).--Muskrats were seen daily from June 17 to June 23 in a lake at locality 13. No specimen was obtained. =_Zapus princeps princeps_= J. A. Allen.--Nineteen Western Jumping Mice (60109-60126, 60137) were trapped at localities 6, 10, 12, 14, and 15. =_Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum_= Brandt.--A Porcupine skull was seen in the nest of a wood rat by John M. Legler at locality 3 on July 2. On June 20 a porcupine was seen at locality 12. No specimen was obtained. =_Mustela frenata nevadensis_= Hall.--Seven Long-tailed Weasels (60138-60143, 70152) were taken at localities 1, 4, 7, 8, 13, and 14. Four are males and three are females. Some of these were attracted by "squeaking" noises and then shot. =_Taxidea taxus taxus_= (Schreber).--One adult male Badger (60144) was found dead; the skull and baculum were saved. The subspecific identification is on geographic grounds, and is tentative. In this area _T. t. taxus_ and _T. t. fippsi_ may intergrade. =_Mephitis mephitis estor_= Merriam.--One Striped Skunk (60145) of unknown sex was found dead in the cellar of a cabin at locality 10. =_Odocoileus hemionus hemionus_= (Rafinesque).--Mule Deer were observed at locality 15; no specimen was obtained. DISCUSSION The species here reported from the Grand Mesa may be placed according to their geographic ranges and their restriction to certain habitats in two groups: BOREAL.--Each of the 12 species listed below is of northern distribution, is dependent, at the latitude of Colorado, upon the habitat provided by areas of high altitudes, and is near its southern zonal limit on the Grand Mesa. The 12 species are: _Sorex cinereus_, _Sorex palustris_, _Sorex vagrans_, _Ochotona princeps_, _Lepus americanus_, _Marmota flaviventris_, _Spermophilus lateralis_, _Clethrionomys gapperi_, _Phenacomys intermedius_, _Microtus longicaudus_, _Microtus montanus_, and _Zapus princeps_. _Thomomys talpoides_ may be considered in this category also, although it is less restricted in range and habitat than most of the other species listed as boreal. These thirteen species make up almost half of the twenty-seven species known from the Grand Mesa. WIDE-SPREAD.--Species in this category are those that are widely distributed in the western United States and that occur in Colorado in both the mountains and the lower more arid intermontane areas. Some of these species are differentiated into subspecies, one of which inhabits the mountains and another the lowlands. Wide-spread species that do not have subspecies in the lowlands different than the subspecies in the mountains or that are represented by too little material from the Grand Mesa to be evaluated critically are _Myotis evotis_, _Myotis volans_, _Spermophilus variegatus_, _Eutamias quadrivittatus_, _Castor canadensis_, _Ondatra zibethicus_, _Erethizon dorsatum_, _Mustela frenata_, _Taxidea taxus_, _Mephitis mephitis_, and _Odocoileus hemionus_. Three other wide-spread species are differentiated into lowland and highland subspecies; two of these species, _Eutamias minimus_ and _Peromyscus maniculatus_, are represented on the Grand Mesa by the darker subspecies of the mountains. The third species, _Neotoma cinerea_, is represented by two individuals from below the actual rim of the mesa; they are intergrades between the lowland and highland subspecies. Species of southern distribution, that are dependent at the latitude of Colorado upon the habitat provided by areas of lower altitudes, and that are here in Colorado near their northern limit comprise a third category that is not represented in the list of mammals from the Grand Mesa although such characteristic species as _Ammospermophilus leucurus_, _Perognathus apache_, and _Dipodomys ordii_ occur as near as Grand Junction. Approximately 55 per cent of the species of the mammalian fauna are boreal; no species of Sonoran affinities finds haven on the Grand Mesa. Transmitted January 22, 1959. 27-7472 * * * * * Transcriber's Notes: Italicized text is shown within _underscores_. Bold italicized text is shown within =_equal signs and underscores_=. Page 407: Rejoined the remainder of the last paragraph, originally found on page 409. 
31448	----	Mammals from Tamaulipas, Mexico BY ROLLIN H. BAKER University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 12, pp. 207-218 December 15, 1951 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 12, pp. 207-218 December 15, 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1951 23-8338 Mammals from Tamaulipas, Mexico By ROLLIN H. BAKER Forming the northeastern border of Mexico, Tamaulipas extends in an elongated, north-south direction from the Temperate into the Torrid Zone and contains faunal elements from both the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. The mammals are less known than those from some of the bordering states; for the most part collecting has been limited to a few localities, chiefly along the Pan-American Highway. Accordingly, as a step towards a long-range study of the mammals of Tamaulipas, the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas acquired from William J. Schaldach, Jr., a small, but significant, collection of mammals taken in the last month of 1949 and the first four months of 1950. Collections were made at several places in the vicinity of Ciudad Victoria, including localities along the humid, eastern face of the Sierra Madre Oriental. Many of these specimens were obtained near camps made west of the village of El Carrizo. This small community is on the Pan-American highway, 70 kilometers (by highway) south of Ciudad Victoria. The resulting collections, which are reported upon here, disclose that several tropical mammals range farther northward than previously reported. Funds for financing the field work were made available by a grant from the Kansas University Endowment Association. ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES ~Didelphis mesamericana mesamericana~ Oken Central American Opossum _Did[elphys] mes-americana_ Oken, Lehrbuch d. Naturgesch., pt. 3, vol. 2:1152, 1816. (Type from Northern Mexico.) _Didelphis mes-americana_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:256, August 18, 1902. _Specimens examined_, 2 as follows: 36 km. N and 10 km. W Ciudad Victoria, 1 km. E El Barretal, on Río Purificacíon, 1; 12 km. N and 4 km. W Ciudad Victoria, 1. ~Philander opossum pallidus~ (Allen) Four-eyed Opossum _Metachirus fuscogriseus pallidus_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:215, July 3, 1901. (Type from Orizaba, Veracruz, Mexico.) _Philander opossum pallidus_ Dalquest, Occ. Papers Mus. Zool., Louisiana State Univ., No. 23:2, July 10, 1950. _Specimens examined_, 3 from 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo. _Remarks._--These three specimens have proportionately longer tails than typical _P. o. pallidus_ from central Veracruz; total length and length of tail of two adult males are 575, 295, and 568, 290 respectively. This marsupial has been previously unrecorded from Tamaulipas or from so northward a locality. The four-eyed opossum evidently ranges northward along the east face of the Sierra Madre Oriental within the humid division of the Upper Tropical Life-zone. These animals, all males, were taken in steel traps baited with the bodies of skinned mice or birds. Sets were made along well-used trails leading from a densely vegetated arroyo into a corn field through openings in a fence of roughly piled logs. The elevation of this locality is approximately 2500 feet. ~Desmodus rotundus murinus~ Wagner Vampire Bat _D[esmodus] murinus_ Wagner, Schreber's Säugthiere, Suppl., 1:377, 1840. (Type from Mexico.) _Desmodus rotundus murinus_ Osgood, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., publ. 155, zool. ser., 10:63, January 10, 1912. _Specimens examined_, 9 as follows: 12 km. W and 8 km. N Ciudad Victoria, 2500 ft., 3; 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 6 km. W of the [Pan-American] highway [at El Carrizo], 6. _Remarks._--Vampire bats were taken at two caves. At the cave called "Los Troncones", 12 kilometers west and 8 kilometers north of Ciudad Victoria, seven bats were shot down; three were saved. The second cave, south of Ciudad Victoria, was considerably damper than the first. Vampires were found in a small side chamber; nine bats were knocked down. No other kinds of bats were present in either cave. ~Sylvilagus floridanus connectens~ (Nelson) Florida Cottontail _Lepus floridanus connectens_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:105, May 18, 1904. (Type from Chichicaxtle, Veracruz, Mexico.) _Sylvilagus floridanus connectens_ Lyon and Osgood, Catal. Type spec. Mamm. U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 62:32, January 28, 1909. _Specimens examined_, 2 from 70 km. [by highway] S. Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo. ~Sciurus aureogaster aureogaster~ F. Cuvier Red-bellied Squirrel [_Sciurus_, by implication] _aureogaster_ F. Cuvier, Hist. nat. mammifères, vol. 6, livr. 59, pl. with text, September, 1829. Binomial published at end of work only, vol. 7, tabl. generale et méthodique, p. 4, 1842. (Type from "California" = eastern Mexico.) _Specimens examined_, 13 as follows: 43 km. S Ciudad Victoria, 1; 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria, and 6 km. W of [Pan-American] highway [at El Carrizo], 3; 70 km. [by hwy.] S Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo, 9. _Remarks._--These colorful squirrels were taken in thick timber and brush, and locally are referred to as "ardilla pinta" or "ardilla colorada." One female obtained on January 22 is black. Local hunters state that these squirrels are most active early in the morning and late in the afternoon. Two squirrels were seen in copulation on January 19. ~Sciurus negligens~ Nelson Little Gray Squirrel _Sciurus negligens_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:147, June 3, 1898. (Type from Alta Mira, Tamaulipas, Mexico.) _Specimens examined_, 17 as follows: 70 km. [by highway] S of Ciudad Victoria and 6 km. W of the [Pan-American] highway [at El Carrizo], 5; 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo, 12. _Remarks._--Referred to as "ardilla chica" locally, these squirrels were most frequently seen in the dense forest of the lower, elevations. Active both in trees and on the ground, these animals were reported as being destructive to corn crops. Females taken in January were lactating. ~Heterogeomys hispidus concavus~ Nelson and Goldman Hispid Pocket Gopher _Heterogeomys hispidus concavus_ Nelson and Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 42:148, March 30, 1929. (Type from Pinal de Amoles, Queretaro, Mexico.) _Specimens examined_, 5 as follows: 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 5 km. W El Carrizo, 4; 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo, 1. _Remarks._--These gophers have been compared with specimens of _H. h. hispidus_ from Veracruz (5 km. N Jalapa and 4 km. WNW Fortin) and with specimens of _H. h. concavus_ from San Luis Potosí (Xilitla and vicinity and 3 mi. NW Pujal); the latter were examined through the courtesy of Dr. George H. Lowery, Jr., of the Museum of Zoology at Louisiana State University. These five specimens are assigned to _H. h. concavus_ and resemble in every way this subspecies except: slightly smaller, somewhat darker, and skull with lambdoidal crest less inclined forward. In the latter feature, the single skull available seems to resemble most closely that of _H. h. hispidus_. Unfortunately, all but one skull, that of a subadult female, were destroyed in the field. This is the first known record of this genus in Tamaulipas and the most northern locality from which specimens have been taken. At this latitude, the gopher appears to be restricted to the humid belt on the east face of the Sierra Madre Oriental. These large gophers were difficult to trap by ordinary means; Schaldach got two by using large-sized Macabee traps but the others were taken at night either with the aid of a dog or by natives with slingshots. ~Liomys irroratus texensis~ Merriam Spiny Pocket Mouse _Liomys texensis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:44, March 5, 1902. (Type from Brownsville, Cameron County, Texas.) _Liomys irroratus texensis_ Goldman, N. Amer. Fauna, 34:59, September 7, 1911. _Specimens examined_, 15 as follows: 7 km. S and 2 km. W San Fernando, 8; 36 km. N and 10 km. W Ciudad Victoria, 1 km. E El Barretal, on Río Purificacíon, 1; 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo, 6. _Remarks._--Most of these mice were taken in densely vegetated fallow fields, where both grass and brush were found. Many of the mice were captured at their burrow openings, some of which were found to be plugged and others not plugged. ~Reithrodontomys fulvescens intermedius~ Allen Fulvous Harvest Mouse _Reithrodontomys mexicanus intermedius_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 7:136, May 21, 1895. (Type from Brownsville, Cameron County, Texas.) _Reithrodontomys fulvescens intermedius_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 36:47, June 5, 1914. _Specimen examined_, 1 from 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo. ~Baiomys taylori taylori~ (Thomas) Pygmy Mouse _Hesperomys (Vesperimus) taylori_ Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, ser. 5, 19:66, January, 1887. (Type from San Diego, Duval County, Texas.) _Baiomys taylori_ Mearns, Mamm. Mex. Bound., Bull. 56:381, April 13, 1907. _Specimens examined_, 2 from 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo. _Remarks._--Specimens were captured in runways in dense grass and weeds at the edge of a corn field. ~Peromyscus leucopus texanus~ (Woodhouse) White-footed Mouse _Hesperomys texana_ Woodhouse, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 6:242, 1853. (Type probably from the vicinity of Mason, Mason County, Texas.) _Peromyscus leucopus texanus_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:127, April 17, 1909. _Specimens examined_, 8 as follows: 7 km. S and 2 km. W San Fernando, 1; 12 km. N and 4 km. W Ciudad Victoria, 2; 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo, 4. ~Peromyscus ochraventer~ new species Brown-bellied Wood Mouse _Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull; no. 36958, Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist.; 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 6 km. W of the [Pan-American] highway [at El Carrizo], Tamaulipas, Mexico; 12 January 1950; obtained by William J. Schaldach, Jr., original no. 566. _Range._--Known only from the type locality; probably found in other localities along the humid, east face of the Sierra Madre Oriental in Tamaulipas. _Diagnosis._--Size medium (see measurements); upper parts near Ochraceous Tawny (capitalized color terms after Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912), brighter on sides and duller on back; cheeks, sides of neck, shoulders and upper forelegs lighter, between Ochraceous Buff and Ochraceous Orange; eye ring dark; underparts light Cinnamon Buff, breast patch brighter; ears dusky, sparsely covered with hairs colored like back; feet white; tail scaly in appearance, indistinctly bicolored with short dark hairs above and short pale hairs below; skull without beaded or ridged supraorbital border; rostrum expanded anteriorly with sides almost parallel; teeth with strongly developed outer accessory cusps on the first and second upper molar teeth; anteriormost loph (parastyle-protoconule of Goldman, N. Amer. Fauna, 43:11, September 23, 1918) of the first upper molar large, almost as broad as greatest breadth of tooth. _Comparisons._--_Peromyscus ochraventer_ has been compared with _P. difficilis_ (specimens from Veracruz), _P. boylei_ (Veracruz), _P. banderanus_ (Guerrero), _P. mexicanus_ (Veracruz), _P. furvus_ (Veracruz), and _P. latirostris_ (San Luis Potosí). From _P. difficilis_, _P. ochraventer_ differs in having underparts distinctively brownish, rostrum expanded anteriorly with sides almost parallel, anteriormost loph of the first upper molar larger, and auditory bulla smaller. From _P. boylei_, _P. ochraventer_ differs in having underparts distinctively brownish, tail less distinctly bicolored, rostrum expanded anteriorly with sides almost parallel, and anteriormost loph of the first upper molar larger. From _P. banderanus_, _P. ochraventer_ differs in having underparts distinctively brownish, tail less distinctly bicolored, rostrum expanded anteriorly with sides almost parallel, anteriormost loph of the first upper molar larger, auditory bulla smaller, and in lacking a beaded or ridged supraorbital border. From _P. mexicanus_, _P. ochraventer_ differs in having underparts distinctively brownish, tail not irregularly blotched with dusky, rostrum expanded anteriorly with sides almost parallel, anteriormost loph of the first upper molar larger, and in lacking a beaded or ridged supraorbital border. From _P. furvus_ and _P. latirostris_, _P. ochraventer_ differs in being smaller, having underparts distinctively brownish, tail not irregularly blotched with dusky, rostrum proportionately shorter, and interpterygoid space relatively narrower. _Remarks._--_Peromyscus ochraventer_ is considered to be a distinct species showing little evident relationship with other Mexican _Peromyscus_. In the shape of the skull, especially the anterior expansion of the rostrum, _P. ochraventer_ seems to be related to _P. furvus_ and _P. latirostris_, a series of the latter being made available for examination by Dr. George G. Lowery, Jr., of the Museum of Zoology at Louisiana State University. However, the rostrum of these two larger species is proportionately longer than the rostrum of _P. ochraventer_. In size, coloration and most cranial features, _P. ochraventer_ resembles _P. mexicanus_, although the absence, instead of presence, of a supraorbital bead or ridge, the almost parallel-sided, instead of more pointed, rostrum and the larger, instead of smaller, interiormost loph of the first upper molar in _P. ochraventer_ are well-marked differences. The baculum of _P. ochraventer_ is much shorter with a proportionately heavier base and shaft than the baculum of _P. mexicanus mexicanus_ (from Veracruz) and _P. m. saxatilis_ (from Costa Rica). The geographic range of _Peromyscus ochraventer_ is not known to meet that of _P. mexicanus_; the nearest place to the type locality of _P. ochraventer_ from which _P. mexicanus_ has been taken is at Xilitla approximately 225 kilometers to the southward in San Luis Potosí (Dalquest, Occ. Papers Mus. Zool., Louisiana State Univ., No. 28:8, July 10, 1950). The brown coloring on the underparts is a distinctive feature of _P. ochraventer_; in adults this color differs in shade. In some specimens patches of whitish hair give the tail a splotched appearance. Eleven of the twenty-eight skulls and lower jaws examined have bone eroded away from around the cheek-teeth exposing part of the roots. Most of the fully adult animals have this condition. One adult female, no. 36959, has the upper third molar on the right side missing, possibly as a result of bone erosion. These mice were taken in junglelike forest, in rocks and adjacent to logs. Schaldach writes that "Their burrows go back under the large limestone blocks, and each burrow where I caught a mouse has a pile of excavated earth, like a tiny gopher mound." The trapping area was at an elevation of approximately 2800 feet on the steep sides of a small hill on top of which the field camp was situated. Schaldach indicated that this locality was transitional between arid tropical and humid tropical conditions. On January 13, 1950, a female taken was lactating and had five recent placental scars; another taken the same day also had five placental scars. _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of seven adult males and six adult females of _P. ochraventer_ from the type locality are, respectively, as follows: Total length, 238.0 (227-249), 236.5 (226-248); length of tail, 124.4 (117-127), 122.2 (116-128); length of hind foot, 25.6 (24-26), 25.5 (25-26); length of ear from notch, 20.9 (20-21), 20.7 (20-21); greatest length of skull, 31.0 (30.6-31.9), 30.8 (30.5-31.0); basilar length, 23.3 (22.7-23.8), 23.4 (23.0-23.9); zygomatic breadth, 15.1 (14.6-15.7), 15.0 (14.9-15.2); post palatal length, 10.6 (10.5-10.9), 10.9 (10.5-11.2); interorbital breadth, 4.7 (4.5-4.9), 4.7 (4.6-4.8); mastoidal breadth, 12.8 (12.4-13.2), 12.8 (12.6-12.9); length of nasals, 11.6 (10.8-12.0), 11.6 (11.2-11.7); length of shelf of bony palate, 4.7 (4.5-4.8), 4.6 (4.5-4.7); length of palatine slits, 6.3 (6.0-6.5), 6.2 (6.0-6.4); length of diastema, 8.2 (8.0-8.5), 8.2 (8.1-8.4); alveolar length of upper molariform tooth-row, 4.4 (4.3-4.6), 4.4 (4.3-4.5). _Specimens examined_, 28, from the type locality. ~Oryzomys couesi aquaticus~ Allen Coues Rice Rat _Oryzomys aquaticus_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:289, June 30, 1891. (Type from Brownsville, Cameron County, Texas.) _Oryzomys couesi aquaticus_ Goldman, N. Amer. Fauna, 43:39, September 23, 1918. _Specimens examined_, 2 as follows: 36 km. N and 10 km. W Ciudad Victoria, 1 km. E El Barretal, on Río Purificacíon, 1; 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 6 km. W of the [Pan-American] highway [at El Carrizo], 1. _Remarks._--The specimens, all immatures, are slightly darker than topotypes of _O. c. aquaticus_, seemingly tending toward the darker _O. c. peragrus_ Merriam to the southward. These records of occurrence extend the known range of this subspecies approximately 210 miles to the southward and increase the possibility of continuous distribution between _O. c. aquaticus_ and _O. c. peragrus_. The male obtained south of Ciudad Victoria was taken on January 12, by William J. Shaldach, Jr., 200 yards within the tunnel of a mine at an elevation of approximately 2600 feet. This was in the Sierra Gorda, which is a part of the Sierra Madre Oriental. ~Oryzomys rostratus rostratus~ Merriam Rice Rat _Oryzomys rostratus_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 3:293, July 26, 1901. (Type from Metlaltoyuca, Pueblo, Mexico.) _Specimen examined_, 1 from 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo. _Remarks._--This immature male is paler than specimens of _O. r. rostratus_ from the state of Veracruz. This locality extends the known range of this species northward a distance of approximately 100 miles. Previously it had been recorded from only as far north as Alta Mira, Tamaulipas (Goldman, N. Amer. Fauna, 43:54, September 23, 1918). This specimen was trapped on February 16 in a rodent runway in dense grass in a fallow cane field. ~Oryzomys fulvescens engraciae~ Osgood Fulvous Rice Rat _Oryzomys fulvescens engraciae_ Osgood, Jour. Mamm., 26:300, November 14, 1945. (Type from Hacienda Santa Engracia, northwest of Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico.) _Specimens examined_, 5 from 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. E El Carrizo. _Remarks._--These specimens are referred to _O. f. engraciae_ on the basis of their pale color and narrow interorbital space. They were taken in runways in dense grass in fallow cane fields. ~Sigmodon hispidus toltecus~ (Saussure) Hispid Cotton Rat [_Hesperomys_] _toltecus_ Saussure, Revue et magasin de zoologie, _ser._ 2, 12:98, 1860. (Type from mountains of Veracruz, Mexico.) _Sigmodon hispidus toltecus_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:110, June 2, 1902. _Specimens examined_, 23 as follows: 36 km. N and 10 km. W Ciudad Victoria, 1 km. E El Barretal, on Río Purificacíon, 1; 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo, 22. _Remarks._--Among named kinds of _Sigmodon_ this series most closely approaches _S. h. toltecus_ to the southward. The specimens are slightly lighter in color of the upper parts than are examples of this same subspecies from 8 km. NW of Potrero, Veracruz, but in other ways are similar. The single specimen from 36 km. N and 10 km. W Ciudad Victoria is a skull only, but seems closest to _S. h. toltecus_. As is often the case with collections of _Sigmodon_, this series contains mostly immatures. Cotton rats were found abundantly in cultivated areas. Local farmers stated that these rats were destructive to sugar cane by girdling the stems one and one-half inches above the ground. ~Neotoma micropus micropus~ Baird Baird Wood Rat _Neotoma micropus_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 333, April, 1855. (Type from Charco Escondido, Tamaulipas, Mexico.) _Specimens examined_, 2 from 7 km. S and 2 km. W San Fernando. ~Neotoma angustapalata~ new species Tamaulipan Wood Rat _Type._--Male, subadult, skin and skull; No. 36976, Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist.; 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 6 km. W of the [Pan-American] highway [at El Carrizo], Tamaulipas, Mexico; 14 January 1950; obtained by William J. Schaldach, Jr., original no. 578. _Range._--Known only from the type locality; probably found in other localities along the humid, east face of the Sierra Madre Oriental in Tamaulipas. _Diagnosis._--Size large (see measurements); upper parts dusky brown, paler on sides, individual hairs on middle of back tipped with black or with Light Pinkish Cinnamon (capitalized color term after Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912); head grayer especially on cheeks; underparts dusky (dark bases of white-tipped hairs exposed), hairs on throat and inguinal region of adult specimen white to base; outside of legs dusky gray; tail scaly in appearance and sparsely covered with short, blackish hairs above and short, whitish hairs below; skull with auditory bulla large; external auditory meatus large; palatine region narrow; sides of interpterygoid fossa concave and broadly excavated near posterior end of molariform tooth-rows. _Comparison._--_Neotoma angustapalata_ has been compared with _N. torquata_ (specimens from Veracruz and Puebla), _N. navus_ (Coahuila), _N. mexicana_ (New Mexico), _N. micropus_ (Tamaulipas), _N. albigula_ (Coahuila), _N. ferruginea_ (Jalisco), and _N. distincta_ (from published description in Goldman, N. Amer. Fauna, 31:64, October 19, 1910). _Neotoma angustapalata_ differs from _N. micropus_ and _N. albigula_ in having a deep, instead of a shallow, anterointernal reentrant angle on the first upper molar and seems to belong to the _N. mexicana_ group of wood rats. _Neotoma angustapalata_ differs from _N. navus_, _N. mexicana_, _N. torquata_, and _N. ferruginea_ in larger size, darker underparts, tail with sparse, short hairs and scaly appearance, more broadly concave sides of interpterygoid fossa at posterior end of molariform tooth-rows, larger external auditory meatus, and narrower palatine breadth. _Neotoma angustapalata_ differs from the description of _N. distincta_ in having a faintly bicolored tail, no ochraceous pectoral band, broadly concave sides to interpterygoid fossa, and narrower palatine breadth. _Remarks._--_Neotoma angustapalata_ is represented by two specimens; the type and another specimen, an adult male, no. 37062, with skin and broken skull. The description takes into account both of these specimens. The most significant characteristics of _N. angustapalata_ are its scaly-appearing tail with short, sparse hairs, dusky underparts, broadly concave sides of the interpterygoid fossa at the posterior end of molariform tooth-rows, and the narrow palatine breadth. Among named kinds of _Neotoma_, the newly named species most closely resembles _N. torquata_ and _N. distincta_; however, it is geographically widely separated from these two species. _Neotoma navus_ of southeastern Coahuila is the only other member of the _N. mexicana_ group in northeastern Mexico. These wood rats were taken in rocks and crevices at the base of a small hill in thick vegetation growing in deep humus. Schaldach termed the trapping site as "arid tropical tending toward humid tropical". _Measurements._--The subadult, male holotype measures as follows: Total length, 325; length of tail, 154; length of hind foot, 36; length of ear from notch, 29; basilar length (of skull), 33.9; zygomatic breadth, 22.1; interorbital breadth, 5.7; length of nasals, 15.2; length of incisive foramina, 8.7; length of palatal bridge, 8.5; least breadth of palate between first upper molars, 2.7; greatest breadth of interpterygoid space, 4.1; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth-row, 9.6. The adult, male, no. 37062, measures as follows: Total length, 380; tail vertebrae, 195; hind foot, 42; ear from notch, 31; interorbital breadth (of skull), 6.4. _Specimens examined_, 2, from the type locality. ~Rattus rattus~ subsp. Black Rat _Specimens taken_, 2 from 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 6 km. W of the [Pan-American] highway [at El Carrizo]. ~Mus musculus~ subsp. House Mouse _Specimen examined_, 1 from 12 km. N and 4 km. W Ciudad Victoria. ~Nasua narica tamaulipensis~ Goldman Coati _Nasua narica tamaulipensis_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:80, June 25, 1942. (Type from Cerro de la Silla, near Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico.) _Specimen examined_, 1 from 70 km. [by highway] S Ciudad Victoria and 2 km. W El Carrizo. _Remarks._--Several bands of coatis were observed in the vicinity of the village of El Carrizo. One skull of a male was obtained. _Transmitted June 8, 1951_. 23-8338 * * * * * Transcriber's Notes Italicized text is shown within _underscores_. Bold text is shown within ~tildes~. Page 210: Säugthiere may be a typo for Säugethiere. 
31458	----	UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 9, No. 2, pp. 69-80 December 10, 1955 Additional Records and Extensions of Known Ranges of Mammals from Utah BY STEPHEN D. DURRANT, M. RAYMOND LEE, AND RICHARD M. HANSEN UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1955 Additional Records and Extensions of Known Ranges of Mammals From Utah BY STEPHEN D. DURRANT, M. RAYMOND LEE, AND RICHARD M. HANSEN The Museum of Zoology, University of Utah, contains approximately 5000 specimens in addition to those available to Durrant (1952) when he prepared his account of the "Mammals of Utah, _Taxonomy and Distribution_." Study of this material discloses two kinds of mammals not heretofore known to occur in Utah, and extends the known limits of occurrence of many others as is set forth below in what may be thought of as a supplement to the aforementioned report of 1952. Our study was financed in part by a grant from the National Science Foundation. _=Sorex vagrans obscurus=_ Merriam. Dusky Shrew.--Twelve specimens are available from the Abajo Mountains and Elk Ridge, San Juan County, Utah, as follows: North Creek, 6 mi. W Monticello, 8300 ft.; 1 mi. S Twin Peaks, 9500 ft.; Kigalia R. S., 8000 ft.; and Gooseberry R. S., 8250 ft. Previously, the only known specimens from east of the Colorado River in Utah were from the La Sal Mountains in extreme eastern Grand County and extreme northern San Juan County. These twelve specimens extend the known area of occurrence of the species in Utah approximately 80 miles to the south, and indicate that this shrew occurs throughout the state in favorable habitats. _=Sorex palustris navigator=_ (Baird). Water Shrew.--An individual was observed by M. Raymond Lee at North Creek, seven miles west of Monticello, Abajo Mountains, 8000 feet, San Juan County, on July 10, 1954. Usually we are extremely reluctant to record sight records, but do so in this instance because the water shrew is so distinctive that it can be readily recognized and because the occurrence extends the known range approximately 80 miles southward in Utah. This individual was observed at close range while swimming and foraging in North Creek, and there can be no doubt of its identity. _=Myotis yumanensis yumanensis=_ (H. Allen). Yuma Myotis.--Durrant (1952:43) reported this subspecies from Utah on the authority of Hardy (1941:289) who had specimens from two localities in extreme southwestern Utah. Durrant (1952:41) referred specimen Number 6784, from Willow Creek, 25 miles south of Ouray, Uintah County, to _Myotis lucifugus carissima_. Restudy of this specimen reveals that it is _Myotis yumanensis yumanensis_. This identification has been corroborated by Dr. Philip H. Krutzsch, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and extends the known range of the subspecies _M. y. yumanensis_ approximately 300 miles northeastward in Utah. See also Krutzsch and Heppenstall (1955:126) who record specimens from 2 mi. SW Jensen. _=Myotis subulatus melanorhinus=_ (Merriam). Small-footed Myotis.--This bat previously was known from only seven localities in Utah, which indicated that it occurred in only the western and southern areas of the state. Four additional records are now available from the following localities: Logan Canyon Cave, 15 miles north of Logan, Cache County; Weber College Campus, Ogden, Weber County; University of Utah Campus, Salt Lake City, Salt Lake County; Six Mile Canyon, 3-1/2 miles east of Sterling, Sanpete County. These occurrences extend the known range to the eastward in Utah, and indicate a state-wide distribution. Specimens of the subspecies _Myotis s. melanorhinus_ are recorded also from as far north as Double Springs, Custer County, Idaho (Davis, 1939:117). _=Pipestrellus hesperus hesperus=_ (H. Allen). Western Pipistrelle.--Heretofore, the northernmost known specimens of this bat from Utah were from Old Lincoln Highway, 18 miles southwest of Orr's Ranch, Tooele County. Specimen Number 7531 is now available from cliffs NE [3 mi.] Ogden, Weber County, and extends the known range of this species in Utah approximately 100 miles northeastward. This pipistrelle probably inhabits all of northern and northwestern Utah in suitable habitats. This probability is supported by Davis' (1939:120) report of a specimen from Salmon Creek, eight miles west of Rogerson, Twin Falls County, Idaho. See also Krutzsch and Heppenstall (1955:127) who record a specimen from, eastern Utah as far north as, Desert Springs which is 10 mi. SW Ouray, Uintah County. _=Corynorhinus rafinesquii pallescens=_ Miller. Long-eared Bat.--Formerly, the northernmost record of the long-eared bat in Utah was from east of Springville, Utah County. Specimens are now available from Goldhill, Tooele County, and from South Fork, Ogden River, Weber County. Professor J. S. Stanford, Department of Zoology, Utah State Agricultural College, informed us (by letter) that this bat is the common cave bat in Logan Canyon, Cache County. This northern extension of known area of occurrence of approximately 100 miles indicates that it probably is state-wide in distribution in suitable habitats. It can be inferred from Hall (1946:161) that the range of _C. r. intermedius_ in Nevada extended northeastward into northwestern Utah, and Davis (1939:124) reported specimens from Bingham and Bannock counties, Idaho, that he referred to the above mentioned subspecies. This led Stanford to comment (_in litt._) that bats of this species from northern Utah in Cache County might be _C. r. intermedius_. Insofar as we are aware, _C. r. pallescens_ differs from _C. r. intermedius_ only in being slightly paler. Our specimens from Goldhill and South Fork of the Ogden River are not beyond the range of color of specimens from elsewhere in the state that are referable to _C. r. pallescens_. Inasmuch as specimens are not available from Logan Canyon, we deem it best pending the acquisition of specimens from that locality to refer all members of this species from Utah to the subspecies _C. r. pallescens_. _=Marmota flaviventer nosophora=_ Howell. Yellow-bellied Marmot.--Durrant (1952:101) did not indicate that any species of the genus _Marmota_ occurred on the mountains within the basin of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville. Furthermore, he commented (_op. cit._:502) upon the dearth of sciurids within this basin. One specimen, No. 10,905, of the subspecies _M. f. nosophora_ has been taken from South Willow Canyon, 10,000 feet, base of Deseret Peak, Stansbury Mountains, Tooele County. This specimen is noteworthy not only in that it extends the known range of this kind of mammal 50 miles to the west in Utah, but in that it is well within the basin of the ancient lake. The marmot is common in the Wasatch Mountains on the eastern mainland of Lake Bonneville, but to date has not been found on the Oquirrh Mountains immediately to the west. The Oquirrh Mountains are interposed between the Stansbury and Wasatch mountains. The presence of the marmot on the Stansbury Mountains indicates that it probably occurs also on the Oquirrh Mountains. _=Citellus beldingi crebrus=_ Hall. Belding Ground Squirrel.--Durrant (1952:113) had only two specimens of this ground squirrel from Standrod, Boxelder County. Additional specimens have been obtained from the following localities in northwestern Boxelder County: Grouse Creek, Park Valley, Grouse Creek Mountains, 12 miles northwest of Grouse Creek, and Goose Creek. _C. b. crebrus_ now is known to inhabit all the major drainages of the Raft River, Goose Creek, and Grouse Creek mountains. In addition to extending the known area of occurrence of this animal in Utah, these specimens prove also that this species is not restricted to the Snake River Drainage as Durrant (1952:113) supposed, but occurs also in the Great Basin Drainage. _=Citellus richardsonii elegans=_ (Kennicott). Richardson Ground Squirrel.--Recently, Hansen (1953:132) reported on specimens of this species from Rich and Summit counties. Additional specimens are now available from Highway 165 [2 mi. E Summit--Daggett Co. Line], 2 miles south of Utah-Wyoming State Line; 5 miles west of Manila, and one mile northeast of Manila (Carnegie Museum). These localities are in Daggett County. The occurrence of these ground squirrels in Rich, Summit and Daggett counties suggests that they occur along the entire northern piedmont of the Uinta Mountains. _=Citellus lateralis trepidus=_ (Taylor). Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel.--Durrant (1952:126) estimated that practically all of the area in Utah that is within the Great Basin might be included in the range of this subspecies. Actually, he had specimens from only the Raft River Mountains in northwestern Boxelder County. He included sight records from the Deep Creek Mountains and from the Oquirrh Mountains. Subsequently two specimens, numbers 7469A and 7470A, were obtained from the Deep Creek Mountains. To date neither specimens nor subsequent sight records have been obtained from the Oquirrh Mountains, and we are of the opinion that Durrant erred, and that the golden-mantled ground squirrel does not inhabit these mountains. Therefore, it seems at this writing that this subspecies, in Utah, occurs only in the extreme western and northwestern parts of the state in the Deep Creek and Raft River mountains, and not within the basin of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville as formerly supposed. _=Eutamias umbrinus umbrinus=_ (J. A. Allen). Uinta Chipmunk.--Two specimens, numbers 10,236 and 10,237, from the junction of Argyle and Minnie Maud creeks, Carbon County, prove that members of this subspecies occur on the West Tavaputs Plateau, which is outside the range ascribed to this subspecies by White (1953:572) and by Durrant (1952:142). The grayish color of these specimens and the reduction of ochraceous pigments constitute basis for referring the specimens to _E. u. umbrinus_, and not to _E. u. adsitus_ or _E. u. montanus_. _E. u. umbrinus_ on the West Tavaputs Plateau is separated from _E. u. montanus_ on the East Tavaputs Plateau by the Green River and its deep chasm. _=Perognathus formosus incolatus=_ Hall. Long-tailed Pocket Mouse.--Prior to the description of this subspecies by Hall (1941:56), animals of this species had not been reported from within the basin of the Pleistocene Lake Bonneville. When Durrant (1952) prepared his manuscript he had but a single specimen from western Millard County and one nearby record (Fautin, 1946:280). Additional specimens are known from the following localities: junction of Trout Creek and Birch Creek, Deep Creek Mountains, Tooele County; six miles north of Ibapah, Tooele County; five miles south of Timpie, Tooele County; north end of Newfoundland Mountains, Boxelder County; and Groome, Boxelder County. These occurrences show that the species is not restricted to the extreme western part of the state, but occurs in suitable habitats throughout the basin of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville. The known range is extended approximately 150 miles north and 40 miles east. _=Perognathus parvus trumbullensis=_ Benson. Great Basin Pocket Mouse.--Durrant (1952:477), suspecting that this mouse occurred in Utah, included the subspecies _P. p. trumbullensis_ in his hypothetical list. Numerous specimens are now available from the following localities: Pine Valley Mountains, Enterprise Reservoir, and 19 miles west of Enterprise, Washington County; Bown's Reservoir, Snow Ranch, Hall Ranch, Steep Creek, Garfield County; Aquarius Guard Station, Aquarius Plateau, Wayne County. Insofar as we are aware, these occurrences are the first to be recorded from Utah, and extend the known range of this subspecies 150 miles northward. The specimens from Washington County are paler than those from Garfield County, and this pallor indicates intergradation with the subspecies _P. p. olivaceus_. Of animals from the Aquarius Plateau, those from the eastern and southern localities are pale and have a marked suffusion of ochraceous in the upper parts, whereas those from the western and northern localities are extremely dark owing to a heavy suffusion of black in the upper parts. The skulls of animals from the Aquarius Plateau resemble those of _P. p. trumbullensis_ in the majority of diagnostic characters. In some few characters, nevertheless, the skulls resemble those of _P. p. olivaceus_, and in other characters are intermediate between these two named subspecies. In shape and size of the interparietal, in slightly longer nasals, and in slightly greater alveolar length of upper molariform teeth, animals from the Aquarius Plateau differ from either of the aforementioned subspecies. All characters considered, we deem it best to refer these specimens to the subspecies _P. p. trumbullensis_. _=Thomomys talpoides bridgeri=_ Merriam. Northern Pocket Gopher.--An adult female, Catalogue No. 25667 of the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas, skin with skull, was trapped, on 30 June 1948, 14 miles south and 2 miles east of Robertson, 9,300 feet, in Summit County, Utah, by James O. Lonnquist (original number 146). This is the first record of this subspecies from Utah, and raises to 37 the named kinds of pocket gophers known from Utah. _=Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis=_ (Baird). Western Harvest Mouse.--Durrant (1952:295) reported no harvest mice from the Uinta Basin in northeastern Utah. One specimen, No. 10,239, was obtained from two miles east of Duchesne, Duchesne County. This specimen extends the known range in Utah 50 miles northward, and indicates that the harvest mouse of the subspecies _R. m. megalotis_ occurs throughout the Uinta Basin. _=Onychomys leucogaster pallescens=_ Merriam. Northern Grasshopper Mouse.--Hansen obtained specimens (in alcohol) from Kennedys Hole, junction of the White and Green rivers, Uintah County. The northernmost specimens available to Durrant (1952:328) were from one mile east of Greenriver, Grand County. These specimens from Uintah County extend the known range 80 miles to the north, and substantiate Durrant's conclusion that this subspecies occurs east of the Green and Colorado rivers. _=Clethrionomys gapperi uintaensis=_ Doutt. Red-backed Mouse.--Previously, the red-backed mouse in Utah was known only from the Uinta and Wasatch mountains. The southernmost localities from which specimens were available were in northern Wasatch County and southern Salt Lake County. Durrant (1952:355) supposed that the species ranged southward to Mount Timpanogos in Utah County. One specimen, No. 10,075, from the summit, 18 miles east of Mayfield, Sanpete County, and 4 from Ephraim Canyon, 15 miles east of Ephraim, Sanpete County, show that this subspecies occurs also on the Wasatch Plateau of central Utah. These latter specimens extend the known range of the red-backed mouse in Utah approximately 100 miles southward. Owing to the practically continuous nature of the central mountain ranges of Utah, students of mammals of Utah usually suspect that most montane mammals occur throughout these mountain ranges. The red-backed mouse has been sought for in vain in the mountains south of the Wasatch Plateau. Suitable habitats for this mouse occur throughout the Fishlake Mountains, Thousand Lake Mountains and the Aquarius Plateau, but despite intensive collecting, none has been obtained from these areas. _=Phenacomys intermedius intermedius=_ Merriam. Heather Vole.--The heather vole, while not rare, is uncommon in Utah. Durrant (1952:360) had but eight specimens from various localities in Summit, Wasatch, Salt Lake and Utah counties and supposed that the species was restricted to the western Uinta Mountains and southern Wasatch Mountains. In the summers of 1952 and 1953, intensive collecting of mammals was carried out on Boulder Mountain and the Aquarius Plateau, in Wayne and Garfield counties. Two specimens, nos. 8956 and 9074, were obtained from Spectacle Lake, Boulder Mountain, Garfield County. These specimens extend the known area of occurrence 175 miles southward in Utah. No specimens are known from the areas between Mount Timpanogos in Utah County, and Boulder Mountain in Garfield County. We suspect, however, that when this intervening area has been thoroughly studied, the heather vole, like many other montane mammals, will be found throughout the entire length of the central mountain ranges. _=Microtus pennsylvanicus modestus=_ (Baird). Pennsylvanian Meadow Mouse.--In Utah this mouse was known only from wet meadows in valleys immediately west of the Wasatch Mountains, as far south as a place 2 miles south of Provo (Hall and Cockrum, 1953:410). Norman V. Chamberlain collected several specimens "near" Koosharem Reservoir, Sevier County. These extend the known range of this subspecies 110 miles southward, and suggest that Pennsylvanian meadow mice occur, in suitable habitat, all along the eastern margin of the Great Basin in Utah, at least as far south as Sevier County. All northern specimens are from the drainages of Utah Lake and Great Salt Lake, but these specimens from Sevier County are from the Sevier River Drainage. This species requires a fairly moist environment, and such habitat exists between the aforementioned drainages which are practically interconnected by Mona Reservoir and its adjacent areas of springs. _=Zapus princeps utahensis=_ Hall. Big Jumping Mouse.--Durrant (1952:388) reported a specimen from Puffer Lake, Beaver Mountains, Beaver County. He supposed that this mouse occurred also at high elevations still farther south in Utah. Subsequently, two specimens were obtained from Garfield County; No. 9006 from Steep Creek, 12 miles north of Boulder and No. 9071 from East Fork of Boulder Creek, 10 miles north of Boulder. These two specimens extend the known range of jumping mice in Utah 75 miles southeastward. Several specimens have been obtained also from the Fishlake Plateau, and further bear out Durrant's supposition that these mammals occur on all of the high mountains of central Utah, at least as far south as the Aquarius Plateau. _=Urocyon cinereoargenteus scottii=_ Mearns. Gray Fox.--One skull, No. 10,240, from mouth of Birch Creek, Deep Creek Mountains, Juab County, extends the known geographic range 50 miles east from Cherry Creek Canyon, Nevada (see Hall, 1946:241). This record indicates that the species occurs in the mountainous areas on the western margins of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville, and extends the known range in Utah approximately 150 miles northward. Furthermore, this record proves that the gray fox occurs as far north in western Utah as it does in eastern Nevada, but to date none has been obtained from the mountains within the basin of the ancient lake, even though some of them are not far removed from the Deep Creek Mountains. _=Lutra canadensis nexa=_ Goldman. River Otter.--River otters are rare in a semi-arid state like Utah, and few have been preserved as scientific specimens. Durrant (1952:436) had access to but one skull from an immature animal from the Raft River Mountain area in northwestern Boxelder County. At present there are two complete specimens (skins, skulls and skeletons) in the collection of the University of Utah. They were trapped by an employee of the Utah State Fish and Game Department, and were donated to the University of Utah by J. Perry Egan, Director of the above mentioned department. They are nos. 8854 and 8855, and are from the Raft River, 2 miles south of the Utah-Idaho border, Boxelder County. _=Alces americanus shirasi=_ Nelson. Moose.--The moose is rare in Utah, and to date records of its occurrence have been based solely upon sight records. There are, nevertheless, two specimens preserved. One is a young bull (skull only) from Farmington Canyon, Davis County, in the collection of Weber College, Ogden, Utah. The other is one antler (No. 10,745) of a young bull from Henrys Fork, 16 miles south of the Utah-Wyoming border, Summit County, and it is in the collection of the University of Utah. This large cervid apparently is increasing in numbers in the state. Dale Jones of the Utah State Fish and Game Department reported to us that a herd of 25 animals was observed in 1954, in the vicinity of Haydens Peak, Bear River Drainage, Summit County. A cow and a calf were seen in the vicinity of Strawberry Reservoir, Wasatch County, in 1951, by employees of the same department. This latter locality is the most southern and eastern point of their known occurrence in Utah. _=Ovis canadensis canadensis=_ Shaw. Mountain Sheep.--Formerly, the mountain sheep was not known to occur in the La Sal Mountains in Grand and San Juan counties. On October 23, 1954, a two year old ram, No. 10,906, was killed by a deer hunter at a locality 1-1/2 miles north of La Sal, La Sal Mountains, San Juan County. This constitutes the first complete specimen (skin and skull) of a mountain sheep from Utah. According to Harold Crane, of the Utah State Fish and Game Department, this ram was running with a herd of mule deer, and was the only mountain sheep that was seen. The ram was confiscated and given to the Department of Zoology, University of Utah, for preservation as a scientific specimen. LITERATURE CITED DAVIS, W. B. 1939. The Recent Mammals of Idaho. The Caxton Printers, Ltd., Caldwell, Idaho, 400 pp., 2 full-page half tones, 33 figs. in text, April 5. DURRANT, S. D. 1952. Mammals of Utah, _taxonomy and distribution_. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 6:1-549, 91 figs. in text, 30 tables, August 10. FAUTIN, R. W. 1946. Biotic communities of the northern desert shrub biome in Western Utah. Ecol. Monogr., 16:251-310, 19 figs. in text, 33 tables, October. HALL, E. R. 1941. New heteromyid rodents from Nevada. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 54:55-61, May 20. 1946. Mammals of Nevada. Univ. California Press, Berkeley, California, xi + 710 pp., 11 pls., 485 figs. in text, July 1. HALL, E. R., and COCKRUM, E. L. 1953. A synopsis of the North American microtine rodents. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:373-498, January 15. HANSEN, R. M. 1953. Richardson ground squirrel in Utah. Jour. Mamm., 34:131-132, February 9. HARDY, R. 1941. Some notes on Utah bats. Jour. Mamm., 22:289-295, August 14. KRUTZSCH, P. H., and HEPPENSTALL, C. A. 1955. Additional distributional records of bats in Utah. Jour. Mamm., 36:126-127, February. WHITE, J. A. 1953. Taxonomy of the chipmunks, Eutamias quadrivittatus and Eutamias umbrinus. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:563-582, 6 figs. in text, December 1. _Transmitted April 16, 1955._ 25-8618 * * * * * Transcriber's Notes Italicized text is shown within _underscores_. Bold text is shown within =equal signs=. Page 72: Changed northermost to northernmost (Western Pipistrelle.--Heretofore, the northermost known specimens) 
31674	----	UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 9, No. 8, pp. 337-346, 1 fig. in text, 1 table August 15, 1956 Comments on the Taxonomic Status of Apodemus peninsulae, with Description of a New Subspecies from North China BY J. KNOX JONES, JR. UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1956 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Robert W. Wilson Volume 9, No. 8, pp. 337-346, 1 fig. in text, 1 table Published August 15, 1956 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1956 26-3854 Comments on the Taxonomic Status of Apodemus peninsulae, with Description of a New Subspecies from North China BY J. KNOX JONES, JR. In the past several years the United States National Museum has received a large number of mammals from central and southern Korea through the auspices of the Commission on Hemorrhagic Fever of the Armed Forces Epidemiological Board. Among these Korean collections are more than a hundred specimens of a murine rodent originally described as "_Micromys speciosus peninsulae_" by Oldfield Thomas but currently placed in the genus _Apodemus_. In attempting to ascertain the specific relationships of this mouse I have examined, through the generosity of Dr. David H. Johnson, Acting Curator of Mammals, most of the other Oriental specimens of the subgenus _Sylvaemus_ in the U. S. National Museum and it is on this combined material that the following comments and description are based. Three general groups of the genus _Apodemus_ are presently known to occur on the mainland of northeast Asia. One is the distinctive _Apodemus agrarius_, lone representative of the subgenus _Apodemus_. The others, both in the subgenus _Sylvaemus_ and closely resembling each other, are represented by a small animal that is currently regarded as conspecific with _Apodemus sylvaticus_ and a larger animal of which the Korean mouse, _peninsulae_, is representative. The oldest trivial name applied to the large _Sylvaemus_ is _major_ of Radde, 1862, in the combination [_Mus sylvaticus_] vrt. _major_. This is, however, twice preoccupied (see Ellerman and Morrison-Scott, 1951:566). The next available name is _peninsulae_ of Thomas, 1907, which was applied to mice from central and southern Korea (type from Mun'gyong, 110 mi. SE Seoul, Korea), and was originally proposed as a subspecies of the insular Japanese species, _Apodemus speciosus_. G. M. Allen (1940:949), who recognized _peninsulae_ as a monotypic species, was the first investigator to make the important distinction that it was not conspecific with the Japanese _speciosus_, although Hollister (1913:1-2) and Miller (1914:89) had previously used the combination _Apodemus peninsulae_, evidently with the same thought in mind. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Ventral views of skulls and left maxillary tooth-rows of two species of the genus _Apodemus_. _a._ _Apodemus flavicollis flavicollis_ (Melchior), Lolland, Denmark, adult [Male], No. 141691 USNM, ×2. _b._ _Apodemus flavicollis flavicollis_ (Melchior), Mauseklippe, Germany, young [Male], No. 112895 USNM, ×10. _c._ _Apodemus peninsulae peninsulae_ (Thomas), Central Nat'l Forest, near Pup'yong-ni, 200 m., Korea, subadult [Female], No. 300650 USNM, ×10. _d._ _Apodemus peninsulae peninsulae_ (Thomas), 6 mi. S Yongdongp'o, Korea, adult [Male], No. 299554 USNM, ×2. In comparing the ventral views of skulls note especially the size and location of incisive foramina and posterior palatine foramina as well as the breadth of mesopterygoid fossae. In comparing the left maxillary tooth-rows note especially the size of M3 and the reduced posterointernal cusp on Ml in _A. peninsulae_.] More recently, Ellerman (1949:32) and Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951:566) have arranged _peninsulae_ as a subspecies of _Apodemus flavicollis_ under the assumption that all the members of the subgenus _Sylvaemus_ on the eastern Asiatic mainland are subspecies of one or another of the species of western Europe, _A. flavicollis_ or _A. sylvaticus_. Ellerman (in Ellerman and Morrison-Scott, 1951:564) states: "The majority of the forms I distribute in a somewhat arbitrary manner between _sylvaticus_, average smaller skull, and _flavicollis_, average larger skull; occurring together nearly throughout the Palaearctic. I feel fairly sure that there are some errors of judgment in my arrangement, and equally sure that there is no other way to define species in this very large and difficult group." I have compared the specimens of _peninsulae_ available to me from central and southern Korea with specimens of _A. f. flavicollis_ from Denmark, Germany and Sweden and find, although the two are similar in many ways, that _peninsulae_ differs from _flavicollis_ in several important characters: Mammae 1-2=6 in _flavicollis_, and 2-2=8 in _peninsulae_; incisive foramina reaching level of alveoli of M1, or nearly so, in _flavicollis_, but ending conspicuously short of that level in _peninsulae_; posterior palatine foramina large in _flavicollis_ and opposite a point where M1 and M2 meet, but small in _peninsulae_ and situated farther back on the palate, opposite M2. Moreover, _peninsulae_ lacks the characteristic buffy throat patch of _flavicollis_, has a much reduced posterointernal cusp on the M1, a relatively (frequently actually) larger M3 and, on the average, a broader mesopterygoid fossa. In view of these differences, all of which appear to be constant, I consider _peninsulae_ specifically distinct from _flavicollis_. Throughout its known geographic range (see below) _peninsulae_ is evidently confined to wooded terrain, either scrub or brush types or forested areas, and the vernacular name wood mouse, therefore, seems appropriate for this species. The type specimens of _Apodemus praetor_ Miller (type from Sungari River, 60 mi. SW Kirin, Manchuria) and _Apodemus nigritalus_ Hollister (type from Tapucha, Altai Mountains, Siberia) agree with _peninsulae_ as concerns the above characters and differ from it only in minor external and cranial features. They are, therefore, here considered as subspecies of the latter. Ellerman (1949:32) and Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951:567) regarded _nigritalus_, like _peninsulae_, as a subspecies of _flavicollis_. The subspecies _praetor_, on the other hand, has generally been regarded as a synonym of _peninsulae_ by recent authors. Howell (1929:58) noted that the holotype was, "... a phenomenally large specimen such as is encountered occasionally in almost all groups of rodents." He ascribed the color differences noted by Miller to "seasonal" variation. The holotype of _praetor_ is undeniably larger than the other adult specimens listed in the original description. These paratypes and other specimens of _praetor_ available to me are approximately the same size externally and average only slightly larger cranially than specimens of _peninsulae_ from central and southern Korea. However, the dorsal coloration of _praetor_ is somewhat darker and duller than that of _peninsulae_, especially in summer pelage when _praetor_ lacks the conspicuous bright ochraceous tinge of the Korean specimens. In addition, _praetor_ has broader zygomatic plates with correspondingly deeper zygomatic notches and the color on the face of the upper incisors averages much more orange than in _peninsulae_. In the north then, wood mice range from Korea and Manchuria westward at least as far as the Altai Mountains. For mice from the intervening Siberian areas Russian workers have used the name _major_ which, as noted above, is unavailable. The exact relationships of the mice of these areas to previously named subspecies is unknown to me and I have not seen specimens of "_Mus (Alsomys) major rufulus_" of Dukelsky, 1928, the type locality of which is 75 versts (approximately 50 miles) SE Vladivostok, Siberia. It appears to be of the same species as _peninsulae_ and judging from the original description it closely resembles _praetor_. Neither have I seen specimens of the Sakhalin Island mouse, _giliacus_, which Ellerman (1949:32) regards as a subspecies of _Apodemus sylvaticus_. I feel reasonably sure, however, that it will prove to be a subspecies of _peninsulae_. In the original description _giliacus_ was referred to as, "Most closely allied to the Korean subspecies..." (Thomas, 1907:411). In China the extent of the distribution of _Apodemus peninsulae_ is also uncertain. Allen (1940:949-50) reported its occurrence from Jehol and Hopeh in the northeast, southwestward through Shansi, Shensi and eastern Kansu to Szechuan and northwestern Yunnan. Throughout most of this region it occurs with another mouse, currently regarded as conspecific with _Apodemus sylvaticus_, and the two kinds have been confused by some previous authors. Howell (1929:58), for instance, reported twelve specimens of _peninsulae_ from 65-75 mi. NE Peking but my examination of these mice indicates that only four are _peninsulae_ while the others are referrable to what is currently regarded as _Apodemus sylvaticus draco_. Another subspecies of _sylvaticus_, _A. s. orestes_, occurs in Szechuan and Yunnan and it is certain that some records of distribution ascribed to _peninsulae_ from those provinces actually represent _orestes_ (see Allen, 1940:949-50). _A. sylvaticus_ is distinguishable from _peninsulae_ by darker ears, blackish preauricular patches, dark eye rings, a noticeably smaller skull, incisive foramina that reach the level of Ml (or nearly so), much larger auditory bullae, and a more fully developed posterointernal cusp on M1. Too, _sylvaticus_ typically has 1-2=6 mammae although Allen reports finding a 2-2=8 formula in some specimens. _Apodemus latronum_, regarded as a full species by Osgood (1932:318) and G. M. Allen (1940:950) but as a subspecies of _flavicollis_ by Ellerman (1949:32) and Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951:567), also occurs in Szechuan and Yunnan. Its relatively dark color, large feet and large ears, _flavicollis_-like skull and large molar teeth immediately separate it from _peninsulae_ although the two possibly have been confused in the earlier literature. Until a complete revisionary study of the Asiatic members of the subgenus _Sylvaemus_ can be undertaken the presence of _peninsulae_ in southwestern China must remain in question. The western limits of the geographic range of _Apodemus peninsulae_ are unknown. _Apodemus gurkha_ Thomas, 1924, from Nepal is said to have 2-2=8 mammae but the description is not otherwise suggestive of close relationship to _peninsulae_. Farther to the west, _Apodemus flavicollis rusiges_ Miller, 1913, from Kashmir seems to have been properly assigned as a subspecies of _flavicollis_ (cotypes and large series in USNM). Wood mice almost certainly do not occur in the Gobi Desert. They are known as far west as the Altai Mountains to the north of the Gobi and at least as far west as Kansu (see below) to the south of it. Whether the geographic range of the species skirts the western edge of the arid regions of northern China is at present unknown; perhaps it does not. At any rate, mice available to me from the North Chinese provinces of Jehol, Shansi, Shensi and Kansu are notably different in certain external and cranial features from other known races of _Apodemus peninsulae_ and are here given subspecific recognition. All measurements are in millimeters. Capitalized color terms are from Ridgway (1912). Apodemus peninsulae sowerbyi, new subspecies _Type._--Adult female molting from winter to summer pelage, skin and skull, U. S. National Museum no. 175523, from 30 miles west of Kuei-hua-cheng, 7000 ft., northern Shansi, China; obtained on 23 May 1912 by Arthur de Carle Sowerby, original no. 456. _Distribution._--Known presently from eastern Kansu eastward through Shensi, Shansi and Hopeh to southern Jehol, probably also in northeastern Szechuan, exact limits of range unknown. _Diagnosis._--Size small for species (see measurements). Color: Upper parts (fresh summer pelage) averaging near (15'_a_) Ochraceous-Buff, suffused with blackish (especially mid-dorsally); winter pelage much paler; underparts grayish-white, individual hairs plumbeous at base, tipped with white; ears pale brownish; feet whitish above, darker below; tail bicolor, pale brownish above, whitish below. Skull: Small (see measurements); rostrum somewhat shortened and conspicuously down-curved; zygomatic notches relatively shallow; zygomatic plates narrow; braincase proportionally more inflated than in other subspecies of the species; auditory bullae moderately inflated; upper incisors slender, their faces averaging bright yellowish-orange. _Measurements._--External measurements of the holotype, followed by those of an adult male and female from the type locality, are, respectively: Length of head and body, 101, 102, 100; length of tail, 93, ----, 102; length of hind foot (_su_), 21, 21.5, 23; length of ear from notch, 14, 16, 15.5. Corresponding measurements for an adult female from 20 mi. E Taiyuan, Shansi, are: 91, 99, 23, 16. For cranial measurements see Table 1. Table Key: A: Occipitonasal length B: Zygomatic breadth C: Mastoid breadth D: Interorbital length E: Frontonasal length F: Nasal length G: Depth of skull H: Alveolar length of maxiary tooth-row TABLE 1.--CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS OF ADULTS OF SEVERAL SUBSPECIES OF APODEMUS PENINSULAE ============================================================================ Sex | | | | | | | | | and catalogue | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | number or number of | | | | | | | | | individuals averaged | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- _Apodemus peninsulae peninsulae_, various localities in central Korea Average 10 (4M, 6F) | 29.2 | 14.2 | 11.8 | 4.7 | 20.1 | 11.4 | 10.2 | 4.3 | Minimum | 28.3 | 13.8 | 11.5 | 4.6 | 19.2 | 10.8 | 9.9 | 4.1 | Maximum | 29.8 | 14.6 | 12.2 | 5.1 | 20.7 | 12.0 | 10.5 | 4.4 | _Apodemus peninsulae nigritalus_, Tapucha, Altai Mts., Siberia USNM 175164, M (type) | 28.8 | 14.8 | 12.4 | 4.5 | 20.8 | 11.7 | 11.0 | 4.4 | USNM 175171, F | 28.2 | 13.7 | 11.8 | 4.5 | 19.8 | 11.2 | 10.3 | 4.5 | _Apodemus peninsulae praetor_, Sungari River, 60 mi. SW Kirin, Manchuria USNM 197792, M (type) | 30.5 | .... | 12.5 | 4.7 | 21.5 | 12.5 | 10.3 | 4.6 | USNM 197798, F | 30.2 | 14.4 | 11.8 | 4.6 | 21.6 | 12.7 | 10.6 | 4.6 | Mukden, Manchuria USNM 197782, M | 29.5 | 14.8 | 12.4 | 4.8 | 20.6 | 12.2 | 10.5 | 4.2 | _Apodemus peninsulae sowerbyi_, Kuei-hau-cheng, Shansi USNM 175523, F (type) | 27.9 | 13.3 | 11.7 | 4.5 | 19.6 | 11.4 | 9.9 | 4.0 | USNM 175521, M | 27.6 | .... | 11.5 | 4.6 | 18.9 | 11.4 | 9.7 | 4.1 | USNM 175522, F | 27.9 | .... | 11.8 | 4.6 | 19.4 | 11.3 | 9.8 | 4.2 | 20 mi. E Taiyuan, Shansi USNM 172558, F | 27.4 | 13.8 | 11.5 | 4.6 | 19.4 | 11.6 | 10.1 | 4.4 | 12 mi. S Yenan, Shensi USNM 155072, M | 27.8 | 14.1 | .... | 4.4 | 19.5 | 11.0 | .... | 4.3 | USNM 155073, F | 27.7 | 13.3 | 11.5 | 4.5 | 19.4 | 11.0 | 10.0 | 4.2 | USNM 155075, M | 27.9 | 13.5 | 11.4 | 4.5 | 19.2 | 11.0 | 10.0 | 4.3 | Hsin-lung-shan, 65 mi. NE Peking, Jehol USNM 219229, M | 27.7 | 13.8 | 11.4 | 4.5 | 19.0 | 10.9 | 10.4 | 4.4 | 15 mi. S Lanchow, Kansu USNM 155171, M | 27.7 | 13.6 | 11.7 | 4.6 | 19.0 | 11.3 | 9.9 | 4.5 | _Comparisons._--From _Apodemus peninsulae peninsulae_ (specimens from various localities in central Korea), _A. p. sowerbyi_ differs in: External size smaller throughout, especially hind foot; upper parts, especially in summer pelage, and dorsal aspect of tail paler; skull smaller and less massive; braincase proportionally more inflated; rostrum shorter and noticeably down-curved. From _Apodemus peninsulae praetor_ of Manchuria (holotype and paratypes), _A. p. sowerbyi_ differs in most of the same ways in which it does from _peninsulae_ as well as in having more shallow zygomatic notches, narrower zygomatic plates and smaller, more slender, upper incisors. From _Apodemus peninsulae nigritalus_ of the Altai Mountains of Siberia (holotype and paratypes), _A. p. sowerbyi_ differs in: Smaller size, both external and cranial; paler dorsal coloration; less convex cranial outline in lateral view; smaller auditory bullae. _Remarks._--_Apodemus peninsulae sowerbyi_ is named in honor of the late Arthur de Carle Sowerby whose collections of mammals from North China and Manchuria have added so much to our meager knowledge of that part of the world. Four specimens from Hsin-lung-shan, 65 mi. NE Peking, here assigned to _sowerbyi_, are darker dorsally than mice from farther to the west and in this respect may show approach to _A. p. praetor_. In all other features, however, they closely resemble the new subspecies. All of the specimens of _sowerbyi_ available to me are from altitudes of 3000 feet or higher. At lower elevations in North China, destruction of wooded habitats owing to intense land-use practices has probably restricted the distribution of _sowerbyi_ primarily to hilly and mountainous areas where brushy, scrub and forest habitats still prevail. _Specimens examined._--Thirty-three, all from North China, as follows: JEHOL: Hsin-lung-shan, 65 mi. NE Peking, 3000 ft., 4. KANSU: 15 mi. S Lanchow, 7400 ft., 1. SHANSI: Chiao-cheng-shan, 90 mi. W Taiyuan, 7000-8000 ft., 4; 30 mi. W Kuei-hau-cheng, 7000 ft., 5; Lung-wang-shan, 20 mi. E Taiyuan, 4000 ft., 10; 18 mi. W Taiyuan, 5000 ft., 1; 50 mi. NW Taiyuan, 5500 ft., 4. SHENSI: 12 mi. S Yenan, 4000 ft., 4. _Apodemus peninsulae_, then, is known or suspected to occur over much of southeastern Siberia, Manchuria, Korea and North China. The western limits of its geographic range are unknown. Over this vast area only four subspecies, one newly named, can be ascribed with certainty to _peninsulae_ whereas only two other kinds, _giliacus_ of Thomas from Sakhalin and _rufulus_ of Dukelsky from extreme southeastern Siberia are probably conspecific with it, the latter possibly a synonym of _praetor_. These considerations underscore the preliminary nature of the present paper. The mammalian fauna of northeastern Asia is scarcely better known today than was that of North America in 1885 when Dr. C. Hart Merriam organized what was later to become the U. S. Biological Survey. It seems to me that the correct names of four kinds of wood mice discussed above are as follows: _Apodemus peninsulae peninsulae_ (Thomas, 1907) _Apodemus peninsulae nigritalus_ Hollister, 1913 _Apodemus peninsulae praetor_ Miller, 1914 _Apodemus peninsulae sowerbyi_ Jones, 1956 LITERATURE CITED ALLEN, G. M. 1940. The mammals of China and Mongolia. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, 2:XXVI + 621-1350, September 3. ELLERMAN, J. R. 1949. The families and genera of living rodents. British Mus., London, 3:V + 1-210, March. ELLERMAN, J. R., and T. C. S. MORRISON-SCOTT. 1951. Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals, 1758 to 1946. British Mus., London, 810 p., November 19. HOLLISTER, N. 1913. Two new mammals from the Siberian Altai. Smith. Misc. Coll., 60:1-3, March 13. HOWELL, A. B. 1929. Mammals from China in the collections of the United States National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 75:1-82, June 7. MILLER, G. S., JR. 1914. Two new murine rodents from eastern Asia. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:89-92, May 11. OSGOOD, W. H. 1932. Mammals of the Kelley-Roosevelts and Delacour Asiatic expeditions. Field Columb. Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. Series, 18:193-339, August 19. RIDGWAY, R. 1912. Color standards and color nomenclature. Washington, D. C., published by the author. THOMAS, O. 1907. The Duke of Bedford's zoological explorations in eastern Asia.--IV. A list of small mammals from the islands of Saghalien and Hokkaido. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1907:404-414, August 1. _Transmitted May 12, 1956._ 26-3854 
32159	----	Mammals from Southeastern Alaska BY ROLLIN H. BAKER AND JAMES S. FINDLEY UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1953 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Robert W. Wilson Volume 7, No. 5, pp. 473-477 Published April 21, 1954 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1954 25-1126 Mammals from Southeastern Alaska BY ROLLIN H. BAKER and JAMES S. FINDLEY The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History received from J. R. Alcorn and Albert A. Alcorn a sizable collection of mammals taken in the summer of 1951 in Alaska. In addition to visiting localities at which they had collected in 1947 and 1948 (see Baker, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:87-117, 1951) the Alcorns obtained specimens from localities not previously visited in the vicinity of Anchorage and Haines and from Sullivan Island, a small, timbered island in the Lynn Canal. A part of the funds for field work was made available by the Kansas University Endowment Association. The loan of specimens for comparative study from the Biological Surveys Collection of the United States National Museum is acknowledged. =_Sorex obscurus alascensis_= Merriam. Dusky Shrew.--Comparison of two specimens from 7 miles SSE Haines and eight from Sullivan Island (six from the northeast end of the island and two from the southeast end) with topotypes of _Sorex obscurus longicauda_ Merriam from Wrangell, Alaska, and with topotypes of _Sorex obscurus alascensis_ from Yakutat, Alaska, shows that our specimens are intermediate between the two named kinds. However in nine of ten characters these specimens more closely resemble _S. o. alascensis_ than _S. o. longicauda_. Measurements of specimens from Wrangell and from localities progressively northward along the Alaskan coast reveal a decrease in size of the skull in a clinal fashion. Specimens from Sullivan Island are larger than those from the mainland south of Haines, which are in turn larger than specimens from 9 miles W and 4 miles N of Haines (reported upon by Baker, _op. cit._). No step is apparent in this cline and assignment of specimens must be made on a somewhat arbitrary basis. Specimens from Juneau, Alaska, in the Biological Surveys Collection of the United States National Museum, were assigned by Jackson (N. Amer. Fauna, 51: 128, 1928) to _S. o. alascensis_ but seem to us to be closer to _S. o. longicauda_. =_Sorex palustris navigator_= (Baird). Water Shrew.--Two males taken on August 5, at Peters Creek, elevation 300 ft., 20 miles NE of Anchorage provide a northwestern extension of the known range of this species. In external and cranial characters the males resemble _S. p. navigator_ from 9 miles W and 4 miles N of Haines, Alaska, and from Washington County, Idaho. The specimens from Peters Creek do not agree with the description of _Sorex alaskanus_ Merriam as given by Jackson (_op. cit._:189) although one, a second year animal, has the lambdoidal crests exceptionally well developed, as does _S. alaskanus_. =_Myotis lucifugus lucifugus_= (LeConte). Little Brown Myotis.--A male taken at Peters Creek, elevation 300 ft., 20 miles NE of Anchorage, is darker than specimens assigned to this subspecies from northeastern British Columbia (Muncho Lake). Eight skins and skulls (three adults and five young of the year) and 18 specimens in alcohol taken at Screw Creek, elevation 2600 ft., mile 742 (10 miles S and 50 miles E Teslin, Yukon Territory), British Columbia, seem typical of _M. l. lucifugus_. These were obtained on August 11, 1951, at the same locality where on July 1, 1947, a single bat assigned to _M. l. alascensis_ Miller was taken (see Baker, _op. cit._:95). The latter specimen is readily distinguished by its darker color both above and below from those taken in 1951. =_Tamiasciurus hudsonicus kenaiensis_= Howell. Red Squirrel.--A female taken at Peters Creek, elevation 300 ft., 20 miles NE of Anchorage, is referred to this subspecies after comparison with the published description of _T. h. kenaiensis_ Howell (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 49:136, 1936), with specimens of _T. h. preblei_ Howell from Yerrick Creek, Alaska, and with _T. h. petulans_ (Osgood) from 1 mile S of Haines. =_Tamiasciurus hudsonicus petulans_= (Osgood). Red Squirrel.--Three specimens were taken on Chilkat Peninsula, elevation 10 ft., 7 miles SSE of Haines, Alaska, and one at the southeast end of Sullivan Island. These squirrels, taken in June and July, are molting on the sides, back and rump. Compared with the specimens from the mainland the male from Sullivan Island is paler on the back--near (_h_) Ochraceous-Tawny instead of near (14_j_) Sudan Brown (capitalized color terms from Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912)--and paler on the tail; otherwise this specimen resembles those from the mainland. =_Peromyscus maniculatus algidus_= Osgood. Deer Mouse.--Osgood (N. Amer. Fauna, 28:54, 1909) reported intergradation between _P. m. algidus_ and _P. m. hylaeus_ Osgood in the "region of Lynn Canal." One female from the mouth of the Endicott River, elevation 10 ft., seems referable to _algidus_. In comparison with two topotypes of _hylaeus_ this specimen is not so dark and more nearly agrees with _algidus_ from the Chilkat River, from 1 mile W of Haines and from Dezadeash Lake, Yukon Territory. =_Phenacomys intermedius mackenzii_= Preble. Mountain Phenacomys.--An adult female was taken on 28 July at the southwestern end of Dezadeash Lake, elevation 2400 ft., in Yukon Territory (approximately 60 miles from the Alaskan boundary north of the Lynn Canal), the same place where a specimen was obtained in 1948 (see Baker, _op. cit._:104). =_Microtus longicaudus littoralis_= Swarth. Long-tailed Vole.--Six of these voles were taken on Sullivan Island (two at the northeast end and four at the southeast end) and another was trapped on the mainland at the mouth of the Endicott River. All seven resemble _M. l. littoralis_ from the vicinity of Haines. One large adult male from the island has the following measurements: Total length, 202; length of tail, 71; length of hind foot, 21; height of ear from notch, 13. =_Microtus oeconomus macfarlani_= Merriam. Tundra Vole.--Five specimens from 5 miles NNE of Gulkana, Alaska, 1700 ft., and four from Peters Creek, elevation 300 ft., 20 miles NE of Anchorage, Alaska, are assigned to this subspecies. In color they resemble _macfarlani_ from eastern Alaska (14 miles E and 25 miles N of Fairbanks) and are darker than _M. o. operarius_ (Nelson) from Tyonek, but judging from the description by Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 17:41, 1900), are not so dark as _M. o. yakutatensis_ Merriam. These mice were taken inland from the coast. It is likely that the coastal population more nearly resembles either _operarius_ or _yakutatensis_. =_Erethizon dorsatum myops_= Merriam. Porcupine.--Skulls of two females obtained from the Chilkat Peninsula, elevation 10 ft., 7 miles SSE of Haines, Alaska, agree with those of the same sex of _myops_ from Yerrick Creek, Alaska, and from 2 miles W of the Teslin River, Yukon Territory. The skull of the older animal has the longer nasals and more pronounced cranial ridges, which perhaps indicate a tendency toward _E. d. nigrescens_ Allen, which occurs to the southward (see Anderson, Canadian Jour. Res., 21:304, 1943). _Transmitted October 8, 1953._ 
33364	----	UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 14, No. 16, pp. 475-481, 1 fig. March 2, 1964 A New Subspecies of the Fruit-eating Bat, Sturnira ludovici, from Western Mexico BY J. KNOX JONES, JR., AND GARY L. PHILLIPS UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1964 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch, Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Volume 14, No. 16, pp. 475-481, 1 fig. Published March 2, 1964 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY HARRY (BUD) TIMBERLAKE, STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1964 A New Subspecies of the Fruit-eating Bat, Sturnira ludovici, from Western Mexico BY J. KNOX JONES, JR., AND GARY L. PHILLIPS The fruit-eating bats of the genus _Sturnira_ are represented on the North American mainland by two species, _S. lilium_ and _S. ludovici_. The former, in most areas the smaller of the two, is widely distributed in México and Central America and is common in many places. On the other hand, _S. ludovici_, described by Anthony (1924:8) from near Gualea, Ecuador, generally has been regarded as rare; insofar as we can determine only 20 specimens of the species have been recorded previously from North America (Costa Rica, Honduras, and México). In 1961 (M. Raymond Lee) and 1962 (Percy L. Clifton), field representatives of the Museum of Natural History collected mammals in western México. Among the bats obtained by them were 23 specimens of _S. ludovici_, which represent an heretofore undetected subspecies that is named and described below. Sturnira ludovici occidentalis, new subspecies _Holotype._--Adult female, skin and skull, no. 92798 Museum of Natural History, The University of Kansas, from Plumosas, 2500 feet elevation, Sinaloa; obtained on August 31, 1962, by Percy L. Clifton (original no. 2939). _Distribution._--Western México; known certainly from south-western Durango south to southern Jalisco (see Fig. 1). _Diagnosis._--Size small both externally and cranially (forearm in adults 40.4-44.1 mm., greatest length of skull 21.7-22.9); rostrum short and abruptly elevated; skull relatively broad; dorsal pelage drab brownish over-all, usually lacking epaulets (pale yellowish brown when present); ventral pelage brownish gray. _Comparisons._--From _Sturnira ludovici ludovici_, the only other subspecies of the species, _S. l. occidentalis_ differs in averaging smaller in most external and cranial dimensions (in some measurements the upper size limits of _occidentalis_ barely overlap the lower limits in specimens of _ludovici_ examined), in having a relatively broader skull with a shorter, more abruptly elevated rostrum, and in being paler both dorsally and ventrally. From _Sturnira lilium parvidens_, with which it is sympatric, _S. l. occidentalis_ usually (but not always) differs in being brownish (rather than yellowish to yellowish orange) dorsally and in lacking epaulets, and differs in the following cranial features: first upper incisors simple (rather than weakly bifid in unworn condition), larger, and more nearly straight when viewed from the front; second upper incisors reduced; lower incisors bilobate rather than trilobate; lingual cusps on m1 and m2 greatly reduced; M2 usually turned inward from M1 at distinct angle. The two species have approximately the same external and cranial dimensions in western México. _Measurements_ (in millimeters).--External measurements of the holotype are as follows: total length, 58; length of hind foot, 15; length of ear, 18; forearm (average of both), 42.5. Corresponding average and extreme measurements of 11 adults from 4 km. N Durazno, Jalisco, followed by those of eight adults from 17 km. SE Talpa, Jalisco, are: 61.9 (59-65), 60.9 (57-68); 14.1 (12-15), 13.0 (13); 16.1 (15-18), 16.0 (15-17); 42.2 (40.4-43.8), 42.9 (41.6-44.1); weight in grams, 16.8 (15-19, six specimens only), 19.2 (16.3-22.5). Cranial measurements of the holotype additional to those given in Table 1 are: condyloincisive length, 19.7; breadth across upper canines, 5.5; length of mandibular tooth-row (c-m3), 6.7. _Remarks._--The pattern of geographic variation in size in _Sturnira ludovici_ resembles that in many other species of tropical bats in North America in that individuals from the northern parts of the range are smaller than those from the south. Mexican specimens herein assigned to _S. l. ludovici_ average somewhat smaller than specimens from Central America and the northern part of South America (but are within the currently understood size limits of that subspecies) and average paler as well. Additional material is needed from central and eastern México before the limits of distribution of the two subspecies of _ludovici_ can be determined accurately. All specimens examined of the new subspecies were trapped in mist nets. The holotype was captured in a net stretched across an old road among large fruit trees situated along a small river (a tributary of the Río del Baluarte). Tropical deciduous vegetation grew in the narrow valley of the river but the adjacent hills supported oak. A specimen of _Artibeus jamaicensis jamaicensis_ was netted along with the holotype and on the previous night, August 30, one individual each of _Glossophaga soricina leachii_ and _Sturnira lilium parvidens_ were taken in the same net. Baker and Greer (1962:69) also reported the two species of _Sturnira_ as netted together 6 mi. S Pueblo Nuevo in adjacent Durango. TABLE 1.--SOME MEASUREMENTS OF ADULTS OF TWO SUBSPECIES OF STURNIRA LUDOVICI. Table Legend: Col. A: Number of specimens averaged, or catalogue number, and sex Col. B: Length of forearm Col. C: Greatest length of skull Col. D: Zygomatic breadth Col. E: Mastoid breadth Col. F: Interorbital constriction Col. G: Length of maxillary tooth-row Col. H: Breadth across upper molars ==========================+======+======+======+======+=====+=====+===== A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- _Sturnira ludovici occidentalis_, holotype 92798 KU, (Female) | 42.5 | 22.0 | 12.5 | 11.4 | 5.3 | 6.1 | 7.5 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- 1/2 mi. W Revolcaderos, Durango 5698 MSU, (Female) | 43.7 | 22.6 | 13.1 | 11.9 | 6.0 | 6.3 | 7.8 5699 MSU, (Female) | 42.3 | 22.2 | 12.7 | 11.3 | 5.6 | 5.9 | 7.5 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- 17 km. SE Talpa, Jalisco Average 8 (4 Male, 4 Female) | 42.9 | 22.5 | 12.9 | 11.5 | 5.9 | 6.2 | 7.7 Minimum | 41.6 | 21.7 | 12.6 | 10.9 | 5.7 | 6.0 | 7.5 Maximum | 44.1 | 22.9 | 13.5 | 11.8 | 6.3 | 6.4 | 7.9 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- 20 km. WNW Purificación, Jalisco 92811 KU, (Male) | 42.0 | 22.6 | 13.2 | 12.0 | 6.0 | 6.2 | 7.7 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- 4 km. N Durazno, Jalisco Average 11 (1 Male, 10 Female) | 42.4 | 22.5 | 13.0 | 11.4 | 5.8 | 6.2 | 7.7 Minimum | 40.4 | 21.8 | 12.6 | 10.8 | 5.3 | 5.8 | 7.5 Maximum | 43.8 | 22.9 | 13.4 | 11.8 | 6.1 | 6.3 | 8.0 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- _Sturnira ludovici ludovici_, 10 mi. SW Villa Juárez, Puebla 67399 KU, (Female) | 44.2 | 24.0 | 13.3 | 11.8 | 5.9 | 6.4 | 8.1 67400 KU, (Female) | 42.9 | 23.2 | 13.7 | 11.9 | 6.0 | 6.3 | 8.1 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- 11 km. W Quiroga, Michoacán 95703 UMMZ, (Male) | | 23.5 | 13.5 | 11.6 | 5.9 | 6.2 | 7.6 95704 UMMZ, (Female) | | 23.0 | 12.8 | 11.0 | 5.7 | 6.3 | 8.0 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- Vista Hermosa, Oaxaca 91635 KU, (Female) | 45.1 | 23.9 | 13.4 | 11.8 | 6.0 | 6.5 | 8.0 91636 KU, (Female) | 46.0 | 23.6 | 13.1 | 11.9 | 5.7 | 6.7 | 8.0 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- La Cruz Grande, La Paz, Honduras 126791 AMNH, (Female) | 44.0 | 23.6 | 13.5 | 11.8 | 6.1 | 6.3 | 8.1 126811 AMNH, (Female)[1] | 45.5 | 24.6 | 13.2 | 12.0 | 6.3 | 7.2 | 8.2 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- Sierra Negra, Sierra de Perijá, Colombia (after Hershkovitz, 1949) Minimum (2 Male, 2 Female) | 44.2 | 22.9 | 13.2 | | 6.2 | 6.5 | Maximum | 46.0 | 24.2 | 13.8 | | 6.7 | 7.0 | --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- near Gualea, Ecuador 67328 AMNH, (Male)[2] | | 25.0 | 14.0 | 12.4 | 6.3 | | 8.4 67329 AMNH, (Male) | 45.3 | 24.9 | 13.9 | 12.2 | 6.1 | 7.0 | 8.4 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+----- [1] Holotype of _Sturnira hondurensis_ (measurements after Goodwin, 1940:2). [2] Holotype of _Sturnira ludovici ludovici_ (measurements after Anthony, 1924:9). Other specimens of _S. l. occidentalis_ were taken under the following circumstances: 17 km. SE Talpa, Jalisco (night of November 3-4, 1962)--nine individuals netted over the Río Mascota in "pine-oak zone" along with representatives of _S. l. parvidens_, _Artibeus toltecus_, _Chiroderma salvini_, _Eptesicus fuscus miradorensis_, _Lasiurus borealis teliotis_, and _Rhogeëssa gracilis_; 20 km. WNW Purificación, Jalisco (night of November 20-21, 1962)--two specimens captured in a mist net stretched beneath branches of a fig tree at the edge of the Río Jicote in which _Glossophaga commissarisi_, _S. l. parvidens_, _Artibeus turpis nanus_, and _Artibeus lituratus palmarum_ also were taken; 4 km. N Durazno, Jalisco (nights of November 21-22 and 22-23, 1961)--11 specimens, of which 10 were females, netted in company with _G. s. leachii_, _S. l. parvidens_, _A. j. jamaicensis_, _A. toltecus_, _Centurio senex_, and _L. b. teliotis_ over a stream in a small canyon that supported "fairly dense stands of very tall deciduous trees." Five of the 10 females from 4 km. N Durazno were pregnant; each contained a single embryo. Crown-rump length of the embryos averaged 26.8 (24-30) mm. No gross reproductive activity was evident in other females of _S. l. occidentalis_ collected. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Distribution of _Sturnira ludovici_ in North America. 1. _S. l. ludovici._ 2. _S. l. occidentalis._] _Specimens examined._--A total of 26, arranged from north to south, as follows: DURANGO: 1/2 mi. W Revolcaderos, 6600 ft., 2 (MSU); 6 mi. S Pueblo Nuevo, 3000 ft., 1 (MSU). SINALOA: Plumosas, 2500 ft., 1 (the holotype). JALISCO: 17 km. SE Talpa, 5200 ft., 9; 20 km. WNW Purificación, 1400 ft., 2; 4 km. N. Durazno, 11. Specimens of _S. l. ludovici_ used in comparisons included a paratype (AMNH) from near Gualea, Ecuador, a specimen from Mindo, Ecuador, two specimens from La Cruz Grande, La Paz, Honduras (AMNH--paratypes of "_Sturnira hondurensis_"), and the following from México: 10 mi. SW Villa Juárez, 4850 ft., Puebla, 2; 11 km. W Quiroga, about 7000 ft., Michoacán, 2 (UMMZ); and Vista Hermosa, 1500 meters, Oaxaca, 5. _Acknowledgements._--For the loan of comparative materials we are grateful to R. H. Baker of The Museum, Michigan State University (MSU), W. H. Burt of the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan (UMMZ), and R. G. Van Gelder of the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH). Specimens listed above that bear no designation as to collection are in the Museum of Natural History of The University of Kansas. Literature Cited ANTHONY, H. E. 1924. Preliminary report on Ecuadorean mammals. No. 6. Amer. Mus. Novit., 139:1-9, October 20. BAKER, R. H., and J. K. GREER 1962. Mammals of the Mexican state of Durango. Publ. Mus., Michigan State Univ., Biol. Ser., 2:25-154, 4 pls., 6 figs., August 27. GOODWIN, G. G. 1940. Three new bats from Honduras and the first record of _Enchisthenes harti_ (Thomas) for North America. Amer. Mus. Novit., 1075:1-3, June 27. HERSHKOVITZ, P. 1949. Mammals of northern Colombia. Preliminary report no. 5: Bats (Chiroptera). Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 99:429-454, fig. 38, May 10. _Transmitted June 24, 1963._ 
33507	----	NUMBER 123 JULY 10, 1922 OCCASIONAL PAPERS OF THE MUSEUM OF ZOOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY THE MAMMALS OF WASHTENAW COUNTY, MICHIGAN BY NORMAN A. WOOD Three natural physiographic divisions cross Washtenaw County from northwest to southeast. The northwestern part of the county is occupied by the rough interlobate moraine of loose-textured soil, the Interlobate Lake District; a broad Clay Morainic Belt occupies most of the central part of the county; and in the southeastern corner of the county is found a low Lake Plain, once the bed of glacial Lake Maumee. The Interlobate Lake District has a conspicuous system of moraines, making up a most irregular land surface. Steep knolls 100 to 200 feet in height are closely associated with basins, which are often deep, and some of which are occupied by lakes. Small, undrained depressions occur everywhere, producing thousands of acres of swamp and marsh land. The Clay Morainic Belt occupies the region from just below Portage Lake to Ypsilanti. It is composed of glacial till plains and clay moraines extending from northeast to southwest. This area includes the highest land in the county, one hill exceeding and several approaching 1100 feet in altitude. Most of the area is high and rolling. The old beach, marking the limits of the Lake Plain District, runs northeast from Ypsilanti to the county line above Cherry Hill, and southwest through Stony Creek to a point on the county line about eight miles west of Milan. The native upland forests of the Interlobate Moraine District were composed chiefly of red, yellow, and white oak, with some smooth-bark hickory and sugar maple and a few shag-bark hickories. Here were also large areas of creeping juniper and a few small patches of ground hemlock (yew). On the flood-plains of the rivers and lakes were quite extensive swampy forests of soft maple, black ash, and white elm. Swamp oak and whitewood grew commonly in the drier situations toward the edge of the swamp conditions. The red-bud and red cedar were characteristic of the river banks. White pine probably never grew in the county, although a few trees occur on the south bank of the Huron River near Hamburg, a few miles north of the county line. Tamarack bogs, some of large size, are abundant in the Interlobate Moraine District and occur commonly also in the Clay Morainic District, but are practically wanting in the Lake Plain District. The Clay Morainic District was originally dominated by forests of oak and hickory. Several kinds of oaks, white ash, and several species of hickories, with shag-bark most characteristic, were most abundant. Mixed with these were elm, beech, sugar maple, black walnut, and butternut. On the higher ground many stands of quaking aspen were found. The forest was quite dense and little underbrush normally occurred. Tamarack bogs were common, and a small stand of black spruce occurred at the edge of Independence Lake. There are few flood-plains along the Huron River in this district, but along the river's edge were a few cottonwoods and sycamores, and many willows, some of large size. On the steep bluffs along the river was often a heavy growth of red cedar; and some large areas of procumbent juniper occurred. In this district were several open, level, sandy plains covered with a scattered growth of white and bur oaks and an undergrowth of hazel brush. These were known to the pioneers as "oak openings" or "plains." Lodi Plains in Lodi Township, Bur Oak Plains in Manchester Township, Sharon Plains in Sharon Township, and Boyden's Plains in Webster Township were the largest of these natural openings in Washtenaw County. On the low lands of the Lake Plain District great forests of black ash, elm, whitewood, soft maple, red-bud, swamp oak, and bur oak were found by the early settlers. Large sycamore trees were found along the river banks, these following the Huron River up a short distance beyond Ann Arbor and occurring all along the Raisin and Saline rivers. The paw paw and pin oak were found rarely in the southeastern part of the county. Along the small streams in this district were extensive marshes which were evidently old beaver meadows. About the edges of the marshes were fringes of tamaracks. At the beginning of the nineteenth century Washtenaw County was an unbroken wilderness, and deer, wolves, bear, and other large and small fur-bearing animals were abundant. A few white trappers were in the region, and the Indians frequently passed through on the old Tecumseh Trail to Detroit, where they went to trade. In 1809 three Frenchmen established a trading-post at Ypsilanti, where the Tecumseh Trail crossed the Huron River, and for several years they traded here with the Indians. In 1823 the first permanent settlement in the county was made by Benjamin Woodruff and two others at Woodruff's Grove, not far from the present site of Ypsilanti. A settlement was made at Ann Arbor in 1824, and many pioneers arrived in the county during the next few years. With the coming of the settlers and the clearing of the forests the natural mammal habitats were greatly altered or destroyed. This, together with the hunting by the settlers, caused the gradual disappearance of the larger mammals, such as the cougar, bear, wolf, lynx, and deer. The clearings of the settlers created new habitats which were gradually occupied by species better adapted to civilization, such as the mole, woodchuck, ground squirrel, fox squirrel, and skunk, and also the house mouse and Norway rat, which were brought in unintentionally by the settlers. For sixty-five years I have lived almost constantly in Washtenaw County and I have seen the latter part of the exploitation of the forests of the county and the extermination of most of the larger mammals. From my father, who settled in the county in 1836, and other old pioneers I have drawn extensively for information about the early mammals of the county. Much use has also been made of information contained in the Michigan Historical Collections. The specimens on which the records here are based are mostly preserved in the Museum of Zoology. For considerable assistance in the preparation of the manuscript of this paper I am indebted to L. R. Dice, Curator of Mammals in the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. LIST OF SPECIES _Didelphis virginiana virginiana._ Virginia Opossum.--This species is rare in the county. One was taken by my father, Jessup S. Wood, in 1845, in Lodi Township. We have later records for Ann Arbor, Dexter, Manchester, Saline, and Scio Township. The last recorded specimen was taken by some boys in November, 1921, just south of the Oakland County line. February 5, 1912, a trapper took a specimen near Ann Arbor on a night when the temperature was about 10° F. below zero. _Scalopus aquaticus machrinus._ Prairie Mole.--The mole was rare or absent from the county when first settled, but it has gradually increased and has spread over most of the cultivated lands. It is most common in sandy or gravelly loams, and is absent from the hard clay soils. I remember the first appearance of the species on the old Wood homestead in Lodi Township about 1870. It soon became common. _Condylura cristata._ Star-nosed Mole.--Although not very rare in this county, it is seldom seen. We have records for Lodi Township, Ann Arbor, Webster Township, Ypsilanti, and Chelsea. It prefers low, marshy land near the water, and much of its food consists of aquatic insects, which it secures by swimming. It is not as well adapted for burrowing as the preceding species, so it lives in softer soil. May 8, 1913, a nest containing six half-grown young was found by Kitt Cobb in marshy ground beside the Huron River at Portage Lake. The nest was in a good-sized cavity near the surface of the ground and was lined with dried grass. This species sometimes comes out on the surface of the ground, where I have found several individuals in early spring, most of them dead. February 10, 1907, near Ann Arbor, A. D. Tinker heard one tunneling in the snow and dug it out. _Sorex personatus._ Masked Shrew.--In this county the masked shrew is usually found in sphagnum and tamarack bogs. There are records for a tamarack bog, three miles south of Ann Arbor, and for Honey Creek, three miles west of Ann Arbor. I have found it mostly under old logs and in stumps in rather moist situations. _Blarina brevicauda talpoides._ Short-tailed Shrew.--Common in swamps, woodlands, and even in meadows, where it has its own runways and also uses those of the meadow mouse, on which it largely feeds. This shrew is diurnal as well as nocturnal, and I have often seen it in its runways. It is active all winter, and its tunnels may often be seen in the snow. While trapping in Steere's Swamp, south of Ann Arbor, a _Synaptomys cooperi_ in a trap was eaten by one of these shrews, which was later caught in the same trap. _Cryptotis parva._ Small Shrew.--The first record for the county was obtained in 1902 at Ann Arbor. In February, 1904, one was found in a barn three miles east of Ann Arbor. At Portage Lake, in 1916, a house cat brought two individuals to her kittens on October 29 and 31, respectively. The specimens taken by me were found in grassy places, usually where briers and shrubs were intermingled with the grass, but not in the woods. _Myotis lucifugus lucifugus._ Little Brown Bat.--Almost every winter individuals have been found in the building of the Museum of Zoology, at Ann Arbor, where they have been awakened by the heat long before insects were flying about. Max Peet took one at Ypsilanti June 6, 1904. _Myotis subulatus subulatus._ Say Bat.--In 1902 one was found alive in one of the buildings of the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor and was kept in a cage from February 26 to March 6, when it died. _Lasionycteris noctivagans._ Silver-haired Bat.--A female which seemed to have an injured wing was picked up at Ann Arbor by A. G. Ruthven, June 13, 1910. It contained two large embryos. This species is rare in this county. _Eptesicus fuscus fuscus._ Large Brown Bat.--Common at Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti. It is often found in buildings in winter. We have records for Ann Arbor every month except September, October, and November. Of all the bats this one is the most common about dwellings, and it is the one that most often enters houses at night in search of insects. Perhaps it is attracted by the light, as I have often seen it feeding about the street lights. _Nycteris borealis borealis._ Red Bat.--Common at Ann Arbor, and there is one record for Ypsilanti. At Ann Arbor there are records from April 30, in 1919, to July 4, in 1921. Also one was taken in November, 1917. On June 12, 1903, a female with two young attached to the underside was found hanging in a tree in Ann Arbor. The young were naked and blind and quite small. June 10, 1908, another female was found in a similar situation with three half-grown young attached. _Nycteris cinerea._ Hoary Bat.--We have records for Ann Arbor, Bridgewater Township, Manchester, and Portage Lake. Our dates run from September 5 to October 15; but in December, 1891, one was found in a barn and was kept alive for several weeks. _Ursus americanus._ Black Bear.--Formerly common, and one of the last of the larger animals of the county to be exterminated. The last one known to be in the county was killed in October, 1875, in the big marsh west of Saline. Mr. George Inman, one of the pioneers of Lodi Township, told me that he had seen one just killed a few miles west of Ypsilanti in 1852. One was killed in Pittsfield Township in 1835. Black or brown is the normal color in this state, but I have heard of one albino which was taken in Bay County not many years ago. _Canis lycaon._ Timber Wolf.--When the county was first settled the wolves were so destructive that it was difficult to keep any domestic animals. As late as 1840, 30 sheep were killed for a neighbor of my father's in Lodi Township; and another neighbor was himself chased by a pack in the winter of 1836. In October, 1834, a large wolf was seen by Mr. S. P. Allen near Ypsilanti. In looking over the county records I find that in 1837 a bounty of five dollars each was paid to four residents for eight wolf scalps; in 1838 eight more bounties of eight dollars each were paid; and up to 1839 bounties to a total amount of $178 had been paid. The records for the next twelve years are not available, but as late as 1853 two wolf bounties of eight dollars each were paid to residents of the county. Some of these probably refer to coyotes. We have one record of a black wolf for the county. _Canis latrans._ Brush Wolf, Coyote.--In the History of Washtenaw County[1] there is a full-page picture of hunting the prairie wolves in an early day, which shows men on horseback in oak openings, rounding up the wolves. In the same volume is an account by Mrs. H. L. Noble, saying that the wolves would "come at evening and stay about the cabin all night, keeping up a serenade that would almost chill the blood in my veins." These were no doubt coyotes. In 1905 I mounted a large male, weighing 45 pounds, which had been shot in Sharon Township, March 10, by Mr. Keeler. Another is reported to have been seen in the same township in 1910. [Footnote 1: History of Washtenaw County, Michigan, p. 67, 1881.] _Vulpes fulva._ Red Fox.--The early settlers report the red fox as being quite common and destructive to small lambs, poultry, and game. Owing to its cunning this species has been able to live and increase in spite of much hunting and trapping. It is nocturnal as a rule, though I have seen them often in the daytime catching mice on the marshes. In April, 1883, a den was found in Lodi Township, and by careful watching the young could be seen playing about the entrance to the den while waiting for their mother to bring them food. The young in this den were moved to other dens every week or so, and to my certain knowledge were moved three times before they were dug out by a friend and myself. One transfer was for more than one-third of a mile. There were six of them about the size of small cats. These dens seem to have been woodchuck holes dug out and enlarged. Some were in hillsides, but some were on level ground. The den dug out was an old woodchuck hole. It extended about 25 feet into a bank, with a large nest chamber at the end about six feet from the top of the ground. A second entrance to the tunnel led down from the top of the bank and joined the tunnel about 12 feet from the nest. Some dried grass was noted in the nest chamber. A black fox was taken in Pittsfield Township in 1878, and I have heard of another being seen at a later date. _Urocyon cinereoargenteus cinereoargenteus._ Gray Fox.--This small fox persisted in this county for many years. I saw one in Lodi Township in 1866 which had been treed by a dog. In October, 1866, two were shot near Saline by J. H. Bortle. The last one known to me in the county was taken in Steere's Swamp, near Ann Arbor, in the winter of 1882. The species is very local, living in swamps and woods, which it rarely leaves. It has a sharp bark which is heavier than that of the red fox. _Procyon lotor lotor._ Raccoon.--In this county the raccoon was formerly very common, according to the early settlers, and did much damage to poultry and to the corn when in the milk. In return it served as food and its skin was both an article of dress and a medium of exchange, a coon-skin being valued at 25 cents. It was still very common in Lodi Township in 1870-80 and furnished the sport of "cooning," when it often led both dogs and men a tiresome chase through woods and swamps and often escaped to its den in some big hollow tree. When taken young it makes an interesting but very mischievous pet, and cannot be allowed loose in the house. I once had three as pets, and nearly all kinds of food given them were treated to a bath before eaten. It is omnivorous in its food habits and eats all kinds of fish, flesh, eggs, apples, berries, and is especially fond of green corn. On this food the coon grows fat, and when winter comes curls up in some den tree and sleeps through the winter, sometimes alone, and sometimes with several others. I have known of seven being found in a big hollow tree in Lodi Township. The latter part of the winter, during the warm spells, I have found tracks in the snow and have followed the tracks for miles as they visited other dens. The species is not strictly nocturnal, and I have often seen coons sunning themselves on limbs and have also found them on the ground feeding in the daytime. I once found a small one in the water of a little brook, where it was nearly drowned and was uttering a shrill, piteous cry. It had probably fallen from a log into the stream. The young grow slowly and generally stay with the parents until a year old. They do not obtain their full growth until about the third year. They vary much in size, weighing from 15 to 40 pounds. One caught near Ann Arbor in November, 1905, weighed 30 pounds, and the blanket of fat under the skin weighed five pounds. The heaviest Michigan raccoon known to me was taken near Edmore, Montcalm County, May 10, 1904, and weighed 56 pounds. The call is a shrill tremulo cry, almost like a whistle, and on a still night may be heard for a long distance. When caught by a dog it sometimes utters a snarling cry, from rage or pain. The color varies in shades of gray and black, and we have a dozen records of white or albino raccoons from this county, and half that number of black or melanistic ones. _Mustela pennantii pennantii._ Fisher.--Henry Wilson, an old pioneer of Dexter, told me that he killed a large male in February, 1862, near Independence Lake, Webster Township. Other old trappers report that it has been taken in the county, but are not able to give exact data. _Mustela noveboracensis noveboracensis._ New York Weasel.--This species is quite commonly distributed over the county even now. One summer day in Lodi Township I heard the excited squawking of a setting hen that was confined in a box coop; on raising the cover the hen was seen to have a weasel attached to her leg. With a stick I attempted to hit the weasel, which was dragged about by the hen, but only succeeded in causing it to run under a shed, from which place it soon stuck its head out of a hole. I again tried to hit it with a stick, but it always dodged the blow. Finally I went to the house for the gun, and when I returned found the weasel out chasing the hen again. A shot soon finished it. In this county only about 75 per cent of the weasels change to the white coat in winter. _Mustela vison mink._ Northeastern Mink.--In this county the mink has been so closely trapped that it is almost, if not quite, exterminated in some townships where it was formerly common. The mink is not so perfectly aquatic as the otter, but it also travels on land quite fast and far. I have found them a half-mile from water hunting for mice, birds, and even cottontails. I once shot one in Lodi Township that came to the chicken house and killed a fully grown hen, which it dragged a rod or so away, where it ate all it wanted. Another time I followed on the snow one that had run five miles in a night, and finally found it only a short distance from the place it started from. The mink is generally nocturnal, but I have often found it out on dark days. Once while fishing I saw one catch and carry away a good-sized trout. It is a poor climber, but once while hunting raccoons a dog chased one up a tree, where it was shot from a limb 20 feet above the ground. Albinos are rare, but we have in the Museum collections a mounted specimen which was taken at Ann Arbor. Melanistic specimens are rarer still, and I have seen but one, which was caught in Lodi Township in 1875. _Mephitis nigra._ Eastern Skunk.--The skunk was common when the first settlers arrived in this county. With the clearing of the forests it became abundant. Altogether I have seen hundreds about my old home in Lodi Township. Here in one winter, about 1870, more than 30 were taken in one trap under an old barn. Although it usually passes most of the winter months in a state of hibernation, it occasionally comes out during warm spells and wanders from one den to another. I have seen its tracks every winter month. It is mainly nocturnal, but it also travels in the early evening and later morning, and I once saw a mother and six young pass through the dooryard just at dusk. The skunk is not a climber, as a rule, but I have found it a few feet up the inside of small hollow trees. Once I saw one enter a small stream and swim across; it was not forced, but went into the water of its own volition. _Taxidea taxus taxus._ Badger.--The early settlers state that the badger was found in this county, but was not common. We have records from 1883 to 1919, including Saline Township, Superior Township, Lyndon Township, Ann Arbor, Chelsea, and Bass Lake. The species hibernates, but I have known it to come out on the snow, and I have records for every winter month. _Lutra canadensis canadensis._ Canada Otter.--Formerly the otter was not rare in all the river systems of the county, and we know of a number being taken on the Huron, Raisin, and Saline rivers from 1856 to 1910, but none have been reported since that date. Three were seen and one shot by Edwin Hawley near Munith, Jackson County, not far from the county line, March 25, 1909. One was reported seen in a small mud lake in Lodi Township in 1910. At this same lake in 1886 two were taken by J. H. Bortle, of Saline. In May, 1908, John Staebler, a farmer, saw one at close range near Fleming Creek, two miles east of Ann Arbor, and in the spring of 1900 he saw another near the same place. _Felis cougar._--L. D. Watkins, of Manchester, records this animal as often passing through Manchester, about 1835, generally going southwest; the last one was seen in 1870. Hon. Henry S. Dean, of Ann Arbor, stated that one was reported in the county by hunters in 1838. Miss Julia Dexter Stannard[2] tells of a panther that in 1830 chased her mother at dusk one evening while she was returning home, to Webster Township, from Ann Arbor on horseback. The panther followed almost to the house, when the lights in the window scared it off. [Footnote 2: _Mich. Pioneer Coll._, v. 28, p. 565.] _Lynx canadensis._ Canada Lynx.--L. D. Watkins reports that he killed one in this county in 1842, and Hon. Henry S. Dean, of Ann Arbor, told me that old hunters reported it in the county in 1838. _Lynx ruffus ruffus._ Bob-cat, Bay Lynx.--This species was always more common in the county than the Canada lynx, but it has been extinct here for fifty years. The early settlers often recorded it as common. In 1850 J. S. Wood, of Lodi Township, treed one with a dog. In 1870 Henry Wilson, of Dexter, saw one near Independence Lake. _Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii._ Prairie Deer Mouse.--Specimens were taken September 28, 1909, in open fields near Manchester by F. M. Gaige. In the fall of the same year Dr. J. B. Steere took it on the big marsh four miles south of Ann Arbor; this, he states, is his first record for the species. In 1920 it was taken near Cavanaugh Lake, and is numerous near Ann Arbor and Portage Lake. It probably formerly occurred on the open prairies and oak openings, but now it is found in open fields and in grassy meadows. _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis._ Northern Deer Mouse.--This mouse is abundant in forests over the county, and is found in adjoining fields, especially in those containing corn. _Synaptomys cooperi cooperi._ Cooper Lemming-vole.--In October, 1883, George B. Sudworth took one near Ann Arbor. February 13, 1903, E. H. Frothingham found one under a corn shock about four miles south of Ann Arbor. In a runway in a small tamarack stand in Steere's Swamp, near the same place, I trapped an adult female and four nearly grown young, October 8 and 9, 1903. In February, March, and April, 1921, H. B. Sherman trapped six in a field containing a little brush, a short distance south of Ann Arbor. A number of their remains were found by J. Van Tyne in the winters of 1921 and 1922 near Ann Arbor, in pellets of the long-eared owl. _Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus._ Pennsylvania Vole.--Was formerly found in beaver meadows, but with the clearing of the forests it has extended its range to the fields of grass and grain, and has become the most numerous of all the mammals of the county. Records are at hand for Ann Arbor, Pittsfield Township, and Portage Lake. _Microtus pinetorum scalopsoides._ Pine Vole.--July 15, 1921, A. G. Ruthven found an adult male in the oak-hickory woods on his grounds near the outskirts of Ann Arbor. _Fiber zibethicus zibethicus._ Muskrat.--In spite of persistent trapping, muskrats are still numerous in the county. Records are at hand for Ann Arbor, Pittsfield Township, Portage Lake, Saline, and Ypsilanti. _Rattus norvegicus._ Norway Rat.--This injurious rodent became common soon after the settlement of the county. Its omnivorous food habits and adaptability have enabled it to increase greatly. _Mus musculus musculus._ House Mouse.--The house mouse did not reach Washtenaw County until several years after the settlement of the district. It has become a serious pest, not only to household effects and stored food, but it has taken to the grassy fields and the woods bordering grain fields, and is commonly found in shocks of corn. The amount of damage done by it in this county must be very great. _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius._ Jumping Mouse.--A few occur in the county. We have records for Ann Arbor, Portage Lake, and Whitmore Lake. In October, about 1880, in Lodi Township, a female jumped from a shock of corn that was pulled over, and when caught, after several jumps of two feet or more, was found to have three small young attached to her teats. _Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum._ Canada Porcupine.--The first settlers found porcupines were common in the county. My father killed one in 1855 in Lodi Township, and the last one known in the county was killed near Saline in October, 1868, by John H. Bortle. The porcupine lives on the buds and bark of several species of trees, and also eats the stems and leaves of water lilies. It is a clumsy and stupid animal, knowing under natural conditions neither fear nor haste. Its coat of sharp-barbed quills affords almost complete protection from nearly all enemies except man, who alone is responsible for its extinction in the county. Although large and clumsy, it climbs readily, and often lives in the same tree for days. It also swims quite readily, sometimes entering the water voluntarily. It makes a number of noises; it sniffs, grunts, whines, chatters, and sometimes shrieks and cries like a child. _Marmota monax refuscens._ Woodchuck.--Before the settlement of the county woodchucks were not very common, a few living on the prairies as well as in the woods. With the clearing of the forests it found a congenial habitat about the fields and gardens of the settlers, and there found also choice food easily gathered. With these conditions it has greatly increased and has become a pest, so that many townships in southern Michigan pay a bounty of 25 to 50 cents each for woodchucks. On the Wood homestead of 400 acres in Lodi Township this animal was rarely seen in 1865, but in the next twenty years it became so common that in the years 1881-82 I killed more than 100 and my brother and his helper 125 more, all of them on this one small tract, and even then some were left. Its flesh is good when properly prepared, but most people are so prejudiced that they will not eat it. Albinos are not rare; I know of one taken near Saline about 1885. When alarmed it utters a shrill whistle; and when angry it chatters its teeth. I have often seen it climb trees, and have shot it from heights of 10 to 30 feet. It climbs when chased by dogs and also of its own free will. _Citellus tridecemlineatus tridecemlineatus._ Striped Ground-squirrel.--This animal (erroneously called "gopher" by many people) was formerly common only in the southern part of the Lower Peninsula, where its natural habitat was the prairies or oak openings. Here it occurred in great numbers, as stated by the first settlers. As the state became settled and the timber cut off it gradually extended its range until at present it occurs in most of the cultivated areas of the Lower Peninsula. This squirrel rarely climbs in bushes or small trees. It has a sharp whistle of alarm and a lower chirping call while feeding in company. _Tamias striatus lysteri._ Northeastern Chipmunk.--Formerly abundant in the county, living in the forests. With the cutting of the forests it has become scarce, but is now sometimes found along brushy roadsides as well as in woods. It occasionally climbs trees, but usually lives under stumps or logs in or at the edge of woods. It stores up quantities of food, and is seldom seen in the winter months. We have an albino at the Museum of Zoology which was caught near Ann Arbor by a cat, and I know of one other seen near the city. The call of the chipmunk is a loud chirp or chuck, regularly repeated and audible for a half-mile on still, frosty mornings. It also has a bird-like chirp or rapid call. _Sciurus hudsonicus loquax._ Southeastern Red-squirrel.--This is the most abundant squirrel in the county. Owing to its small size it was formerly not hunted; it also easily adapted itself to civilization and increased so rapidly that in places it became a nuisance. It has been accused of driving off the fox and gray squirrels, for which reason it was exterminated from the University campus, where it formerly occurred. The red-squirrel is very noisy and has a number of calls, chatters, and a whining cough which easily distinguishes it from other squirrels. Several albinos have been taken in Washtenaw County, one pure albino in Dexter Township in 1908, and one nearly pure white, but with brownish dorsal stripe and tail, near Ann Arbor in 1912. _Sciurus carolinensis leucotis._ Northern Gray Squirrel.--Abundant in the county for many years after its settlement. To the early settlers it was an injurious species, as it destroyed much of their scanty corn crop; but in later years it furnished much sport as well as a choice food for the table. Its chosen habitat was the heavy forest of beech and sugar maples, and with the cutting of these woods the gray squirrel has gradually become rare, only a few now being found in the county. As late as 1875 I saw many of the species, about one-half of the black phase. Its call is a high, shrill chatter, which may be heard quite a distance, and which is distinguished by hunters from the call of the red squirrel or fox squirrel. J. Austin Scott witnessed a migration in the fall of 1840, when hundreds of gray and black squirrels crossed the Raisin River near Adrian. They came from the south and were so exhausted from swimming across the river that the boys killed many with clubs. He counted 30 in one small tree near the water's edge. _Sciurus niger rufiventer._ Western Fox Squirrel.--When Michigan was first settled the species was rare and was confined chiefly to the southern part of the state, where it occurred in the oak openings, which seem to be its favorite habitat.[3] With the cutting of the heavy timber it has gradually extended its range, occupying all of the more open forests, and it has become very common, even entering the cities, where it has become semi-domesticated. [Footnote 3: Robert Kennicott, _U. S. Patent Office Report_, p. 56, 1856]. W. J. Beal[4] states that in Lenawee County there were no fox squirrels in the early days, but later they came in from the south. At my home in Lodi Township I never saw one until about 1875, and they were rare for several years after that. [Footnote 4: _Mich. Pioneer Coll._] This is our largest squirrel, furnishing sport and food for hunters. One albino taken in the county is in the collection of the Museum of Zoology; and one partly melanistic individual, taken near Ann Arbor, November 12, 1910, has the whole underside jet black. The call is hoarser than that of the gray squirrel, but although not so high in pitch may be heard for some distance. It occasionally swims; I know of one which swam across a part of Portage Lake, one-half mile, on a hot summer day, about 1910. _Glaucomys volans volans._ Southern Flying Squirrel.--This species may still be found in some numbers in suitable habitats in the county. They are usually found in woods, although I have found them in houses both in Ann Arbor and at Portage Lake. They nest and live in tree cavities, and in winter are gregarious. In late December, about 1890, in Lodi Township I found 20 or more in a hollow butternut stub. The call is a high, bird-like chirp or long squeak, which I have often heard from the tree tops while in the woods on moonlight nights. _Castor canadensis michiganensis._ Woods Beaver.--The first settlers of this county found this species to be nearly extinct, although dams and old beaver meadows were very common. It probably became scarce about 1800. Hon. Henry S. Dean, of Ann Arbor, told me that in 1837 at "Gravel Run," a few miles north of Ann Arbor, he saw a dam in good shape, although not used at that time. Remains of other dams still exist. S. D. Allen, of Ann Arbor, told me that in 1835 he saw a live beaver in the Huron River near Ypsilanti. This is the last record for the county. _Lepus americanus americanus._ Snowshoe Hare.--This hare was formerly common over all the southern peninsula of Michigan. In Washtenaw County it persisted for a long time in the tamarack bogs, but when these were mostly drained or destroyed the hares became extinct. It was last taken in Steere's Swamp, four miles south of Ann Arbor, in 1875. One was taken in a swamp near Whitmore Lake in 1890. L. D. Watkins, of Manchester, reports shooting one in a large swamp near Pleasant Lake in the fall of 1907. _Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii._ Mearns Cottontail.--The cottontail was formerly common only in the southern part of Michigan, but it now occurs over all the cultivated area of the Lower Peninsula. It has increased with and followed the civilization that furnished an abundance of food and destroyed many of its enemies. I have several times found nests in meadows and cultivated fields. The nest is built in a deep form and is lined with fur from the mother's body and fine grass. The young are completely hidden when left by the mother. April 16, 1920, I found a nest containing five young in a stubblefield at Portage Lake. The young were well covered with hair, but the eyes were not open. April 20, 1920, I found another nest containing young on the lawn of an unoccupied house near the shore of Portage Lake. The number of young was not determined. May 5 the young were gone and the nest was deserted. May 16, 1920, L. R. Dice saw four young cottontails with their eyes open in the possession of a boy. They were taken from a nest near Ann Arbor. About May 10, some years ago, I saw a cottontail jump into and swim across Mill Creek in this county. The animal was not pursued nor driven in any way into the water. Sometimes when caught alive the cottontail utters a loud, shrill cry. _Bison bison bison._ American Bison.--According to the reports of the early explorers, this large mammal, in the eighteenth century, occupied, or at least visited, the southern border of the state of Michigan. Although we have no record of its occurrence in this county, its remains have been found just over the western border of the county by L. D. Watkins, who in 1835 picked up three skulls near Norvell, Jackson County (Township 4 south, Range 2 east, Section 22). Two of these skulls were sent to Hillsdale College, where one still remains, though the data with it were lost during a fire; the other skull was sent to Albion College, but cannot now be found. At the time these specimens were collected other bones were plentiful on the surface of the ground. _Cervus canadensis canadensis._ Eastern American Elk.--Probably common over most of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan up until the time of the settlements. I have found no record of live elk seen in the county, and the species probably was extinct in the district before 1800. Bones and antlers are common in the marshes and swamps of the county. _Odocoileus virginianus borealis._ Northern White-tailed Deer.--Abundant in the county when the first settlers arrived, and continued common for many years. It quickly learned to adapt itself to civilization, feeding by night where it formerly fed by day. Some early settlers report much damage done to gardens and crops, of which the deer soon learned the location. The last deer known to me in the county was seen in Saline Township in 1875 by William Gordon, who reported it to me at the time. Covert[5] records one seen in the county in 1879. [Footnote 5: Covert, A. B., in History of Washtenaw County, p. 194, 1881.] _Hypothetical List_ The mammals included in this list have been reported as occurring in Washtenaw County, but I can find no specimens with authentic data nor descriptions satisfactory for identification, and consider the records doubtful. _Rattus rattus rattus._ Black Rat.--Covert[6] states that the species is "very rare. I have but one specimen, which was caught at the Michigan Central R. R. Depot." [Footnote 6: Covert, A. B., in History of Washtenaw County, pp. 193-194, 1881.] _Mustela allegheniensis._ Least Weasel.--Covert says, "The only specimens of this mammal I have had were brought in this winter" (1881). I have not been able to find these specimens, which were doubtless small females of _Mustela noveboracensis_. 
33578	----	Comments on the Taxonomy and Geographic Distribution of Some North American Rodents BY E. RAYMOND HALL and KEITH R. KELSON University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 26, pp. 343-371 December 15, 1952 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1952 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 26, pp. 343-371 December 15, 1952 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND. JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1952 [Transcriber's Note: Words surrounded by tildes, like ~this~ signifies words in bold. Words surrounded by underscores, like _this_, signifies words in italics.] Comments on the Taxonomy and Geographic Distribution of Some North American Rodents BY E. RAYMOND HALL and KEITH R. KELSON In preparing maps showing the geographic distribution of North American mammals we have found in the literature conflicting statements concerning the subspecific identity of several rodents. Wherever possible, we have examined the pertinent specimens. Results of our examination are given below. Our studies have been aided by a contract (NR 161-791) between the Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy, and the University of Kansas. Also, a grant from the Kansas University Endowment Association has permitted field work that yielded some of the specimens used for comparison. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the persons in charge of the several collections of mammals that we have consulted in order to satisfy ourselves concerning the subspecific status of specimens from many localities. ~Marmota flaviventer luteola~ A. H. Howell A. H. Howell (N. Amer. Fauna, 37:50, April 7, 1915) referred specimens from Bridgers Pass, Wyoming, to _Marmota flaviventer dacota_, on the basis of paler underparts because, according to the data of Howell (_op. cit._), _M. f. dacota_ and _M. f. luteola_, the contiguous subspecies, do not differ significantly in other ways. Casual comparison reveals to us no additional differences between the two. We have examined the three specimens available to Howell from Bridgers Pass (Nos. 18733/25527, 18734/25528, and 18735/25529 U. S. Biol. Surv. Coll.) and find the tone of the underparts to be darker (more nearly russet) than in typical _luteola_. The tone, however, varies considerably, both individually and geographically, in _luteola_ and it is possible to match almost exactly the ventral coloration of the specimens from Bridgers Pass with that of specimens from within the geographic range of _luteola_; Nos. 160509, from Bear Creek, 8 miles west of Eagle Peak, Wyoming, 18875 and 18731/25535, from the Laramie Mts., Wyoming, and No. 203744 from Sulphur Springs, Grand County, Colorado, all in the United States Biological Surveys Collection, are examples to the point. Being influenced by the geography of the region, we therefore consider the three specimens from Bridgers Pass best referred to the subspecies _Marmota flaviventer luteola_. ~Spermophilus variegatus grammurus~ (Say) A. H. Howell (N. Amer. Fauna, 56:147, May 18, 1938) accorded _Citellus_ [= _Spermophilus_] _variegatus utah_ Merriam a geographic range that included the Kaibab Plateau of Arizona. Durrant (Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 6:119, August 10, 1952) assigned to _S. v. grammurus_ a geographic range that included southern Utah from the eastern to the western border but in doing this did not mention the rock squirrel of the Kaibab Plateau of Arizona that also might be expected to be referable to _S. v. grammurus_. Howell (_loc. cit._) had two specimens from the Kaibab Plateau. Of these we have examined the one from Big Spring (161566 BS) and find that it lacks the darker (more tawny) head and posterior back of _C. v. utah_ and agrees with _C. v. grammurus_. On this basis we refer the rock squirrel of the Kaibab Plateau to the subspecies _Spermophilus variegatus grammurus_ (Say). ~Tamias amoenus caurinus~ Merriam This subspecies was named from the Olympic Peninsula of Washington. A. H. Howell, in his "Revision of the American chipmunks" (N. Amer. Fauna, 52:77, and fig. 5, 1929) regarded the geographic range of _Eutamias_ [= _Tamias_] _amoenus caurinus_ as the mountains of the Olympic Peninsula and most of Mt. Rainier. The geographic range of the _amoenus_ chipmunk on Mt. Rainier almost certainly is continuous with that of _T. a. ludibundus_ in the Cascade Mountains of which Mt. Rainier is a westward-projecting arm. There is no contact between the chipmunks of Mt. Rainier and those of the Olympic Peninsula; those on the Peninsula are geographically isolated from all others of the species and are separated from those on Mt. Rainier by approximately eighty miles of low-lying country, which is uninhabited by chipmunks of the species _Tamias amoenus_. Therefore, Howell's (_loc. cit._) assignment of most of the chipmunks on Mt. Rainier to _caurinus_ is open to question and Dalquest, in the "Mammals of Washington" (Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 2, 1948) evidently thought that Howell had incorrectly identified them. On page 256 Dalquest (_op. cit._) defined the geographic range of _T. a. caurinus_ as restricted to the Olympic Peninsula and showed (fig. 81) Mt. Rainier to be in the geographic range of _T. a. ludibundus_. We would accept Dalquest's (_op. cit._) arrangement without question and also would follow it because it is the more recent one were it not for the fact that Dalquest gives no reason for his changes. To allow us to decide the matter we have compared the pertinent materials ourselves. Catalogue numbers below are of the United States National Museum, Biological Surveys Collection, and each specimen mentioned by catalogue number is an adult female which shows much wear on the fourth upper premolar. Of _T. a. caurinus_, Nos. 241902 and 241903 are from 2 mi. SW of Mount Angeles; No. 241911 is from "near" head of Dosewallips River, 6000 ft., and No. 241915 is from Canyon Creek, 3 mi. S Soleduc River, 3550 ft. Of _T. a. ludibundus_, Nos. 234776 and 235018 are from Barron, 5000 ft., and No. 230685 is from Suiattle River, 6500 ft. Of specimens in question, from Mount Rainier, No. 90635 is from 6500 ft., west slope; No. 232729 is from 4900 ft., Reflection Lakes, and No. 233114 is from 5300 ft., Indian Henrys. In comparison with _T. a. ludibundus_, _T. a. caurinus_ is grayer on most, or all, parts of the pelage, has less ochraceous on the sides, and the dark stripes on the sides of the head are narrower and less reddish (more grayish). The skull of _caurinus_ is larger in certain measurements, as shown below: ======================================================================= Catalogue Occipitonasal Zygomatic Cranial Length of Greatest width number length breadth breadth nasals across upper molars ----------------------------------------------------------------------- _T. a. ludibundus_ 234776 34.0 19.3 15.6 10.2 ... 235018 34.1 .... .... 10.4 8.0 230685 33.5 18.8 15.5 10.4 7.9 Mt. Rainier 90635 34.5 19.2 16.3 10.8 8.3 232729 .... 18.5 15.3 .... 8.2 233114 34.2 18.6 15.7 10.8 8.0 _T. a. caurinus_ 241911 34.5 19.7 16.2 11.3 8.3 241915 34.2 .... .... 10.3 8.3 241902 35.2 .... 16.8 11.1 8.1 241903 34.7 .... 16.0 10.8 8.4 ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Howell (_op. cit._:75) referred three specimens from Glacier Basin, on the northeastern part of Mount Rainier, to _T. a. ludibundus_ as he did also one specimen (_loc. cit._) from Reflection Lakes, on the southern flank of the mountain. Our comparisons indicate the correctness of Howell's identification of the specimens from Glacier Basin; they more closely resemble _ludibundus_ than _caurinus_. The specimen from Reflection Lakes, however, is only one of five or six from the same place; the others were lumped by him among the 49 that he recorded from Mount Rainier under the name _caurinus_. The series from Reflection Lakes, so far as we can detect, is not unusually variable and the differences that are apparent are within the normal range of variation ascribable to season, age, and individualism. Also, the series from Reflection Lakes, to us, is not appreciably different from the other series, representing the following places on Mount Rainier: Indian Henrys, 5300 ft.; W slope Mt. Rainier, 6600 ft.; St. Andrews Park, 5500 ft.; Spray Park, 5500 ft.; Paradise Park; Muddy Fork of Cowlitz River; Sunset Park, 5000 ft.; ridge between St. Andrews Park and South Puyallup River, 6000 ft.; and Owyhigh Lakes, 5350 ft. Collectively, or individually, where there are as many as six specimens from a place, the material from Mt. Rainier (Glacier Basin excepted) is intermediate in color between _T. a. ludibundus_ and _T. a. caurinus_ and no more closely resembles one subspecies than the other. As may be seen from the cranial measurements recorded above, specimens from Mt. Rainier, although intermediate between the two subspecies just mentioned, resemble _ludibundus_ in lesser zygomatic breadth and lesser cranial breadth (and, it may be added, in lesser dorsolateral inflation of the braincase), but resemble _caurinus_ in longer skull (occipitonasal length), longer nasals and greater breadth across the rows of upper molariform teeth. In summary: The animals from Mount Rainier, in features of taxonomic import, are almost exactly intermediate between _T. a. caurinus_ and _T. a. ludibundus_. Being influenced by considerations of geographic adjacency, we refer the animals on Mount Rainier to _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_ (Hollister). Dalquest's (_op. cit._: 85) explanation of the probable origin of _Tamias amoenus caurinus_ is pertinent here. He writes: "The chipmunks of the Olympic Mountains [_caurinus_] probably reached their present range from the Cascades. Their probable path of emigration was westward from Mt. Rainier, along the glacial outwash train of Nisqualli Glacier, to the moraine and outwash apron of the Vashon Glacier and thence to the Olympics. So similar are the chipmunks of Mt. Rainier and the Olympic Mountains that Howell (1929) included Mt. Rainier in the range of _caurinus_." ~Tamias townsendii cooperi~ Baird Some uncertainty exists concerning the subspecific identity of the Townsend Chipmunk in southern Washington because Dalquest (Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 2:262, April 9, 1948) identified as _Tamias townsendii cooperi_ specimens that he examined from Yocolt, a place well within the geographic range of _T. t. townsendii_ as defined by A. H. Howell (N. Amer. Fauna, 52: fig. 7, p. 107, November 30, 1929). Dalquest (_op. cit._) referred other specimens, that he did not examine, from Mt. St. Helens (90654, 231112 and 231114 BS) to _T. t. cooperi_ although Howell (N. Amer. Fauna, 52:109, November 20, 1929) had previously identified them as _E. t. townsendii_. By implication, and on his map, Dalquest (_op. cit._, fig. 83, p. 261) assigned to _T. t. cooperi_ still other specimens, that he had not examined, from: Government Springs, 15 mi. N Carson (230514, 230515, 230559, 230560, and 230563 BS); Stevenson (230513 and 230517 BS); and Skamania (230518 BS). Earlier, Howell (op. cit.) had listed the specimens from the three mentioned localities as _Eutamias townsendii townsendii_. Our examination of specimens in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology from 1-1/2 mi. W Yocolt (94238 and 94239 MVZ) and from 3-1/2 mi. E and 5 mi. N Yocolt (94240-94244 MVZ) reveals that the "average" of the coloration is nearer to that of the paler _T. t. cooperi_ than to that of the darker _T. t. townsendii_ and indicates why Dalquest, we think correctly, identified specimens from Yocolt as _T. t. cooperi_. We have examined also the specimens in the Biological Surveys Collection of the United States National Museum (catalogue numbers given above) and have compared them with specimens (comparable in age and seasonal condition of pelage) of _T. t. townsendii_ (notably a series from Lake Quinalt, Washington) and of _T. t. cooperi_ (including specimens from Bumping Lake and Blewett Pass, Washington). In color, the specimens from Mt. St. Helens are almost exactly intermediate between _T. t. cooperi_ and _T. t. townsendii_. We choose to use for them the name _T. t. townsendii_ as did Howell (_op. cit._:109). The specimens from 15 mi. N Carson, those from Stevenson and the one from Skamania agree in nearly all features of color with the relatively paler _T. t. cooperi_, as Dalquest (_op. cit._) thought they would, and we, accordingly, use for them the name _Tamias townsendii cooperi_. In view of the findings resulting from our study of the above mentioned specimens of the Townsend Chipmunk in Washington, it seemed worthwhile to examine the material of the same species from Hood River, Oregon. Howell (_op. cit._:109) listed one specimen from there as _E. t. townsendii_, but (_op. cit.:_ fig. 7, p. 107) mapped the locality as within the geographic range of _E. t. cooperi_. The specimen (89061 BS) is a juvenile having external measurements of only 175, 80 and 31. Although the color is intermediate between that of the two subspecies concerned, greater resemblance is shown to _T. t. townsendii_. We have not examined any other specimen of the species _Tamias townsendii_ so young as No. 89061, but suspect that older specimens from the same place would be paler by a slight degree. This suspicion, and more especially the light color of an older specimen from nearby White Salmon, Washington, and the light color of two older specimens from Parkdale, Oregon, which seem to us to be referable to _T. t. cooperi_, influence us to refer the specimen from Hood River to _Tamias townsendii cooperi_ Baird. ~Tamias townsendii townsendii~ Bachman A. H. Howell (N. Amer. Fauna, 52:111, November 30, 1929) referred specimens of the Townsend Chipmunk from the lower elevations on the Olympic Peninsula to _Eutamias townsendii townsendii_ but referred specimens from the central mountains on that peninsula to _Eutamias townsendii cooperi_. The subspecies _T. t. cooperi_ thus is represented as having a geographic range of two separate parts: (1) The Cascade Mountains from southern British Columbia into southern Oregon, and (2) the area of the Olympic Mountains, the latter area being entirely surrounded by the geographic range of _T. t. townsendii_. Dalquest (Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 2:261 and 262, April 9, 1948) employed Howell's arrangement. We have examined the specimens, in the Biological Surveys Collection of the United States National Museum, from the Olympic Peninsula and fail to find significant differences in external measurements or in size or shape of skulls between specimens from the mountains (alleged _T. t. cooperi_) and those from other parts of the Peninsula (assigned to _T. t. townsendii_). Nevertheless, the specimens from the higher parts of the Olympic Mountains resemble _T. t. cooperi_ in being less ochraceous than are specimens of _T. t. townsendii_ from elsewhere on the Olympic Peninsula, and in this one respect, in series, they more closely resemble _T. t. cooperi_. Even so, the upper parts of the specimens from the mountains are darker than in _T. t. cooperi_ of the Cascades. In dark color of the superciliary stripe the specimens in question are referable to _T. t. townsendii_. The over-all gray tone, resembling that of _T. t. cooperi_, upon close inspection is found to be in considerable degree the result of wear, and the difference in grayness from _T. t. townsendii_, when specimens in comparable pelage are compared, is slight. This tendency to lighter color in specimens from higher elevations is seen in other places in Washington within the geographic range of _Tamias townsendii_. We feel, therefore, that the mentioned resemblance in color between specimens from the Olympic Mountains and those of _T. t. cooperi_ from the Cascade Mountains is not significant taxonomically. To us, all of the animals of the species _Tamias townsendii_ from the Olympic Peninsula seem best referred to the subspecies _Tamias townsendii townsendii_ Bachman. ~Tamias striatus ohionensis~ Bole and Moulthrop A. H. Howell (Jour. Mamm., 13:166, May 14, 1932) referred a specimen (252979 USNM) from Athens, Ohio, to _Tamias striatus fisheri_. Subsequently, Bole and Moulthrop (Sci. Publs. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:83-181, September 11, 1942) named _Tamias striatus ohionensis_ and _Tamias striatus rufescens_, both of which occur in Ohio. They (_op. cit._: 137) also excluded _T. s. fisheri_ from the state list of mammals of Ohio. The locality of Athens lies between the ranges of _T. s. ohionensis_ and _T. s. rufescens_, as outlined by referred specimens, and thus the identity of the specimen from that place was left in doubt. We have examined the specimen and among named kinds find that it most closely resembles _T. s. ohionensis_ in its less widely spreading zygomata, slender incisors and dull-colored pelage. We prefer the specimen to _T. s. ohionensis_. The subspecific identity of specimen No. 174762 USNM, a skin only, from Nobleville, Hamilton Co., Indiana, assigned by Howell (N. Amer. Fauna, 52:21, November 30, 1929) to _T. s. griseus_ and by Lyon (Amer. Mid. Nat., 17(1):191, January, 1936) to _T. s. fisheri_, was left in doubt by Bole and Moulthrop's (_op. cit._) assignment of specimens to _T. s. ohionensis_. Although the specimen lacks a skull and tail, on the basis of its dull-colored pelage and dark brown (anteriorly) median dorsal stripe, we identify No. 174762 as _T. s. ohionensis_. For the same reason, specimen No. 125445 USNM, from Bascom, Indiana, referred by Howell (_op. cit._:16) to _T. s. striatus_, and by Lyon (_op. cit._:191) to _T. s. fisheri_, required re-examination. The specimen appears to be an intergrade between _T. s. striatus_ and _T. s. ohionensis_; it is probably best referred to the latter subspecies which it resembles in having short nasals. In color it is intermediate, but it does not possess the narrowly spreading zygomata of _T. s. ohionensis_ and, in this respect, more nearly approaches _T. s. striatus_. Specimen No. 13815 USNM, an alcoholic, from Wheatland, Knox Co., Indiana, was assigned by Howell (_op. cit._, 1929:21) to _T. s. griseus_ and by Lyon (_loc. cit._) to _T. s. fisheri_. Although the specimen is much faded and cannot be identified with certainty, we assign it to _T. s. ohionensis_. Allowing for fading, it seems to resemble _ohionensis_ more in the lighter color of the anterior part of the median dorsal stripe, than it does either _griseus_ or _fisheri_. We are also influenced in making this allocation by Bole and Moulthrop's (_op. cit._:137) finding intergradation between _T. s. ohionensis_ and _T. s. striatus_ in a specimen obtained at New Harmony, Posey Co., Indiana. Howell (Jour. Mamm., 13:166, August 9, 1932) referred two specimens from Boone County, Indiana, to _T. s. fisheri_. We have examined a specimen (5675 AMNH) from that place and think it is one of the two seen by Howell. The specimen is a poorly made skin in worn winter pelage with the skull inside. Because it differs from _T. s. fisheri_ and agrees with _T. s. ohionensis_ in the color of both upper parts and underparts (comparisons made with material of comparable stage of molt), we assign it to the latter subspecies. Howell (_loc. cit._) referred specimens from Overton (57394), Wooster (57398, 57399, and 57442), and Loudonville (57391-57393), all from Ohio, in the Museum of Zoology of the University of Michigan, to _Tamias striatus fisheri_. We have examined these specimens and find them to be readily separable from _T. s. rufescens_ on the basis of darker coloration. The affinities of the specimens in question are with _T. s. fisheri_ and _T. s. ohionensis_. As a standard for comparison we have used specimens in the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, in comparable pelage of _T. s. ohionensis_ from Dearborn County, Indiana, taken in August and specimens of _T. s. fisheri_ from "near" summit Butt Mtn. and Little Meadows, both places in Giles County, Virginia, as well as two specimens from Allair, Monmouth County, New Jersey. On the basis of buffy (instead of white) edging of the tail, buffy (not white) light dorsal stripes, and buffy (not black) anterior third of the median dark stripe, the specimens from Overton, Wooster, and Loudonville are referred to _Tamias striatus ohionensis_. ~Tamias striatus pipilans~ Lowery A. H. Howell (N. Amer. Fauna, 29:16, November 30, 1929) recorded six specimens of _Tamias striatus striatus_ from Greensboro, Alabama. Subsequently, Lowery (Occas. Papers Mus. Zool., Louisiana State Univ., 13:235, November 22, 1943) named _T. s. pipilans_ and assigned to it specimens from northeastern Alabama. Lowery did not, however, mention the specimens from Greensboro and, thus, their subspecific identity was placed in doubt. We have examined five of the six specimens mentioned by Howell (_loc. cit._) (57034-57036, 57588, and 77037 BS) and because of their brilliant color and large size, refer them to _Tamias striatus pipilans_ Lowery. ~Tamias striatus rufescens~ Bole and Moulthrop A. H. Howell (Jour. Mamm., 13:166, August 9, 1932) also referred a specimen (13154), from La Porte, Indiana, in the Chicago Nat. History Museum to _T. s. fisheri_. We find the specimen to be distinguishable from _T. s. fisheri_ in darker, richer pelage, brown instead of blackish anterior third of the median dorsal stripe, more buffy light dorsal stripes, and more heavily constructed skull. The specimen most closely resembles _T. s. rufescens_ in having, as compared to _T. s. ohionensis_, brighter, more rufescent color, wider incisors, proportionately narrower interorbital region, and more widely spreading zygomatic arches. We refer it to that subspecies. ~Sciurus carolinensis pennsylvanicus~ Ord When J. A. Allen considered what name to apply to the gray squirrel of northeastern United States and adjacent parts of Canada, (Monogr. N. Amer. Rodentia, p. 709, 1877) he selected the name _leucotis_ of Gapper (Zool. Jour., 5:206, 1830) as applicable. Allen rejected Ord's (Guthrie's Geog., 2nd Amer. Ed., Zool. App., 2:292, 1815) earlier name, _Sciurus Pennsylvanica_, because (_loc. cit._) "it was given to specimens from the Middle Atlantic States, and hence from a locality bordering upon the habitat of the southern form, and consequently the name is not strictly applicable to the northern type as developed in the Northern and Northeastern States and the Canadas." It must be recalled that Allen had not at that time seen a copy of Ord's exceedingly rare work and was basing his comments on Baird's statements on Ord's treatment of the squirrels. Subsequently, Rhoads obtained a copy of the second edition of Guthrie's Geography and had Ord's zoological appendix thereto reprinted. The reprinted version (now known generally as Ord's Zoology by Rhoads, 1894) contains (Appendix, p. 19) Rhoads' review of the _pennsylvanicus vs. leucotis_ controversy. Rhoads concluded that _pennsylvanicus_ must apply because it has priority and is available. The habitat was given by Ord as "those parts of Pennsylvania which lie to the westward of the Allegany ridge," not the "Middle Atlantic States" as Allen thought. Notwithstanding Rhoads' comments, Bangs (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:156, December 28, 1896), in his "Review of the Squirrels of Eastern North America," employed _leucotis_ Gapper and rejected Ord's name because it "is a _nomen nudum_" and of uncertain application. There seems to have been no attempt subsequently to review the pertinent names. We are of the opinion that Rhoads' (_loc. cit._) analysis and conclusions are correct and as cogent today as then. We do not agree with Bangs that _pennsylvanicus_ is a _nomen nudum_ for the following reasons. The name was based on melanistic individuals and could conceivably be applied to three species of squirrels, the red squirrel, the fox squirrel, and the gray squirrel. Melanistic red squirrels, _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, are everywhere rare and in any case appear as individuals and not populations. Ord (_loc. cit._) reported that his _Sciurus Pennsylvanica_ was _abundant_. Ord, we think, was not referring to the fox squirrel, _Sciurus niger_, because he wrote that _S. Pennsylvania_ "has always been confounded with... [_Sciurus niger_], but it is a different species," and (_loc. cit._) described _S. niger_ as a "Large Black Squirrel" and _Sciurus Pennsylvanica_ as a "Small Black Squirrel." Therefore, _pennsylvanicus_ Ord can refer only to _Sciurus carolinensis_. Further, melanistic gray squirrels then, as now, were common in western Pennsylvania and exceedingly rare in eastern Pennsylvania. Additionally, Ord described his animal, although admittedly inadequately (small, black, not _S. niger_). The name _Sciurus Pennsylvanica_ Ord is clearly not a _nomen nudum_ and must replace _leucotis_ Gapper. Allen's (_loc. cit._) argument that the specimens were not representative of "_leucotis_" because they were from the Middle Atlantic States is based on an initial misunderstanding of the locality. Further, whether or not "topotypes" are representative of a subspecies has no bearing on the availability of the name appended to them. The name and synonomy of the northern gray squirrel are as follows: ~Sciurus carolinensis pennsylvanicus~ Ord 1815. _Sciurus Pennsylvanica_ Ord, Guthrie's Geog., 2nd Amer. Ed., 2:292. Type locality, western Pennsylvania. 1894. _Sciurus carolinensis pennsylvanicus_, Rhoads, Appendix of reprint of Ord (_supra_), p. 19. 1792. _Sciurus cinereus_ Schreber, Säuget., 4:766. Type locality, eastern United States, probably New York State. (_Nec Sciurus cinereus_ Linnaeus.) 1830. _Sciurus leucotis_ Gapper, Zool. Jour., 5:206. Type locality, region between York and Lake Simcoe, Canada. 1849. _Sciurus migratorius_ Audubon and Bachman, Quad. N. Amer., 1:265 (based on _S. leucotis_ Gapper). 1877. _Sciurus carolinensis_ var. _leucotis_, J. A. Allen, Monogr. N. Amer. Rodentia, Sciuridae, p. 700 (_et auct._). ~Sciurus niger rufiventer~ Geoffroy Two specimens (36192/48550, a young male with unworn teeth, and 36193/48551, an adult male with much worn teeth, both in the United States Biological Surveys Collection in the National Museum) were recorded by Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 25:75, 1905) as _Sciurus ludovicianus_ from Gainesville, Texas. Bailey (_loc. cit._) further stated that if the name _Sciurus rufiventer_ Geoffroy proved usable it would apply to the specimens from Gainesville. Since the name _rufiventer_ was revived there would be no question concerning the identity of these specimens had not Lowery and Davis (Occas. Papers, Mus. Zool., Louisiana State Univ., 9:172, 1942) assigned three specimens (not seen by us) to _Sciurus niger limitis_ Baird from a point only thirteen miles northwesterly. Lowery and Davis (_loc. cit._) say that their specimens are intergrades (presumably with _rufiventer_) and Bailey (_loc. cit._) noted that his two specimens from Gainesville "are in size and color nearer to _ludovicianus_ [= _rufiventer_] than to typical _limitis_." Examination of the two specimens from Gainesville convinces us that Bailey was correct and the specimens therefore are referable to _Sciurus niger rufiventer_. More in detail, the color agrees with that of _rufiventer_ and differs from that of _limitis_ and from that of darker specimens of _Sciurus niger ludovicianus_ (in the restricted sense used by Lowery and Davis, _op. cit._: 104). Also the size is larger than in _limitis_ and as in _rufiventer_ or _ludovicianus_. Selected measurements of Nos. 36192/48550 and 36193/48551 are, respectively, as follows: Total length, 505, 500; length of tail, 237, 228; length of hind foot, 72, 70; basilar length of Hensel, 48.5, 48.6; zygomatic breadth, 35.1, 36.0; length of nasals, 21.4, 22.3; alveolar length of maxillary tooth-row, 11.8, 11.1; width across posterior tongues of premaxillae, 17.5, 18.4. ~Sciurus variegatoides rigidus~ Peters Harris (Occas. Papers Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 266:1, June 28, 1933) named _Sciurus variegatoides austini_ with type locality at Las Agujas, Province of Puntarenas, Costa Rica. Later, in his revision of the species _Sciurus variegatoides_, he (Misc. Publs. Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 38:19, September 7, 1937) referred specimens from Chomes, Costa Rica, to _S. v. austini_ and (_op. cit._:24) specimens from Puntarenas, Province of Puntarenas, to _S. v. rigidus_, an inland subspecies. The geographic arrangement of these referred specimens seemed to warrant a reconsideration of the material. We have examined specimens of _S. variegatoides_ in the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, from the following localities in Costa Rica: Puntarenas (62703-62706), Las Agujas (65118 [type of _S. v. austini_], 59847-59850), Río Las Agujas (65114-65117), Agua Caliente (66483), Zarcéro (75757-75761, 75765), Cartago (67546, 67547), and Esparta (75762-75764). The specimens listed by Harris (_op. cit._, 1937:19) as from Chomes, in the Museum of Zoology of the University of Michigan, are not now in that museum and we have not seen them. Harris (_op. cit._:19) characterized _S. v. austini_ as differing from _S. v. rigidus_ in having brightly rufous legs (Ochraceous-Orange) in _S. v. rigidus_ and a dorsal coloration resulting from a mixture of shiny black and silver (Ochraceous-Orange mixed with black in _S. v. rigidus_). We find that in the color of the legs of the paratypes of _S. v. austini_ there is considerable variation ranging from bright rufous in No. 65116 to much darker and duller in No. 59849. In six of the ten specimens of the type series, the color is rufous, but in the other four the color of the legs approaches and overlaps that found in the referred specimens of _S. v. rigidus_. The color of the dorsum of _S. v. austini_ is also variable. No. 59850, for example, is dark brown and closely resembles No. 75762, from Esparta, which was referred to _S. v. rigidus_. Further, some specimens referred to _S. v. rigidus_ (67546 and 67547) have the bright-colored legs of _S. v. austini_ and some (75759, for example) have the black-and-silver back of _austini_. We recognize differences of an average sort between the now-available specimens of the two alleged subspecies, but because of the individual variation that exists, we feel that recognition of two subspecies is not indicated. There is also some variation that is the result of wear and molt and one of us (Kelson) feels that some of the differences are explainable on this basis. Accordingly, we prefer to adopt a more conservative taxonomic arrangement than that of Harris for this group of the Costa Rican squirrels and arrange _Sciurus variegatoides austini_ Harris, 1933, as a synonym of _Sciurus variegatoides rigidus_ Peters, 1863. ~Thomomys bottae alienus~ Goldman Six specimens (21249-21253, 212706 BS) from Rice, Arizona, were referred by Goldman (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 46:76, April 27, 1933) to the subspecies _Thomomys bottae mutabilis_ Goldman when he proposed that name as new, but these six specimens were not mentioned by him when he later named _Thomomys bottae alienus_ (Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 28:338, July 15, 1938), to which subspecies the specimens in question might be expected to belong. Examination of the six specimens reveals that they are intergrades between _T. b. mutabilis_ and _T. b. alienus_ but that the specimens more closely resemble the latter. More precisely, slightly larger size of skull, greater ventral inflation of tympanic bullae, and less depressed occipital region ally the specimens with _Thomomys bottae alienus_, and we identify them as that subspecies. The two subspecies concerned are not so distinct as are most subspecies of _Thomomys bottae_. ~Thomomys bottae aphrastus~ Elliott Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 39:58, November 15, 1915) referred three specimens from San Antonio, Baja California, to _Thomomys bottae nigricans_. These specimens have not, to our knowledge, been re-examined subsequently, although the current taxonomic treatment of the pocket gophers of Baja California by Huey (Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 10(4):245-268, 1 map, August 31, 1945) excludes _T. b. nigricans_ from the area of San Antonio. The pertinent specimens are probably Nos. 10810-10812 in the Chicago Natural History Museum. We have examined the specimens and, using the comparative materials listed under the account of _T. b. siccovallis_, find them to be intermediate in most characters between _T. b. aphrastus_ and _T. b. martirensis_. Because they more nearly resemble _T. b. aphrastus_ in the weakly-spreading zygomatic arches, we refer the specimens from San Antonio to that subspecies. ~Thomomys bottae jojobae~ Huey When Huey (Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 10:256, August 31, 1945) named _Thomomys bottae jojobae_ from Sangre de Cristo, Baja California, México, he made no mention of a specimen that Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 39:58, November 15, 1915) identified as _Thomomys bottae nigricans_ from La Huerta, which place is approximately eight miles northwest of Sangre de Cristo. From a geographic standpoint, it seemed unlikely that the specimen from La Huerta would be referable to _T. b. nigricans_. Examination of the specimen (138752 BS) proves it to differ from topotypes of _T. b. nigricans_ and to agree with _T. b. jojobae_ in richer, more rufescent color, especially ventrally, and smaller, slenderer, more delicate skull. The specimen is therefore tentatively referred to _Thomomys bottae jojobae_. We have not, however, compared it with specimens of _Thomomys bottae juarezensis_, a subspecies the range of which lies to the east on the summit of the Sierra Juárez. ~Thomomys bottae martirensis~ J. A. Allen Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 39:58, November 15, 1915) referred pocket gophers from Piñon on the west slope of the San Pedro Mártir Mountains, Baja California, to the subspecies _Thomomys bottae nigricans_. The subspecific identity of these animals has now been reinvestigated subsequently, although the locality whence they were obtained is far removed from what is now thought to be the geographic range of _T. b. nigricans_; further, several other subspecies are known to occur in the intervening area. We have examined the available material from Piñon (13853-13855 BS) and find the specimens to agree with _Thomomys bottae martirensis_ and to differ from _T. b. nigricans_ in lighter color, larger, more ridged and angular skull; proportionately greater mastoidal breadth; narrower occipital shelf; more ventrally produced alveolar ramus of the maxillae; and deeply concave posterior border of the temporal root of the zygomatic arch. These specimens thus constitute the northernmost record of _T. b. martirensis_ known to us. ~Thomomys bottae mohavensis~ Grinnell Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 39:73, November 15, 1915) assigned a series of 7 specimens from Lone Willow Spring, California, to the subspecies _Thomomys bottae perpes_. This locality lies at the northern edge of the Mohave Desert. Later, Grinnell (Univ. California Publ. Zool., 17:427, April 25, 1918) named the pocket gophers from approximately the eastern half of the Mohave Desert, _Thomomys perpallidus_ [= _bottae_] _mohavensis_, but failed to mention the specimens recorded by Bailey, and thus their subspecific identity is in doubt. We find that _T. b. mohavensis_ differs from _T. b. perpes_ in more pallid color (light yellowish as opposed to dark rufescent) larger size, larger and more angular skull, angular (as opposed to more evenly bowed) zygomatic arches, larger and deeper audital bullae, narrower interpterygoid space, and proportionately greater mastoidal breadth. In external measurements, size and angularity of skull, width of interpterygoid space and angularity of the zygomatic arch, the specimens from Lone Willow Spring seem to be intermediate between the two subspecies, but perhaps show more resemblance to _T. b. mohavensis_. Otherwise, the specimens closely resemble _T. b. mohavensis_ to which they are here referred. The specimens provide a northern marginal record of occurrence for that subspecies. Other specimens recorded as _T. b. perpes_ by Bailey (_loc. cit._) from Grapevine Ranch, California, have also not been mentioned in later publications although, from a geographic standpoint, they might be better referred to either _Thomomys bottae pascalis_ or _T. b. mohavensis_. Comparison of specimens of _T. b. mohavensis_ and _T. b. pascalis_ from various localities show _T. b. pascalis_ to be larger (including the skull), darker, and to possess a more nearly vertical occipital plane, wider-spread but less angular zygomatic arches, less inflated tympanic bullae, wider braincase (which consequently appears to be less inflated), proportionately longer and slenderer rostrum, and broader nasals distally. Cranially, _T. b. pascalis_ differs from _T. b. perpes_ in essentially the same ways, but to an event greater degree. In color, _T. b. pascalis_ differs from _T. b. perpes_ in being duller, less rufescent. The series of four specimens, in the U. S. Biological Surveys Collection, from Grapevine Ranch clearly are not referable to _T. b. perpes_. They do, however, agree with _T. b. mohavensis_ in all essential particulars except that in two of the four specimens the braincase is wider and the nasals are wider distally. This width is evidence of intergradation with _T. b. pascalis_. Seemingly, then, they are best referred to _Thomomys bottae mohavensis_. ~Thomomys bottae muralis~ Goldman When Goldman (Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 26(3):112, March 15, 1936) described and named this pocket gopher from Arizona, he arranged it as a full species and stated that there is no evidence of intergradation with other named kinds. We have examined the holotype and three topotypes (202579-202582 BS) and compared them with specimens of other kinds of pocket gophers occurring in northern and central Arizona. The _muralis_ gopher is a depauperate form clearly belonging to the _bottae_ group. The characters which Goldman (_loc. cit._) set forth as distinguishing _muralis_ from other named kinds are readily apparent and, like Goldman, we see no evidence of intergradation. Nevertheless, the characters which serve to identify the race are, in a general way, those commonly found in populations of depauperate individuals of _Thomomys bottae_ and _T. talpoides_. The small size, delicate structure, well-inflated braincase, short premaxillary tongues, and strongly recurved upper incisors, often appear in populations existing in inhospitable areas of shallow, unstable soils. For this reason we feel that the relationships of this population are best shown by arranging _muralis_ as a subspecies of _Thomomys bottae_; the name should stand as _Thomomys bottae muralis_ Goldman. As far as known, _T. b. muralis_ is completely isolated from other populations of pocket gophers by uninhabitable eroding cliffs. The animals have been found only on isolated terraces in the lower end of Prospect Valley (itself a lateral pocket) within the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, Hualpai Indian Reservation, Arizona. Consequently it is unlikely that intergradation with other populations could exist at the present time. In short, in arranging _muralis_ as a subspecies of _Thomomys bottae_, we are influenced, not by the demonstration of intergradation, but by the degree of morphological differentiation of the population and the probable reasons therefor. ~Thomomys bottae mutabilis~ Goldman Goldman (Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 28:342, July 15, 1938) named the subspecies _Thomomys bottae pinalensis_ on the basis of only one specimen, an immature female (245709 BS) from Oak Flat, five miles east of Superior, Pinal Mountains, Arizona. Examination shows it to be indistinguishable in characters of taxonomic importance (coloration, external measurements, shape of skull and size of skull) from specimens of _T. b. mutabilis_ of comparable sex and age. No. 245709 is well within the limits of individual variation of _T. b. mutabilis_ as is shown by the several specimens (all in the U. S. Biological Surveys Collection) as follow: Nos. 214118, 214670 (topotypes from Camp Verde, Arizona), 212707 (Chiricahua Ranch, 20 mi. E Calva), 208635 (H-bar Ranch, 20 mi. S Payson), and 215762 (Turkey Creek). Therefore, the name _Thomomys bottae pinalensis_ is here arranged as a synonym of the earlier name, _Thomomys bottae mutabilis_ Goldman (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 46:75, April 27, 1933), the type locality of which is Camp Verde, Yavapai County, Arizona. ~Thomomys bottae patulus~ Goldman When Goldman (Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 26:113, March 15, 1936) named the subspecies _Thomomys bottae desitus_, he assigned to it (_op. cit._:114) 10 specimens obtained at Wickenburg, Maricopa County, Arizona. He did not mention specimens from Wickenburg when he subsequently named the subspecies _Thomomys bottae patulus_ (Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 28:341, July 15, 1938) and stated that _T. b. patulus_ was known only from the type locality in the "bottomland along [the] Hassayampa River, two miles below Wickenburg." Examination in 1950 of specimens referable to _T. b. patulus_ in the U. S. Biological Surveys Collection shows all of them, including the holotype, to be labeled "Wickenburg." The 10 specimens from Wickenburg reported by Goldman in 1936 as _T. b. desitus_ were included by him among the 16 (actually 17, one being a skull only) upon which he based his description of _T. b. patulus_ in 1938. Examination of the field catalogues of 3 of the 4 collectors who obtained the specimens discloses that only the 7 specimens obtained last were recorded as occurring in the Hassayampa River bottoms; the first 10 were recorded only as from "Wickenburg." Briefly, only one subspecies, _T. b. patulus_, is present in the area, and Goldman in 1938 seems to have thought that the two localities were actually the same, and that "2 miles below Wickenburg" was the more precise designation. ~Thomomys bottae providentialis~ Grinnell We have examined a specimen, No. 26120/33526, from 12-Mile Spring, California, in the U. S. Biological Surveys Collection, which Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 39:73, November 15, 1945) referred to the subspecies _Thomomys perpallidus_ [= _aureus_] _perpes_. We find the specimen to be referable to the later named _Thomomys bottae providentialis_ on the basis of smaller ear, more massive, more ridged and angular skull, greater interorbital breadth, deeper and thicker rostrum, less globular bullae, and U-shaped rather than V-shaped interpterygoid space. Therefore, 12-Mile Spring is the northernmost locality of occurrence of the subspecies _T. b. providentialis_. ~Thomomys bottae sanctidiegi~ Huey In his discussion of the pocket gophers of Baja California, Huey (Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 10:245-268, map, August 31, 1945) made no mention of specimens from Ensenada, Baja California, recorded by Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 39:58, November 15, 1915) as _Thomomys bottae nigricans_. We have examined the specimens from Ensenada available to Bailey in the U. S. Biological Surveys Collection, Nos. 137724, 139890, and 139891, subadult, immature, and adult, respectively. As compared with _Thomomys bottae sanctidiegi_ from the mouth of the Tiajuana River (No. 126028) and _T. b. nigricans_ (topotypes), the one adult specimen from Ensenada agrees with _T. b. sanctidiegi_ and differs from _T. b. nigricans_ in lighter color, larger and more angular skull, and more inflated braincase. The specimens from Ensenada differ from the adjacent subspecies to the south, _Thomomys bottae proximarinus_ [to judge from Huey's (_op. cit._) characterization of that subspecies] in lighter color, and larger, more robust skull. Accordingly, the specimens from Ensenada are referred to _Thomomys bottae sanctidiegi_. ~Thomomys bottae siccovallis~ Huey Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 39:58, November 15, 1915) listed a specimen from Mattomi, Baja California, as _Thomomys bottae nigricans_. When Huey (Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 10:259, August 31, 1945) revived the name _Thomomys_ [_bottae_] _aphrastus_ Elliot, and named (_op. cit._:258) _Thomomys bottae siccovallis_ he made no mention of the specimen, from Mattomi, which, on geographic grounds, would be expected to be _T. b. aphrastus_, _T. b. martirensis_ J. A. Allen, or _T. b. siccovallis_. We have examined an adult male (10832 CNHM), probably the specimen seen by Bailey (_loc. cit._), from Mattomi, and have compared No. 10832 with six topotypes (10813-10816, 10819 and 10820 CNHM) of _T. b. martirensis_, the type and one topotype (10798 CNHM) of _T. b. aphrastus_ and with the original description of _T. b. siccovallis_. The specimen from Mattomi seems to be unique in the large size of the tympanic bullae. The specimen in question differs from _T. b. martirensis_ also in shorter and wider skull, shorter and wider rostrum, and longer and wider molariform teeth. In these features resemblance is shown to the holotype of _T. b. aphrastus_ and even greater resemblance is shown to _T. b. siccovallis_ to which the specimen from Mattomi is referred. ~Thomomys monticola mazama~ Merriam This subspecies of the Cascades of Oregon and _Thomomys monticola nasicus_ of the territory immediately to the east of the Cascades, in the same state, were originally described (Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:214 and 216, respectively, July 15, 1897) and redescribed (Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:123 and 125, respectively, November 15, 1915) as distinguished from each other by paler color, smaller tympanic bullae and longer nasals in _T. m. nasicus_. The holotypes do differ in these respects. The assigned (by Bailey, _loc. cit._) specimens indicate that the opposite condition obtains with respect to the size of bullae; that is to say, the bullae are smaller in _T. m. mazama_. In these referred specimens from Oregon the nasals are actually and relatively longer in _T. m. nasicus_, which averages paler (less black and more red). Certain specimens of the two subspecies that are comparable as to sex, age and season, are indistinguishable in color. This is the background against which Bailey (_op. cit._:125), contrary to his statement of geographic ranges (_op. cit._:123, 125) and map (_op. cit._:fig. 5, p. 23), assigned, in his list of specimens examined, two specimens ([** Male] ad. 79817 and [** Female] ad. 79818 BS) from Pengra, west of the Cascades, to the subspecies _T. m. nasicus_. In the specimens from Pengra the bullae are angular as in referred specimens of _nasicus_ (unlike those of the holotype), the rostra are intermediate in length between those of the two subspecies concerned, and the color is light as in _T. m. nasicus_ but can be matched by that of certain specimens of _T. m. mazama_, for example by that of No. 79821 BS from Diamond Lake, Oregon. Consequently, on morphological grounds, the two specimens from Pengra can be assigned to _T. m. mazama_ almost as well as to _T. m. nasicus_. Having regard for the geographic relations, we assign them to _T. m. mazama_. In making this tentative identification we are aware that the acquisition of more nearly adequate material from Oregon, and critical study of such material, may bring a subspecific arrangement of the populations of _Thomomys monticola_ different from the current one. ~Thomomys talpoides bullatus~ Bailey Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 39:101, November 15, 1915) identified as _Thomomys talpoides clusius_ two specimens (66465 and 66523 BS) from Pass (= Parkman) and one specimen (66464 BS) from Dayton, in Wyoming. We have examined these specimens and find that they lack the broad braincase and narrow nasals of _clusius_ and in these and in other features the three specimens resemble _T. t. caryi_ and _T. t. bullatus_ more than they resemble any other named kinds. Although structurally, and in color, intermediate between the two subspecies named immediately above, the specimens show greater resemblance (large size and narrow braincase) to the latter and are referred by us to _Thomomys talpoides bullatus_. ~Thomomys talpoides clusius~ Coues Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 39:102, November 15, 1915) identified as _Thomomys talpoides bullatus_ an adult male (147347 BS) from the J. K. Ranch, 5900 ft., on Meadow Creek, Wind River, Wyoming [= Wind River of Bailey, _loc. cit._] and a young female (168666 BS) from Sage Creek, 8 mi. NW Fort Washakie, Wyoming. The rosaceous tone of these pale individuals is more as in some populations of _T. t. ocius_ and _T. t. clusius_ to the southward. Also, the skull of the male, although large, is distinctly narrower than in _T. t. bullatus_ and we think shows the influence of the _T. t. tenellus_ stock. All features considered, we refer the specimens to _T. t. clusius_. ~Thomomys talpoides glacialis~ Dalquest and Scheffer Vernon Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 39:119, November 15, 1915) listed 19 specimens from Roy, Washington, as _Thomomys douglasi yelmensis_ Merriam. Our examination of 26 specimens (205039-205051, 205072-205077, and 206545-206551 BS) labeled as "Roy," and presumably including those listed by Bailey (_loc. cit._), leads us to identify all 26 as _Thomomys talpoides glacialis_ on the basis of widely spreading zygomatic arches and decidedly ochraceous hue of underparts. ~Geomys bursarius jugossicularis~ Hooper Seven skins with skulls (35104/47369-35110/47375 BS) from Las Animas, Colorado, probably formed the basis for Cary's (N. Amer. Fauna, 33:129, August 17, 1911) record of _Geomys lutescens_ from that locality. Comparison of the material reveals that the animals are referable instead to the later named subspecies, _Geomys lutescens jugossicularis_ Hooper (Occas. Papers Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 420:1, June 28, 1940), on the basis of (1) more reddish color, (2) deeper zygomatic plate, (3) shorter jugal as expressed as a percentage of the length of the part of the zygomatic arch anterior to the jugal, and (4) larger area of inner face of jugal exposed when skull is viewed from directly above. Possibly it is noteworthy that the specimens from Las Animas are larger than Hooper's holotype and one topotype; this larger size is indicative of intergradation with _G. b. lutescens_ as represented by the specimens examined by us from Pueblo. Our examination of an adult female, No. 128242 BS and a juvenal female, No. 128243 BS, from 15 mi. E Texline, Texas, recorded by Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 25:132, October 24, 1905) under the name _Geomys lutescens_ reveals that the specimens are referable to _Geomys bursarius jugossicularis_ instead of to _Geomys bursarius major_ on the basis of (1) mastoid part of tympanic bulla more inflated posteriorly, (2) narrowness of frontals between posterior tongues of the premaxillae and, (3) lighter color. ~Liomys irroratus irroratus~ Gray When Hooper and Handley (Occas. Papers Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 514:1-34, October 29, 1948) published a revised map (_op. cit._:3) showing the geographic distribution of the subspecies of _Liomys irroratus_ they did not mention a specimen from Agusinapa, Guerrero, which inferentially from their map would be _L. i. irroratus_ although it previously had been recorded as _L. i. torridus_ by Goldman (N. Amer. Fauna, 34:55, September 7, 1911). We have examined the specimen (70228 BS), which retains the upper deciduous premolar. Its long foot (32 mm.) and broad cranium (13 mm.) are the bases for identifying the specimen as _Liomys irroratus irroratus_ instead of _L. i. minor_, which is smaller. ~Liomys irroratus minor~ Merriam When Hooper and Handley (Occas. Papers Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 514:1-34, October 29, 1948) published a revised map (_op. cit._:3) showing the geographic distribution of the subspecies of _Liomys irroratus_ they did not mention five specimens from Tlapa, Guerrero, which inferentially from their map would be _L. i. irroratus_ although these specimens previously had been recorded as _L. i. torridus_ by Goldman (N. Amer. Fauna, 34:55, September 7, 1911). We have examined the five specimens (70221-70225 BS), three of which retain the upper deciduous premolars and two of which have the upper fourth premolar unworn. The short, wide rostrum is unlike the long slender rostrum of topotypes of _L. i. torridus_ of comparable age, and agrees with the condition in topotypes of _L. i. minor_ of comparable age. It is on this basis of wider rostrum that we refer the five specimens from Tlapa to _Liomys i. minor_ which Hooper and Handley (_op. cit._:13) described as differing from the geographically adjacent _L. i. irroratus_ in "short and strongly tapered rostrum." We would add that we have not independently verified this difference between _L. i. minor_ and _L. i. irroratus_ for want of specimens of _L. i. irroratus_ comparable in age to the five individuals from Tlapa. The map of Hooper and Handley (_loc. cit._) inferentially excludes Tlalixtaquilla, Guerrero, from the geographic range of _L. i. minor_ (and places Tlalixtaquilla within the range of _L. i. irroratus_) although Goldman (_op. cit._:56) previously had identified specimens from this place as _L. i. minor_. Our examination of the two immature specimens (70227 and 70230 BS) from Tlalixtaquilla reveals that they closely resemble the holotype of _L. i. minor_ and leads to the conclusion that they are _Liomys irroratus minor_. ~Perognathus amplus pergracilis~ Goldman When Bole (Sci. Publ. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., 5(2):6, December 4, 1937) named and described _Perognathus longimembris salinensis_, he listed as comparative material of _P. l. bangsi_, a specimen in the Museum of Comparative Zoology from Parker, Yuma Co., Arizona. There was some reason to doubt the identification of the specimen since it is the only record of occurrence of the subspecies from east of the Colorado River. There is no specimen of _Perognathus longimembris_ from Arizona in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. There is one specimen of pocket mouse (18213, a skin only) from 30 miles east of Parker. We think that this is the specimen seen by Bole because at one time according to the label, it had been identified as _Perognathus panamintinus_ [= _longimembris_] _bangsi_. If the identification of this skin-only had been made by means of Osgood's key (N. Amer. Fauna, 18:14-15, September 20, 1900), the animal would have "keyed out" to _P. longimembris_ because the total length is recorded on the label as 130. Seth B. Benson has subsequently examined the specimen. The label now bears in handwriting the name of _P. amplus pergracilis_ and is followed by Benson's initials as the identifier. Although we lack adequate comparative material, we consider the specimen to be _P. amplus pergracilis_ Goldman, because the skin answers well to the description of _P. a. pergracilis_ and because of the name currently on the label with Benson's initials. ~Perognathus longimembris panamintinus~ Merriam In the current literature, Californian specimens of the little pocket mouse stand identified as _Perognathus longimembris nevadensis_ from Oasis and vicinity of Benton Station (Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zool., 40:147, September 26, 1933). When one of us (Hall, Mammals of Nevada, p. 360, July 1, 1946) reported specimens from southwestern Nevada as _Perognathus longimembris panamintinus_ he did so on the basis of study of specimens which included those from Oasis (in the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology) that he at that time (in ms.) identified as _P. l. panamintinus_. Those specimens from Oasis have the hair on the underparts white all the way to the base as also do specimens from Morans, 5000 ft. (29583/41638 BS), in contrast to the plumbeous underparts of _P. l. nevadensis_. It is on this basis that we identify specimens from the places mentioned above as _Perognathus longimembris panamintinus_. "Vicinity of Benton Station" as given by Grinnell (_loc. cit._) is interpreted to include Morans, Mono County. ~Dipodomys agilis martirensis~ Huey Elliot (Field Columb. Mus., Zool. Ser., Publ. 79, 3(12):221, August 15, 1903) referred specimens from Rosarito and Rosarito Divide, San Pedro Mártir Mts., Baja California, to _Perodipus_ [= _Dipodomys_] _agilis_. According to the currently known distribution of _Dipodomys agilis_ in Baja California (see Huey, Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 11:237, April 30, 1951), the specimens seemed likely to belong to the subspecies _D. a. martirensis_. An examination of the specimens (10644, 10690-10693 CMNH from Rosarito, and 10694 from Rosarito Divide) shows that, on the basis of large ear and comparatively narrow braincase, they are in fact referable to _D. a. martirensis_. Only No. 10693, with its broader braincase, seems atypical. Comparative materials used are in the Chicago Natural History Museum as follows: _D. a. martirensis_: Baja California: San Matias Spring, 2. _D. a. simulans_: Baja California: Ensenada, 8. California: Dulzura, 1 (topotype); San Luis del Rey, 3. ~Dipodomys agilis simulans~ (Merriam) J. A. Allen (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:184, August 18, 1893) listed as _Perodipus agilis_ a specimen (6306/4941 AMNH) from Valladares, Baja California. Subspecies of this species were subsequently named without mentioning this specimen that, on geographic grounds, might be either _D. a. martirensis_ or _D. a. simulans_. Certain measurements of the specimen are as follows: Total length, 288; length of tail, 171; length of hind foot (dry), 41.0; greatest length of skull, 39.5; width of maxillary arch at middle, 4.5. The long tail and wide (4.5) maxillary arch are characteristic of _Dipodomys agilis simulans_ and constitute the basis for identifying the specimen as of that subspecies. ~Baiomys taylori analogus~ Osgood The geographic range currently assigned to _Baiomys taylori paulus_ (J. A. Allen) is separated in two parts by the geographic range assigned to _B. t. analogus_. The southern, separated part of the range of _B. t. paulus_ rests wholly on ten specimens from Colima, Colima, identified as _B. t. paulus_ by Osgood in his "Revision of the mice of the American genus Peromyscus" (N. Amer. Fauna, 28, April 17, 1909) where (p. 255) he places as a synonym of _Peromyscus taylori paulus_ J. A. Allen, 1903, _Peromyscus allex_ Osgood, 1904. The later name was based on these ten specimens (33422/45445-33427/45450, 33429/45452, 33432/45455, and 33435/45458 BS) from Colima. Osgood had a choice of synonymizing _P. allex_ under _P. paulus_ or _P. t. analogus_. According to Osgood's concept, _analogus_ was blackish and large; _allex_ was grayish and small; and _paulus_ was fawn colored and intermediate in size. The more nearly equal size of _paulus_ and _allex_ probably influenced Osgood in making his choice. After examining the original materials we think there is more to recommend the alternate choice. For example, two topotypes of equal age of the same sex of _allex_ (33424/45447) and _analogus_ (120264 BS) are of almost the same size and, respectively, measure as follows: Total length, 107, 108; length of tail, 42, 45; length of hind foot (measured dry), 13.1, 12.8; greatest length of skull, 17.6, 17.7; zygomatic breadth, 9.3, 9.2. Although _analogus_ does average darker, a topotype, No. 120267 BS, from Zamora, is indistinguishable from several of the topotypes of _allex_. Consequently, we arrange _Peromyscus allex_ Osgood as a synonym of _Baiomys taylori analogus_ (Osgood) 1909 and refer the specimens from Colima to the latter. ~Peromyscus eremicus eremicus~ (Baird) Osgood (N. Amer. Fauna, 28:242, April 17, 1909) listed a specimen of this subspecies from Sierra Encarnación, Nuevo Leon. A specimen, No. 79614 BS, of this species was obtained on July 31, 1896, at Sierra Encarnación, Coahuila, by Nelson and Goldman. We know of no specimens of this subspecies from Sierra Encarnación, Nuevo Leon, and assume that Osgood referred to the Coahuilan specimen. Further support for this assumption is Osgood's (_loc. cit._) note that the Sierra Encarnación specimen is aberrant and, to our eye, so is No. 79614 from Coahuila. ~Peromyscus merriami merriami~ Mearns Osgood (N. Amer. Fauna, 28:239, April 17, 1909) placed _P. merriami_ in synonymy under _Peromyscus eremicus eremicus_ (Baird). Because Seth B. Benson, and subsequently the late Wilfred H. Osgood, told one of us (Hall) that _Peromyscus merriami_ was specifically distinct from _Peromyscus eremicus eremicus_, we have examined the specimens from Sonoyta, Sonora, and Quitobaquita, Arizona, referred by Mearns (Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 56:434-435, and 444, April 13, 1907) to _P. e. eremicus_ and _P. merriami_, respectively. We perceive the differences that Mearns (_loc. cit._) described and recognize _P. merriami_ as a species separate from _P. eremicus_. Also we have compared the type and one topotype of _Peromyscus goldmani_ Osgood with the holotype and referred specimens mentioned above, of _P. merriami_, and feel that the two kinds are no more than subspecifically distinct. Accordingly, _P. goldmani_ should stand as _Peromyscus merriami goldmani_. This arrangement is made with the knowledge that Burt (Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 39:56, February 15, 1938) arranged _P. goldmani_ as a synonym of _Peromyscus eremicus_. ~Peromyscus truei preblei~ Bailey Osgood (N. Amer. Fauna, 28: 171, April 17, 1909) listed two specimens from Crooked River, 25 miles southeast of Prineville, Oregon, as _Peromyscus truei gilberti_ with the notation "approaching _truei_?" Subsequently, Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 55: 188, August 29, 1936) named _Peromyscus truei preblei_ with type locality at Crooked River, 20 miles southeast of Prineville, a place from which Bailey had two specimens. We think the specimens recorded by the two authors are the same, and, according to the specimen labels, were placed correctly as to locality by Bailey. Our reasons are as follows: (a) The specimens mentioned by Bailey were presumably available to Osgood, but Osgood made no mention of specimens from "20 miles southeast of Prineville," (b) we find no specimens nor other records pertaining thereto, of _Peromyscus truei_ from the locality given by Osgood, (c) Osgood indicated that the specimens he saw were not typical of _P. t. gilberti_ and (d) _P. m. gilberti_, geographically the nearest subspecies, is recorded otherwise no closer to Prineville than Grants Pass, approximately 175 miles southwest in southwestern Oregon. ~Sigmodon hispidus cienegae~ A. B. Howell J. A. Allen (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:28, March 16, 1893) listed as _Sigmodon hispidus arizonae_ Mearns one specimen from Granados, Sonora, at a time when _S. h. cienegae_ had not been named. We have examined the specimen (5389 AMNH) which has the skull inside and which lacks external measurements. It was taken on November 16, 1890, and is darker than specimens of _S. h. arizonae_ collected in September at Fort Verde, Arizona. The color is essentially as in specimens of _S. h. cienegae_ from Fairbank, Arizona (March-taken specimens). Because of this agreement in color and because of the geographic origin of the specimen from Granados, we refer the animal to _Sigmodon hispidus cienegae_. ~Sigmodon hispidus zanjonensis~ Goodwin Goodwin (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 79:169, May 29, 1942) listed four specimens from Honduras (El Jaral, 2; and Las Ventanas, 2) as _Sigmodon hispidus saturatus_ Bailey. Because these localities fall within the geographic range of _S. h. zanjonensis_ we were lead to examine the specimens. Three are young and one (126113 AMNH from Las Ventanas) is an adult female. The underparts of the young are washed with rufous as in _S. h. saturatus_. The adult lacks this rufous as do specimens of _S. h. zanjonensis_ and some specimens of _S. h. saturatus_. In the adult the color of the upper parts and size of the upper cheek-teeth are intermediate between the dark-backed, small-toothed _S. h. saturatus_ and the paler-backed, large-toothed _S. h. zanjonensis_. The rostrum is intermediate in width but definitely nearer the broad condition which obtains in _S. h. saturatus_. The tail is long, actually and in relation to the body (total length 275, tail 130), as in _S. h. zanjonensis_ to which we refer the specimens in question. ~Oryzomys couesi couesi~ (Alston) For alleged occurrence at Reforma in Oaxaca, México (Goldman, N. Amer. Fauna, 43:31, September 23, 1918), see under _Oryzomys couesi mexicanus_ Allen. ~Oryzomys couesi mexicanus~ J. A. Allen Goldman (N. Amer. Fauna, 43, September 23, 1918) listed, as in the Field Museum of Natural History [= Chicago Natural History Museum] one specimen from Reforma, Oaxaca, under _O. c. mexicanus_ (p. 35) and one specimen from the same place under _O. c. couesi_ (p. 31). In the Chicago Natural History Museum we can find only one specimen. It is a young male, skull with skin, in which the last molar has not yet erupted, and bears the catalogue number 13654. It is, in our opinion, referable to _O. c. mexicanus_. Because we suspect that Goldman (_op. cit._) by error listed this one specimen twice (once under _O. c. couesi_ and once under _O. c. mexicanus_) it seems best to exclude Reforma, Oaxaca, from the geographic range of _O. c. couesi_. ~Oryzomys alfaroi saturatior~ Merriam A series of _Oryzomys alfaroi_ in the U. S. Biological Surveys Collection obtained at Tumbala, 5000 ft., Chiapas, México, the type locality of _Oryzomys alfaroi saturatior_, contains individuals some of which Goldman (N. Amer. Fauna, 43:66, September 23, 1918) referred to the subspecies _O. a. saturatior_ and one which he referred to _O. a. palatinus_. This latter specimen, to judge from the external measurements given by Goldman (_loc. cit._), is No. 76328. In comparison with the other material which Goldman saw, we find the specimen to agree with _O. a. palatinus_ in pale color and posterior concavity of the posterior border of the palate. In some other diagnostic cranial characters, it is indistinguishable from specimens of _O. a. saturatior_ from the same locality, and in other characters, notably the slenderness of the rostrum, it is intermediate between the two subspecies concerned. In short, although we see the reasons for Goldman's subspecific identification of this individual, we think, in view of the structural intermediacy of the animal and the characters of the series _en masse_, that it is best referred to _Oryzomys alfaroi saturatior_. ~Zapus princeps idahoensis~ Davis Preble (N. Amer. Fauna, 15:23, August 8, 1899) referred two specimens from Henry House and three from 15 miles south of Henry House, both localities in Alberta, Canada, to the subspecies _Zapus princeps princeps_. Subsequently, when _Z. p. kootenayensis_ (Anderson, Nat. Mus. Canada, Ann. Rept. 1931, p. 108, November 24, 1932) and _Z. p. idahoensis_ (Davis, Jour. Mamm., 15(3):221, August 10, 1934) were named, no mention was made of these specimens although the ranges assigned to _Z. p. kootenayensis_ and _Z. p. idahoensis_ seemed to isolate the Henry House area from the remainder of the range (as recorded) of _Z. p. princeps_. We have examined the pertinent specimens in the U. S. Biological Surveys Collection (75452 and 75453 from Henry House; 81509-81510 from 15 mi. S Henry House). On the basis of paler color, reduced lateral line, smaller skull, shorter palatal bridge and zygomatic arches, they are, among named subspecies, best referred to _Zapus princeps idahoensis_. _Transmitted July 30, 1952._ 
33648	----	NUMBER 86 JUNE 24, 1920 OCCASIONAL PAPERS OF THE MUSEUM OF ZOOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY THE MAMMALS OF WARREN WOODS, BERRIEN COUNTY, MICHIGAN BY LEE RAYMOND DICE Few detailed studies of the mammal associations of the forests of the United States have been made. But if we are ever to know, for our different species of mammals, the natural environments under which their evolution and differentiation occurred, we must study and describe their habitats and habitat limitations before all the native areas in the country have been altered by the activities of mankind. As a contribution to this subject the following paper is presented. The Warren Woods are a state preserve under the Edward K. Warren Foundation. They are located in Berrien County, Michigan, about three miles north of Three Oaks. The preserve consists of about two hundred acres, of which somewhat less than half is in clearing and the remainder mostly covered by forest, much of it still nearly in its primitive condition. [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Sketch map of Warren Woods Preserve. The distribution of the various mammal habitats is indicated.] The topography is nearly level, though the area is cut by a number of ravines draining to the Galien River, which flows through the preserve. Along the river and in its bends there are moderate-sized flood-plains. On the flood-plains a few small buttonbush swamps occur; and along the margins of the river a few freshly formed mud bars have not yet become forested; but most of the flood-plains are covered by heavy forest. The higher ground, except that in the clearing, is covered by heavy beech-maple forest. Several types of habitats are represented in the clearing: in a few of the cleared ravines a thick growth of sedges and iris occurs; on the higher ground small areas are dominated by rushes, other areas by sedges, while the greater part is covered by grass. In parts of the clearing blackberries and other shrubs have grown up to form thickets, and in many places, especially along the edges of ravines, second-growth trees of oak, maple, or beech grow in the thickets or form small groves. The mammal habitats found on the preserve may be listed as follows: _Natural habitats_ Aquatic habitat Buttonbush-swamp habitat Shore habitat Mud-bar herbage habitat Flood-plain forest habitat Beech-maple forest habitat Aerial habitat _Modified and artificial habitats_ Second-growth, forest and scrub habitat Cleared-ravine sedge habitat Cleared-upland rush habitat Cleared-upland sedge habitat Cleared-upland blue-grass habitat Cultivated field habitat Orchard habitat Edificarian habitat It is unfortunate that all of the area in clearing and about half of the forested area on the preserve has been and is being heavily pastured by cattle and horses. The presence of stock has changed the native conditions so much that, so far as interpreting the primitive mammal associations is concerned, little dependence can be placed on studies made in that portion of the preserve. The grass and herbage is extensively eaten off, and many of the shrubs and young trees eaten or badly mutilated. Under the pastured forest little underbrush or herbage remains, and the conditions are very poor for small mammals. In all the forest, in the unpastured as well as in the pastured part, a number of trees have been cut out in former years, and although no trees are now being cut down, all the trees and branches which fall are being cut up for firewood. This results in there being few logs and little dead brush on the ground, and removes a favorite place for small mammal nests and runways, as well as largely eliminating as mammal food the insects and larvae which are dependent on decaying wood. However, with the exception of the removal of the logs and of a few trees, that part of the forest to the north of the river is still in practically its native condition, and it shows no evidence of ever having been pastured. It is thus a splendid place for the study of the native faunal conditions. Although the whole area in the preserve is small there are other areas of adjoining forest along the Galien River, so that, for the smaller mammals at least, the results of the study and trapping should indicate the primitive habitat distribution. The relative abundance of the different species, however, is probably much changed by the decrease throughout the whole region of the carnivores, which have been much hunted and trapped by man. The mammals of Warren Woods were intensively studied by the author from July 3 to September 3 in the summer of 1919. A camp was maintained near the edge of the Woods, and by trapping and hunting every effort was made to determine the mammal fauna of the preserve. From one hundred to two hundred traps for small mammals and about twenty traps for the larger species were kept constantly in operation. A small amount of trapping was done in the fields and along the roadsides immediately adjoining the Woods and a few records were secured from the camp house. The work was supported by the Michigan Geological and Biological Survey. Dr. Alexander G. Ruthven directed the work and gave much assistance in securing the needed collecting equipment. Much help was given by George R. Fox, Director of the Warren Foundation, not only in getting to and from the camp at the Woods and in numerous other courtesies, but also in information about the Woods and about the mammals there. The plant identifications were made by Mr. C. Billington. The figures following the specific names in the lists of mammals from each habitat indicate the number of individuals trapped, shot, or seen and positively identified in that habitat. NATURAL HABITATS _Aquatic habitat_: _Mustela vison mink._ Mink. Reported. _Fiber zibethicus zibethicus._ Muskrat. Reported. Mink and muskrat are reported by residents to occur in the Galien River in and near Warren Woods, but I was unable to secure any specimens though traps were set for them; neither did I see any signs of their presence. _Buttonbush-swamp habitat_: _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis._ Northern white-footed mouse. 8. _Mus musculus musculus._ House mouse. 2. A large buttonbush swamp occurs in the preserve just south of the Galien River, but around this the native trees have been cut away and over its accessible edges it has been heavily pastured, so that it is not at all in its natural conditions, and it was not trapped. In the unpastured flood-plain north of the river there is another buttonbush swamp of several hundred yards extent. This latter area was the one selected for study. In this typical swamp the buttonbush, _Cephalanthus occidentalis_, is practically the only plant present. It thickly covers the area with its tangled branches, which grow to heights of four to ten feet. The water had drained away in August, leaving the ground bare, though still wet and soft. Under the cover of the buttonbush there is no herbage whatever, and upon the ground there are only a few decaying logs and a few small sticks, which often carry a light growth of moss. Around the edges of this swamp there is a narrow belt of thick herbage, closely encroached upon by the typical forest of the flood-plain. Fifty mouse traps set in this habitat took eight northern white-footed mice and two house mice the first night, August 5. _Shore habitat_: _Procyon lotor lotor._ Raccoon. Tracks. _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis._ Northern white-footed mouse. 1. Along the shores of the Galien River a narrow strip of bare ground was exposed in July and August. The ground of this strip is mostly mud, but in a few places it is sand or gravel. Usually the habitat is narrow, but in some places it is five to ten feet wide. Tracks of raccoon were frequent on the shore along the river. From a few mouse traps set on the bare mud shore one northern white-footed mouse was taken August 4 beside a drift log. _Mud-bar herbage habitat_: _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis._ Northern white-footed mouse. 4. A few small recently formed mud bars occur along the Galien River in its outer bends. These bars have not yet had time to become forested, and on their outer edges nearest the river there is usually no vegetation, this part being included in the shore habitat. On their older portions next the forest of the flood-plains occurs a thick growth of herbs, several annual grasses, and rarely a willow, _Salix_ sp., or a seedling tree of white elm, _Ulmus americana_, cottonwood, _Populus deltoides_, maple, _Acer rubrum_ or _saccharinum_, and others of the typical flood-plain species. The vegetation during August is very thick, and reaches a height of four to six feet. The soil is either mud or in a few places fine sand, and the ground is quite moist. In this habitat four northern white-footed mice were trapped August 3-4. _Flood-plain forest habitat_: _Scalopus aquaticus machrinus._ Prairie mole. Ridges. _Blarina brevicauda talpoides._ Short-tailed shrew. 4. _Procyon lotor lotor._ Raccoon. 1. _Mustela noveboracensis noveboracensis._ New York weasel. 1. _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis._ Northern white-footed mouse. 52. _Microtus pinetorum scalopsoides._ Northern pine vole. 5. _Mus musculus musculus._ House mouse. 2. _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius._ Hudson Bay jumping mouse. 1. _Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum._ Canada porcupine. Tooth marks. _Marmota monax monax._ Southern woodchuck. 4. _Sciurus hudsonicus loquax._ Southern red squirrel. 4. _Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii._ Mearns cottontail. 1. There are considerable areas of flood-plain along the Galien River, and except for the recently formed mud bars the flood-plains are heavily covered with a mixed forest in which the linden, _Tilia americana_, white elm, _Ulmus americana_, and sycamore, _Platanus occidentalis_, are conspicuous species. Under this forest there are a few small trees, but there is very little underbrush. The herbage also is sparse and, though in a few places there is a considerable growth of ferns, grasses, and sedges, and of other herbs, there are also many bare areas. One of the significant features of the flood-plains, so far as the mammals are concerned, is the flooding to which these areas are subjected during the spring high-water. At that time the flood-plain for a number of days or weeks may be covered with several feet of water. During the period between July 29 and August 28 a total of one hundred and seventy mouse traps set in the flood-plain forests along the Galien River took for the first nights' trapping, twenty-two northern white-footed mice and one house mouse. Short-tailed shrews, more white-footed mice, pine voles, and a jumping mouse were secured on nights after the first. Larger traps took during the whole period one raccoon, one New York weasel, and two woodchucks. Several other woodchucks and a number of red squirrels were seen. Ridges of moles were numerous, but no specimens were secured. Tooth marks on an old, partly fallen linden were probably made, perhaps a number of years ago, by a porcupine. Throughout the woods there are a number of small ravines. These ravines are forested with trees mostly of the flood-plain type, and there is evidence in many of the ravines, at least in their lower parts, that flooding occurs in the ravine bottom during the spring. Fifty mouse traps set August 26 in a large ravine north of the county road took on the first day five northern white-footed mice and one house mouse. Short-tailed shrews, more white-footed mice, and pine voles were trapped on following days. Here also red squirrels and a cottontail were seen, and tracks of raccoon noted. Evidently the fauna is the same as that of the flood-plain, with which it is here included. _Beech-maple forest habitat_: _Blarina brevicauda talpoides._ Short-tailed shrew. 7. _Procyon lotor lotor._ Raccoon. Tracks. _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis._ Northern white-footed mouse. 86. _Microtus pinetorum scalopsoides._ Northern pine vole. 5. _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius._ Hudson Bay jumping mouse. 1. _Marmota monax monax._ Southern woodchuck. Burrows. _Tamias striatus lysteri._ Northeastern chipmunk. 1. _Sciurus hudsonicus loquax._ Southern red squirrel. 10. _Sciurus niger rufiventer._ Fox squirrel. 7. _Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii._ Mearns cottontail. 1. The climax forest of the region is dominated by the beech, _Fagus grandiflora_, and the sugar maple, _Acer saccharum_. The trees in this forest are very large, so that the forest crown is high and the shade dense. Only a few small trees occur and these are mostly young beeches and young sugar maples. The underbrush varies much in height and denseness; mostly it is quite open, so that one can easily walk through the forest, but in a few places the growth is more dense. Common members of the underbrush on the higher ground are the small beeches, sugar maples, and the spice-bush, _Benzoin aestivale_; while on the lower benches along the river seedlings of the paw-paw dominate the undergrowth. The ground is heavily covered by decaying leaves and a little dead brush and fallen branches, but nearly all the logs have been removed. Early in the spring a thick growth of herbs covers the ground, but by July the herbs are mostly gone, only a few remaining, and there are many small bare areas covered only by leaves. The soil under this forest seems to be mainly clay; in spring or after heavy rains pools of water are formed, and these remain for a long time. Between July 21 and August 27 a total of two hundred and eighty-five mouse traps set in the upland forest took on the first nights one short-tailed shrew and thirty northern white-footed mice. In addition to these species pine voles and a jumping mouse were trapped on days after the first. One shrew was caught alive August 30, as he was running about on the forest floor at 7:30 A.M. A few tracks of raccoon were seen from time to time on the road leading through the woods. A few fresh burrows of woodchucks were noted at the edges of benches and of ravines. A few red squirrels were seen at different times and two collected. Fox squirrels were rare, being noted only a few times; Mr. Norman A. Wood also saw these squirrels on two occasions in May. One cottontail was shot, in the climax forest. Mr. Wood collected a chipmunk in the climax forest on May 15, 1918, and saw another in the same habitat in May, 1919. _Aerial habitat_: Bats were seen on a few evenings, flying about over the climax forest, and over the adjacent region, but they were extremely rare, and efforts to shoot a specimen failed. MODIFIED AND ARTIFICIAL HABITATS _Second-growth forest and scrub habitat_: _Mustela noveboracensis noveboracensis._ New York weasel. 1. _Mephitis nigra._ Eastern skunk. 1. _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis._ Northern white-footed mouse. 5. _Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus._ Pennsylvania vole. 4. _Mus musculus musculus._ House mouse. 1. _Marmota monax monax._ Southern woodchuck. 1. _Sciurus hudsonicus loquax._ Southern red squirrel. 1. _Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii._ Mearns cottontail. 5. Small trees and brush have grown up along the edges of many of the ravines in the cleared fields in and surrounding the preserve. Many of the trees are oaks, but beech and hard maple also occur, a few of them being relics from the original forest. Considerable brush is present, formed by a large variety of species. A few other small patches, especially in ravine bottoms and on flood-plains have been allowed to grow up to brush and small trees. In nearly every case these areas are heavily pastured. The conditions here included in the second-growth forest and scrub habitat are not homogeneous, but differ in each different location where the habitat is found, tree and shrub species abundant in one situation not being present in another. The habitat is usually narrow in extent, being often confined to the width of the steep ravine wall. Owing to its poor development and uncertain characteristics no intensive trapping was done in this type of habitat. A weasel was trapped in open beech-maple-oak forest at the edge of a cleared ravine, and a woodchuck was shot in the same type of habitat. Another woodchuck and a skunk were trapped at different times in low willow brush on the banks of the river just north of the woods. Northern white-footed mice, Pennsylvania voles, and a house mouse were trapped in thick oak brush and trees alongside a road north of the woods. A red squirrel was shot in second-growth oak and aspen woods in the north part of the preserve, and they were seen in open woods along ravines. Cottontails were noted a few times in blackberry thickets, in brush in ravines, in clearings along the river, and in beech-maple-oak forest along ravines. _Cleared-ravine sedge habitat_: _Blarina brevicauda talpoides._ Short-tailed shrew. 1. _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis._ Northern white-footed mouse. 3. _Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus._ Pennsylvania vole. 5. A large ravine south of the river had been cleared of trees evidently several years previously, and it has now grown up mostly to sedges, grass, and iris in its more moist parts. Along the little brook which flows through the ravine there is a fringe of willows, and among the sedges a number of shrubs and small trees occur, mostly thorns and a few young sycamores and black walnuts. Fifty mouse traps set in this habitat took on the first day, August 16, three northern white-footed mice and three Pennsylvania voles. More voles and a short-tailed shrew were taken on later days. _Cleared-upland rush habitat_: _Mephitis nigra._ Eastern skunk. Den. _Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii._ Prairie white-footed mouse. 1. _Synaptomys cooperi._ Cooper lemming-vole. 1. _Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus._ Pennsylvania vole. 7. _Microtus ochrogaster._ Prairie vole. 1. _Citellus tridecemlineatus tridecemlineatus._ Thirteen-striped ground squirrel. 2. In the shallow, poorly drained depressions of the cleared upland the vegetation is dominated by rushes, which grow in clumps and form a thick growth, reaching a height of about one meter as a maximum. At the edges of the habitat and in places not thickly covered by the rushes a growth of sedges, grasses, and moss covers the ground; but under the thickest growth of rushes the ground is bare and is evidently covered by water during a part of the year. On this upland one small pond surrounded by rushes did not dry up until late in August. In a few places small blackberry thickets occur in the areas of rushes and dominate all other plants. Fifty traps set in this habitat, on August 8, took on the first night one prairie white-footed mouse and one Pennsylvania vole; the prairie white-footed mouse was taken just at the edge of the growth of rushes. Other Pennsylvania voles as well as a lemming-vole, a prairie vole, and several young ground squirrels were secured on later nights by the same trap-line. A skunk den was situated in a blackberry thicket in the midst of the largest patch of rushes. _Cleared-upland sedge habitat_: _Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii._ Prairie white-footed mouse. 3. _Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus._ Pennsylvania vole. 1. _Microtus ochrogaster._ Prairie vole. 9. _Mus musculus musculus._ House mouse. 1. _Citellus tridecemlineatus tridecemlineatus._ Thirteen-striped ground squirrel. Burrows. Sedges are dominant over a part of the cleared upland, occurring on the moist gentle slopes which are too well drained for rushes, but not in any numbers on the drier and higher parts of the upland. With the sedges there are a few grasses, and the ground is sometimes covered by a moss, but the sedges are by far the most abundant plant. Fifty mouse traps set in this habitat took on the first night, August 15, one prairie white-footed mouse and one prairie vole. Other prairie voles and white-footed mice were taken on later nights, as well as one Pennsylvania vole and one house mouse. Burrows of the thirteen-striped ground squirrel were numerous in the sedges. _Cleared-upland blue-grass habitat_: _Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii._ Prairie white-footed mouse. 12. _Mus musculus musculus._ House mouse. 1. _Citellus tridecemlineatus tridecemlineatus._ Thirteen-striped ground squirrel. 23. The most widespread habitat of the cleared upland on the south part of the preserve is the blue-grass habitat. In this habitat the blue-grass, _Poa_, is the dominant plant, growing to a height of usually not over 0.5 meter. With the blue-grass are associated a few thistles, yarrow, and several other herbs. During the whole period of my stay in the region, July and August, the habitat was very dry, and the grass and herbs had mostly dried up. This habitat and all the other habitats of the clearing were being heavily pastured by stock. Trap-lines totaling one hundred mouse traps, set on August 6 and August 18, took on the first nights two prairie white-footed mice, one house mouse, and one young thirteen-striped ground squirrel. More white-footed mice were taken on later nights. Many ground squirrels were taken in larger traps at the mouths of their burrows; most of these were young of the year, and all of them were very fat in preparation for their approaching hibernation. _Cultivated field habitat_: _Scalopus aquaticus machrinus._ Prairie mole. 1. _Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii._ Prairie white-footed mouse. 23. _Microtus ochrogaster._ Prairie vole. 1. _Mus musculus musculus._ House mouse. 2. _Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii._ Mearns cottontail. 2. Cultivated fields occur throughout the region about the woods, but the only ones in which trapping was done were wheat stubble-fields. After the wheat was cut off these stubble-fields grew up rather thickly to weeds. On the ground there were a number of fallen heads of wheat and some shelled-out grain, furnishing abundant food for mice. Seventy mouse traps set in a wheat stubble-field just north of Warren Woods, caught on the first nights, August 13 and August 29, sixteen prairie white-footed mice. Other white-footed mice and two house mice were taken on later nights. Several cottontails were seen in this field, and a few mole ridges were noted. A prairie mole was taken by Clifford Reid in a grassy patch at the edge of a garden. In another wheat field the Helming boys picked up a prairie vole. _Orchard habitat_: _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis._ Northern white-footed mouse. 1. _Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus._ Pennsylvania vole. 2. No especial study of the mammal life of the orchard was made, and no intensive trapping was done in the habitat. However, the orchard cannot be included in any of the other habitats recognized in the region. A northern white-footed mouse was caught alive by the Helming boys in an orchard on July 16. A vole was seen to cross a road in a small orchard on July 15; a trap was set and two Pennsylvania voles secured, one a young of the year. _Edificarian habitat_:[1] _Blarina brevicauda talpoides._ Short-tailed shrew. 1. _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis._ Northern white-footed mouse. 2. _Rattus norvegicus._ Norway rat. 4. _Mus musculus musculus._ House mouse. 22. _Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii._ Mearns cottontail. 2. From time to time a few traps were set in the old farmhouse and in the barn and other outbuildings of our camp. In these buildings northern white-footed mice, Norway rats, and house mice were taken. Several cottontails were seen in and under the old barn. The Helming boys trapped a short-tailed shrew and also house mice and a white-footed mouse in the basement of their house. RECORDS OF THE NUMBER OF EMBRYOS All the females taken were examined for embryos, and the results are here tabulated by species and dates. The term _subadult_ is used to indicate an individual which has reached adult size, but which is still immature as shown by the pelage, unworn condition of the teeth, and weakness of the skull sutures. For each individual the age is first stated, next the number of embryos if any, and last the length of the embryos in millimeters measured as they lie rolled in the fetal membranes. For embryos too small to measure with field equipment the term _small_ is applied. These records indicate the breeding period of the different species and the number of young. _Mephitis nigra._ Eastern skunk August 19: subadult, 0 embryos. _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis._ Northern white-footed mouse July 16: adult, 3 embryos, size small. July 21: adult, 0; adult, 0. July 22: adult, 5, 10 5 mm.; subadult, 0. July 23: subadult, 0. July 25: juvenile, 0, juvenile, 0; juvenile 0; subadult, 3, small. July 30: adult, 0; adult, 0; adult, 0; subadult, 0. August 2: adult, 0; subadult, 2, small; subadult, 0; subadult, 0. August 5: adult, 5, small; subadult, 0. August 23: subadult, 0; adult, 5, 10 mm. August 24: adult, 5, 8 mm.; adult, 0; adult, 0; adult, 3, small. August 25: adult, 5, 23 mm.; adult, 0; adult, 4, small; adult, 3, small. August 26: subadult, 4, 8 mm.; adult, 0. August 29: adult, 4, 17 mm. _Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii._ Prairie white-footed mouse August 7: subadult, 0. August 10: adult, 5, 8 mm. August 13: adult, 3, 8 mm.; adult, 0. August 20: adult, 5, small. August 28: adult, 4, 17 mm.; adult, 4, 13 mm. August 29: adult, 5, 17 mm. August 30: adult, 0; adult, 4, 11 mm. _Synaptomys cooperi._ Cooper lemming-vole August 11: adult, 2, 10 mm. _Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus._ Pennsylvania vole July 15: adult, 4, not measured, juvenile, 0. August 9: subadult, 0. August 10: subadult, 0; subadult, 0. August 13: subadult, 0. August 16: adult, 0. August 24: adult, 4, 11 mm. _Microtus ochrogaster._ Prairie vole July 25: juvenile, 0. August 15: adult, 4, small. _Microtus pinetorum scalopsoides._ Northern pine vole July 22: juvenile, 0. July 25: juvenile, 0. July 31: adult, 0. _Rattus norvegicus._ Norway rat July 11: adult, 7, 37 mm. July 12: adult, 9, 26 mm. July 14: juvenile, 0. _Mus musculus musculus._ House mouse July 9: subadult, 0. July 10: juvenile, 0; subadult, 0. July 11: adult, 0 (was nursing 3 or more half-grown young). July 17: adult, 11, 6 mm. July 22: adult, 7, 3.5 mm. _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius._ Hudson Bay jumping mouse July 27: subadult, 0. _Marmota monax monax._ Southern woodchuck July 11: adult, 0. July 28: juvenile, 0. August 3: adult, 0. August 22: juvenile, 0. _Citellus tridecemlineatus tridecemlineatus._ Thirteen-striped ground squirrel August 14: adult, 0. _Sciurus hudsonicus loquax._ Southern red squirrel July 24: adult, 0. July 27: juvenile, 0. _Sciurus niger rufiventer._ Fox squirrel August 11: subadult, 0. _Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii._ Mearns cottontail July 21: adult, 4, 70 mm. NEW STATE RECORD OF THE PRAIRIE VOLE The specimens of prairie vole, _Microtus ochrogaster_, listed above from the sedges and rushes of cleared upland in the Warren Woods preserve and from a nearby wheat field constitute the first authentic record of the species from Michigan. The prairie vole had previously been erroneously reported to be abundant in Washtenaw County by Covert[2], who evidently mistook the Pennsylvania vole for this species. OTHER MAMMALS OF THIS REGION The following notes on mammals formerly or at present living in the region but not found by me in Warren Woods are based mostly on information furnished by George R. Fox, Director of the Edward K. Warren Foundation, and by William Schmidt, a trapper and hunter. _Didelphis virginiana virginiana._ Virginia opossum. Three were seen and one captured in Three Oaks in the winter of 1919-20, and another was found in a granary on the outskirts of the town. The previous winter one was shot just southwest of town, and another was seen in a ravine north of Harbert. One was killed in Warren Woods some time ago. _Condylura cristata._ Star-nosed mole. Mr. Hans captured one four miles south of Three Oaks, near the Indiana line in 1919, and brought the skin to Mr. Fox. One was taken by Dr. Parker at Lakeside in June, 1919. _Ursus americanus americanus._ Eastern black bear. Formerly occurred in the region. _Canis lycaon._ Timber wolf. About eleven years ago three were killed from a pack of nine wolves at Lakeside. About 1910 a pack of eight were seen at various times during the winter on the marsh between Three Oaks and Galien. The following winter the same pack, or another of the same number, was seen southwest of Three Oaks, and four of the pack were killed just over the Indiana line. _Vulpes fulva._ Eastern red fox. Common in the region. One was killed in December, 1919, after having been chased from the Warren Woods by dogs. Another was seen in January, 1920, half a mile north of Three Oaks. In preceding winters a number have been killed south of Sawyer where they evidently come from the sand dunes. _Lutra canadensis canadensis._ Canada otter. Formerly occurred along the streams, but are now apparently all gone. _Felis couguar._ Cougar. One was killed a few miles northeast of Three Oaks many years ago. Another was killed near New Buffalo in the early days. _Lynx ruffus ruffus._ Bobcat. One was killed a few years ago near the Galien River a few miles northeast of Three Oaks. _Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum._ Canada porcupine. Found here in the early days. _Sciurus carolinensis leucotis._ Northeastern gray squirrel. Black squirrels were found in numbers in the early days. _Glaucomys volans volans._ Eastern flying squirrel. Said to be common. A large number were seen by Mr. Schmidt on one old stub in Warren Woods some years ago. Several were seen in 1918 by Mr. Fox in second-growth oak woods in a little ravine about one and one-fourth mile west of Warren Woods. One was caught in Three Oaks in the fall of 1919. _Cervus canadensis canadensis._ American elk. One horn from a large swamp in Berrien County is in the Chamberlain Memorial Museum of Three Oaks. _Odocoileus virginianus borealis._ Northern white-tailed deer. Formerly abundant in the region. Several molars were picked up in Warren Woods. FOSSIL MAMMALS OF BERRIEN COUNTY The records of fossil mammals from Berrien County here published have been collected by George R. Fox, who has also kindly loaned from the collections under his care several specimens for identification. Dr. E. C. Case assisted with the identification of the mammoth teeth. _Mammut americanum._ Mastodon. (1) About 1897 the teeth of a mastodon were dug up by a dredge within the village limits of Eau Claire. Their disposition is unknown. (2) At Snow, in section 36, Lake Township, a tooth was found. This came into the possession of Frank Striker of Buchanan. (3) A portion of a tusk and part of a skull were found on the Beebe Farm near Baroda. These were sent to Washington, D.C. (4) In the excavation of a ditch through a small marsh lying near Bakerstown in Section 3, of Bertrand Township, the dredge uncovered in the distance of between two and three miles bones, teeth, and other evidences of six mastodons. Of these remains the most important was a nearly complete skull with teeth in place and disintegrated parts of the tusks. The skull was secured by Dr. E. H. Crane, who restored parts, the tusks he did not attempt to restore. This skull is now on exhibition at the Ward Museum, Rochester, New York. The skull lay about seven feet deep. It was under a bed of matted oak brush on top of which lay a huge stone slab, estimated to weigh two or three tons. Above was a layer of silt, then gravelly clay; above were more silt beds, three in number. W. Hillis Smith, who helped Dr. Crane secure the skull, furnished the above information. (5) On the Avery marsh, two miles east of Three Oaks, a badly decayed mastodon skull and several teeth were excavated in 1884. Dr. Bonine, Sr., of Niles, assisted at the excavation. The bones and teeth were in the muck about twenty inches below the surface. Other teeth, making seven in all, were found near the same place. Some of the teeth from this locality are on exhibition at the Chamberlain Memorial Museum of Three Oaks. In addition to the above there are several indefinite records of mastodon remains from the county. _Elephas columbi._ Columbian mammoth. (1) One-half of the tooth of a mammoth was found in the spring of 1917 on the Beeson and Holden farm in Section 6, NE. 1/4, Township of Galien, by D. H. Beeson while cultivating corn. Two weeks later the other half of the tooth was found. The specimen is now in the Chamberlain Memorial Museum of Three Oaks. The specimen is a well-worn lower third molar having twenty ridge-plates, but some of the ridge-plates have been worn out and lost. Seven and a half ridge-plates are included in a 100 mm. line. The greatest length of the tooth is 280 mm. and its greatest breadth 95 mm. (2) A complete set of mammoth teeth with some portions of the bones was found about the year 1900 on a farm two miles southeast of Three Oaks owned by E. K. Warren. They were discovered while digging post holes. The specimens are on exhibition in the Chamberlain Memorial Museum. One of the teeth sent us for identification proves to be a partly worn lower third molar having twenty-four ridge-plates. There are seven and a half ridge-plates in 100 mm. The greatest length of the tooth is 350 mm. and its greatest breadth 95 mm. (3) There is another record of a mammoth tooth which was found at an unknown location in Berrien County. It was at one time owned by Mr. Smith, who gave it to Dr. Crane. Its present whereabouts is unknown. PLATE I A mud bar beside the Galien River in Warren Woods. A growth of mud-bar herbs adjoins the flood-plain forest on the left. August 29, 1919. Flood-plain forest in Warren Woods. There are few shrubs, but a considerable amount of herbage is present. August 29, 1919. [Illustration] [Illustration] PLATE II Buttonbush swamp in Warren Woods. The swamp is surrounded by flood-plain forest. August 29, 1919. Climax beech-maple forest on the higher ground in Warren Woods. August 29, 1919. [Illustration] [Illustration] Footnotes: [Footnote 1: L. R. Dice, _Occasional Papers, Mus. Zool._, No. 65.] [Footnote 2: Adolphe B. Covert, _Natural History--History of Washtenaw County_, p. 194. 1881.] Transcriber's Note: *The footnotes have been moved to the end of the publication. 
33527	----	Transcriber's Notes: This is a Plain Text Version. It uses the Latin-1 Character set, but note that the only non-ASCII character used is the degree symbol. Italic typeface in the original is indicated with _underscores_. Bold typeface in the original is indicated with UPPER CASE. A list of other publications (NOAA Technical Reports) appears on the front cover of the original book, before the title page. This list has been retained, but has been moved to join the continuation of the list inside the back cover. Other changes to the text have been listed after the end of the book. * * * * * NOAA Technical Report NMFS CIRC-396 Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises of the Western North Atlantic A Guide to Their Identification STEPHEN LEATHERWOOD, DAVID K. CALDWELL, and HOWARD E. WINN with special assistance by William E. Schevill and Melba C. Caldwell SEATTLE, WA AUGUST 1976 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Elliot L. Richardson, Secretary / NATIONAL OCEANIC AND / ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION / Robert M. White, Administrator / National Marine / Fisheries Service / Robert W. Schoning, Director [Illustration: NOAA logo] For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock No. 003-020-00119-0 / Catalog No. C 55.13: NMFS CIRC-396 PREFACE In March 1972, the Naval Undersea Center (NUC), San Diego, Calif. in cooperation with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), Tiburon, Calif. published a photographic field guide--_The Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises of the Eastern North Pacific. A Guide to Their Identification in the Water_, by S. Leatherwood, W.E. Evans, and D.W. Rice (NUC TP 282). This guide was designed to assist the layman in identifying the cetaceans he encountered in that area and was intended for use in two ongoing whale observer programs, NUC's Whale Watch and NMFS's Platforms of Opportunity. The rationale of these programs was that since oceanographers, commercial and sport fishermen, naval personnel, commercial seamen, pleasure boaters, and coastal aircraft pilots together canvas large areas of the oceans which scientists specializing in whales (cetologists) have time and funds to survey only occasionally, training those persons in species identification and asking them to report their sightings back to central data centers could help scientists more clearly understand distribution, migration, and seasonal variations in abundance of cetacean species. For such a program to work, a usable field guide is a requisite. Because the many publications on the whales, dolphins, and porpoises of this region were either too technical in content or too limited in geographical area or species covered to be of use in field identification, and because conventional scientific or taxonomic groupings of the animals are often not helpful in field identification, the photographic field guide took a different approach. Instead of being placed into their scientific groups, species were grouped together on the basis of similarities in appearance during the brief encounters typical at sea. Photographs of the animals in their natural environment, supplemented by drawings and descriptions or tables distinguishing the most similar species, formed the core of the guide. Despite deficiencies in the first effort and the inherent difficulties of positively identifying many of the cetacean species at sea, the results obtained from the programs have been encouraging. Many seafarers who had previously looked with disinterest or ignorance on the animals they encountered became good critical observers and found pleasure in the contribution they were making. The potential for the expansion of such observer programs is enormous. Because of these initial successes and the large number of requests for packets from persons working at sea off the Atlantic coast of North America, this guide was planned. Many of the errors and deficiencies of the Pacific Guide have been corrected, and the discussions of the ranges of many of the species have been expanded with considerations of the major oceanographic factors affecting their distribution and movements. While the present volume, like the Pacific Guide, is intended as an aid to the identification of living animals at sea, new materials have been provided to aid in the identification and reporting of stranded specimens, a major source of data and study material for museums. This new dimension is expected to assist the U.S. National Museum, various regional museums, and other researchers actively collecting cetacean materials for display and study in the implementation of their stranded animal salvage programs. Through a cooperative effort of this kind, the best possible use can be made of all materials that become available. As a part of continuing research, this guide will be revised whenever possible. Suggestions for its improvement will at all times be welcome. * * * * * Funds for the preparation of this guide were provided by a grant to Stephen Leatherwood from the Platforms of Opportunity Program, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Tiburon, Calif., Paul Sund, Coordinator. CONTENTS Introduction 1 Classification of cetaceans 1 Dolphin or porpoise 5 Organization of the guide 5 How to use the guide 7 To identify animals at sea 7 To identify stranded animals 7 To record and report information 7 Directory to species accounts: Large whales: With a dorsal fin 10 Without dorsal fin 13 Medium-sized whales: With a dorsal fin 14 Without dorsal fin 15 Small whales, dolphins, and porpoises with a dorsal fin 16 Species accounts: Large whales with a dorsal fin: Blue whale 19 Fin whale 26 Sei whale 32 Bryde's whale 37 Humpback whale 40 Large whales without dorsal fin: Bowhead whale 49 Right whale 52 Sperm whale 57 Medium-sized whales with a dorsal fin: Minke whale 63 Northern bottlenosed whale 67 Goosebeaked whale 70 Other beaked whales 74 True's beaked whale 77 Antillean beaked whale 78 Dense-beaked whale 80 North Sea beaked whale 82 Killer whale 84 False killer whale 88 Atlantic pilot whale 91 Short-finned pilot whale 94 Grampus 96 Medium-sized whales without dorsal fin: Beluga 99 Narwhal 102 Small whales, dolphins, and porpoises with a dorsal fin: Atlantic spotted dolphin 104 Bridled dolphin 108 Spinner dolphin 110 Striped dolphin 113 Saddleback dolphin 116 Fraser's dolphin 120 Atlantic white-sided dolphin 123 White-beaked dolphin 126 Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin 128 Guiana dolphin 132 Rough-toothed dolphin 135 Pygmy killer whale 138 Many-toothed blackfish 142 Pygmy sperm whale 144 Dwarf sperm whale 148 Harbor porpoise 150 Acknowledgments 152 Selected bibliography 152 Appendix A, Tags on whales, dolphins, and porpoises 154 Appendix B, Recording and reporting observations of cetaceans at sea 160 Appendix C, Stranded whales, dolphins, and porpoises; with a key to the identification of stranded cetaceans of the western North Atlantic 163 Appendix D, Recording and reporting data on stranded cetaceans 169 Appendix E, List of institutions to contact regarding stranded cetaceans 171 The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) does not approve, recommend or endorse any proprietary product or proprietary material mentioned in this publication. No reference shall be made to NMFS, or to this publication furnished by NMFS, in any advertising or sales promotion which would indicate or imply that NMFS approves, recommends or endorses any proprietary product or proprietary material mentioned herein, or which has as its purpose an intent to cause directly or indirectly the advertised product to be used or purchased because of this NMFS publication. Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises of the Western North Atlantic A Guide to Their Identification STEPHEN LEATHERWOOD,[1] DAVID K. CALDWELL,[2] and HOWARD E. WINN[3] with special assistance by William E. Schevill[4] and Melba C. Caldwell[2] [Footnote 1: Biomedical Division, Undersea Sciences Department, Naval Undersea Center, San Diego, CA 92132.] [Footnote 2: Biocommunication and Marine Mammal Research Facility, C. V. Whitney Marine Research Laboratory of the University of Florida, St. Augustine, FL 32084.] [Footnote 3: Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881.] [Footnote 4: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543 and Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138.] ABSTRACT This field guide is designed to permit observers to identify the cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) they see in the western North Atlantic, including the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the coastal waters of the United States and Canada. The animals described are grouped not by scientific relationships but by similarities in appearance in the field. Photographs of the animals in their natural environment are the main aids to identification. A dichotomized key is provided to aid in identification of stranded cetaceans and appendices describe how and to whom to report data on live and dead cetaceans. INTRODUCTION All whales, dolphins, and porpoises belong to an order or major scientific group called the Cetacea by scientists. They are all mammals (air-breathing animals which have hair in at least some stage of their development, maintain a constant body temperature, bear their young alive, and nurse them for a while) which have undergone extensive changes in body form (anatomy) and function (physiology) to cope with a life spent entirely in the water. The breathing aperture(s), called a blowhole or blowholes, has (have) migrated to the top of the head to facilitate breathing while swimming; the forward appendages have become flippers; the hind appendages have nearly disappeared, they remain only as small traces of bone deeply imbedded in the muscles. Propulsion is provided by fibrous, horizontally flattened tail flukes. Scientists recognize two suborders of living cetaceans: the whalebone whales, suborder Mysticeti, and the toothed whales, suborder Odontoceti. The two groups are separated in the following ways: BALEEN OR WHALEBONE WHALES. These animals are called whalebone whales because when fully formed instead of teeth they have up to 800 or more plates of baleen or whalebone depending from the roof of the mouth. They use these plates to strain their food, which consists of "krill" (primarily small crustaceans) and/or small schooling fish, by taking water into the mouth and forcing it out through the overlapping fringes of the baleen plates. Baleen whales are externally distinguishable from toothed whales by having paired blowholes. There are eight species of baleen whales in the western North Atlantic, ranging in size from the minke whale (just over 30 feet [about 9.1 m])[5] to the blue whale (85 feet [25.9 m]). [Footnote 5: Throughout this guide, measurements are given first in feet or inches, followed in parentheses by their equivalents in meters or centimeters. It is recognized that field estimates cannot be as precise as most of the conversions used.] TOOTHED WHALES. Unlike the baleen whales, the toothed whales do have teeth after birth. The teeth vary in number from 2 to over 250, though they may sometimes be concealed beneath the gum. In addition, toothed whales have only a single blowhole. This group includes the animals commonly called dolphin or porpoise as well as some commonly called whales (for example, the sperm whale). There are currently about 30 species of toothed whales known from the western North Atlantic, ranging in maximum adult size from the common or harbor porpoise, which is approximately 5 feet (1.5 m) long, up to the sperm whale which reaches a length of 68 feet (20.7 m). Several other species which are expected to be found in this region, though they have not yet been reported, are also included in this guide. CLASSIFICATION OF CETACEANS In addition to the two suborders (Mysticeti and Odontoceti), the cetacean order contains numerous families, genera, and species. Each of these groupings represents a progressively more specialized division of the animals into categories on the basis of similarities in their skulls, postcranial skeletons, and external characteristics. The discipline which concerns itself with naming an animal and assigning it to its appropriate scientific category is known as taxonomy. An example of the classification of a cetacean species is shown in the following: SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED DOLPHIN Kingdom: Animalia all animals Phylum: Chordata having at some stage a notochord, the precursor of the backbone Subphylum: Vertebrata animals with backbones--fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals Class: Mammalia animals that suckle their young Order: Cetacea carnivorous, wholly aquatic mammals: whales, including dolphins and porpoises Suborder: Odontoceti toothed whales as distinguished from Mysticeti, the baleen whales Family: Delphinidae dolphins Genus: Tursiops bottlenosed dolphins Species: truncatus Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin Modern taxonomy had its origin with the Swedish naturalist Linnaeus, whose tenth edition of the _Systema Naturae_ in 1758 forms the official starting point. Following Linnaeus, modern scientific names consist of two words, a generic name, which has an initial capital, and a species name, which rarely does, occasionally in botany (some species names deriving from a person's name are capitalized). Both names are usually of Latin origin (sometimes Greek) and are italicized or underlined. These scientific names are of particular importance because, although common names of species often are different in different countries or even in different regions of the same country, the scientific name remains the same. For example, the right whale is universally known as _Eubalaena glacialis_ though its common names include black right whale, nordcaper, sletbag, Biscay whale, and Biscayan right whale. Although classification of many species is still in a state of flux, the classification of western North Atlantic cetaceans followed in this guide is as follows: Page of synoptic account of the species Order Cetacea Suborder Mysticeti--Baleen whales Family Balaenopteridae--Rorquals _Balaenoptera acutorostrata_ Lacepede 1804 Minke whale 63 _Balaenoptera physalus_ (Linnaeus 1758) Fin whale 26 _Balaenoptera musculus_ (Linnaeus 1758) Blue whale 19 _Balaenoptera borealis_ Lesson 1828 Sei whale 32 _Balaenoptera edeni_ Anderson 1879 Bryde's whale 37 _Megaptera novaeangliae_ (Borowski 1781) Humpback whale 40 Family Balaenidae--Right whales _Balaena mysticetus_ Linnaeus 1758 Bowhead whale 49 _Eubalaena glacialis_ (Borowski 1781) Right whale 52 Suborder Odontoceti--Toothed whales Family Ziphiidae _Mesoplodon bidens_ (Sowerby 1804) North Sea beaked whale 82 _Mesoplodon densirostris_ (Blainville in Dense-beaked Desmarest 1817) whale 80 _Mesoplodon europaeus_ (Gervais 1855) Antillean beaked whale 78 _Mesoplodon mirus_ True 1913 True's beaked whale 77 _Ziphius cavirostris_ G. Cuvier 1823 Goosebeaked whale 70 _Hyperoodon ampullatus_ (Forster 1770) Northern bottlenosed whale 67 Family Physeteridae _Physeter catodon_ Linnaeus 1758 Sperm whale 57 _Kogia breviceps_ (Blainville 1838) Pygmy sperm whale 144 _Kogia simus_ (Owen 1866) Dwarf sperm whale 148 Family Monodontidae _Monodon monoceros_ Linnaeus 1758 Narwhal 102 _Delphinapterus leucas_ (Pallas 1776) Beluga 99 Family Stenidae _Steno bredanensis_ (G. Cuvier in Rough-toothed dolphin 135 Lesson 1828) _Sotalia guianensis_ (P. J. van Guiana dolphin 132 Beneden 1864) Family Delphinidae _Peponocephala electra_ (Gray 1846) Many-toothed blackfish 142 _Feresa attenuata_ Gray 1874 Pygmy killer whale 138 _Pseudorca crassidens_ (Owen 1846) False killer whale 88 _Globicephala melaena_ (Traill 1809) Atlantic pilot whale 91 _Globicephala Gray 1846 Short-finned pilot whale 94 macrorhynchus_ _Orcinus orca_ (Linnaeus 1758) Killer whale 84 _Lagenorhynchus Gray 1846 White-beaked dolphin 126 albirostris_ _Lagenorhynchus acutus_ (Gray 1828) Atlantic white-sided dolphin 123 _Lagenodelphis hosei_ Fraser 1956 Fraser's dolphin 120 _Tursiops truncatus_ (Montagu 1821) Bottlenosed dolphin 128 _Grampus griseus_ (G. Cuvier 1812) Grampus 96 _Stenella longirostris_ Gray 1828 Spinner dolphin 110 _Stenella frontalis_ (G. Cuvier 1829) Bridled dolphin 108 _Stenella coeruleoalba_ (Meyen 1833) Striped dolphin 113 _Stenella plagiodon_ (Cope 1866) Spotted dolphin 104 _Delphinus delphis_ Linnaeus 1758 Saddleback dolphin 116 Family Phocoenidae _Phocoena phocoena_ (Linnaeus 1758) Harbor porpoise 150 This tentative classification follows an unpublished list by W.E. Schevill and E.M. Mitchell currently under review. The scientific names are followed by the name of the individual who named the species and the year of naming, and then by the common name most often used in the western North Atlantic.[6] It may be noted that some of the authors are in parentheses. This indicates that though the species name has remained the same since the date of naming the species has since been assigned to another genus. Because the species are not arranged in taxonomic order in this field guide, the page of the synoptic account of each is provided in the column to the right. [Footnote 6: Most common names are based on some characteristic of the species (e.g., spotted dolphin, striped dolphin, rough-toothed dolphin); others are the names of authors of the species (e.g., True's beaked whale) or of habitats or macrohabitats which they inhabit (e.g., North Sea beaked whale and harbor porpoise); the origins of some common names, however, are less obvious (e.g., dense-beaked whale), and of less use in field references.] [Illustration: Figure 1.--The western North Atlantic, from lat. 35°N-65°N.] [Illustration: Figure 2.--The western North Atlantic, from lat. 37°N south to eastern Venezuela.] [Illustration: Figure 3.--A baleen whale (humpback) showing the main body parts referred to in the text.] [Illustration: Figure 4.--A fin whale in the North Atlantic with the paired blowholes open during respiration. The paired blowholes distinguish this animal as a baleen whale. (_Photo by W. A. Watkins._)] DOLPHIN OR PORPOISE There is still considerable controversy over the correct usage of the terms dolphin and porpoise. As mentioned in the preceding section, common names of any species may vary from locale to locale and even from individual to individual. Some persons argue for the use of the term porpoise for all small cetaceans. Others insist on the term dolphin. Still others either randomly use the terms or call members of the family Delphinidae dolphins and members of the family Phocoenidae porpoises. The evidence supporting any one of these positions is confusing at best and no usage of terms appears to be without problems. We see no wholly satisfactory resolution to the problem at this time. For all these reasons, we have little desire to defend our decision to follow the last of these practices in this guide, referring to all members of the family Delphinidae for which the term dolphin or porpoise appears in the common name as dolphins, and to the one member of the family Phocoenidae represented in the western North Atlantic, _Phocoena phocoena_, as the harbor porpoise. Although all cetaceans may be regarded as whales, the term "whale" most commonly applies to the larger animals. For all species treated, other common names by which they may be known are also listed. Detailed treatment of the relative merits of the various terminologies is inappropriate here. Furthermore, it is our opinion that the usage of the terms dolphin, porpoise, and whale as part of the common names of cetaceans is largely a matter of personal preference. ORGANIZATION OF THE GUIDE The differences between baleen and toothed whales are easy enough to see in animals washed up on the beach or maintained in a tank at a zoo or aquarium. But since an animal at sea can seldom be examined that closely, its most obvious characteristics may be its overall size, the presence or absence of a dorsal fin, its prominent coloration or markings, its general behavior, or its swimming, blowing, and diving characteristics. For that reason, regardless of their scientific relationships, all the whales, dolphins, and the one porpoise covered in the main text of this guide are divided into three groups. Those over 40 feet (12.2 m) long are discussed in the section on Large Whales, those from 13 to 40 feet (4.0 to 12.2 m) in the Medium-Sized Whale, and those less than 13 feet (4.0 m) in the Small Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoise (with a dorsal fin). There are no small whales, dolphins, or porpoises in this region without a dorsal fin. Each section is further divided into those animals with a dorsal fin and those without. From that point, animals likely to be confused in the field are grouped together and the important differences between them are discussed. The synoptic accounts of the species are followed by five appendices: Appendix A discusses and illustrates man-made and applied tags and natural markings on cetaceans and their importance in studies of natural history. Appendix B discusses the data which are most important to record in observations of cetaceans at sea, gives examples, and provides blank sighting forms. Appendix C discusses possible causes of cetacean strandings and the manner in which stranded animals should be handled and adds a key and tables to aid in identifying stranded cetaceans. Appendix D provides guidelines for collecting data on stranded cetaceans and provides forms and specific instructions for taking standard measurements. Appendix E lists institutions to be contacted in the event of a cetacean stranding or for information. A bibliography of useful references on cetaceans in general and cetaceans of this region in particular and a directory to species accounts are included. [Illustration: Figure 5.--A humpback whale lying on its left side on the deck of a Canadian whaling station. Note the fringes of baleen suspended from the roof of the mouth. (_Photo by J. G. Mead_.)] [Illustration: Figure 6.--Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin mother and calf from northeastern Florida. Note the single open blowhole, a characteristic that marks these animals as toothed whales. (_Photo courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] [Illustration: Figure 7.--The open mouth of an Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin from the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. All toothed whales have teeth, which are used primarily for grasping rather than for chewing. The number varies from 2 to over 250, though they are buried beneath the gums in females and immature animals of several species, take peculiar form in one (narwhal), and are extensively worn in others. (_Photo by D. K. Caldwell._)] HOW TO USE THE GUIDE To Identify Animals at Sea The three major sections of the guide (i.e., large, medium, and small whales) are preceded by a directory to species accounts, which is a summary of the most obvious characteristics of each species and in which summary statements about each characteristic are arranged in parallel order. To use the guide to identify living animals observed at sea, a person or persons should: 1. First estimate the animal's size and determine whether or not it has a dorsal fin. 2. Note also any distinctive features of body shape and coloration and observe its general behavior, including swimming, blowing, and diving characteristics. It should be noted that coloration may vary somewhat at sea, depending on light conditions and water clarity. For example, animals which appear dark gray or black at the surface or when dead may appear brown in good light or when submerged. Making a brief sketch at this point may aid in identifying the animal or in later recalling its distinctive features. 3. Using the directory, locate the section to which the animal probably belongs. 4. Then, for more detailed information, consult the section indicated. There you will find a more complete discussion of the animal's range, size, and distinctive characteristics. In addition, you will find a brief discussion distinguishing it from animals with which it is likely to be confused in the field. * * * * * This guide will probably work best if, in advance of attempting to use the key in the field, the reader will familiarize himself with the general outline, with characters or behaviors to note, and with the locations of the various species accounts. It will also help if he schools himself to ask a series of questions about the animal(s) he sees at the time of the encounter rather than depending on his recall at a later time (see p. 160). As we have emphasized several times in this guide, positive identification of cetaceans at sea can only occasionally be made on the basis of a single characteristic. Therefore, the greater the amount of pertinent evidence an observer obtains, the greater the likelihood he can make a reliable identification. To Identify Stranded Animals Stranded animals can best be identified by referring to Appendix C and its associated tables, making a preliminary determination and then consulting the species accounts in the main body of the book for verification of the identification. As noted in that appendix, if the animal is recently stranded, identification can be made using any of the externally visible characteristics described for the living species at sea. But even if the animal is in an advanced stage of decomposition, it can usually be identified by referring to the key and to the numbers and descriptions of baleen plates, for all baleen whales, and the numbers and relative lengths of ventral grooves, for all balaenopterine whales (Table 1), or to the tables on the numbers and descriptions of teeth, for toothed whales (Table 2). To Record and Report Information As discussed in the preface, though learning to identify the whales, dolphins, and porpoises one sees may be exciting in itself, many persons may want to participate in the accumulation of data on these interesting animals by routinely reporting their observations to scientists who are actively studying them and who can make immediate use of the information. The following may help these persons: Suggestions for making and recording observations of cetaceans at sea and sample data forms are included in Appendix C. Similar suggestions for taking and recording data on stranded cetaceans are included in Appendix D. For both types of data, blank data forms located after the appendices may be photocopied in bulk for use in the field. Completed data forms and all associated information for sightings at sea should be forwarded to the Platforms of Opportunity Program, National Marine Fisheries Service, Tiburon, CA 94920, or to one of the authors of this guide. From there, they will be made available to scientists actively studying the cetaceans of a given species or geographical area. Completed data forms and all associated information for observations of stranded cetaceans should be forwarded to the Division of Mammals, U.S. National Museum, Washington, DC 20560, to one of the authors of this guide, or to one of the regional laboratories listed in Appendix E. These persons have, in turn, been encouraged to keep a free flow of information among them. Table 1. Ranges in Numbers of Teeth in Each Upper and Lower Jaw of Western North Atlantic Odontocetes. [P] = Page of species account ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | | |Ranges in | | | | tooth | | | counts | | Species | |-----+-----| Species common name |scientific name |[P]|Upper|Lower| Remarks --------------------+----------------+---+-----+-----+------------------------ Sperm whale |_Physeter_ | 57| 0 |18-25|Ten to sixteen upper | _catodon_ | | | | teeth _rarely_ emerge; | | | | | lower teeth fit into | | | | | sockets in upper jaw. Northern |_Hyperoodon_ | 67| 0 | 2(2)|At tip of lower jaw; bottlenosed whale | _ampullatus_ | | | [A] | sometimes second | | | | | pair behind first. Goosebeaked whale |_Ziphius_ | 70| 0 | 2[A]|At tip of lower jaw.[B] | _cavirostris_ | | | | True's beaked whale |_Mesoplodon_ | 77| 0 | 2[A]|At tip of lower jaw.[B] | _mirus_ | | | | Antillean beaked |_Mesoplodon_ | 78| 0 | 2[A]|At suture of mandible. whale | _europaeus_ | | | | One-third of way | | | | | from tip of snout to | | | | | gape.[B] Dense-beaked whale |_Mesoplodon_ | 80| 0 | 2[A]|On prominences near | _densirostris_| | | | corner of mouth; | | | | | oriented backwards.[b] North Sea beaked |_Mesoplodon_ | 82| 0 | 2[A]|About halfway from whale | _bidens_ | | | | tip of snout to | | | | | gape.[B] Killer whale |_Orcinus orca_ | 84|10-12|10-12|Prominent; curved and | | | | | oriented backwards | | | | | and inwards; pointed. False killer whale |_Pseudorca_ | 88| 8-11| 8-11|Prominent; pointed | _crassidens_ | | | | and curved. Atlantic pilot whale|_Globicephala_ | 91| 8-10| 8-10| -- -- | _melaena_ | | | | Short-finned pilot |_Globicephala_ | 94| 7-9 | 7-9 | -- -- whale | _macrorhyncha_| | | | Grampus |_Grampus_ | 96| 0 | 0-7 |Near front of jaw; | _griseus_ | | | | may have fallen out | | | | | in older specimens; | | | | | sometimes teeth in | | | | | upper jaw. Beluga |_Delphinapterus_| 99| 8-11| 8-9 | -- -- | _leucas_ | | | | Narwhal |_Monodon_ |102| 2 | 0[A]|One (rarely both) | _monoceros_ | | | | grows up to 9 ft | | | | | (2.5 m) tusk which | | | | | has left-hand | | | | | (sinestral) spiral. Spotted dolphin |_Stenella_ |104|30-36|28-35| -- -- | _plagiodon_ | | | | Bridled dolphin |_Stenella_ |108|29-34|33-36| -- -- | _frontalis_ | | | | Spinner dolphin |_Stenella_ |110|46-65|46-65| -- -- | _longirostris_| | | | Striped dolphin |_Stenella_ |113|43-50|43-50| -- -- | _coeruleoalba_| | | | Saddleback dolphin |_Delphinus_ |116|40-50|40-50| -- -- | _delphis_ | | | | Fraser's dolphin |_Lagenodelphis_ |120|38-44|38-44| -- -- | _hosei_ | | | | Atlantic white-sided|_Lagenorhynchus_|123|30-40|30-40|Some specimens have dolphin | _acutus_ | | | | more teeth in upper | | | | | than in lower jaw. White-beaked dolphin|_Lagenorhynchus_|126|22-28|22-28| -- -- | _albirostris_ | | | | Atlantic bottlenosed|_Tursiops_ |128|20-26|18-24| -- -- dolphin | _truncatus_ | | | | Guiana dolphin |_Sotalia_ |132|26-35|26-35| -- -- | _guianensis_ | | | | Rough-toothed |_Steno_ |135|20-27|20-27|Crown is sometimes dolphin | _bredanensis_ | | | | marked with many | | | | | fine vertical | | | | | wrinkles. Pygmy killer whale |_Feresa_ |138| 8-13|10-13|Many specimens have. | _attenuata_ | | | | fewer teeth on right | | | | | than on left side. Many-toothed |_Peponocephala_ |142|22-25|21-24| -- -- blackfish | _electra_ | | | | Pygmy sperm whale |_Kogia_ |144| 0 |12-16|Rarely 10 or 11; | _breviceps_ | | | | curved back and | | | | | inwards; fit into | | | | | sockets in upper jaw. Dwarf sperm whale |_Kogia simus_ |148| 0-3 | 8-11|Rarely 13; curved | | | | | back and in; sharply | | | | | pointed; fit into | | | | | sockets in upper jaw. | | | | | Rarely has 1-3 upper | | | | | teeth as well. Harbor porpoise |_Phocoena_ |150|22-28|22-28|Spade shaped, laterally | _phocoena_ | | | | compressed, and | | | | | relatively small. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ [Footnote A: Usually erupted from gums only in adult [MALES].] [Footnote B: May have toothpick size vestigial teeth in either jaw.] Table 2. Body Size; Numbers, Maximum Dimensions and Descriptions of Baleen Plates; and Numbers and Relative Lengths of Ventral Grooves of W. N. Atlantic Mysticetes. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | | | | Maximum dimensions| | | | | | of plates | | | | | |-------------------| | | | |Number | | Width | | | | Maximum | of | Length | base | | |Page of| body |baleen |----+----+----+----| Species | Species |species| size[C] |plates/ | ft/| | ft/| | common name |scientific name|account| ft(m) | side | in.| cm | in.| cm | -------------+---------------+-------+---------+--------+----+----+----+----| Blue whale |Balaenoptera | 19 |85 (26.0)|270-395 | 33"| 84| 12"| 30 | | musculus | | | | | | | | Fin whale |Balaenoptera | 26 |79 (24.0)|262-473 | 29"| 72| 12"| 30 | | physalus | | | | | | | | Sei whale |Balaenoptera | 32 |62 (19.0)|318-340 | 31"| 78| 15"| 39 | | borealis | | | | | | | | Bryde's whale|Balaenoptera | 37 |46 (14.0)|250-300?| 17"| 42| 10"| 24 | | edeni | | | | | | | | Humpback |Megaptera | 40 |53 (16.0)|270-400 | 24"| 60| 5"| 13 | whale | novaeangliae | | | | | | | | Bowhead whale|Balaena | 49 |65 (19.8)|325-360 | 14'| 414| 14"| 36 | | mysticetus | | | | | | | | Right whale |Eubalaena | 52 |53 (16.0)|250-390 |7.3'| 223| 12"| 30 | | glacialis | | | | | | | | Minke whale |Balaenoptera | 63 |31 (10.0)|300-325 | 8"| 21| 4"| 10| | acutorostrata| | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- | |Mean No.|Numbers | | | of | of | Species | |bristles|ventral | Relative lengths common name | Color of baleen | /cm. |grooves |of ventral grooves --------------+------------------------+--------+---------+------------------ Blue whale |All black with black | 10-30 | 55-88 |At least to navel. | bristles. | | | Fin whale |Dark gray to bluish | 10-35 | 56-100 |At least to navel. | gray; one-fifth to | | | | one-third of right | | | | front is whitish. | | | Sei whale |Ash black with blue | 35-60 | 38-56 |End far short of | tinge and fine, light | | | navel. | bristles; some near | | | | front may be light. | | | Bryde's whale |Slate gray with dark | 15-35 | 40-50 |At least to navel. | bristles. | | | Humpback whale|Ash black to olive | 10-35 | 14-22 |At least to navel. | brown; sometimes | | | | whitish; bristles | | | | grayish white. | | | Bowhead whale |Black; anterior | ? | None | XX | side of some is | | present.| | whitish; bristles | | | | black. | | | Right whale |Dirty or yellowish gray;| 35-70 | None | XX | some anterior plates | | present.| | all or part white. | | | Minke whale |White to yellowish | 15-25 | 50-70 |End short of | white. Posterior plates| | | navel; often just | may be brown or black. | | | behind flippers. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- [Footnote C: As stated in the Index to the species, these figures represent maximum sizes recorded for the W. N. Atlantic. For all species exploited by whaling industries' current maximum sizes will be substantially smaller than these figures (see species accounts).] DIRECTORY TO SPECIES ACCOUNTS LARGE WHALES (40-85 feet [12-26 m] maximum overall length) With a Dorsal Fin All five species of large whales with a dorsal fin belong to the same major baleen whale group, the balaenopterid whales or rorquals. All are characterized by the presence of a series of ventral grooves, usually visible on stranded specimens and the length and number of which are diagnostic to species. In addition, all species, with the exception of the humpback whale, have at least one distinctive (though often not prominent) ridge along the head from just in front of the blowhole to near the tip of the snout. (The humpback whale, on the other hand, is distinguished by numerous knobs, some of which are located along the line of the head ridge, with others scattered on the top of the head.) In Bryde's whale, the single head ridge characteristic of the other rorquals is supplemented by two auxiliary ridges, one on each side of the main ridge. At sea, these whales often appear very similar and must be examined carefully before they can be reliably identified. In general, though the characteristics of behavior may vary from one encounter to the next, based on the activities in which the animal is engaged, whales in this group may be distinguished from each other on the basis of differences in 1) the size, shape, and position of the dorsal fin and the timing of its appearance on the surface relative to the animal's blow (in general, the larger the whale, the smaller the dorsal fin--the further back its position and the later its appearance on the surface after the animal's blow); 2) the height of body in the area of the dorsal fin, relative to the size of the dorsal fin, which is exposed as the animal sounds; 3) sometimes the blow rate and movement patterns; and 4) the shape and color of the head. Despite variability in behavior by members of the same species from one encounter to the next, an observer can greatly increase the reliability of his identification by forming the habit of working systematically through a set of characteristics for the species rather than depending on any single characteristic. [Sidenote: BLUE WHALE _Balaenoptera musculus_ p. 19] Body very large, up to 85 feet (25.9 m) long.[7] Body basically bluish with mottlings of grayish white. Baleen all black. Head broad and nearly U-shaped, viewed from above. Head flat in front of blowhole, viewed from side. Dorsal fin small (to 13 inches [33 cm]), triangular to moderately falcate, in the last one-third of back. Distribution primarily from temperate seas to pack ice; rare in tropics. Distribution more northerly during summer. Flukes occasionally raised slightly on long dive. [Footnote 7: These figures are all near maximum sizes recorded for the North Atlantic. For all species which have historically been exploited by whale fisheries present maximum sizes may be significantly less than these figures. It should also be noted that differences in methods of measurements often account for discrepancies in reported lengths.] [Sidenote: FIN WHALE _Balaenoptera physalus_ p. 26] Body large, up to 79 feet (24 m) long. Body mostly dark gray or brownish gray; undersides of flukes and flippers and belly white; grayish-white chevron frequently on back behind head. Right lower lip white; right upper lip sometimes white; left lip dark. Head V-shaped, viewed from above. Right front one-third to one-fifth of baleen plates, yellowish white. Other baleen bluish gray with yellowish-white stripes. Dorsal fin to 24 inches (61 cm), slightly more than one-third forward from tail; forms angle of less than 40° with back. Distribution extensive but not very common near pack ice and in tropics. Distribution more northerly during summer. Flukes not raised on dive. [Sidenote: SEI WHALE _Balaenoptera borealis_ p. 32] Body up to 62 feet (19 m) long. Body appears shiny; dark gray on back, often with ovoid grayish-white scars; white on front of belly; undersides of flippers and flukes dark. Baleen grayish or ash black with fine, light-gray bristles. Dorsal fin to 24 inches (61 cm), strongly falcate, well more than one-third forward from tail; forms angle of more than 40° with back. Distribution extensive; are not very common in cold waters and may have a greater tendency than fin whales to enter tropical waters. Distribution more northerly in summer. Flukes not raised on dive. [Sidenote: BRYDE'S WHALE _Balaenoptera edeni_ p. 37] Body up to 46 feet (14 m) long. Body dark gray overall. Head has series of three ridges from area of blowhole to snout. Baleen slate gray with coarse dark bristles. Dorsal fin to 18 inches (45.7 cm), falcate, well more than one-third forward from tail, often irregularly worn on rear margin. Distribution primarily tropical and southern temperate. Flukes not raised on dive. [Sidenote: HUMPBACK WHALE _Megaptera novaeangliae_ p. 40] Body up to 53 feet (16.2 m) long. Body dark gray with irregular white area on belly; flippers white; underside of flukes often has varying amounts of white. Head in front of blowhole flat and covered with knobs. Baleen dark gray to black with olive-black bristles. Dorsal fin small, quite variable in shape, usually hooked, located on a step or hump, in last one-third of back. Flippers very long (to nearly one-third of body length), white, and scalloped on leading edge. Distribution at least New England to Iceland and Greenland during summer. Distribution to shallow tropical banks, winter and spring. Flukes often scalloped on trailing edges and sometimes raised on dive. NOTE: Because of its small adult size, usually less than 30 feet (9.1 m), another member of the rorqual family, the minke whale, is included with the medium-sized whales in this guide. Features by which it may be distinguished from all other rorquals are discussed in the species account. Further, inasmuch as the dorsal fin of the humpback whale is highly variable in shape, positive identification may require reference to the sperm whale (p. 57), which, though the sperm whale has been classified with species without dorsal fin, has a rather distinct dorsal hump, particularly noticeable when the animal arches the back and tail to begin a long dive. [Illustration: Figure 8a.--Swimming, blowing, and diving characteristics of blue, fin, sei, and Bryde's whales.] [Illustration: Figure 8b.--Swimming, blowing, and diving characteristics of humpback, bowhead, right, and sperm whales.] (40-65 feet [12-20 m] maximum overall length) Without a Dorsal Fin There are three species of large whales without a dorsal fin in the western North Atlantic Ocean. Two of these, the bowhead or Greenland whale, and its more widely distributed close relative the right whale, are baleen whales. The third, the sperm whale, is a toothed whale. The first two have relatively smooth backs without even a trace of a dorsal fin. The sperm whale has a humplike low, thick, dorsal ridge, which, from certain views, particularly when the animal is humping up to begin a dive, may be clearly visible and look like a fin. But because the profile of that hump and the knuckles which follow it are often not very prominent in this species, it has been classified with the finless big whales. All three species are characterized by very distinctive blows or spouts. In both the bowhead and the right whales, the projection of the blow upward from two widely separated blowholes assumes a very wide V-shape with two distinct columns, which may be seen when the animals are viewed from front or back. Though this character may be visible under ideal conditions in many of the other baleen whales species as well, it is exaggerated and uniformly distinct in the bowhead and right whales and may be used as one of the primary key characters. In the sperm whale, the blow emanates from a blowhole which is displaced to the left of the head near the front and projects obliquely forward to the animal's left. This blow seen under ideal conditions positively labels a large whale as a sperm whale. Remember, however, that wind conditions may affect the disposition and duration of the blow of any species and that a single character alone is seldom sufficient to permit positive identification. [Sidenote: BOWHEAD WHALE _Balaena mysticetus_ p. 49] Body to 65 feet (19.8 m) long.[8] Body dark; back smooth. Chin and belly often white. Head lacks callosities. Baleen dark gray with gray fringes; to 12 feet (3.7 m) or more. Upper jaw and lower lip strongly arched. Two blowholes clearly separated. Blow projects upward in wide V-shape. Distribution restricted to Arctic waters south to Davis Straits. Flukes raised on longer dives. [Footnote 8: These figures are near maximum sizes recorded for the North Atlantic. All three species have been heavily exploited by whale fisheries. Therefore maximum sizes today may be significantly less than these figures (see text). It should also be noted that differences in methods of measurements often account for discrepancies in reported lengths.] [Sidenote: RIGHT WHALE _Eubalaena glacialis_ p. 52] Body to 53 feet (16.2 m) long. Body from dark to light gray and mottled; back smooth; chin and belly usually white. Head and lower jaw covered with callosities (the largest of which is called the bonnet and is set on top of the snout). Baleen usually dark gray with dark fringes; to 7.2 feet (2.2 m). When animals swim, mouth agape, near surface; baleen sometimes appears pale brownish to yellowish gray in color. Upper jaw and lower lip strongly arched. Two blowholes clearly separated. Blow projects upward in wide V-shape. Distribution extends from Iceland south at least to Florida and reported from Texas. Flukes raised on longer dives. [Sidenote: SPERM WHALE _Physeter catodon_ p. 57] Body to 69 feet (20.9 m) long; males grow significantly larger than females. Body dark grayish brown to brown; wrinkled in appearance. Back has rounded hump followed by knuckles. Head boxlike, comprises up to 40% of body length. From 18 to 25 functional teeth in each side of narrow lower jaw. Single blowhole on left of head at front. Blow projects forward obliquely from head and to left. Distribution extends from tropics to Arctic; adult males distributed farther north. Flukes raised on longer dives. MEDIUM-SIZED WHALES (13-32 feet [4-10 m] maximum overall length) With a Dorsal Fin There are 11 species of medium-sized whales with a dorsal fin known from the western North Atlantic. These species, taking many diverse forms, range in maximum adult size from about 13 feet (4.0 m) (grampus) to about 33 feet (10.1 m) (the minke whale). This group includes such widely distributed and frequently encountered species as the pilot whales, false killer whales, and minke whales, and such rarely encountered and poorly known species as the various "beaked whales" (_Mesoplodon_ spp. and the goosebeaked whale). Aside from their common inclusion within the stated size range and the presence of a dorsal fin in all species (which ranges from only a small nubbin in some of the beaked whales to a substantial 5- to 6-foot [1.5- to 1.8-m] sail on adult male killer whales), these species have no diagnostic field characteristics in common. Therefore, each is discussed in detail and is placed in the text in near proximity to those species with which it is likely to be confused in the field. [Sidenote: MINKE WHALE _Balaenoptera acutorostrata_ p. 63] Body to 30 feet (9.1 m), or more, long. Body black or dark gray; area of gray shading on each side just in front of and below dorsal fin. Flippers have transverse white band. Head very sharply V-shaped viewed from above. Dorsal fin falcate and distinct; usually appears simultaneous with blow. Blow often low and indistinct. Distribution polar, temperate, and tropical; frequently coastal. Often curious about boats. Flukes not raised on dive. [Sidenote: NORTHERN BOTTLENOSED WHALE _Hyperoodon ampullatus_ p. 67] Body to 32 feet (9.8 m) long. Body of young uniformly chocolate brown; body of adults brown with cream or yellow blotches. Head bulbous in adults and white in larger animals; has distinct beak. Dorsal fin falcate and distinct, in last one-third of back. Distribution north temperate and Arctic-offshore. Often curious about boats. Flukes large, rarely notched; occasionally raised on long dive. [Sidenote: GOOSEBEAKED WHALE _Ziphius cavirostris_ p. 70] Body to at least 23 feet (7 m) long. Body from dark gray or brown to rust or fawn and splotched with white; eyes dark. Head of large males white. Back frequently scarred with numerous scratches, presumably tooth marks. Dorsal fin falcate and distinct, in last one-third of back. Distribution primarily tropical; extends to temperate. Flukes light beneath, sometimes shallowly notched; often raised on dive. [Sidenote: ALL OTHER WESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC BEAKED WHALES _Mesoplodon_ spp. p. 74] Body to 16-22 feet (4.9-6.7 m) long. Body color black to dark gray. Back frequently scarred. Dorsal fin position varies with species. Distribution varies with species. Flukes not usually distinctly notched. [Sidenote: KILLER WHALE _Orcinus orca_ p. 84] Body to at least 30 feet (9.1 m) long. Body black with sharply demarcated white belly and oval white patch above and behind eye; gray saddle behind dorsal fin. Body chunky. Dorsal fin in males can be very tall, sometimes 6 feet (1.8 m). Dorsal fin in females and immature animals up to 3 feet (0.9 m), distinctly falcate. Distributed from tropics to Arctic; most common in colder waters. Often seen in shallow bays and rivers and near shore. Flukes may be raised on dive. [Sidenote: FALSE KILLER WHALE _Pseudorca crassidens_ p. 88] Body to at least 18 feet (5.5 m) long. Body black (faint gray blaze on belly between flippers). Body slender. Head small, tapering. Large prominent teeth frequently visible at sea. Flippers have distinct hump on leading edge. Dorsal fin to 14 inches (35.6 cm), falcate, and from rounded to pointed on tip. Distribution pelagic tropical to warm temperate seas. Frequently ride bow waves. [Sidenote: ATLANTIC PILOT WHALE _Globicephala melaena_ p. 91] Body to at least 22 feet (6.7 m) long. Body black with light gray, anchor-shaped area on chest; gray saddle sometimes seen behind dorsal fin. Head becoming more bulbous with age, somewhat squarish in adult males viewed from above. Tail humped. Flippers long (to one-fifth of body length), sickle-shaped. Dorsal fin broad-based, falcate to flaglike, in front half of back. Distribution primarily north temperate--about Hatteras north. Flukes not usually raised on dive. [Sidenote: SHORT-FINNED PILOT WHALE _Globicephala macrorhynchus_ p. 94] Body to at least 17.5 feet (5.3 m) long. Body black with indistinct light gray area on chest; saddle behind dorsal fin. Head becoming more bulbous with age; square in large adult males viewed from above. Flippers relatively short (to less than one-sixth of body length). Dorsal fin broad-based, falcate to flaglike, in front half of back. Distribution tropical and warm temperate; from about Hatteras south. Flukes not usually raised on dive. [Sidenote: GRAMPUS _Grampus griseus_ p. 96] Body to at least 13 feet (4.0 m) long. Body of newborn light gray; darkens with age. Body of adults light gray or white; scarred with numerous scratches. Head blunted, not beaked. Forehead has vertical crease in center. Dorsal fin less than 15 inches (38.1 cm), rather erect and distinct, and dark even in light adults. Distribution tropical to temperate. Rarely ride bow wave. (13-16 feet [4-5 m] maximum overall length) Without a Dorsal Fin The only two species of medium-sized cetaceans in the western North Atlantic which have no dorsal fin, the Beluga or white whale and the Narwhal, share such limited common range, well outside the theater of normal boating traffic, that they are generally infrequently encountered. Both species are easily identifiable when seen. [Sidenote: BELUGA _Delphinapterus leucas_ p. 99] Body to 16 feet (4.9 m) long. Body of adults all white; young slate gray. Small row of bumps along back ridge near midpoint, sometimes dark brown. Distribution usually near coast from Arctic waters to St. Lawrence Gulf and into Hudson Bay. [Sidenote: NARWHAL _Monodon monoceros_ p. 102] Body to 16 feet (4.9 m) long. Body of adult brownish with grayish spots; body of young dark bluish gray fading to white belly. Head small; adults may have tusks up to 9 feet long (2.7 m). Small row of bumps along back ridge. Distribution usually in coastal waters from Arctic waters south to Labrador coast. SMALL WHALES, DOLPHINS, AND PORPOISES (less than 13 feet [4 m] maximum overall length) With a Dorsal Fin The species in this group are not discussed in order of length; instead the species of the genus _Stenella_ are treated together and then they and other species are placed in near proximity to those animals with which they are likely to be confused in the field. [Sidenote: ATLANTIC SPOTTED DOLPHIN _Stenella plagiodon_ p. 104] Body to 7.5-8 feet (2.3-2.4 m) long. Body dark purplish gray on back, lighter gray on sides and belly; becomes increasingly spotted with increase in size. Body has spinal blaze and light line from flipper to eye. Beak white on tip. Rides bow waves. Distribution usually in tropical and warm temperate waters; most common inside 100-fathom curve of continents. [Sidenote: BRIDLED DOLPHIN _Stenella frontalis_ p. 108] Body to at least 7 feet (2.1 m) long. Body dark gray on back; lighter gray on sides and belly. Body has no spinal blaze. Cape on top of head distinct. Bridle: dark lines from eye to rostrum and from flippers to corner of mouth. Rides bow waves. Distribution in tropical waters, primarily in West Indies. [Sidenote: SPINNER DOLPHIN _Stenella longirostris_ p. 110] Body to at least 7 feet (2.1 m) long. Body dark gray on back; tan on sides; white on belly. Beak often long and slender, usually black above, white below. Tip of snout and lips distinctly black. Dorsal fin moderately falcate to triangular and very erect. Rides bow waves. Often jumps and spins on longitudinal axis. Distribution in oceanic and coastal tropical waters. [Sidenote: STRIPED DOLPHIN _Stenella coeruleoalba_ = _Stenella styx_ p. 113] Body to about 9 feet (2.7 m) long. Body dark gray or bluish gray on back; gray on sides; gray or white on belly. Distinctive black stripes from: 1) eye to anus, 2) eye to flipper. Distinctive black blaze from behind dorsal fin to side above flipper. Rides bow waves. Distribution temperate, subtropical, and tropical; seldom close to shore. [Sidenote: SADDLEBACK DOLPHIN _Delphinus delphis_ p. 116] Body to 8.5 feet (2.6 m); usually less than 7.5 feet (2.3 m) long. Body brownish gray to black; belly and chest white; crisscross (hourglass) pattern of yellow tan on sides. Distinct black stripe from center of lower jaw to flipper. Rides bow waves. Distribution temperate and tropical; seldom close to shore. [Sidenote: FRASER'S DOLPHIN _Lagenoldelphis hosei_ p. 120] Body to at least 8 feet (2.4 m) long. Body very robust in front of dorsal fin, resembling cross between saddleback dolphin and Atlantic white-sided dolphin. Beak very short and indistinct. Distinct black stripe from beak to area of anus. Dorsal fin and flippers small. Distribution tropical (not yet recorded in western North Atlantic). [Sidenote: ATLANTIC WHITE-SIDED DOLPHIN _Lagenorhynchus acutus_ p. 123] Body to about 9 feet (2.7 m) long. Dorsal fin part gray, part black; tall and distinctly falcate. Distinctive patch of white on side; tan or yellow coloration below and behind dorsal fin, often visible on swimming animal. Beak short; all dark. Does not usually ride bow waves. Distribution Cape Cod to southern Greenland. [Sidenote: WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN _Lagenorhynchus albirostris_ p. 126] Body to about 10 feet (3.1 m) long. Dorsal fin all black, tall, and distinctly falcate. Two pale areas: one in front, another behind and below dorsal fin; visible on swimming animal. Beak short, sometimes brushed with white blaze. May ride bow waves. Distribution Newfoundland north in summer, Cape Cod north in winter; common close to shore at Cape Cod in spring. [Sidenote: ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED DOLPHIN _Tursiops truncatus_ p. 128] Body to 12 feet (3.7 m) long. Body dark gray on back; lighter gray on sides; belly white to pink. Snout robust and short. Dorsal fin tall; back curved. Ride bow waves; often turn head downwards or to the sides as they do so. Distribution temperate and tropical, usually within 20 miles of shore (often in bays, lagoons, and larger rivers) but extending off the continental shelves. [Sidenote: GUIANA DOLPHIN _Sotalia guianensis_ p. 132] Body to approximately 5.6 feet (1.7 m) long. Body steel blue to dark brown on back; white on belly. Dorsal fin nearly triangular; curves only slightly backward. Distribution in Lake Maracaibo and the rivers of Guiana and in the nearshore coastal waters of northeastern portion of South America. [Sidenote: ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN _Steno bredanensis_ p. 135] Body to about 8 feet (2.4 m) long. Body dark gray to purplish gray on back with white or pink blotches on sides; belly white. Body frequently shows numerous white scars. Head tapers gradually; beak long and slender; no clear separation of beak from forehead. May ride bow waves. Distribution in deep tropical waters. [Sidenote: PYGMY KILLER WHALE _Feresa attenuata_ p. 138] Body to 8-9 feet (2.4-2.7 m) long. Body black with white belly patch which may extend up sides in area of anus. Head rounded; no beak; lips white; lower jaw and chin may be white. Dorsal fin to 15 inches (38 cm) tall, falcate; located near midpoint of back. Distribution tropical and subtropical. [Sidenote: MANY-TOOTHED BLACKFISH _Peponocephala electra_ p. 142] Body to about 9 feet (2.7 m) long. Body black on back; light gray on belly. Head rounded; no beak; underslung jaw; lips white. Dorsal fin to 10 inches (25.4 cm), tall, distinctly back curved. Distribution tropical (not yet reported in western North Atlantic). [Sidenote: PYGMY SPERM WHALE _Kogia breviceps_ p. 144] Body to about 11 feet (3.4 m) long. Body dark steel gray on back; lighter gray on sides; pinkish to white on belly (older animals speckled on belly). Head blunt; jaw underslung; false gills or bracket marks on side of head. Dorsal fin small; located in last one-third of body. Has not been reported to ride bow waves. Distribution in tropical and temperate waters. [Sidenote: DWARF SPERM WHALE _Kogia simus_ p. 148] Body to about 9 feet (2.7 m) long. Body dark steel gray on back; lighter gray on sides; pinkish to white on belly. Head blunt; jaw underslung; false gills or bracket marks on side of head. Body has two small creases on throat. Dorsal fin like that of Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin; located near midpoint of back. Has not been reported to ride bow waves. Distribution poorly known; at least from Georgia to the tropical seas. [Sidenote: HARBOR PORPOISE _Phocoena phocoena_ p. 150] Body to 5 feet (1.5 m) long. Body dark brown above and white below; transition zone on sides often speckled or streaked; ventral white extends high onto side in front of dorsal fin. Head rounded; beak small and indistinct. Dorsal fin short and triangular. Distribution in shallow waters from at least Delaware north; generally found inshore; often in bays, river mouths and inlets. Does not approach boats. SPECIES ACCOUNTS Large Whales With a Dorsal Fin BLUE WHALE (B)[9] _Balaenoptera musculus_ (Linnaeus 1758) [Footnote 9: The letter in parentheses indicates whether the species is a baleen (B) or a toothed (T) whale.] Other Common Names Sulphur-bottom. Description Blue whales are the largest living mammals. Though reports of maximum length and weight vary from one account to another, Antarctic blue whales are known to have reached lengths to 100 feet (30.5 m) and weights of over 150 tons (136,363 kg)[10] before stocks were severely depleted by whaling operations. North Atlantic blue whales may be expected to reach lengths of 80-85 feet (24.4-25.9 m). In all known populations of blue whales, females are slightly larger than males of the same age. [Footnote 10: The largest measured specimen was "just over" 100 feet (30.5 m); the largest specimen weighed, the 150-ton individual noted above, was 89 feet (27.1 m) long.] Viewed from above, the blue whale's rostrum is broad, flat, and nearly U-shaped (actually shaped like a Gothic arch, slightly flattened on the tip), with a single ridge extending from the raised area just in front of the blowholes towards but not quite reaching the tip of the snout. The dorsal fin is extremely small [to only 13 inches (33 cm)] and variable in shape from nearly triangular to moderately falcate. In all cases, it is located so far back on the animal's tail stock that it is seldom visible until the animal is about to begin a dive. Blue whales are light bluish gray overall, mottled with gray or grayish white. Some animals may have yellowish or mustard coloration, primarily on the belly, the result of the accumulation of diatoms during long stays in the cooler waters to the north. The undersides of the flippers are light grayish blue to white. The baleen plates are all black. Natural History Notes The blow or "spout" is tall, to perhaps 30 feet (9.1 m), slender, vertical, and not bushy, as is the blow of humpback whales, for instance. Although the blowing and diving patterns of blue whales may vary, depending on the speed of movement and the activity of the whale when it is encountered, they may be generally described as follows: If the animal is moving slowly, the blowhole and part of the head may still be visible when the dorsal fin breaks the surface, and the animal may settle quietly into the water without exposing the last portion of the tail stock or the tail flukes. If the animal is moving more quickly, however, or is about to begin a long dive, the blowhole disappears below the surface, a broad expanse of the back is exposed and disappears, and the dorsal fin emerges briefly just before the animal lifts its tail stock and flukes slightly above the surface before slipping out of sight. In this species it can be generally stated that the maximum height of back in the area of the dorsal fin which is exposed above the surface as the animal sounds is approximately four times the height of the dorsal fin itself. The exposure of the tail flukes is unlike that of the humpback whale (Fig. 39), the right whale (Fig. 50), or the sperm whale (Fig. 57) in that when beginning a long dive all these other species raise the flukes high out of the water and usually descend at a steep angle. Blue whales lift the flukes only slightly, if at all. Blue whales are relatively shallow feeders, feeding as they do almost exclusively on "krill" (small shrimplike crustaceans), most of which are distributed in the surface 330 feet (100 m). Blue whales usually occur singly or in pairs. May Be Confused With At sea, blue whales may be confused with fin whales (p. 26) and though the two are sometimes difficult to distinguish from a distance, the following key differences permit identification at close range: BLUE WHALE FIN WHALE COLORATION Mottled bluish gray above Gray above, white below; frequently and below. grayish-white chevron behind head, right lower lip white. BALEEN All black. Bluish gray with yellowish-white strips; front fifth to third of baleen on right side all white. HEAD Broad and nearly U-shaped; Narrower, more V-shaped; all dark. right lower lip white. DORSAL FIN To 13 inches (33 cm); triangular To 24 inches (61 cm); falcate; to moderately falcate; in located slightly more than a last third of back; visible well third forward from tail after blow. flukes; usually visible shortly after blow. SURFACING AND PREPARING TO DIVE Often shows head and blowholes; Usually rolls higher out of broad expanse of back water, particularly on long and much later, dorsal fin. dive; dorsal fin visible shortly after blow. DIVING Dives for 10-20 min; surfaces Dives 5-15 min (most often and blows 8-15 times, making 6-7); surfaces steeply for 3-7 a series of 12- to 15-s dives blows then dives rather between blows, then disappears steeply again; does not show again; sometimes raises flukes on dive: on sounding, flukes slightly on last dive; the maximum height of back on sounding, the maximum in the area of dorsal fin which height of back in the area of is exposed is approximately 2 dorsal fin which is exposed is times the height of the dorsal approximately 4 times the fin. height of the dorsal fin. GROUPING Usually found singly or in Occasionally found singly or pairs. in pairs, more often found in pods of six or seven individuals; many pods, consisting of as many as 50 animals, may be found in small area. See also comparison of fin whale and sei whale (p. 26). Distribution Though blue whales have been reported from the pack ice to Cristobal Harbor, Panama Canal Zone, their normal range in the western North Atlantic is more limited. In spring and summer months (about April through at least August) they can be expected in the northern portion of their range, at least as far north as the Arctic Circle, feeding on the krill abundant in those waters. A small portion of the population may venture north, beyond the Circle. In fall and winter the population moves south, presumably into temperate and perhaps to tropical waters. Reliable records include animals from observations off Long Island and Ocean City, Md. Though southern limits of the species are poorly known, there are no records from Florida or the West Indies and no verified records from the Gulf of Mexico. Summaries of blue whale distribution based on records when the species was more numerous indicate that they were found during spring and summer months in some abundance on the Nova Scotian Banks, the St. Lawrence Gulf and estuary, the Strait of Belle Isle, Grand Bank, and in the waters off the coasts of Iceland, southern Greenland, and the Davis Straits and Baffin Bay. (Some individuals have entered the Hudson Strait but not apparently Hudson Bay itself.) Historically, a few animals apparently appeared off the coast of southeastern Canada as early as February. It was speculated that from there a portion of the population underwent a migration from the Strait of Belle Isle north through the Davis Straits to the waters off western Greenland. Some individuals entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence after the ice was clear and remained behind until as late as November. In the fall months, certainly by November, the northern portion of the population had begun retreating to the south in front of the advancing ice. The remainder apparently also underwent this migration as well, since blue whales have historically been nearly absent from Canadian waters during midwinter. Many of the migrating individuals were assumed to continue south to temperate and, less frequently, to tropical water where they calved. It should be emphasized that though all of the southward and the subsequent northward migrations were presumed to be along pelagic routes, details were poorly documented. Blue whales have been reported in both shallow inshore and deep oceanic zones. Despite considerable attention in the popular literature to the plight of the blue whale populations and frequent statements that they are near extinction, blue whale stocks in the western North Atlantic appear more abundant than has been usually reported. While present stocks are far short of previous population sizes, which may have exceeded 200,000 individuals worldwide, they should be sufficiently large for the species to continue their increase, barring renewed exploitation. Stranded Specimens Stranded blue whales can be readily identified by 1) the large body size (to 85 feet [25.9 m]); 2) the broad flat head; 3) the all-black baleen plates (270-395 in number), which are usually barely more than twice as long as they are wide; and 4) the 55-88 ventral grooves extending to the navel or beyond (Table 2). Depending on the state of decay and the position of the stranded specimen, any of the body characteristics described for living animals may also be used to positively identify the specimen. [Illustration: Figure 9.--Closeup views of swimming blue whales off British Columbia (top) and Baja California (bottom). In both photos note the broad rounded appearance of the head and the single, prominent central head ridge. In the animal on the top note also the black baleen plates, barely visible at the front of the slightly open mouth. In the animal on the bottom note the pattern of light grayish-white mottling along the back and the raised areas around the blowholes. These features clearly mark these animals as blue whales. (_Photos by R. M. Gilmore (top) and K. C. Balcomb (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 10.--The dorsal fins of blue whales may vary from distinctly triangular (top) to broadly rounded (middle and inset) to smoothly falcate in appearance (bottom). Regardless of its shape, however, the fin is always located well back on the tail and does not become visible until long after the animal's blow. (_Photos by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura, mid-Pacific (top); S. Leatherwood, southern California (middle and inset); and F. W. True, northern North Atlantic, courtesy of U.S. National Museum (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 11.--A blue whale swimming leisurely at the surface off San Clemente Island, Calif. Note that the blowholes, marked by the raised areas on the top of the head, are still exposed after the dorsal fin has become visible. Note also the very small size and the shape of the dorsal fin and its position well back towards the tail. (_Photo by S. Leatherwood._)] [Illustration: Figure 12.--A sequence showing fast-swimming blue whales off southern California. The animal rises rather steeply to the surface (a), emits a tall, vertical blow (b, c), shows its broad bluish back, mottled with grayish white, and its small dorsal fin (d, e), and then dives out of sight (f). When swimming in this manner, blue whales sometimes raise their tail flukes slightly above the surface before beginning their long dives (g). (_Photos by J. F. Fish (a-f) and K. C. Balcomb (g)._)] [Illustration: Figure 13.--Two views of blue whales on the ramps of whaling stations in Japan (top) and at Hermitage Bay, Newfoundland (bottom). Note the broad rounded appearance of the head, the single central head ridge, and the dark bluish-gray coloration, interrupted only by mottlings of grayish white. In the animal on the bottom note the all-black baleen plates, which are very broad relative to their length. (_Photos by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura (top); and F. W. True, courtesy of U.S. National Museum (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 14.--Dead blue whales, harpooned and afloat off the stern of a factory ship in the Antarctic (top), and on the deck of a whaling station in western Canada (bottom). In both, note the numerous ventral grooves (from 55 to 85 or more) extending to the region of the navel and sometimes beyond, and the light coloration of the undersides of the flippers. Even though grooves are often present above the flippers, and occasionally even on the side of the head, counts of ventral grooves are usually made between the flippers. (_Photos by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura (top); and G. C. Pike, courtesy of I. MacAskie (bottom)._)] FIN WHALE (B) _Balaenoptera physalus_ (Linnaeus 1758) Other Common Names Finback whale, finner, razorback, common rorqual. Description Fin whales have been reported to reach 79 feet (24 m). Females are slightly larger than males of the same age. The back is distinctly ridged towards the tail, prompting the common name "razorback" whale. The rostrum is narrower and more V-shaped than that of the blue whale and has the same sort of single distinctive head ridge. The top of the head is flat, though slightly less than that of the blue whale. The dorsal fin is up to 24 inches (61 cm) tall; angled less than 40° on the forward margin, located slightly more than one-third forward from the tail, and appears on the surface shortly after the blow. All individuals are dark gray to brownish black on the back and sides with none of the mottling present on blue whales and are rarely as heavily scarred as sei whales. Along the back, just behind the head, there is a grayish-white chevron, with the apex along the midline of the back and the arms of the chevron oriented posteriorly, which is sometimes distinctive and may be visible as the animals surface to breathe. The undersides, including the undersides of the flukes and flippers, are white. On the head, the dark coloration is markedly asymmetrical, reaching farther down on the left than on the right side. The right lower lip, including the mouth cavity, and the right front baleen (approximately one-fifth to one-third) are yellowish white. Occasionally the right upper lip is also white. The remainder of the plates on the right side and all those on the left side are striped with alternate bands of yellowish white and bluish gray. The fringes of the plates are brownish gray to grayish white. Natural History Notes Fin whales are one of the most common baleen whale species in the world and constitute a major portion of the whaling catch. They are reportedly one of the fastest of the big whales (sei whales may be slightly faster) possibly reaching burst speeds in excess of 20 knots, and were not an important commercial species until the comparatively recent development of fast catcher boats and the depletion of blue whale stocks. A fin whale's blow can be from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 m) tall and has been described as an inverted cone or an elongated ellipse. Fin whales dive to at least 755 feet (230.1 m). This depth is probably deeper than that of either blue or sei whales, a factor usually reflected in differences among the surfacing, blowing, and diving characteristics of these three species. When they are moving leisurely at the surface, fin whales expose the dorsal fin shortly after the appearance of the blowholes, slightly later than that of the sei whales. When they are surfacing from a deeper dive, however, they surface at a steeper angle, blow, submerge the blowholes, and then arch the back and dorsal fin high into the air before beginning another long dive. In this species it can be generally stated that the maximum amount of the back in the area of the dorsal fin which is exposed above the surface as the animal sounds is approximately 2 times the height of the dorsal fin. Fin whales do not show their tail flukes when beginning a dive. Unlike blue or sei whales, fin whales do breach on occasion. When they do leap clear of the water, fin whales usually reenter with a resounding splash, like that made by humpback and right whales and not smoothly, head first, as minke whales often do. Fin whales are sometimes found singly or in pairs but more often occur in pods of six or seven individuals and many pods consisting of as many as 50 animals may be concentrated in a small area. Fin whales calve and breed in winter, mostly in temperate waters. Atlantic fin whales eat a wide variety of foods, including krill, capelin, squid, herring, and lanternfish. May Be Confused With Fin whales may be confused with blue whales, sei whales, and, in the southernmost portion of their range, with Bryde's whales. They may be distinguished from the blue whales by differences in overall coloration, coloration and shape of the head, and the size, position, and time of appearance of the dorsal fin at the surface (see p. 19). After close examination they may be distinguished from Bryde's whales by the presence of three ridges along the head (of the Bryde's whale) and by the smaller, more sharply pointed falcate dorsal fin of the Bryde's whale (see Fig. 31). They may be distinguished from sei whales in the following similar ways: FIN WHALE SEI WHALE DORSAL FIN Slightly falcate, forms angle Sharply pointed and falcate: of less than 40° with back forms angle of greater than slightly more than one-third 40° with back well more than forward from tail. one-third forward from tail. SURFACING BEHAVIOR Usually rise obliquely so top Primarily skimmer feeders; of head breaks surface first; usually rise to surface at after blowing, animal arches shallow angle so that dorsal its back and rolls forward fin and head are visible exposing the dorsal fin on the almost simultaneously; when long dive; on sounding, the starting the long dive does maximum amount of back in not usually arch the back as the area of the dorsal fin much as the fin whale; on which is exposed is approximately sounding, the maximum 2 times the height of amount of back in the area of dorsal fin. the dorsal fin which is exposed is approximately 1 times the height of the dorsal fin. BLOW Tall (to 20 feet [6.1 m]); Similar shape but smaller--rarely inverted cone (point down) taller than 10-15 feet or elongated ellipse. (3.1-4.6 m). DIVING Dive for 5-15 (usually 6-7) Dive for 3-10 min; usually min; blow 3-7 times or more blow at even intervals over at intervals of up to several long periods of time; often minutes, then dive again. visible just below the surface, even on longer dives. COLOR OF UNDERSIDES White higher up on right Mostly gray; irregular whitish than on left side. area on belly. COLOR OF LOWER LIP White on right, gray on left. Gray. BALEEN PLATES Right one-fifth to one-third Ash black with a blue tinge in front white; all others and fine grayish bristles. alternate bands of yellowish white and bluish gray; bristles grayish white. Distribution Fin whales are probably the most numerous and widely distributed large whale species in the western North Atlantic. Fin whales summer from below the latitude of Cape Cod, Mass., north to the Arctic Circle. (They are frequently seen between New York and Bermuda this time of year.) Within this zone they may sometimes be seen very close to shore and appear to be concentrated between shore and the 1,000-fathom curve from at least lat. 41°20' to 57°00' N. In recent years they have been reported in relatively large numbers in the Gulf of Maine from March through June, off Newfoundland as early as June but increasing to August, and entering Davis Straits and beyond in substantial numbers in midsummer to late summer. There is some evidence that the animals venturing farthest north are the largest individuals of the species. Movements of the population(s) southward have usually begun by October, though some fin whales sometimes remain in the northern seas sufficiently long to become trapped in the ice and killed. During winter the range of fin whales spreads out from the advancing ice southward, reaching at least to the coast of Florida, into the Gulf of Mexico, and to the Greater Antilles, though fin whales are not at all common in tropical waters. During the winter many fin whales move into offshore waters. Northward migrations probably begin in midspring. Fin whales may be found in Cape Cod waters all year long. There may be two or possibly three separate stocks of fin whales in the western North Atlantic, one more northern cold-adapted stock and another more southern stock. The ranges of the two stocks appear to overlap, such that the winter range of the northern stock probably becomes the spring and summer range of the more southern stock. The third stock may consist of an isolated population in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Stranded Specimens Stranded fin whales may be most readily identified by 1) the yellowish-white coloration of the right front baleen and the right white lower lip; 2) the numerous baleen plates (262-473 in number); 3) the numerous ventral grooves (56-100 in number) extending to the navel and beyond (Table 2); and 4) the broad, flat sharply pointed head with only a single head ridge. [Illustration: Figure 15.--The heads of fin whales surfacing to breathe off Japan and in the northern North Atlantic (inset). When they can be approached from the right side, fin whales can be positively distinguished from the other large balaenopterine species by the white coloration of the right lower lip and the flat, narrow head. Note also the single central head ridge. (_Photos by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura, and K. C. Balcomb_ (_inset_).)] [Illustration: Figure 16.--A small group of fin whales off British Columbia. Fin whales may be found in groups of up to six or seven individuals and these groups may congregate in feeding grounds. (_Photo by G. C. Pike, courtesy of I. MacAskie._)] [Illustration: Figure 17.--The back of a harpooned fin whale in the eastern North Pacific (left) and in the North Atlantic (right). In both note the light grayish-white chevrons just behind the head. These chevrons are not usually very distinctive in North Atlantic fin whales. In the animal in the left photo note also the prominent ridge along the back behind the dorsal fin--a characteristic which prompted the common name "razorback." (_Photos courtesy of_ Los Angeles Examiner (_left_) _and K. C. Balcomb_ (_right_).)] [Illustration: Figure 18.--Surfacing fin whales show the head and blow, then the wheellike silhouette of the back, and then the dorsal fin. Note that in this species the dorsal fin is smaller and located farther back than that of the sei whale and appears on the surface later after the animal's blow. (_Photo from the northern North Atlantic by K. C. Balcomb._)] [Illustration: Figure 19.--As they begin a long dive, fin whales frequently arch the tail stock high into the air, exposing the dorsal fin. Even on a long dive, however, this species is not known to throw its tail flukes high into the air or even to raise them slightly, as blue whales sometimes do when beginning a long dive. (_Photo from off Virginia by J. G. Mead._)] [Illustration: Figure 20.--Probably a fin whale (perhaps a Bryde's whale) breaching in the eastern tropical Pacific. This type of behavior has been described for humpback, minke, and fin whales but is far more common for the first two species. Breaching fin whales often reenter the water with a resounding splash, much like humpback whales, but sometimes smoothly, head first, as minkes sometimes do. (_Photo by K. D. Sexton, courtesy of National Marine Fisheries Service._)] [Illustration: Figure 21.--A head-on view of a fin whale stranded at Ormond Beach, Fla. Note the flat narrow appearance of the head and the single, central head ridge. (_Photo by F. Essapian, courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] [Illustration: Figure 22.--In this partly flensed fin whale, at Blanford, Nova Scotia, note the white lower lip and the white baleen in the right front. The inset photo shows the right upper jaw of a fin whale with the baleen intact. (_Photos by H. E. Winn, and from the North Pacific by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura (inset)._)] [Illustration: Figure 23.--A fin whale on the ramp of the whaling station also at Blanford, Nova Scotia. Note the ventral grooves, 56 to 100 and extending at least to the navel. (_Photo by L. Rigley._)] SEI WHALE (B) _Balaenoptera borealis_ Lesson 1828 Other Common Names Pollack whale, sardine whale, Rudolphi's rorqual. Description Sei (pronounced "say") whales have been reported to reach 62 feet (19 m). The snout is less acutely pointed than that of the fin whale but when viewed from the side appears slightly arched. In general, the head is intermediate in shape between that of the blue whale and that of the fin whale. The dorsal fin, which is from 10 to 24 inches (25.4 to 61 cm) tall and strongly falcate in adult animals, is located about two-thirds of the way back on the back, farther forward than that of the blue or fin whales. Sei whales are dark steel gray on the back and sides, and on the posterior portion of the ventral surface. The body often has a galvanized appearance due to scars possibly resulting from lamprey bites inflicted during migrations into warmer waters. These scars may be dark gray to almost white in color. On the belly there is a region of grayish white that is confined to the area of the ventral grooves. Neither the flippers nor the tail flukes are white underneath. The right lower lip and the mouth cavity, unlike those of the fin whale, are uniformly gray. The baleen plates are uniformly grayish black with fine grayish-white fringes. (A small number of sei whales have been noted to have a few half-white plates near the front of the mouth, a feature which might result in their confusion with fin whales.) Natural History Notes The blow of sei whales is an inverted cone rarely taller than 15 feet (4.6 m). Sei whales are generally skimmer feeders and do not usually dive very deeply. For that reason they usually surface at a shallower angle than fin whales. The head rarely emerges at a steep angle (except when the whales are chased). Instead, the blowholes and a major portion of the back, including the dorsal fin, become visible almost simultaneously and remain visible for relatively long periods of time. In this species it can be generally stated that the amount of the back in the area of the dorsal fin which is exposed above the surface as the animal sounds is approximately the same height as the dorsal fin. When they begin another dive, sei whales do not arch the tail stock or flukes high. Instead, they normally submerge by slipping quietly below the surface, often remaining in view only a few feet down and leaving a series of tracks or swirls on the surface as they move their tail flukes. When they are feeding in this manner, sei whales may exhibit a highly regular blowing and diving pattern over long periods of time. Sei whales usually travel in groups of from two to five individuals, though they may concentrate in large numbers on the feeding grounds. In the northern portion of their range, sei whales feed on copepods. Throughout the remainder of the range, however, their food is more varied and also includes krill and a variety of small schooling fishes. The species derived its common name, in fact, from its frequent occurrence with or near sei fish. May Be Confused With The sei whale's smaller size and decidedly taller, more falcate dorsal fin located well more than one-third forward from the tail should prevent confusion with the blue whale. At a distance, however, sei whales are difficult to distinguish from either fin whales or Bryde's whales. The primary clues for distinguishing them from fins are the differences in swimming, blowing, and diving characteristics tabularized in detail on p. 26 and the asymmetrical coloration of the fin whale. Sei whales may be distinguished from Bryde's whales only upon close examination. The dorsal fin of Bryde's whales is small, to 18 inches (45.7 cm), sharply pointed, and often worn on the rear margin. If close examination is possible, the sei whale will be seen to have only a single head ridge. Bryde's whales have two additional ridges--one on each side of the main ridge. Bryde's whales are primarily fish feeders and their diving behavior more closely resembles that of a fin whale than that of a sei whale. (See p. 37). Distribution The distribution and migrations of the sei whale during most of the year are rather poorly known. The species is known to avoid the colder regions near the pack ice and to range from Iceland south to the northeast Venezuelan coast and the northeast and southwest Gulf of Mexico. There are also records from Cuba and the Virgin Islands. Along the northeast United States and eastern Canadian coasts, where most research on sei whales has been conducted, the species migrates from New England through the Blanford, Nova Scotia area in June and July, is found in small numbers off eastern Newfoundland in August and September (abundant in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland in August), and continues northward to the Davis Straits in September and October. An offshore stock may be found year-round in the Labrador Sea. The summer range (May to September or October) extends from New England to southern Arctic waters. Though some individuals remain behind through November, the southward movement of the bulk of the population presumably begins in October. In general, sei whales do not venture as far north as fin whales but may have a greater tendency to enter tropical waters. Stranded Specimens Stranded sei whales are most likely to be confused with fin whales or Bryde's whales. The three head ridges of the Bryde's whale (sei whales have only one) assist in distinguishing sei whales from Bryde's whales. They may be distinguished from fin whales and all other rorquals by the following characteristics: 1) The color of the baleen plates--uniformly ash black with a blue tinge and fine white bristles (Table 2). 2) The density of bristles on the plates--sei whales have from 35 to 60 baleen fringes per centimeter; all other rorquals have far fewer (less than 35). 3) The relative lengths of the ventral grooves--the grooves of sei whales end well before the navel; those of blue, fin, and Bryde's whales extend at least to the navel. 4) The relatively small numbers of ventral grooves (38-56)--both blue and fin whales have more; Bryde's whales have approximately the same number. If the animal is not in an advanced state of decomposition, the region of white coloration of the belly may also be visible. [Illustration: Figure 24.--The head of a sei whale is intermediate in shape between that of the blue whale and that of the fin whale. When viewed from the side it is slightly arched. Note the single central head ridge, from just in front of the blowholes to near the tip of the snout. Bryde's whales, with which sei whales are most likely to be confused in the tropical and subtropical portions of their range, have two auxiliary ridges, one on each side of the top of the head, in addition to this main central ridge. (_Photo from the North Pacific by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura._)] [Illustration: Figure 25.--Sei whales are dark gray on the right lower lip. They can be distinguished from fin whales, which have a white right lower lip, by approaching them from the right side. (_Photo from the North Pacific by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura._)] [Illustration: Figure 26.--Three views of swimming sei whales. In all three, note the tall, distinctly falcate dorsal fin (which has been described as sickle or scimitar in shape) positioned farther forward on the back than the fins of either the fin whale or the blue whale. In the photo in the middle, note that the dorsal fin has appeared on the surface while the blowholes are still open. Sei whales, generally skimmer feeders and rather shallow divers, often show the dorsal fin and much of the back for relatively long periods as they surface to breathe. (_Photos from off central California, courtesy of National Marine Fisheries Service_ (_middle_); _northeast of Hawaii by S. Ohsumi_ (_left inset_); and _from off Japan by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura_ (right inset).)] [Illustration: Figure 27.--A freshly dead sei whale from the Pacific (top) and a stranded specimen in an advanced stage of decomposition at Cape Island, S.C. (bottom and inset). Note that even though the distinctive coloration of the fresh specimen has faded on the rotting specimen, the numbers and lengths of the ventral grooves (38 to 56 in number and stopping well short of the navel) still permit the specimen to be distinguished from fin, blue, and Bryde's whales, in all of which the grooves extend at least to the navel. (_Photos by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura (top); and J. G. Mead (bottom and inset)._)] [Illustration: Figure 28.--Dorsal view of a sei whale on the deck of a whaling ship in the North Pacific. Note the numerous scars on the body and the otherwise dark gray coloration of the back. (_Photo by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura._)] [Illustration: Figure 29.--The right upper jaw of the sei whale stranded at Cape Island, S.C. The baleen plates, here partly buried in the sand, numbering from 318 to 340 per side and uniform dark gray with fine lighter gray bristles, continue to serve as identifying characteristics even on a badly decomposed specimen. (_Photo by J. G. Mead._)] BRYDE'S WHALE (B) _Balaenoptera edeni_ Anderson 1879 Other Common Names None known. Description Bryde's whales reach a maximum length of approximately 46 feet (14 m). They closely resemble sei whales in external appearance. At a distance, the head of this species is similar in profile and general appearance to that of the sei whale. The most distinctive field characteristic of the species, however, is the presence of three ridges along the head anterior to the blowhole. In addition to the medial ridge characteristic of all the other balaenopterid species, Bryde's whales have two secondary ridges on the top of the head--one along each side even with the blowhole running forward towards the tip of the snout. If they can be examined at close range, Bryde's whales can be positively identified by this character alone. The dorsal fin of Bryde's whales is up to 18 inches (45.7 cm) tall, extremely falcate, pointed on the tip, located well more than one-third forward from the tail, and is often irregularly notched or frayed on the rear margin from unknown causes. Bryde's whales are dark gray overall, though some individuals, like some minke whales, have a small region of gray on each side just forward of the dorsal fin. Natural History Notes Bryde's whales, like minke whales, reportedly often approach close to vessels as if curious about them. During this time they may be examined carefully and their identifying characteristics seen. Though euphausiids may be an important food for this species in limited areas, Bryde's whales often feed on schooling fish (including pilchards, anchovies, herring, and mackerel). This food preference is reflected in the diving behavior of the species. Bryde's whales are not "skimmer" feeders; they are deeper divers. When they surface to breathe, they often rise more steeply to the surface, exposing much of the head, roll the body sharply, and hump up the tail stock before beginning another dive. In this species, as in the fin whale, it can be generally stated that the amount of the back which is exposed above the surface as the animal sounds is approximately twice the height of the dorsal fin. They apparently do not raise the tail flukes when beginning a dive. May Be Confused With At sea Bryde's whales may be confused with sei whales, fin whales, and perhaps minke whales. They may be most readily distinguished from sei whales by the characteristics discussed on p. 32 and by differences in diving behavior. The shallow-feeding sei whales surface and blow at regular intervals over long periods of time. Bryde's whales are deeper divers, less likely to surface, and blow at evenly spaced intervals. If they are seen only briefly or at a distance, however, the two species may be impossible to differentiate. During the winter months, when fin whales may venture into tropical waters, they may also be confused with Bryde's whales. But fin whales seldom exhibit curiosity about boats. In addition, the dorsal fin of the fin whale is larger, is located farther back on the back than that of Bryde's whale, and does not become visible as soon after the blow. It is also less likely to be worn on the rear margin than that of a Bryde's whale. The head of the fin whale is more acutely pointed. Furthermore, the right lower lip and the right front baleen of the fin whale are white. The baleen and the right lower lip of Bryde's whales are dark gray. If the animals can be approached closely from the right side, positive identification is possible using these differences in color. Like Bryde's whales, minke whales often approach close to vessels. But minke whales have an acutely pointed snout, a single head ridge, and a white band on each flipper. Further, minke whales rarely reach 30 feet (9.1 m) in maximum length. Distribution The distribution of Bryde's whales is rather poorly known, no doubt in part, because the species is difficult to positively identify at sea, and records of its occurrence may have often been confused with those of sei whales, fin whales, or minke whales. From stranded animals and confirmed sightings at sea, the species appears to be found primarily near shore in areas of high productivity in tropical or subtropical waters, though it ventures into warmer temperate waters as well. It has been reported from Virginia south into the northeast Gulf of Mexico and the southeast Caribbean, and southern West Indies (Curacao and Granada). To date no migration has been described for the species. Stranded Specimens Stranded Bryde's whales can be positively identified by the three ridges along the top of the head from the area of the blowhole to the tip of the snout. All other species of balaenopterid whales, except humpback whales have but a single ridge. If the head of a stranded specimen is buried in sand, is decomposed beyond recognition, or is otherwise inaccessible for identification, Bryde's whales can still be distinguished from sei whales by differences in the relative lengths of the ventral grooves (Table 2) and from both the fin whale and the sei whale by differences in the characteristics of the baleen plates (Table 2). [Illustration: Figure 30.--On the head of this Bryde's whale off La Jolla, Calif. two of the three head ridges characteristic of the species, the main ridge and the left auxiliary ridge, are clearly visible. These ridges permit this animal to be positively identified as a Bryde's whale. (_Photo by F. Morejohn._)] [Illustration: Figure 31.--Bryde's whales in the Gulf of California and north of Hawaii (inset). In both, note the tall, sickle-shaped appearance of the dorsal fin, much like that of the sei whale. In the animal in the larger photo note the ragged rear margin of the dorsal fin, a frequently observed characteristic in Bryde's whales. In the animal on the left note also the region of gray on the sides in front of the dorsal fin. (_Photos by W. C. Cummings and S. Ohsumi_ (_inset_).)] [Illustration: Figure 32.--Stranded Bryde's whales at Walnut Point, Va. (top) and Panacea, Fla., Gulf of Mexico (bottom). In both animals note the head shape similar to that of the sei whale, and the three distinct head ridges. In the animal on the bottom, note that the two outermost ridges have their origin in grooves beside the blowholes. In the animal on the top, note also the baleen plates, up to at least 300 per side and dark gray with coarse gray bristles. There is infrequently a rather wide interval at the front of the mouth between the left and right rows of baleen. (_Photos by U.S. National Museum, courtesy of J. G. Mead (top) and M. B. Rank, courtesy of Wide World Photos (bottom)._)] HUMPBACK WHALE (B) _Megaptera novaeangliae_ (Borowski 1781) Other Common Names Humpbacked whale, bunch, hump whale, or hunchbacked whale. Description Humpback whales reach a length of 53 feet (16.2 m). The body is robust, narrowing rapidly on the tail stock. The head is quite broad and rounded, somewhat like that of the blue whale. The head ridge characteristic of other balaenopterid species is indistinct and is replaced in prominence by a string of fleshy "knobs" or protuberances, many more of which are randomly distributed on the top of the head and on the lower jaw. There is a distinctive rounded projection near the tip of the lower jaw. Humpback whales carry many barnacles and whale lice. The baleen plates are all black with black or olive-black bristles. The flippers are very long (nearly a third as long as the body), are scalloped on at least the leading edge, and are nearly all white. The dorsal fin, located slightly more than two-thirds of the way back on the back in approximately the same position as that of the fin whale, is small and varies in size and shape from a small, triangular nubbin to a more substantial, sharply falcate fin. The dorsal fin frequently includes a step or hump, which is quite distinct when the animal arches its back to begin a dive and from which the species derives its common name. Humpback whales are basically black in color with a white region of varying size on the belly, which upon close examination may often be seen to be crosshatched with thin dark lines; the flippers and the undersides of the flukes also are white. Natural History Notes The blow of humpback whales is from 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.1 m) tall and has been described as balloon-shaped. It is wide relative to its height. Feeding humpback whales habitually blow 4-8 times at intervals of 15-30 s after a long dive. In the tropics they habitually blow 2-4 times in succession when beginning a long dive. In diving, humpback whales throw the tail flukes high into the air, exposing the sometimes white undersurface and the rippled rear margin. Humpback whales often leap clear of the water, raise a flipper, and slap it against the water, or "lobtail," raising the tail high into the air and bringing it crashing back to the water in a loud report. Often, particularly when they are encountered on their tropical breeding grounds, humpback whales will be found lying on their sides with a long flipper in the air. Humpback whales feed on krill and schooling fish. May Be Confused With From a distance humpback whales may be confused with any of the other large balaenopterid (rorqual) whales--blue, fin, sei, or Bryde's. Although it is highly variable, the dorsal fin most closely resembles that of the blue whale. However, it is located farther forward on the back. Humpback whales distinguish themselves from the remainder of the rorquals by their habit of raising the flukes high into the air when starting a long dive. (In very shallow water they may not raise the flukes at all.) The only other rorqual to do so--the blue whale--raises the flukes slightly or not at all. Under some conditions humpback whales may be confused with sperm whales at a distance. When arching the back to begin a dive, both may show a distinct hump. Both species frequently raise their flukes nearly vertically when beginning a long dive but differ in several ways. The flukes of humpback whales show varying amounts of white beneath, are pointed on the tips, and are distinctly concaved and irregularly rippled on the rear margin. Those of sperm whales are all dark and more flattened and even along the rear margin. Further the species can be distinguished in the following ways: HUMPBACK WHALE SPERM WHALE BLOW Projects upwards from center Projects obliquely forward of head. Usually blows from left side of snout. 4-8 times (2-4 times in Usually blows many times tropics) before diving. (20-50 or more) before diving. HEAD Raised area around blowholes, Blunted, long, smooth. knobs on upper surface. FLUKES Often white underneath, Smooth, all black on rear concaved and scalloped on margin. rear margin, deeply notched. FLIPPERS Extremely long (to one-third Short; all black. of body), white and scalloped on leading edge. DORSAL FIN (OR HUMP) Triangular to falcate fin, Rounded hump, two-thirds including a step or hump in back on back followed by front of the dorsal fin; knuckles or crenulations. smooth. When they can be examined at close range, humpback whales can be easily distinguished from all other large whale species with a dorsal fin by the tuberosities or knobs on the head, by the long white flippers scalloped on the leading edge, by the small distinctive dorsal fin, and by their distinctive tail flukes. Distribution In the western North Atlantic, humpback whales are widely distributed from north of Iceland, Disko Bay and west of Greenland, south to Venezuela and around the tropical islands of the West Indies. They have been reported from the central and eastern Gulf of Mexico. Summer ranges extend at least from New England north to the pack ice, and feeding concentrations may be found in any portion of this region. During winter, humpback whales migrate southward to the shallow borderlands of Bermuda, to the Bahamas, and to the West Indies to calve and mate. Stranded Specimens The most distinctive features of stranded humpback whales are 1) the ventral grooves, 14-22 in number, very wide and extending to the navel; 2) the tuberosities of the snout and lower jaw, often the sites of numerous barnacle colonies; 3) the long flippers (to nearly a third of the total body length); and 4) the distinctive rounded projection near the tip of the lower jaw. If these characteristics are not sufficiently clear, the species may be identifiable by the characteristics of the baleen plates (Table 2). [Illustration: Figure 33.--Three views of blowing humpback whales. The blow of this species is usually less than 10 feet (3.1 m) tall, wider than it is high, and has been described as balloon-shaped. In the photo on the top, the wind has already begun to distort the blow. In the photo on the bottom, two separate columns are visible. All baleen whales have a bipartite blowhole, and if an observer is directly behind or in front of either the right whale or the humpback whale under ideal wind conditions, the blows of these two species may appear as two distinct spouts. (_Photos from West Indies by H. E. Winn (top and middle) and from off St. Augustine, Fla. by D. K. Caldwell (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 34.--Head views of surfacing humpback whales. Note the rather broad rounded appearance of the top of the head and the small head ridge, which extends from just in front of the blowholes to near the tip of the snout. In humpback whales the single central head ridge characteristic of most balaenopterid species is replaced in prominence by a series of knobs, some of which are oriented along the same line as the head ridge. On the animal in the inset photo note also the characteristic rounded projection below the tip of the lower jaw, heavily encrusted with barnacles. (_Photos from off St Augustine, Fla. by D. K. Caldwell and from West Indies by H. E. Winn (inset)._)] [Illustration: Figure 35.--A mother humpback whale with her newborn calf off the northern West Indies. Newborn humpback whales are from 12 to 15 feet (3.7 to 4.6 m) long and are colored like the adults. Note the mother's long white pectoral flipper, clearly visible below the surface. (_Photo by H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 36.--Humpback whales fall back into the water after breaching. Note the long flippers, distinctly scalloped on the leading edge. In the animal on the top, note also the knobs on the head, visible in profile, the cluster of barnacles located on the rounded projection below the tip of the lower jaw, and the throat grooves. (_Photos off Baja California by K. C. Balcomb (top) and off Bermuda by C. Levenson (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 37.--Often, particularly on their tropical breeding grounds, humpback whales lie on their sides at the surface, the long white pectoral flipper in the air. Note the pronounced scalloping on the leading edge. (_Photos near West Indies by C. McCann (top) and H. E. Winn (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 38.--A series showing the extreme variability in dorsal fin shapes of humpback whales: (a) a small ridge, (b) slightly falcate, (c) triangular with a pronounced hump, (d) slightly rounded, (e) distinctly rounded, and (f) taller and more distinctly falcate. (_Photos from northern West Indies by H. E. Winn (a, c, e) and C. McCann (b); off Baja California by K. C. Balcomb (d); and off St. Augustine, Fla. by D. K. Caldwell (f)._)] [Illustration: Figure 39.--The humpback whale is the only large whale species with a distinct dorsal fin which regularly raises its tail flukes when beginning a long dive. When it does so, the scalloped trailing edge is often visible (f, g, h). When the diving whale is seen from the rear, the varying degree of white coloration on the undersides of the flukes aids in identification (h). (_Photos from northern North Atlantic by K. C. Balcomb (a-f), from West Indies by C. McCann (g), and from off Massachusetts by W. A. Watkins (h)._)] [Illustration: Figure 40.--Detail of the head of a humpback whale harpooned off Japan. Note the knobs along the top of the head and on the lower jaw, the rounded projection near the tip of the lower jaw and the wide ventral grooves. The large mass of tissue to the left of the animal is its tongue. In the inset photo from a Canadian whaling station, note the baleen plates, less than 3 feet (0.9 m) long and dark olive green to black in color. (_Photos by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura; and J. G. Mead (inset)._)] [Illustration: Figure 41.--A humpback whale on the deck of a whaling station in western Canada. All of the species' most distinctive characteristics are evident in this photograph: (1) the hump and the dorsal fin; (2) the knobs on the top of the snout; and (3) the long flipper, with numerous barnacles attached to its leading edge. (_Photo by G. C. Pike, courtesy of I. MacAskie._)] [Illustration: Figure 42.--North Atlantic humpback whales have from 14 to 20 broad, widely spaced ventral grooves which extend about to the navel. Those grooves remain good diagnostic characters for considerable periods after the animal's death, as evidenced in the freshly killed specimen from Newfoundland (top) and the badly decomposed stranded animal from New Jersey (bottom). (_Photos from U.S. National Museum, courtesy of J. G. Mead._)] Large Whales Without a Dorsal Fin BOWHEAD WHALE (B) _Balaena mysticetus_ Linnaeus 1758 Other Common Names Greenland whale, Arctic right whale, great polar whale. Description Bowhead whales, so-called because of the high-arching jaws and the resultant contour of the head, reach a maximum length of about 65 feet (19.8 m). They are extremely robust in form. When viewed from the side, some swimming bowhead whales show two characteristic curves to the back: the first extends from the tip of the snout to just behind the blowholes; the second, encompassing the entire back, begins just behind the head and extends all the way to the tail. This character may be present only in adult animals and may be more pronounced in males. Younger animals, particularly females, are often stubbier and somewhat barrel-shaped behind the head. In all animals the back is smooth, lacking even a trace of a dorsal fin. The head of the bowhead whale is smooth, black, and without the bonnet and the "rock-garden," the colorful clusters of callosities characteristic of the black right whale. The blowholes are widely separated, and the blow emanating from them projects upward as two separate, distinct spouts. Though two separate columns sometimes may be visible under windless conditions in the blows of most mysticetes, this feature is exaggerated and is most characteristic in the bowhead and right whales. Bowhead whales are black overall, except for a white "vest" of uneven coloration on the chin. Within that vest, near the sides of the white zone, there may be a series of grayish black to black spots, which on some animals have been likened to a string of beads. The vest is clearly visible when a surfacing animal is viewed from the front or the side or when the animals hang vertically in the water with the head on the surface and the tail flukes down, as they do during periods of early spring mating. Natural History Notes Bowhead whales are usually found singly or in groups of up to three animals, though fall concentrations may include up to 50 animals. Bowhead whales sometimes breach, throwing most of the body clear of the surface and reentering with a resounding splash. May Be Confused With Bowhead whales are the only species of large whales found routinely in Arctic waters. Though other species, including some of the balaenopterid whales and the right whale, may venture north as far as the southern limits of the bowhead whale and beyond, they usually do so in the spring and summer, at a time when the bowhead whales are farther to the north. Even if they are encountered together, bowhead whales can be distinguished from all the balaenopterid whales by the absence of a dorsal fin. Bowhead whales have neither a fin nor the slightest trace of a dorsal fin or ridge, while all the balaenopterids have a dorsal fin; and their back is extremely smooth, like that of the right whale. The bowhead and right whales may be readily distinguished from one another by the characters listed below for stranded specimens. Distribution Though bowhead whales in the western North Atlantic were once distributed from Arctic waters, from the edge of the ice, south as far as the Strait of Belle Isle and the St. Lawrence River in such abundance that they were once referred to simply as "the whale," overwhaling through the 19th century until as recently as 1911 has severely reduced their numbers and restricted their modern range. Today in addition to the more abundant populations of the Bering, Beaufort, and Chukchi seas and the Sea of Okhotsk, there are populations off eastern Greenland and in Davis Straits, Baffin Bay, James Bay, and the adjacent waters. Within these ranges, bowhead whales move southward in front of the advancing ice floes and may be expected near the southern limits of their range from September or October through the early spring months. Populations in the western North Atlantic appear to be increasing slowly. Stranded Specimens In addition to the fact that their ranges may overlap only slightly if at all, bowhead whales may be distinguished from the other right whales of the western North Atlantic by differences in 1) primary distribution, 2) coloration, 3) lengths of the longest baleen plates, and 4) presence of callosities. BOWHEAD WHALE RIGHT WHALE DISTRIBUTION Arctic distribution south to Texas, southwest Florida Davis Straits only during north to Iceland, reaching winter. northern limits only during spring and summer. COLORATION Black with white "vest" on Sometimes black often front part of lower jaw, brown or mottled with regions sometimes containing a of white on chin and string of black spots; upper belly; patches of yellowish to jaw lacks the "rock garden." pink callosities and lice encrusting the snout in what has been called a "rock garden." BALEEN PLATES 325-360 per side; plates to 14 250-390 per side 12 inches (35.6 cm) at base and inches (30.5 cm) at base and longest plates up to 14 feet up to 7.2 feet (2.2 m) long. (4.3 m) long. Dark gray or Dirty gray with black fringes; black with gray fringes; some anterior plates anterior margin of some partly or completely white. plates whitish, showing green iridescence in sunlight. BONNET AND OTHER CALLOSITIES Not present. Present. [Illustration: Figure 43.--Swimming adult bowhead whales, particularly males, often show two characteristic humps or curves to the back--one on the head, ending just behind the blowholes, and a larger curve from just behind the blowholes to near the flukes; the second is accentuated when the animal humps up to begin a dive. (_Photo by J. Lentfer._)] [Illustration: Figure 44.--Bowhead whales have no dorsal fin. The back is smooth and black, though often irregularly spaced white or grayish scars of unknown origin appear. (_Photos by J. Lentfer._)] [Illustration: Figure 45.--The unusually shaped head and the broad lower jaw, colored by a broad white vest, are evident in the swimming bowhead whale (left) and in both members of the copulating pair (right). Also evident on the animal to the far left is the "string of black beads" which is sometimes found in the white region. (_Photos by J. Lentfer._)] [Illustration: Figure 46.--A harpooned bowhead whale (this one from the Alaskan population). Note the high arching upper jaw of the species. Bowhead whales have up to at least 360 plates per side, far more than the black right whale. The longest plates, located near the middle of each jaw, are reported to reach 12 feet (3.7 m), or more, in length. (_Photo by D. R. Patten._)] RIGHT WHALE (B) _Eubalaena glacialis_ (Borowski 1781) Other Common Names Black right whale, Biscayan right whale, Biscay whale, Nordcaper right whale. Description These right whales reach a length of about 53 feet (16.2 m). The body is rotund and completely lacking a dorsal fin or a dorsal ridge. The upper jaw is long, narrow, and highly arched. The lips are similarly highly arched. The top of the head has a series of bumps or callosities, the largest one of which is known as the "bonnet," on the upper surface in front of the blowholes. Yellowish-brown lice and, less frequently, barnacles grow on the callosities. The color and extent of the callosities varies from one individual to the next. The two blowholes are widely separated, resulting in the projection of the blow upward as two distinct spouts. The body is dark on the back, sometimes black, more often brown or mottled, usually has a region of white on the chin and belly, and sometimes has numerous small grayish-white scars of unknown origin. The baleen plates are up to 7.2 feet (2.2 m) long, very narrow, and variable in color from dark brownish through dark gray to black in color. When the animals swim, mouth agape near the surface, the baleen sometimes appears pale yellowish gray in color. Natural History Notes Right whales are usually not wary of boats and may often be approached very closely. Like sperm and humpback whales, they usually throw their flukes high into the air when beginning a long dive. Right whales feed primarily on copepods. Historically, this whale was nearly exterminated by hunters, who took advantage of its slow speed and who knew that its carcass floats, to harvest these animals for their great yield of whalebone and oil. It was these characteristics which prompted whalers to dub these animals the "right" whales to kill (as opposed to the ones that were too fast to catch and sank when killed). May Be Confused With The distinct blow of the right whales and their smooth dark back, devoid of any traces of a dorsal fin, make it unlikely that the species will be confused with any other large whales except, perhaps, the bowhead whale. In the event that the expansion of their ranges again causes these two species to overlap in distribution, they can be distinguished from one another by the characteristics discussed on p. 49. If only the flukes are seen as the animal begins a dive, right and bowhead whales may be distinguished from the other two species of large whales exhibiting this behavior, the sperm and the humpback, in this way: the flukes of right and bowhead whales are broad, pointed on the tips, greatly concave towards a deep fluke notch, and dark below: those of the sperm whale are more nearly triangular, while those of the humpback whale have a jagged irregular or rippled rear margin and are sometimes variously white below. Distribution Like its more northern relative, the bowhead whale, the right whale was once the object of a widespread and extensive whale fishery, which reduced the species to critically low numbers. Though the former range of right whales is not clearly known, the species is thought to have been abundant from the Davis Straits south at least to the Carolinas and Bermuda and to have occurred in winter to Florida and perhaps into the Gulf of Mexico. Currently, right whales are known from Iceland south to Florida. Animals move north along the eastern Florida coast between early January and late March. During this time the species has also been observed in the Gulf of Mexico off southwestern Florida and Texas. Right whales pass the coast of New England in fair numbers in spring and continue as far north as at least Nova Scotia. Right whales are also found off Iceland, though the migration routes to and from Iceland waters are not known. The recent apparent increases in numbers at the northern and southern coastal approaches in New England and Florida, respectively, lend credibility to the hopeful contention that the species will again recolonize its historical range. Stranded Specimens Stranded right whales can be easily identified by all the characters discussed on p. 49 and summarized in Table 2. [Illustration: Figure 47.--The V-shaped blow characteristic of right whales. Note the two distinct spouts, bushy in appearance. (_Photo off Cape Cod by W. A. Watkins._)] [Illustration: Figure 48.--A right whale off the northeastern Florida coast. Note the robust body, the smooth back, completely lacking a dorsal fin, and the narrow rostrum, bearing the characteristic yellowish callosities. Right whales, primarily mothers with calves, show up on the Florida coast in the early spring on their slow annual migration to the north. (_Photo by N. Fain, courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] [Illustration: Figure 49.--Closeup views of the heads of right whales off northeastern Florida (top left and right) and off Cape Cod, Mass. (bottom left) clearly showing the narrow upper jaw, the bonnet, and the widely separated blowholes. In the photo on the bottom left note the extremely long baleen plates, characteristic of bowhead and right whales. (_Photos by N. Fain, courtesy of Marineland of Florida (top left and right); and W. A. Watkins (bottom left)._)] [Illustration: Figure 50.--Right whales frequently throw their tail flukes high into the air and then slip nearly vertically beneath the surface. Note that the rear margin of the flukes of this species, unlike that of the humpback whale, is smooth, broad, and concaved distinctly towards a deep fluke notch. (_Photos from the northern North Atlantic by K. C. Balcomb (a-g) and off northeastern Florida by N. Fain, courtesy of Marineland of Florida (h)._)] [Illustration: Figure 51.--A stranded right whale at Narragensett Bay, R.I. Note the narrow, highly arched lower jaw; the extremely long, narrow baleen plates, reaching lengths of 6.5 feet (2.0 m), or more; and the bonnet (the protuberance near the tip of the upper jaw). (_Photo from U.S. National Museum, courtesy of J. G. Mead._)] [Illustration: Figure 52.--A ventral view of a harpooned female right whale at Newfoundland. Note that this species, like the bowhead, lacks the series of ventral grooves which characterize all other baleen whales of the western North Atlantic. Note also the absence of the vest of white on the chin, a feature which is characteristic of the bowhead whale. Some right whales, however, do have extensive regions of white on the ventral surface, including the chin. (_Photo from U.S. National Museum, courtesy of J. G. Mead._)] SPERM WHALE (T) _Physeter catodon_ Linnaeus 1758 Other Common Names Cachalot, Sea Wap (St. Vincent). Description Male sperm whales have been reported to reach a length of 69 feet (20.9 m), though today individuals larger than 50 feet (15.2 m) are rare. Females are much smaller, rarely exceeding 38 feet (11.6 m). A sperm whale is among the easiest of whales to identify at sea even when comparatively little of the animal is visible. It has a huge head, which comprises from a fourth to a third of the animal's total length. (The proportion is considerably higher for males than for females.) The blunted "squarish" snout, which may project up to 5 feet (1.5 m) beyond the tip of the lower jaw, houses a large reservoir containing a high-quality oil called spermaceti. The single blowhole is located well to the left of the midline and far forward on the head. As a consequence the small bushy blow, usually less than 8 feet (2.4 m), emerges forward at a sharp angle from the head and towards the left. Under good wind conditions this feature alone may permit positive identification of sperm whales even at considerable distances. Sperm whales have a distinct dorsal hump, usually rounded in its appearance about two-thirds of the way back from the tip of the snout. Immediately behind the hump is a series of knuckles or crenulations along the midline. This hump and the crenulations are clearly visible when the animals arch the tail before beginning a dive. There is a ventral keel, which may also be visible as animals "sound" (dive). The flukes of sperm whales are broad and triangular in shape, are not concaved, but are deeply notched on the rear margin. Sperm whales usually are dark brownish gray in color. The body has a "corrugated" or "shriveled" appearance. The belly and the front of the head may be grayish to off-white. The skin around the mouth, particularly near the corners, is white. The undersides of the flukes and flippers vary in color through numerous shades of browns and brownish grays. Natural History Notes Sperm whales may dive to depths in excess of 3,270 feet (996.7 m) for periods of an hour or more. As do most whales upon surfacing from a deep dive, sperm whales emit a single explosive blow and then, depending on the length of the dive, may remain on the surface for over 10 min and blow more than 50 times before beginning the next dive. Shorter periods on the surface and fewer blows are more common. Females may dive and remain on the surface for shorter periods of time than males. When beginning a deep dive, sperm whales throw their broad triangular flukes, dark on the undersides, high into the air. Sperm whales may be found singly or in groups of up to 35 or 40 individuals. Older males are usually solitary except during the breeding season. During the remainder of the year large groups may be bachelor bulls (sexually inactive males) or nursery schools containing females and juveniles of both sexes. Sperm whales are seldom found in less than 600 feet (182.9 m) of water. Sperm whales feed primarily on squid but may occasionally also take octopuses and a variety of fishes. May Be Confused With Because of their distinctive head shape and blow, sperm whales are unlikely to be confused with any other species when they can be closely examined. If only the back and tail flukes are seen, however, sperm whales may somewhat resemble humpback whales. Both species arch the back when beginning a dive, raising the fin or hump, and both throw the tail flukes. The most distinctive differences between the two species are tabularized on p. 40. At sea the head of a sperm whale may also somewhat resemble that of an adult male northern bottlenosed whale, but this latter species is lighter brown in color, has a distinct beak and a prominent dorsal fin, and is rarely found south of lat. 42°N. In addition, the blowhole of the northern bottlenosed whale is located well back on the head and not--as in the sperm whale--on the front. Distribution Sperm whales are widely distributed in oceanic areas of the western North Atlantic. They may be encountered from Venezuela north at least as far as the Davis Straits, though they apparently avoid the polar ice fields. Distribution and migrations vary between males and females. Males range farther to the north, while females and immature males remain between lat. 30° and 50°N. Both groups shift northward during spring and summer and return to southern portions of their range in the fall. Adult males arrive off the New England coast in August. Those reaching the Newfoundland and Labrador coasts arrive from the deep sea, perhaps following the slope contours, in August and September. Males are abundant as far north as southeast Greenland and Iceland in summer. Some animals remain as late as November, but the majority migrate south to temperate or tropical waters in the early fall. Historically the primary grounds in the western North Atlantic were those in all the following areas: the Grand Banks just southeast of the southern Grand Banks from lat. 30° to 40°N and long. 35° to 55°W, off the Carolinas, around the Bahamas, around many of the West Indies, and in the southwestern Caribbean. Stranded Specimens Stranded sperm whales should be easy to identify. The very narrow underslung jaw contains from 18 to 25 functional teeth, which fit into sockets in the upper jaw. The huge, distinctly box-shaped head and the position of the single blowhole to the left front of the head are unmistakable clues. [Illustration: Figure 53.--An aerial view of 21 sperm whales, including two young calves and several large males, off Japan. Even from an aircraft, the position of the blowhole and the body shape clearly mark these animals as sperm whales. (_Photos by Suisan Koku Company, courtesy of T. Kasuya._)] [Illustration: Figure 54.--A side view of a sperm whale in the West Indies, showing the distinctive blow. Note that the spout projects obliquely forward from the blowhole, which is displaced to the left front of the head. (_Photo by H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 55.--Note the distinctive body shape and the position of the blowhole of these swimming sperm whales, and, in the animal on the left, the broad tail flukes. (_Photos from the North Atlantic by S. Green (left) and from the North Pacific by S. Ohsumi (right)._)] [Illustration: Figure 56.--A sperm whale mother and calf off Baja California, showing the distinct dorsal hump and the extremely long head. In the bottom photo, from the West Indies, note the dorsal hump and the crenulations of bumps which follow it. Both the hump and the crenulations may be visible as the animal arches its tail to begin a deep dive. Note also the wrinkled appearance of the body. (_Photo by K. C. Balcomb (top) and H. E. Winn (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 57.--Sperm whales often show their broad tail flukes as they begin long dives, which may last over an hour and take them to depths of several thousand feet or more. Note the smooth rear margin and the nearly triangular shape of the flukes. (_Photo from off Baja California by K. C. Balcomb._)] [Illustration: Figure 58.--A stranded infant male sperm whale at Melbourne Beach, Fla. (top) and a male adult sperm whale on the deck of a whaling ship in the Pacific (bottom). Note the bulging forehead, the narrow, underslung lower jaw, the white coloration around the mouth, particularly at the corners, and the wrinkled appearance of the body. In the bottom photo note also the whitish region on the belly. (_Photos by P. Winfield (top) and Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 59.--The narrow lower jaw of a sperm whale contains from 18 to 25 large functional teeth, which fit neatly into sockets in the upper jaw. Occasionally, the upper jaw also contains some teeth. (_Photo from the North Pacific by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura._)] [Illustration: Figure 60.--The throat and lower jaw of a sperm whale on the deck of an eastern Canadian whaling station, showing the numerous short throat grooves, which are most clearly evident on adult animals. (_Photo by J. G. Mead._)] [Illustration: Figure 61.--Detail of the broad, paddle-shaped flipper of a sperm whale from the North Pacific. (_Photo from Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura._)] Medium-sized Whales With a Dorsal Fin MINKE WHALE (B) _Balaenoptera acutorostrata_ Lacepede 1804 Other Common Names Little piked whale, lesser rorqual, little firmer, sharp-headed finner, grampus (Newfoundland), gibord (Quebec). Description Minke whales are the smallest baleen whale species in the northern hemisphere, reaching maximum lengths of just over 30 feet (9.1 m). One of the most distinctive features of this species is an extremely narrow, pointed, distinctly triangular rostrum with a single head ridge, similar to but much sharper than that of the fin whale (hence the common name "sharp-headed finner"). Minke whales have a tall, falcate dorsal fin located in the latter third of the back, in about the same position as that of the sei whale, which often becomes visible simultaneously with the low, usually inconspicuous blow. Minke whales are black to dark gray on the back and white on the belly and on the underside of the flippers. Portions of the underside of the flukes may be steel bluish gray. They have a diagonal band of white on each flipper, the extent and orientation of which varies individually. Like the fin whale, minke whales (at least from the Pacific) sometimes have a chevron on the back behind the head and often have two regions of lightish-gray coloration on each side--one just above and behind the flippers; another just in front of and below the dorsal fin. These patches may be quite conspicuous on some animals, indetectable on others. These markings may also be present on Atlantic specimens, though they have not yet been documented. The baleen, which may be visible from close range when the animal is feeding, is mostly yellowish white with fine white bristles. The posterior plates (up to half) may be brown to black. Natural History Notes Minke whales are frequently found as single animals, pairs, or trios, though they may congregate in areas of food concentration in the northern seas during the spring and summer. They are more likely to be seen up close than their larger cousins--the blue, fin, and sei whales--because they often closely approach boats, particularly stationary boats, as if curious about them. Minke whales may also approach very close to shore and often enter bays, inlets, and estuaries. Like fin whales, they often arch the tail stock high into the air when beginning a long dive. However, they do not raise the flukes above the surface when beginning a dive. Minke whales feed primarily on small shoal fish (herring, cod, pollack, and capelin). Minkes sometimes breach, leaping completely clear of the water and entering smoothly, head first, or with a substantial splash like humpback whales. May Be Confused With When they are seen at relatively close range, minke whales can be readily distinguished from the other rorquals that have relatively tall, falcate dorsal fins (fin, sei, and Bryde's whales) by their considerably smaller size and by their distinctive white band on each flipper. At a distance, however, positive identification may be difficult. Minke whales have a small, low, inconspicuous blow. Like sei whales, they frequently expose the dorsal fin simultaneously with the blow, but minke whales hump the tail stock much higher when beginning a long dive--more like fin whales. From a distance, minke whales might also be mistaken for northern bottlenosed whales (or any of several other beaked whales with a similar dorsal fin). They can be distinguished by the differences in head shape, body color and markings, and behavior, detailed on p. 67. Distribution Minke whales are distributed in the polar, temperate, and tropical waters of the western North Atlantic. They are found from the pack ice south to at least Anguilla, Lesser Antilles, and the eastern Gulf of Mexico, though they appear to be most abundant in temperate waters north of the latitude of New York and are infrequently reported from tropical waters. At least some of the population migrates to the northern portions of their range in spring and back south in autumn. They often approach close to shore and enter river mouths, inlets, and estuaries. Minke whales arrive along the Canadian coast in May or June. Some migrate as far north as Hudson Strait, where they remain until the freeze in October, November, or December. By December the majority of the population has begun to move to the south, although some animals remain behind so long as to become entrapped in the ice and die. Spring and summer concentrations along the Canadian coast correspond to concentrations of capelin, cod, and herring. Southern concentrations, also corresponding with concentrations of herring, extend farther offshore at least to the edges of the Grand Bank. Minke whales also summer off the south coast of western Greenland, which they probably reach from waters southwest of Iceland. Minke whales also occur in deep pelagic waters. Stranded Specimens Stranded minke whales can be most readily identified by: 1) their small size (to just over 30 feet [9.1 m]); 2) the transverse white bands on the flippers; 3) the yellowish-white baleen plates (up to half the posteriormost plates may be brown or black), 300-325 per side in number and having fine white bristles (the plates are up to 4.75 inches [12 cm] wide at the base and up to 8 inches [20.3 cm] long); and 4) by the 50-70 thin ventral grooves, ending well before the navel, often just even with the flippers. [Illustration: Figure 62.--The minke whale, at a maximum length of just over 30 feet (9.1 m), the smallest baleen whale species of the western North Atlantic, is distributed in polar, temperate, and tropical waters. These animals usually have a low, inconspicuous blow and are sometimes curious enough about boats that they will alter their course to investigate them. Note the two areas of light gray on the sides of the body, characteristic of at least Pacific minke whales. (_Photo from off British Columbia, courtesy of_ Nanaimo Free Press.)] [Illustration: Figure 63.--Three views of minke whales at sea. In all note the transverse band of white on the flippers and the sharply pointed head. Note the gray chevron visible on the back (top), the absence of a conspicuous blow and the appearance of the prominent dorsal fin on the surface while the blowholes are still exposed (middle), and the distinctive regions of light gray on the sides (bottom). (_Photos from off San Diego, Calif. by G. E. Lingle (top); from the northern West Indies by H. E. Winn (middle); and from the western Pacific by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 64.--Minke whales are also known as sharp-headed finners. On this animal from the North Pacific, note the sharply pointed head and the single central head ridge. (_Photo by Japanese Whales Research Institute, courtesy of H. Omura._)] [Illustration: Figure 65.--A minke whale stranded at Santa Barbara, Calif. Note the dark back, the white-banded flipper, and the 60-70 fine ventral grooves extending to just behind the flippers. The short, white baleen plates are visible in the open mouth. (_Photo by S. Anderson._)] [Illustration: Figure 66.--Minke whales have from 300 to 325 short, yellowish-white baleen plates (up to half the anteriormost plates may be brown or black) with fine white bristles on each upper jaw. (_Photo from Santa Barbara, Calif. by S. Anderson._)] NORTHERN BOTTLENOSED WHALE (T) _Hyperoodon ampullatus_ (Forster 1770) Other Common Names None known. Description Northern bottlenosed whales reach a length of 32 feet (9.8 m) and are robust in form. They are characterized by a bulbous forehead, which is more pronounced on larger animals and most distinctive in adult males, and by the dolphinlike beak displayed in animals of all sizes and ages, which is sometimes visible as the animals surface steeply to breathe. The blowhole is located in an indented area behind the bulbous forehead, and the blow emanating from it projects upward or slightly forward to a height of up to 6 feet (1.8 m), is bushy and is visible from a considerable distance under low wind conditions. The dorsal fin, located two-thirds of the way back on the back, reaches at least 12 inches (30.5 cm) in height and is distinctly falcate. The dorsal fin may be visible from a distance of several hundred meters. Northern bottlenosed whales are usually brownish in color, though the markings change with age. Smaller animals are a uniform chocolate brown. Larger animals retain the chocolate brown color on the back but are often lighter on the sides and the belly and often have irregular patches or blotches of grayish-white coloration on the back and sides. Extremely large animals, presumably older males, often have a white head. The flippers and the undersides of the flukes are uniformly brown in color. Natural History Notes Northern bottlenosed whales often form tightly packed groups of up to 10 or more animals. This species holds the anecdotal record for the longest dives, having been reported by early whalers to remain submerged over 2 h. They are probably deep divers, feeding primarily on squid (though they may take fishes as well), and they rarely go in water shallower than 100 fathoms (183 m). After a long dive, northern bottlenosed whales will sometimes remain on the surface for 10 min or more, blowing at regular intervals before making another dive. After the last blow of a series or when the animals are startled by a boat, they may show the tail flukes as they begin to dive. The flukes are not notched on the rear margin. Northern bottlenosed whales have been observed to show curiosity about boats, coming to them from a considerable distance. They have also been observed to "lobtail," raising the tail flukes above the water and slapping them against the surface, and to jump clear of the water. In the late 19th century, after stocks of bowhead whales were severely reduced by overwhaling, northern bottlenosed whales became a prime target of arctic whalers. They were sought because in addition to whale oil produced from the body blubber, the forehead of the species yielded quantities of spermaceti like that obtained from sperm whales. May Be Confused With Northern bottlenosed whales have a northerly and deep-water distribution. Within their range, they may be confused at a distance with minke whales, with sperm whales, or perhaps with North Sea beaked whales. Minke whales (p. 63) have a falcate dorsal fin located in approximately the same position as that of the northern bottlenosed whale. However, minke whales have a flathead in front of their two blow holes and are black to dark gray on the back. Sperm whales (p. 57) have a squarish head that may somewhat resemble that of an adult male northern bottlenosed whale. However, there are numerous characteristics which will permit these species to be distinguished even from a distance: NORTHERN BOTTLENOSED WHALE SPERM WHALE BLOW Low and bushy; projects Low and bushy, projects upward from indentation on obliquely forward from left top of head. side of head; usually less than 8 feet (2.4 m). COLORATION Lighter brown; adults splotched Brownish gray; body appears with grayish white; wrinkled. body smooth. FLUKES Rarely notched; seldom raised Notched; raised on long dive. on long dive. HEAD Tapering in younger animals; Squarish, long, all black; bulbous in adults; beakless. white in older animals; beaked. A further aid to distinguishing northern bottlenosed and sperm whales at sea is the fact that the sperm whales that are found in areas where northern bottlenosed whales are encountered are usually older, larger males from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 m) long. Northern bottlenosed whales do not exceed 32 feet (9.8 m). Northern bottlenosed whales may also be confused with the poorly known North Sea beaked whale (p. 82). When they can be examined at close range, however, northern bottlenosed whales should be distinguishable on the basis of the distinctly bulbous forehead. Distribution In the western North Atlantic, northern bottlenosed whales are restricted to Arctic and north temperate waters, where they most commonly occur in offshore areas. They have been reported from Davis Straits and the entrance to Hudson Strait, the Gully southeast of Sable Island, and as far south as Narragansett Bay, R.I. In the spring and summer they concentrate near the northern limits of their range, occasionally visiting deep channels of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and eastern Newfoundland in summer. During these seasons they may extend to the edge of the pack ice. In the fall and winter the bulk of the population migrates southward. Many probably winter in the Labrador Sea while others move farther southward and farther offshore. Stranded Specimens Like the beaked whales discussed on p. 70 through 83, the northern bottlenosed whales have no notch in the tail flukes, have two throat grooves forming a V-shape on the chin, and have only two teeth in the lower jaw, with those teeth emerged from the gums only in adult males. These teeth may have sometimes fallen out of older males, but the tooth sockets should still be visible in the gums. NOTE: Some specimens--both male and female--will be found to have a series of vestigial teeth the size of toothpicks in the upper and/or lower jaws. Similar vestigial teeth, 5-40 in number, sometimes occur in goosebeaked whales (p. 70). Further when they are prepared for museum collections, the lower jaws of adult northern bottlenosed whales may be found to contain a second pair of teeth just behind the first. Northern bottlenosed whales may be distinguished from the remainder of the beaked whale family, however, by the extremely robust body, by the bulbous forehead, which is more extensively developed in larger animals, particularly males, and by the pronounced dolphinlike beak. [Illustration: Figure 67.--Northern bottlenosed whales at sea off Nova Scotia. Note the prominent dorsal fin and the blotches of grayish-white coloration on the body. Northern bottlenosed whales reach 32 feet (9.8 m) in overall length. (_Photo by H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 68.--Views of the heads of male northern bottlenosed whales off Nova Scotia. Note the distinctive beak (right) and the bulbous forehead, features which develop with age and are most pronounced in adult males. In the animal on the left, note also the low bushy blow emanating from the indented area on the top of the head. (_Photos by H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 69.--Northern bottlenosed whales occasionally raise their tail flukes when beginning a dive. At close range, these flukes can often be seen to lack a distinctive notch on the rear margin. (_Photo from off Nova Scotia by J. Hain._)] [Illustration: Figure 70.--A stranded northern bottlenosed whale from Holland. Note the bulbous forehead, the long dolphinlike beak and the frequent absences of a notch in the rear margin of the tail flukes. (_Photo by J. P. Strijbos, courtesy of Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie te Leiden._)] GOOSEBEAKED WHALE (T) _Ziphius cavirostris_ G. Cuvier 1823 Other Common Names Ziphius, Cuvier's beaked whale, grampus (St. Vincent) (see also p. 96). Description Goosebeaked whales reach a length of 23 feet (7 m). Females are slightly larger than males of the same age. Calves are probably less than about 6 feet (1.8 m) at birth. The head is small relative to the body length and, when viewed laterally, is slightly concaved or scooped on the upper margin. The cleft of the mouth is small, smaller than in any other species of beaked whales. The beak is indistinct in larger individuals. There is a distinct indentation on the back behind the head. Two teeth are found at the tip of the lower jaw of adult males only. The dorsal fin is relatively tall and distinct, to at least 15 inches (38.1 cm), smoothly falcate, and located well behind the midpoint of the back. The blowhole is located far forward on the top of the head. The blow, which may project slightly forward and slightly off to the left, is usually low and inconspicuous. Though the first blow after a long dive may be more distinct, even it is rarely visible even under good wind conditions for more than a few hundred yards. Descriptions of the color pattern vary. Individuals may be dark rust brown, slate gray, or fawn colored on the back and generally lighter on the belly. Some appear dark in both regions, still others--particularly youngsters--appear lighter gray or tan on the belly. The body is frequently covered with white or cream-colored blotches (particularly on the belly). The tail flukes are dark on the bottom. The head is frequently paler in color. Old males have a distinct white head and are frequently extensively scarred. Natural History Notes Goosebeaked whales frequently occur in groups of from 10 to as many as 25 individuals. They have been reported to jump clear of the water. They are presumably deep divers and are known to stay down for more than 30 min. When they begin a deep dive, they often raise their tail flukes above the surface and dive nearly vertically. Goosebeaked whales feed primarily on squid. May Be Confused With So little is known of the external appearance and behavior of the living beaked whales at sea that all the species may easily be confused. Goosebeaked whales are larger than all other beaked whale species with the exception of the northern bottlenosed whale. Upon close examination they may be distinguished from the northern bottlenosed whale by the lighter coloration of the head, reaching an extreme in the white head of adult males. (See p. 67 and Fig. 75.) Distribution As with other species of beaked whales seldom encountered or at least seldom positively identified at sea, the distribution of goosebeaked whales is poorly known and must be constructed from records of stranded specimens. Such records, often involving sick individuals that may have washed ashore from considerable distances, may give an inaccurate picture of normal ranges. In general, stranding reports suggest that goosebeaked whales are sparsely but widely distributed in nonpolar latitudes. They appear to be primarily tropical in distribution, though they venture into temperate areas in summer. They have been reported from Massachusetts and Rhode Island south to Florida and thence to the islands of the West Indies. They are frequently stranded along the Florida coast and are not an uncommon species in the extant whale fishery of the Antillean Islands. The fact that goosebeaked whales strand more frequently than other beaked whales may reflect either a greater abundance or a greater tendency to approach close to shore. They are probably primarily an offshore species. Stranded Specimens To be positively identified, stranded goosebeaked whales in an advanced state of decomposition may require museum preparation and examination of the skull and teeth. Fresh specimens may be tentatively identified by the characters illustrated in the figures. [Illustration: Figure 71.--Goosebeaked whales have been rarely seen at sea. In these photos from the eastern tropical Pacific, note the white head of the animal on the left. Goosebeaked whales are wary of boats and may dive for 30 min or more. When they surface, their blow, usually very indistinct, may project forward and slightly to the left. (_Photos by K. D. Sexton, courtesy of National Marine Fisheries Service._)] [Illustration: Figure 72.--A beaked whale, probably a goosebeaked whale, jumps beside a research ship off northwestern Baja California. Note the position and shape of the dorsal fin and the depression just behind the head. (_Photo by S. Leatherwood._)] [Illustration: Figure 73.--A goosebeaked whale stranded in Delaware. Goosebeaked whales are primarily tropical in distribution, though they apparently venture into temperate areas in summer. Note the prominent dorsal fin, the lighter coloration of the head, and the depression just behind the head. (_Photo from U.S. National Museum, courtesy of J. G. Mead._)] [Illustration: Figure 74.--A closeup of the dorsal surface of the flukes of a juvenile goosebeaked whale stranded in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Like other members of the beaked whale family, goosebeaked whales lack a distinctive notch in the rear margin of the flukes. (_Photo courtesy of Florida's Gulfarium._)] [Illustration: Figure 75.--Stranded goosebeaked whales, an adult male from northern California (top) and an immature female from the northeastern Gulf of Mexico (bottom). Note the brownish color of the back, marked in the adult animal by blotches of lighter gray and numerous scratch marks, presumably tooth rakes. Note also the mouth cleft, shorter in this species than in any other beaked whale species, and the slightly concave appearance to the upper margin of the head. The beak is usually less developed in large animals. The inset photo shows a ventral view of the tip of the lower jaw of an adult male from the east coast of Florida. The two teeth of the species are emerged above the gum only in adult males. (_Photos by W. J. Houck (top), Florida's Gulfarium (middle), and W. A. Huck, courtesy of Marineland of Florida (inset)._)] OTHER BEAKED WHALES (T) _Mesoplodon_ spp. Other Common Names Grampus (St. Vincent) (see also p. 96). Description In addition to the northern bottlenosed whale (p. 67) and the goosebeaked whale (p. 70), four other species of beaked whales have been reported from the western North Atlantic. All four species are known primarily from stranded specimens and have been rarely encountered at sea. Therefore statements of range are usually limited to inferences from locations of strandings, and information on appearance and habits of the species in the wild is almost totally lacking. The infrequent encounters with beaked whales at sea may result from such factors as 1) a low inconspicuous blow, 2) avoidance of ships, and/or 3) distribution in small groups in offshore areas well outside the normal boating lanes. The following descriptions will aid primarily in identifying stranded specimens. Though subtle differences in ranges, color patterns, and dorsal fin shapes and positions may be helpful in narrowing the choices of living animals, the species will continue to be extremely difficult to distinguish from one another in the brief encounters typical at sea until additional data are collected. The beaked whales have the following characteristics in common: 1) two small creases forming a V-shape on the throat, 2) the absence of a conspicuous notch on the rear margin of the tail flukes (some specimens have a slight indentation), and 3) the absence of functional teeth in all except adult males. Adult males have a single pair of teeth in the lower jaw, the position and description of which help to identify the species. The teeth of females are not functional and only rarely emerge from the gums. Therefore, if a stranded animal is an adult male, its species can be determined by the position and description of the teeth. For example, in _Mesoplodon mirus_, the teeth are located near the tip of the lower jaw; in _M. europaeus_, they are located about a third of the way from the tip of the snout to the corner of the mouth; in _M. bidens_, they are nearly half way from the tip of the snout to corner of the mouth; and in M. densirostris, they are located in large prominences near the back of the mouth. If the animal is a female or an immature male, however, museum preparation and examination might be required before the species can be positively determined. The following four sections summarize characters of western North Atlantic beaked whales. [Illustration: Figure 76.--An unidentified beaked whale from the mid-Pacific. Note the marks along the back, presumably tooth rakes, consisting of scratches that are paired and close together. A beaked whale in the western North Atlantic marked in this manner would be a northern bottlenosed whale (p. 67), a goosebeaked whale (p. 70), or a True's beaked whale (p. 77). These are the only three species in which the teeth are located close together near the tip of the lower jaw. (_Photo by K. C. Balcomb._)] [Illustration: Figure 77.--Various views of a herd of five or six unidentified beaked whales, possibly dense-beaked whales, 12 miles off Pokai Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. The animals were very shy and had low indistinct blows, making them difficult to spot and track. As they surfaced, individuals frequently bucked their heads and slapped the chin against the surface, rather than rolling. They did not raise their tail flukes when beginning their long dives. (_Photos by E. Shallenberger, Sea Life Park, Hawaii._) (Because so little is known of beaked whales every encounter should be recorded in as much detail as possible.)] [Illustration: Figure 78.--Adult male beaked whales, showing the body profile and the relative positions of the teeth. Remember that the teeth of females and immature males are concealed beneath the gums. (_Drawing by L. Winn._)] TRUE'S BEAKED WHALE (T) _Mesoplodon minis_ True 1913 Other Common Names None known. Description True's beaked whales reach a length of at least 16 feet (4.9 m) long. They are chunky in midbody and narrow rapidly towards the tail, closely resembling goosebeaked whales (p. 70). In overall body shape, the head is small with a slight indentation in the area of the blowhole, a slight bulge to the forehead, and a pronounced beak. The flippers are small (from one-fourteenth to one-tenth the body length). The dorsal fin is small, slightly falcate, located in the latter third of the back, and followed by a pronounced ridge on the tail stock. The flukes, which sometimes contain a very slight notch, are broad (to almost one-fifth the body length). True's beaked whales are dull black to dark gray on the back, lighter slate gray on the sides, and white on the belly. The body is frequently covered with light colored spots or splotches and bears numerous pairs of scratch marks, presumably tooth rakes (Fig. 76). The flippers are all black and are attached in the dark coloration of the animal's side. The flukes are dark above and below. May Be Confused With True's beaked whales are most likely to be confused with goosebeaked whales (p. 70) but may also be confused with any of the other beaked whales species (p. 74 and Fig. 78). Distribution True's beaked whales appear to be primarily temperate in distribution. They have been reported from Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia south as far as Flagler Beach in Florida. Northernmost records are for summer months. The range of True's beaked whales overlaps with that of the Antillean beaked whale but is more northerly. Stranded Specimens The teeth of adult male True's beaked whales may be visible near the tip of the lower jaw, a characteristic shared with the goosebeaked whale (p. 70) and the northern bottlenosed whale (p. 67). Both these other species reach substantially greater maximum lengths than True's beaked whales, however, and should be readily distinguishable by this and the number of other highly distinctive characteristics of each species. Females and subadult males may be confused with any of the beaked whales species (p. 74 and Fig. 78). [Illustration: Figure 79.--Two views of the body of a stranded True's beaked whale from northeastern Florida. This species reaches at least 16 feet (4.9 m) and closely resembles the goosebeaked whale in general body shape. It is distributed in temperate waters from Nova Scotia to Florida. (_Photos courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] [Illustration: Figure 80.--The head of a True's beaked whale stranded in North Carolina. Note the small head, the pronounced beak, and the position of the blowhole in the indentation behind the forehead. The teeth, visible above the gums only in adult males, are in the position indicated by the arrow. The photo on the right shows the two V-shaped throat grooves characteristic of beaked whales. (_Photos from U.S. National Museum, courtesy of J. G. Mead._)] ANTILLEAN BEAKED WHALE (T) _Mesoplodon europaeus_ (Gervais 1855) (equals _M. gervaisi_ [Deslongchamps]) Other Common Names Gulfstream beaked whale, Gervais' beaked whale. Description Antillean beaked whales reach a length of at least 22 feet (6.7 m). They are slender in form and appear somewhat laterally compressed (i.e., taller than they are wide). The head is extremely small and tapers rapidly to a narrow beak. The flippers are small (to about one-twelfth the body length) with their origin well down on the sides of the body. The dorsal fin is small, located behind the midpoint of the back, and variable in shape from falcate to triangular. The flukes are less than one-fifth the body length and are not notched. Antillean beaked whales are dark grayish black on the back and sides, slightly lighter on the abdomen. The flukes are dark gray above and below. Natural History Notes Antillean beaked whales are probably primarily oceanic in distribution and are known to feed on squid. May Be Confused With Antillean beaked whales may be confused with any of the other beaked whales though they are larger than all except the northern bottlenosed whale (p. 67) and the goosebeaked whale (p. 70). Distribution Antillean beaked whales have been reported stranded from the latitude of Long Island, N.Y. south to Florida, thence into the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. Stranded Specimens The teeth of Antillean beaked whales are located at the suture of the mandible, about one-third of the way from the tip of the snout to the corner of the mouth (Fig. 78). [Illustration: Figure 81.--Two views of an Antillean beaked whale stranded in New Jersey in 1899. Note the very small head, the prominent back-curved dorsal fin, and the slightly concave rear margin of the tail flukes, which lack a distinct notch. (_Photos by F. W. True, courtesy of U.S. National Museum._)] [Illustration: Figure 82.--Two views of an Antillean beaked whale stranded in Jamaica. This species reached at least 22 feet (6.7 m) in length. Compared to the smaller True's beaked whale, Antillean beaked whales have a smaller head, a narrower beak, and a taller, narrower body. Furthermore, the teeth of this species are located about one-third of the way back from the tip of the snout to the corner of the mouth. (_Photos by J. J. Rankin._)] DENSE-BEAKED WHALE (T) _Mesoplodon densirostris_ (Blainville in Desmarest 1817) Other Common Names None known. Description Dense-beaked whales reach a length of at least 17 feet (5.2 m). The body is distinctly spindle-shaped. The head, the contour of which is the most distinctive characteristic of this species, is marked by a prominent rise, located near the angle of the gape on each side. This rise, which bears the teeth, gives a peculiar high, arching contour to the mouth (p. 84), particularly in adult males. The flippers are small (one-eleventh to one-tenth the body length) and have their origin in the lighter color of the lower sides. The dorsal fin varies from small and triangular to nearly falcate and pointed on the tip. It is located behind the midpoint of the back. The flukes are from one-sixth to one-fifth the body length, are seldom notched, and occasionally even bulge slightly backwards near the center of the rear margin. Dense-beaked whales are black or charcoal gray on the back, slightly lighter on the abdomen. They are somewhat blotched with grayish white and are often extensively scratched or scarred. The flippers are lighter than the back. The flukes are dark above, light below. Natural History Notes From stomach contents of stranded animals dense-beaked whales are known to feed on squid. May Be Confused With Adult male dense-beaked whales can be separated from the other beaked whales by the high, arching contour to the corners of the mouth. If there is no adult male in the group, however, dense-beaked whales may be confused with any of the other beaked whales species. Distribution Dense-beaked whales have been reported from Peggys Cove, Nova Scotia south to Florida. From all accounts, this species appears widely but sparsely distributed in warm temperate seas. Stranded Specimens Adults of this species should be distinguishable by the highly distinctive contour of the mouth. The teeth, located in the high rise of the mouth, are oriented slightly backwards. [Illustration: Figure 83.--A dense-beaked whale in the tank at New York Aquarium. Note the position of the prominent dorsal fin, just breaking the surface. The blow of beaked whales is usually small and inconspicuous and reportedly projects markedly forward from the head. (_Photo by J. G. Mead._)] [Illustration: Figure 84.--Views of the heads of dense-beaked whales. Females (bottom) and immature males have a slight curvature to the rear of the mouth. As they mature, males (middle and top) begin to display the two arching prominences near the corners of the mouth which give the characteristic contour to the mouth. The teeth are located in these prominences and are oriented slightly backwards. (Photos from _northeastern Florida by W. A. Huck, courtesy of Marineland of Florida_ (top and middle) and by J. G. Mead (bottom).)] [Illustration: Figure 85.--A dense-beaked whale stranded in northeastern Florida. This species reaches about 17 feet (5.2 m) and is black or charcoal gray on the back, lighter gray on the sides, and frequently marked with grayish-white blotches and often extensively scarred. (_Photo by W. A. Huck, courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] NORTH SEA BEAKED WHALE (T) _Mesoplodon bidens_ (Sowerby 1804) Other Common Names Sowerby's beaked whale. Description North Sea beaked whales reach a length of at least 16.5 feet (5 m). The body is distinctly spindle-shaped, but apparently more robust near midbody than that of the dense-beaked whale. The head is characterized by a pronounced bulge in front of the blowhole, a slightly concave forehead, and a moderate to long beak. The flippers are relatively long (one-eighth to one-ninth the body length). The dorsal fin is reportedly tall and variable in shape from triangular to slightly falcate and is located just behind the midpoint of the back. The flukes are not notched but are sometimes quite concave on the rear margin. Adult North Sea beaked whales are dark charcoal gray on the back with white spots overall. Young animals are also dark charcoal gray on the back but are lighter on the belly and are unspotted. The flukes of adults are dark above and below. Those of young are dark above, lighter below. Natural History Notes North Sea beaked whales are known to feed on squid. May Be Confused With North Sea beaked whales are the most northerly species of beaked whales. No other species is very likely to be encountered in the same area. Distribution North Sea beaked whales have been reported in the offshore waters from the latitude of New England north perhaps to the pack ice. Individuals are occasionally drawn to the coasts of Newfoundland in summer, presumably by concentrations of squid, a known food item. Stranded Specimens The teeth of North Sea beaked whales are located about midway between the tip of the snout and the corner of the mouth. Except for this characteristic and their northerly distribution, however, this species might easily be confused with any other of the beaked whales species. [Illustration: Figure 86.--North Sea beaked whales are the most northerly of the beaked whale species, extending north as far as the pack ice. They reach at least 16.5 feet (5.0 m) and can be identified on the beach by the position of the teeth near the middle of the lower jaw. Little is known of the species at sea. (_Drawing by L. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 87.--A female North Sea beaked whale (16.5 feet [5.0 m]) stranded in Hjertuika in 1957. (_Photo courtesy of A. Jonsgard._)] KILLER WHALE (T) _Orcinus orca_ (Linnaeus 1758) Other Common Names Blackfish (see also pilot whales, p. 91 and 94), sword fish (Canada), grampus (see p. 96), whitefish (St. Vincent), Espladon (Quebec). Description Killer whales are the largest member of the dolphin family. Adult males reach a length of at least 30 feet (9.1 m) and are robust in form. One specimen of 31 feet (9.5 m) was recorded for the western North Pacific. Females are considerably smaller and less stocky. Newborn are approximately 7-8 feet (2.1-2.4 m) long. Killer whales have large paddle-shaped flippers. The most distinctive field character of the species is the dorsal fin. In adult males it is extremely erect and may be as much as 6 feet (1.8 m) tall. Though the fin of females and immature males is less than 3 feet (0.9 m) tall, it is nonetheless taller even in these animals than in any other cetacean species and is distinctly falcate and pointed on the tip. Killer whales are basically black with an extensive region of white on the undersides extending from the lower jaw to the anal region with a branch extending onto the flanks behind the dorsal fin. There is an oval white patch on the side of the head just above and behind the eye. In newborn and very young calves, these regions may be tan to lemon yellow in color. Most animals have a light-gray saddle marking just behind the dorsal fin. The undersides of the flukes are usually white. Both all-black and all-white animals have been reported. Natural History Notes Killer whales travel in groups of from a few to 25 or 30 individuals, though herds of 150 have been reported. Males appear polygamous, and females and young may form groups separate from young bachelors and bulls. Killer whales are extremely fast swimmers, capable of reaching top speeds of 25 knots or more, and have been reported "porpoising" and breaching. Individuals and entire groups have also been reported "spy-hopping," or "pitchpoling," behaviors which consist of hanging vertically in the water with the head and much of the body (to just behind the flippers) exposed above the surface. Killer whales feed on squid, fishes, sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals. Controversy still continues over whether or not killer whales pose a threat to man. Documented attacks of killer whales on boats are rare and have usually been provoked (i.e., harpooning or attempts to capture). Only two uncertain instances of attacks in the wild have been reported, but all divers and mariners should be cautioned that this powerful animal is perfectly capable of doing tremendous damage and should not be provoked. May Be Confused With Because of its very distinctive dorsal fin, body shape, and coloration, the killer whale is not likely to be confused with any other whale when it can be examined at close range or when an adult male is present in the group. Pods of females and immature animals, however, may be confused with false killer whales or with grampus. The killer whales may be distinguished from false killers by the following differences: KILLER WHALE FALSE KILLER WHALE BODY SHAPE Chunky. Slender. BODY COLOR Black with white on belly, All black with some gray on flank, and head. belly. DORSAL FIN Very tall and erect in adult Shorter, slender, strongly males; tall and slightly back falcate. curved in female. HEAD SHAPE Broad, rounded. Tapered, slender. FLIPPER SHAPE Paddle-shaped. Moderately long with characteristic hump near middle on forward margin. LENGTH To at least 30 feet (9.1 m). To at least 18 feet (5.5 m). Furthermore, false killer whales are the only "blackfish" which are known to ride the bow wave of a ship. Grampus have a tall dorsal fin (15 inches [38.1 cm]) which is very similar in appearance to that of adult female and juvenile killer whales. But grampus have much lighter coloration, from slate gray to nearly all white, and larger animals are covered with numerous scratches. Upon closer examination they can be further distinguished from killer whales by a crease in the front of the head dividing the melon into two distinct sections. Grampus are considerably smaller, to about 13 feet (4 m) maximum length. Distribution In the western North Atlantic killer whales have been reported from the polar pack ice south to Florida and St. Vincent, Lesser Antilles, and into the Gulf of Mexico at least as far as Texas, though they are far more common in the cooler waters from about New Jersey north. Throughout their range, killer whales seem to prefer coastal areas and often enter shallow bays, estuaries, and river mouths in search of food. Migrations of the species are probably closely tied to movements of their food supply. They annually arrive on the coast of New England with the tuna. Along the Canadian coasts, where distribution and migrations have been described in some detail, killer whales appear to move inshore in spring and summer. Many arrive off the east coast of Newfoundland in June, the Strait of Belle Isle in June and July, and slightly later along the Labrador coast and Arctic waters. They are found around the loose ice in April, presumably feeding on harp seals, _Pagophilus groenlandicus_, and hooded seals, _Cystophora cristata_, and are frequent in the St. Lawrence estuary in spring and autumn following the movements of the white whales. The northward movements in spring also coincide with migrations of balaenopterine whales, which have also been reported among the food items. Killer whales may remain in arctic or subarctic waters until driven out by new forming ice in October and November. Though the migration has not been as thoroughly described, killer whales apparently begin shifting southwards in autumn. Stranded Specimens Stranded killer whales should be readily identifiable by the robust body, the distinctive body markings, and in larger animals the tall dorsal fin. Killer whales have from 10 to 12 large, prominent teeth on each side of the upper and lower jaws. [Illustration: Figure 89.--Killer whales are often distributed very close to shore. In these photos from Baja California, they are shown in two characteristic behaviors--breaching (top) and "spy-hopping" or "pitchpoling" (bottom). (_Photos by S. Leatherwood._)] [Illustration: Figure 88.--A small herd of killer whales off southern California (top) and details of an adult male from that herd (middle) and of females or immature males off Islas San Benito, Baja California (bottom). Adult males have a tall erect dorsal fin, which may be more than 6 feet (1.8 m) tall, while the fins of females and immature males are less than 3 feet (0.9 m) tall, distinctly falcate, and pointed on the tip. Both sexes frequently have a grayish-white region, called a "saddle," behind the dorsal fin. (_Photos by T. Dohl (top and middle) and S. Leatherwood (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 90.--A leaping killer whale in California aquarium. Note the distinctive coloration of the species, white on the lower jaw, the belly and the anus, and on both sides above the anus. Note also the distinctive white eye patch often visible on animals at sea. (_Photo by D. K. Caldwell._)] [Illustration: Figure 91.--Killer whales have from 10 to 12 large prominent teeth, curved slightly backwards and inwards on each side of each jaw. (_Photos from Point Mugu, Calif. by S. Leatherwood._)] FALSE KILLER WHALE (T) _Pseudorca crassidens_ (Owen 1846) Other Common Names Mongoose (St. Vincent). Description False killer whales in the western North Atlantic reach a length of at least 18 feet (5.5 m). Males are slightly larger than females. Calves from 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2.1 m) may be seen at any time throughout the year. The dorsal fin, located just behind the midpoint of the back, is from 7 to 16 inches (17.8 to 40.6 cm) tall, falcate, and variable to sharply pointed on the tip. The flippers are characterized by a broad hump on the front margin near the middle, a characteristic which is diagnostic for the species. The body of the species is all black except for a blaze of gray on the belly between the flippers. This blaze varies from barely visible to light grayish white similar to but generally fainter than that of pilot whales. The body is long and slender, and the head is narrow and gently tapered from the area of the blowhole forward. Natural History Notes False killer whales are a social form and may occur in herds of up to at least 100 individuals. They often jump clear of the water and frequently ride the bow waves of vessels. They are the only "blackfish" which are known to do so. False killer whales feed primarily on squid and large fishes and are notorious for their habit of stealing fish from the lines of fishermen. The large prominent teeth may be visible on a swimming animal. May Be Confused With False killer whales may be confused with killer whales, pilot whales, or the smaller, poorly known pygmy killer whale (p. 138) and many-toothed blackfish (p. 142). The characteristics distinguishing the species from the killer whale are tabularized on p. 84; its differences from the pilot whales are summarized on p. 92. At sea, false killer whales are distinguishable from the other two species primarily by their larger size and differences in coloration. False killer whales are up to 18 feet (5.5 m) in length. Pygmy killer whales and many-toothed blackfish reach only 8-9 feet (2.4-2.7 m) in length. Pygmy killer whales have an extensive region of white on the belly which may extend onto the sides and both pygmy killer whales and many-toothed blackfish have a distinctive white region on the lips, usually lacking or indistinct on false killer whales. Neither of the smaller species of blackfish has been reported to ride bow waves. Distribution False killer whales are widely distributed in the pelagic tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate waters of the western North Atlantic. They have been reported from off Maryland south along the mainland coasts of North America, in the Gulf of Mexico from Cuba and the Lesser Antilles, and from the southeast Caribbean Sea. The species has been reported from Venezuela. Stranded Specimens Stranded false killer whales can be positively identified by: 1) the large size (to 18 feet [5.5 m]); 2) the slender body tapering rapidly to a long slender head; 3) the markedly long mouth, with from 8 to 11 large, conspicuous teeth in each side of each jaw recalling those of the killer whale, but circular and not, as in killer whales, elliptical; 4) the unusually shaped flipper bulging conspicuously on the forward margin. For comparison with "blackfish" of similar size (the pilot whales) see p. 92 and 94. False killer whales do not appear to occur frequently in coastal waters, sandy bays, or estuaries, though entire herds have stranded in such areas. Records from throughout the range suggest that the species has an oceanic distribution. [Illustration: Figure 92.--False killer whales at sea 600 miles (968.0 km) off northeastern Florida. Note the smoothly falcate dorsal fin, pointed on the tip, and located near the midpoint of the back. Dorsal fins of this species may also be rounded on the tip but all are sharply concaved on the rear margin. (_Photo by H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 93.--False killer whales are the only "blackfish" that routinely ride the bow waves of vessels. On this animal riding on the bow wave of a research ship, note the all-black coloration of the back, head, and sides and the broad "hump" near the middle of the flippers on the leading edge. (_Photo 600 miles [968 km] off northeastern Florida by H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 94.--A false killer whale stranded in northeastern Florida. Note the narrow tapering head, overhanging the lower jaw by several inches, the position and shape of the dorsal fin and the distinctive "hump" on the leading margin of the flippers. (_Photo by W. A. Huck, courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] [Illustration: Figure 95.--Entire herds of false killer whales sometimes strand themselves. In this dorsal view of an animal stranded in southeastern Florida, note the extremely distinctive "hump" on the forward margin of the flippers and the narrow head, tapering towards the tip of the snout. (_Photo by J. Krol._)] [Illustration: Figure 96.--False killer whales have from 8 to 11 large, conspicuous teeth in each side of each jaw. These teeth are often visible in swimming animals, particularly when they are engaged in their obnoxious habit of stealing fish from the lines of fishermen. The teeth are so distinctive that they can also be used to identify even a badly decomposed stranded specimen. (_Photo, courtesy of Sea Life Park, Hawaii._)] ATLANTIC PILOT WHALE (T) _Globicephala melaena_ (Traill 1809) Other Common Names Northern pilot whale, long-finned pilot whale, pothead, blackfish, calling whale, caa'ing whale. Description Male Atlantic pilot whales reach an average length of at least 20 feet (6.2 m). Females are slightly smaller, probably not exceeding 18 feet (5.5 m). Young are 5-7 feet (1.5-2.1 m) at birth. The head is thick and bulbous, a characteristic which reaches an extreme in the development of the head of adult males (prompting the common name "pothead"). The flippers are long (to one-fifth of the body length, or more) and sickle-shaped. The tail is dorsally thickened just in front of the flukes. The dorsal fin of this species is one of its most distinctive characteristics. It is low in profile, has a long base, is set far forward on the animal's back, and is falcate to "flaglike" in appearance. The dorsal fin of adult males reportedly has a thicker leading edge and a rounder form than that of the female. Atlantic pilot whales are black on the back and sides (prompting the common name "blackfish") but have an anchor-shaped patch of grayish white on the chin and a gray area on the belly, both of which are variable in extent and intensity. Some larger animals have a gray saddle behind the dorsal fin, though this zone of color is found more frequently in short-finned pilot whales. Young animals are often a lighter medium gray. Natural History Notes Atlantic pilot whales may occur in herds of 200 animals or more, though herds of 50 or fewer (4-6) are more common. They are sometimes found in association with Atlantic white-sided dolphins. Pilot whales are sometimes found hanging vertically in the water with the head and part of the back out of the water in what has been called "spy-hopping" or "pitchpoling." Individuals frequently lobtail. Pilot whales infrequently breach, a behavior which is usually confined to younger animals. They do not ride bow waves. Atlantic pilot whales feed primarily on squid but also take cod and other fishes. A Pacific pilot whale, a closely related species, was found by radio telemetric studies to be capable of diving to 2,000 feet (609.6 m). Atlantic pilot whales were formerly the object of an active shore fishery off Newfoundland (1950-1971). In addition, entire herds and, less frequently, individuals are sometimes stranded. May Be Confused With Atlantic pilot whales are most likely to be confused with false killer whales, with which they share the waters from off Virginia to those off Maryland. The two species may be distinguished by the following characteristics: ATLANTIC PILOT WHALE FALSE KILLER WHALE SHAPE OF HEAD Thick and often squarish in Slender, gently tapering larger animals. mouth long. SHAPE OF BODY Robust. Long and slender. DORSAL FIN Broad-based and falcate. Slender, tall, falcate, and pointed on tip. COLORATION Black with gray saddle Mostly black with gray blaze sometimes evident behind of variable extent and dorsal fin and gray region intensity on belly between on chin and belly. flippers. BEHAVIOR Will not ride bow waves; May ride bow waves, often seldom breaches. "porpoises" and breaches. RANGE Temperate waters from at Temperate seas from at least least North Carolina north. Maryland south. In the extreme southern portion of their range, Atlantic pilot whales may be confused with short-finned pilot whales with which they have only a limited seasonal common range. Characters distinguishing these species are subtle and may not be adequate to permit them to be distinguished at sea. For purposes of this guide it is generally that pilot whales living north of lat. 38°N (Virginia coast) are Atlantic pilot whales and those living south of lat. 38°N are short-finned pilot whales. Distribution Atlantic pilot whales, the northernmost of the two pilot whales species, are found in winter from the Grand Banks south as far as North Carolina and in summer from Iceland and Greenland south to the New Jersey coast. Winter concentrations of pilot whales may be found off the Newfoundland coast and near Cape Cod, Mass. Atlantic pilot whales are distributed both in coastal waters and in deep waters off the continental shelf. Stranded Specimens As discussed above, individuals and groups of pilot whales frequently strand themselves for still incompletely understood reasons. They may be identified as pilot whales primarily by: 1) the robust body and bulbous head, which is often squarish in adult animals, and 2) the broad-based, falcate dorsal fin located far forward on the back. Accurate determination of the pilot whale species involved in the stranding may require museum preparation of the skull and detailed examination of its characteristics. Preliminary identification may be made, however, based on the following: ATLANTIC PILOT WHALE SHORT-FINNED PILOT WHALE FLIPPER LENGTH To one-fifth body length, To one-sixth body length, or or more. less. NORMAL RANGE From North Carolina north. From North Carolina south. TEETH 8-11 per row. 7-9 per row. [Illustration: Figure 97.--A herd of Atlantic pilot whales off Massachusetts. The most distinguishing field characteristic of this species, and of their southern cousins, the short-finned pilot whales, is the highly distinctive dorsal fin, extremely long based, low in profile, and set well forward on the animals' backs. (_Photo by W. A. Watkins._)] [Illustration: Figure 98.--Atlantic pilot whales frequently "lob tail" (raise the tail flukes above the surface and slap them against the water) (top) and pitchpole or spy-hop (hang vertically in the water with the head up and the tail down) (bottom). (_Photos from the North Atlantic by H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 99.--North Atlantic pilot whales on the deck of a whaling station in Newfoundland. The anchor-shaped patch on the chin and the gray color of the belly are apparently more vivid and extensive in this species than in the short-finned pilot whales. Further, the flipper is longer, measuring one-fifth of the body length, or more, in adult animals. The flippers of short-finned pilot whales (see Fig. 102) measure one-sixth of the body length or less. (_Photo by J. G. Mead._)] SHORT-FINNED PILOT WHALE (T) _Globicephala macrorhynchus_ Gray 1846 Other Common Names Blackfish (see also p. 84, 91, and 94). Description Male short-finned pilot whales of the western North Atlantic reach lengths of at least 17.5 feet (5.3 m). Females are reportedly slightly smaller than males (recorded only to 15.5 feet [4.7 m]). The head, somewhat like that of the Atlantic pilot whales (p. 91), is thick and bulbous, a characteristic which reaches its extreme in the development of a flattened or squarish appearance to the front of the head in mature males (see Fig. 101). In very old males the melon may overhang the mouth up to several inches. The flippers are shorter than those of the other pilot whale species of the western North Atlantic (thus the common name short-finned pilot whale), reaching only one-sixth of the body length or less. The tail is dorsoventrally thickened just in front of the flukes. The dorsal fin, like that of the Atlantic pilot whale, is one of the species' most distinctive characteristics. It is low in profile, has a long base, and is set far forward on the animal's back. Short-finned pilot whales are all black on the back sides and most of the belly with an anchor-shaped patch of gray on the chin and a gray area of varying extent and intensity on the belly. These areas are less vivid and extensive than those on Atlantic pilot whales. Younger animals are lighter, often medium gray. Natural History Notes Short-finned pilot whales are known to occur in groups of 60 animals or more, though smaller groups are more common. They have been reported pitchpoling (spy-hopping), lobtailing, and--rarely--breaching. Short-finned pilot whales feed on squid and fish. May Be Confused With In the tropical portion of their range, short-finned pilot whales may be confused with pygmy killer whales (p. 138) and many-toothed blackfish (p. 142). They may be distinguished from both species primarily by their distinctive dorsal fin and the bulbous-to-squarish head. Both pygmy killer whales and many-toothed blackfish have dorsal fins, which are more falcate, slender, and pointed on the tip, and have longer, slenderer heads. Throughout their range short-finned pilot whales may be confused with false killer whales. The two species may be distinguished by the same differences which distinguish Atlantic pilot whales from false killer whales (p. 91). In the extreme northern portion of their range, short-finned pilot whales may be confused with Atlantic pilot whales. The two species may be distinguished by differences itemized on p. 93. Distribution Though short-finned pilot whales are known from Delaware Bay, their normal range appears to extend from Bermuda and Cape Hatteras (Virginia in summer) south to the Venezuelan coast. They have been reported for the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and the islands of the West Indies. Stranded Specimens Stranded short-finned pilot whales may be confused with any of the species itemized under living animals. They may be identified as pilot whales primarily by the robust body and bulbous head, often squarish in adult animals, and the broad-based, falcate dorsal fin located well forward on the animal's back. Accurate determination of the pilot whale species involved may require museum preparation of the skull and detailed examination of its characteristics. Preliminary identification may be made, however, on the basis of the following: ATLANTIC PILOT WHALE SHORT-FINNED PILOT WHALE DISTRIBUTION Primarily North Carolina Primarily North Carolina north. south. FLIPPERS To one-fifth body length, To less than one-sixth body or more. length. TEETH 8-11 per row. 7-9 per row. [Illustration: Figure 100.--Short-finned pilot whales stranded in northeastern Florida, shown here swimming in the lagoon at Marineland of Florida. This species, like their northern cousins, the Atlantic pilot whales, have a highly distinctive dorsal fin and a bulbous head (see Figs. 97, 99). In these photos note the variation in the shape of the head. Those of females and immature males are more rounded. Those of adult males are far more blunted. (_Photo courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] [Illustration: Figure 101.--Short-finned pilot whales have from 7 to 10 teeth in each side of each jaw. The bulbous forehead of the species is far less pronounced in females and immature males (left). The head of mature males is extremely "squarish" and may overhang the lower jaw by several inches (right). (_Photos from Aquatarium (left) and southeastern Florida by D. K. Caldwell (right)._)] [Illustration: Figure 102.--The flippers of short-finned pilot whales reach only about one-sixth of the body length, while those of the Atlantic pilot whale may be one-fifth the body length or more. Note the length of the flippers of the pilot whale in the background, relative to its overall length. (_Photo from South Carolina by J. G. Mead._)] GRAMPUS (T) _Grampus griseus_ (G. Cuvier 1812) Other Common Names Risso's dolphin, gray grampus, white-headed grampus, mottled grampus, Risso's porpoise, hard knocks (St. Vincent), white blackfish (Cape Cod). Description Grampus reach a maximum length of about 13 feet (4 m). The body is robust, particularly in front of the dorsal fin, and lacks a distinct beak. The head is somewhat bulbous and is marked on the front by a V-shaped crease with the point downwards, which divides the melon into two parts. The flippers are long and pointed on the tips. The dorsal fin, located at about the midpoint of the body, is tall, to 15 inches (38.1 cm) or more, and distinctly falcate. The body narrows rapidly behind the dorsal fin and the tail stock is quite narrow. The flukes are broad, concaved on the rear margin, and deeply notched. The bodies of grampus are a uniform light gray at birth. As the animals age, their color darkens to almost black with distinctive regions of grayish white on the belly and chest. The body of older adults is cream white or silver gray, particularly on the head, with numerous scars, presumably from encounters with other grampus and perhaps with the squid, which are one of the species' major food items. The flippers, dorsal fin, and tail flukes usually remain dark even in adults. Natural History Notes Grampus are found in herds of up to several hundred individuals and may be seen "porpoising" (leaping from the water) as they surface to breathe, and breaching. They sometimes ride the bow waves of a boat. Grampus feed on fish and squid. May Be Confused With From a distance grampus are most easily confused with Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins. They may be most readily distinguished by the following differences: ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED GRAMPUS DOLPHIN SIZE To 13 feet (4 m). Rarely to 12 feet (3.7 m); usually less than 10 feet (3.1 m). BODY COLOR Young are uniform light Dark gray on body; lighter gray; older animals dark gray on sides; white or pink with grayish regions on on belly; may appear brownish chest and belly; very in water. old animals white and scarred. DORSAL FIN To 15 inches (38.1 cm); To 12 inches (30.5 cm) less sharply falcate; pointed sharply falcate; pointed on on tip. tip. HEAD COLOR AND SHAPE Blunted and creased on Uniformly brownish to gray front; frequently all distinctly bottlenosed. white in larger animals. MARKINGS Very often extensively Less frequently scratched scarred. and scarred. Distribution Grampus are known to be distributed in temperate and tropical seas from at least eastern Newfoundland, south at least to St. Vincent, Lesser Antilles, and in the eastern and northern Gulf of Mexico. The species may not be as rare as the paucity of records suggests. Though they have been seen in Buzzards Bay on several occasions, grampus generally have an oceanic range and, along the Atlantic coast of North America, may be distributed from the Gulf Stream seaward, outside the theater of normal boating traffic. Stranded Specimens Stranded grampus are most readily identifiable by 1) the presence of only seven, or fewer, teeth in each side of the lower jaw (many of those teeth may have dropped out in older animals and remaining teeth may be extensively worn) and the absence of teeth in the upper jaw; 2) the presence of a distinct crease or bifurcation in the melon on the extreme front of the head; 3) the presence of numerous scratches and scars all over the body; and 4) the tall, slender, sharply falcate dorsal fin which may be more than 15 inches (38.1 cm) tall. [Illustration: Figure 103.--Grampus are frequently found in small tight groups "porpoising." From a distance they may resemble the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins, though grampus have taller dorsal fins, blunted beakless heads, and lighter coloration. (_Photo off Washington State by C. Fiscus._)] [Illustration: Figure 104.--Grampus off Fistler, Scotland (top) and from Baja California in the tank of Sea World, Inc., San Diego, Calif. (bottom). Note the tall pointed dorsal fin, which remains dark even in adult animals, the blunted head, which lacks a beak, and the extensive scarring of the body. In the photo on the right, note also the long pointed flippers and the white head characteristic of older animals. (_Photos by A. S. Clark (top) and courtesy of D. K. Caldwell (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 105.--Grampus, particularly younger animals, have two regions of grayish-white on the ventral surface, one in front of the flippers and another beginning on the belly narrowing towards the tail. These markings closely resemble the ventral marking of pilot whales. (_Photos courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] [Illustration: Figure 106.--Stranded grampus can be readily identified. On this captive animal note the blunted head, the distinct crease on the front of the head (see also Fig. 107), and the extensive scarring of the body. (_Photo courtesy of D. K. Caldwell._)] [Illustration: Figure 107.--Grampus have seven or fewer teeth in each side of the lower jaw. (None in the upper jaw.) Many of these teeth may have fallen out of older specimens, and the remaining teeth may be extensively worn. (_Photo courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] Medium-sized Whales Without a Dorsal Fin BELUGA (T) _Delphinapterus leucas_ (Pallas 1776) Other Common Names White porpoise, white whale, belukha, sea canary, marsouin blanc (Quebec). Description Belugas reach a maximum overall length of about 16 feet (4.9 m). Males are slightly larger than females. In the western North Atlantic they have been found to grow to greatest lengths in oceanic environments near the southern extremities of their ranges, though they are found in far greater abundance in estuarine areas of the Arctic. Belugas have extremely robust bodies tapering to a distinct "neck" region and a very small head relative to body size. They do not have a dorsal fin. Instead, along the back just behind the midpoint there is a narrow ridge notched laterally to form a series of small bumps. These ridges may be clearly visible on a swimming animal. Newborn belugas are brown. As they age, they gradually lighten through slate gray, and by their sixth or seventh year have assumed the all-white coloration characteristic of adult animals. Natural History Notes Belugas feed on a variety of fishes (including cod and capelin), on squid, and on a variety of benthic crustaceans. They are frequently found in shallow bays and river mouths, where the young are born, and occasionally ascend rivers. May Be Confused With Because of their limited distribution, all-white coloration and lack of a dorsal fin, belugas are unlikely to be confused with any other species of cetacean. Distribution Belugas have been reported from the Arctic Circle south as far as eastern Connecticut, typically in estuarine habitats, though they do range into oceanic regions. They are most abundant from the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence northward. They remain near the Arctic Circle and in Hudson Bay to northern Greenland during winter, undertaking migrations to the south in autumn, straggling to the Maritime Provinces and as far as Connecticut. Belugas are regularly seen in the St. Lawrence and Saguenay rivers throughout late spring and summer. Return migrations to the north take place in spring. A small population in the estuary of St. Lawrence is resident throughout the year. Stranded Specimens Stranded belugas are unlikely to be confused with any other species of cetaceans. The all-white coloration, the robust body shape with a rather small head and a distinct neck region, and the presence of 8-11 teeth in each of the upper jaws and 8-9 in each of the lower jaws permit positive identification. [Illustration: Figure 108.--A group of three belugas surfacing to breathe off northwestern Alaska. The animal to the right has just begun to exhale, the middle animal is in the midst of his inhalation, and the animal on the left has completed his blow and is preparing to dive. Note the all-white coloration and, on the center animal, the small dorsal ridge just emerging from the water. Details of the dorsal ridge are clearly visible in the inset photograph. (_Photos by G. C. Ray and K. G. Hewlett (inset)._)] [Illustration: Figure 109.--Note the robust form and the small head of this swimming beluga off northwestern Alaska. (_Photo by G. C. Ray._)] [Illustration: Figure 110.--Captive belugas at Vancouver public aquarium. Note the dorsal ridge, the shape of the head and body, and the unusually shaped flippers. (_Photo by K. C. Balcomb._)] [Illustration: Figure 111.--Ventral view of a beluga harpooned in the northeastern Canadian Eskimo Fishery. Note the very narrow tail, just in front of the flukes, and the robust form of the species. Belugas have 8-9 teeth in each of the lower jaws, and 8-11 in each of the upper jaws. (_Photo by P. F. Brodie._)] NARWHAL (T) _Monodon monoceros_ Linnaeus 1758 Other Common Names Unicorn whale (historical name not currently in use). Description The narwhal, also known as the unicorn whale because of the long tusk found on adult males, is one of two medium-sized whales found in the Arctic waters of the northwestern Atlantic. They reach a maximum length of from 15 to 16 feet (4.6 to 4.9 m) excluding the tusk. Newborn calves are approximately 5 feet (1.5 m) long. Narwhals have small rounded heads and a small mouth. Like the other medium-sized whale in the same region, the beluga or white whale, the narwhal has no dorsal fin. Instead, it has a series of bumps, approximately 2 inches (5.1 cm) high along the midline of the back in the half nearest the tail. The ridge created by these bumps may be readily seen on a swimming animal. The basic coloration of the species changes slightly with age. Young animals are uniformly dark bluish gray on the back but rapidly begin to develop the numerous leopardlike spots on the back and sides characteristic of adults. Those spots rarely extend onto the belly even in old animals. Narwhals have only two teeth. In the females, these teeth rarely emerge from the gums. In males, one and sometimes both of those teeth grow out the front of the snout, spiraling in a left-hand or sinistral direction, and may reach a length of 9 feet (2.7 m). One or two tusks may also be exposed, however, in females. Natural History Notes The function of the tusk in male narwhals is unknown, but it was this feature of the animal that earned it the name "unicorn whale" and resulted in its extensive hunting by whalers. During their annual migrations narwhals may congregate but are commonly found in groups of 10 or fewer during the rest of the year. Narwhals feed on a variety of organisms, including cod, rockfish, flounder, and crabs, but their diet consists primarily of squid. Distribution Narwhals are found in the high arctic seas of the western North Atlantic, primarily in Lancaster Sound and its fringes. It has been noted that they are found in isolated pockets within that range and are not, like the beluga, widely distributed. Narwhals make annual migrations in response to the movement of the ice. During the fall as the ice begins to form, the whales migrate to the south, sometimes reaching the Labrador coast. In the spring they return to the pack ice. May Be Confused With Narwhals are so different in coloration from the only medium-sized cetacean which shares its range and habitat--the beluga--that the two are highly unlikely to be confused. Belugas are usually all white or light slate gray in color, while narwhals are very much darker, ranging from bluish gray to brownish, and are often covered with light leopardlike spots. Furthermore, the body of the beluga is more robust. Further, swimming narwhals frequently buck their heads up to breathe, a behavior which makes the tusk of adult males visible and permits positive identification. Stranded Specimens Stranded narwhals should be easily identifiable by the distinctive coloration and the unique characteristics of the teeth. In adults, one or two of the teeth may develop into the long, left-hand spiraling tusk, shown in Figures 112 and 114. Immature animals have no teeth which are emerged. [Illustration: Figure 112.--In this photo of narwhals, the origin of the name "unicorn whale" is apparent. The animal at the right, an adult male, exposes his tusk as he surfaces aggressively to breathe. Even when this feature is not observed, however, the narwhals' mottled gray coloration makes them easy to distinguish from the all-white belugas, with which they share a common range. Note also the dorsal ridge on the animal to the left. (_Photo by D. Lusby, courtesy of the Sea Library._)] [Illustration: Figure 113.--A juvenile narwhal in a tank at New York Aquarium. Though newborn animals are dark bluish gray on the back, fading to white on the belly, note that the mottled gray coloration characteristic of adults is well developed even in relatively young animals. The white region on the head is lanolin cream, applied to protect the animal's skin during transport. (_Photo by H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 114.--A stranded male narwhal. The long unicorn tusk is the spiral extension of one of the two teeth, though the other may be exposed above the gums in males and may even develop into a second long tusk; both teeth of females are normally buried in the gums and rarely emerge. Note the highly distinctive dorsal ridge, near the midpoint of the back. (_Photos by D. Lusby, courtesy of the Sea Library._)] Small Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises With a Dorsal Fin ATLANTIC SPOTTED DOLPHIN (T) _Stenella plagiodon_ (Cope 1866) Other Common Names Spotter, Gulf Stream spotted dolphin, spotted porpoise, long-snouted dolphin.[11] [Footnote 11: See also p. 110. The common name "long-snouted dolphin" was once widely used for this species. It is now more frequently used for _Stenella longirostris_, also known as the spinner dolphin.] Description Atlantic spotted dolphins reach a maximum adult length of 7.5, perhaps 8 feet (2.3 to 2.4 m). They are generally more robust in body shape than the other species of Stenella, closely resembling Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins in that regard, though the Atlantic spotted dolphins tend to be more slender. The dorsal fin is distinctly back-curved and pointed on the tip, also closely resembling that of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin. As the common name suggests, the Atlantic spotted dolphins are marked dorsally with numerous grayish-white spots on a darker background and ventrally with dark spots on a lighter background, though the extent of the spotting and the additional details of coloration change with age. Immature animals lack spots completely. They are dark gray or purplish gray on the back, becoming lighter gray on the sides and white on the belly. The cape along the back is distinctly separated from the lighter gray coloration of the sides. The flippers and the trailing edge of the flukes are darker than the rest of the body. As they age, the Atlantic spotted dolphins develop grayish-white spots, first low on the sides, spreading upward. During this stage, the cape becomes less distinct, and dark spotting begins to develop on the belly, the spots increasing in number with increasing age. In adult animals, the belly is often extensively covered with dark blotches but never becomes completely black. The lips may be white, and the beak is characteristically tipped with white, a feature which may aid in identification at sea. The Atlantic spotted dolphins have a spinal blaze and a light line which extends from the flipper to the eye. Natural History Notes Little is known of the natural history of the Atlantic spotted dolphins. The species occurs in herds of up to several hundred individuals, though groups of 50 or fewer (6-10) are more common. They are often seen jumping clear of the water and habitually ride the bow wave of moving vessels. As they do, the distinct cape or band of purplish gray on the back of younger animals and the spotting pattern of older animals may be visible. Atlantic spotted dolphins feed primarily on squid but may also take carangid fishes, small eels, herring, or anchovies. May Be confused With Atlantic spotted dolphins, particularly young animals, may be easily confused with Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins because of the similarities in color pattern and general body shape. However, the Atlantic spotted dolphins have considerable purplish gray in their background colors and the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins are more dark gray to brownish gray. This along with considerable differences in the overall sizes of the two species should permit positive identification. In general, the key differences between spotted and bottlenosed dolphins are as follows: ATLANTIC SPOTTED ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED DOLPHIN DOLPHIN MAXIMUM SIZE To 7.5-8 feet (2.3-2.4 m). To 8-10 feet (2.4-3.1 m) inshore, to as much as 12 feet (3.7 m) offshore. BODY COLOR Dark purplish gray on back; Dark gray on back; lighter lighter gray on sides and gray on sides; white or pink belly; body becomes on belly (old animals may increasingly spotted with age. have a few spots on belly, but most are not spotted). HEAD AND BEAK Head more slender; beak Head robust; beak short; longer; lips and top of snout beak usually uniformly gray often white. (older animals' beak may be white at tip). NORMAL DISTRIBUTION Usually found more than 5 Usually more coastal, often miles offshore; most common ascending rivers and entering inside 100-fathom curve. lagoonal and estuarine areas. Young Atlantic spotted dolphins are so similar in appearance to the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins that the frequent reports of mixed schools of the two species are probably occasioned by groups of spotted dolphins which include some young, still unspotted animals. Atlantic spotted dolphins might also be confused with bridled dolphins. The two can be most readily distinguished by the following characteristics: ATLANTIC SPOTTED DOLPHIN BRIDLED DOLPHIN BODY SHAPE Usually robust, often like More slender, more like that of the Atlantic that of the Atlantic striped bottlenosed dolphin. dolphin. BODY COLOR Spotted; purplish gray on Spotted; side of head light back; lighter gray on sides gray; body has stripe from and belly becoming flipper to corner of mouth, increasingly spotted with age. though the stripe tends to As animals becomes more fade as spotting increases. spotted, cape become less Cape on top of head more distinct. Body has spinal distinct that on Atlantic blaze and light line from spotted dolphin. Body has no flipper to eye. spinal blaze. At sea the Atlantic spotted dolphins may also be confused with rough-toothed dolphins (p. 135). Distribution Atlantic spotted dolphins are a common species in the continental waters of the tropical and warm temperate western North Atlantic. Although they are far more abundant south of Cape Hatteras, they have been reported from the latitude of Cape May, N.J. (some fishermen claim to have seen them even further north) south through the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean to Venezuela. Atlantic spotted dolphins may be replaced around the West Indies by the bridled dolphin. Within this range, the Atlantic spotted dolphins appear to be generally restricted to the waters outside the 100-fathom curve, most commonly more than 5 miles offshore. However, populations in the Gulf of Mexico move inshore in the late spring, and may approach close to shore during spring and summer. Stranded Specimens Stranded Atlantic spotted dolphins may be difficult to distinguish from bridled dolphins. If the color pattern is still clearly visible, the differences in coloration described above, particularly those of the head, and the presence or absence of a spinal blaze may be used. But since external appearance other than coloration are often very similar, specimens should be photographed from as many aspects as possible and the entire specimen or the roughed-out complete skeleton transported to a museum for preparation and examination. Tooth counts recorded for the two species to date are also very similar. [Illustration: Figure 115.--Atlantic spotted dolphins beside a research vessel off Beaufort, N.C., September 1965. Adults of this species can be identified by the spotting pattern and the white coloration of the lips. (See also bridled dolphin, p. 108.) Young animals which lack spots may be confused with the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins though they are smaller and are purplish gray on the back. (_Photo by G. T. Green._)] [Illustration: Figure 116.--A side view of two female Atlantic spotted dolphins from off St. Augustine, Fla. in the tank at Marineland of Florida. Note the tall falcate dorsal fin, pointed on the tip and varying slightly in shape between the two individuals, and the spots on the body. (_Photo by S. Leatherwood._)] [Illustration: Figure 117.--A series showing the development of the color pattern of the Atlantic spotted dolphins from Florida. Newborn or young animals are dark purplish gray on the back, grading to immaculate white on the belly. As they mature, animals develop light spots, first on the lower sides, then higher on the back, and dark spots on the belly. As spotting increases, the cape becomes less distinct. (_Photos by A. Solis (a), D. K. Caldwell (b, c), and courtesy of Marineland of Florida (d, e, f)._)] [Illustration: Figure 118--Juvenile Atlantic spotted dolphins at sea in the southeastern Caribbean. Although spotters can be either relatively short-snouted and chunky or long-snouted and slightly built, the spinal blaze, flipper-to-eye stripe, white lips, and falcate dorsal fin can be used to identify them. (_Photo by D. Poppe._)] [Illustration: Figure 119.--A captive Atlantic spotted dolphin from off St. Augustine, Fla. This species has from 30 to 36 teeth in each upper jaw and from 28 to 35 in each lower jaw, fewer than all other Stenella except perhaps the bridled dolphin, fewer than the saddleback dolphins, but more than the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins. (_Photo by S. Leatherwood._)] BRIDLED DOLPHIN (T) _Stenella frontalis_ (G. Cuvier 1829) Other Common Names Bridled spotted dolphin, Cuvier's dolphin, gamin (St. Vincent), bridled porpoise. Description Bridled dolphins, the second species of spotted dolphins in the western North Atlantic, reach an adult length of at least 7 feet (2.1 m). Like the other, the Atlantic spotted dolphin (p. 104), bridled dolphins are characterized by light grayish-white spots on the dark dorsal portions of the body and dark spots on the light ventral surface. Other details of the coloration differ somewhat. Bridled dolphins are dark gray on the back, fading to lighter gray on the sides and belly. They lack the spinal blaze characteristic of Atlantic spotted dolphins. Except on the head, the border between the back and side colors is indistinct. On the head, the cape (the dark color of the top of the head) is distinct. In the light gray of the side of the head are the markings from which the species derives its common name, "bridled dolphin." These are a black circle around the eye with an extension to the junction (apex) of the rostrum and the melon (present in nearly all dolphins) and a broad black stripe from the origin of the flipper to the corner of the mouth. This mouth-to-flipper stripe tends to fade as spotting increases. Both the upper and lower lips are white or pinkish. Natural History Notes Virtually nothing is known of the natural history of bridled dolphins except that they have been observed in small herds of from 5 to 30 individuals and sometimes ride the bow wave of a vessel. May Be Confused With At sea, bridled dolphins may be confused with Atlantic spotted dolphins or spinner dolphins. Differences by which they may be distinguished from the first are tabularized on p. 105. Differences between spinner and bridled dolphins permitting identification at sea are as follows: BRIDLED DOLPHIN SPINNER DOLPHIN COLORATION Distinct cape on top of head; Dark gray on back; tan or side of head light gray; yellowish tan on sides; white distinct stripes from flippers on belly, to corner of mouth and from dark circles around eye to apex of melon. BEAK Shorter and more slender; all Extremely long and slender; black; lips white. dark gray to black on top, white below; lips black. DORSAL FIN Uniformly dark gray. Often lighter gray in middle, dark around border. Distribution Bridled dolphins occur in tropical and subtropical waters primarily near coastal areas and islands, but are best known from the West Indies. They have been reported from the Antilles, from Texas, and from Florida north to North Carolina. It has been speculated that this species replaces the Atlantic spotted dolphin around the West Indies. Bridled dolphins have not yet been described from the South American coast. Stranded Specimens Bridled dolphins have from 29 to 34 teeth in each upper jaw and from 33 to 36 in each lower jaw. They can be distinguished from spinner dolphins, which have 46-65 teeth in each jaw, by this character alone. They may be distinguished from spotted dolphins only if the color pattern of the head is clearly visible. If it has faded, the specimen will probably require museum preparation and examination before it can be positively identified. [Illustration: Figure 120.--A bridled dolphin harpooned in the commercial whale fishery off St. Vincent, Lesser Antilles. If the color pattern has faded, bridled dolphins cannot be readily distinguished from the Atlantic spotted dolphins and must be sent to a museum for preparation and examination of the skull and skeleton. (_Photo by W. A. Huck, courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] [Illustration: Figure 121.--A bridled dolphin from St. Vincent, Lesser Antilles. Note the dark cape of the back, the lighter side, and the dark stripes from the eye to the snout (found in most dolphin species) and the flipper to the gape, a feature which fades as the animal's spotting increases. Together these two features comprise the "bridle" from which the common name derives. Note also the white lips and the white lower jaw. (_Photo by J. R. Sullivan._)] SPINNER DOLPHIN (T) _Stenella longirostris_ Gray 1828 Other Common Names Long-snouted dolphin, long-beaked porpoise, spinner porpoise, rollover (St. Vincent). Description Spinner dolphins reach a maximum length of about 7 feet (2.1 m). The body is slender. The beak varies from extremely long and slender (Fig. 123) to relatively short (Fig. 125); the beak is usually dark on top and clean white below, though there may be some white above. The tip of the snout and the lips are distinctly black, while those of both species of spotted dolphins are light. The back is dark gray to black, the sides are tan to yellowish brown, and the belly is white. Some of the larger animals appear almost all black with faint, light speckling. The dorsal fin is generally moderately falcate, but may be almost triangular in adult males. It is often a lighter gray near the middle, bordered by black or dark gray. Natural History Notes Spinner dolphins derive their common name from their habit of leaping clear of the water and spinning on their longitudinal axis. The reasons for this behavior are unknown. Individuals may rotate 2 times, or more, in one leap but spinning behavior is not observed as frequently in the western North Atlantic as it is in the eastern tropical Pacific. Spinner dolphins occur in herds of up to several hundred individuals and are often seen jumping clear of the water, working the sea surface into a froth. They frequently come to the bow of a boat from considerable distances to ride in the bow wave and may ride for protracted periods. May Be Confused With Spinner dolphins may be confused with saddleback dolphins. Both species occur in large herds and often come to moving vessels to ride the bow wave. The two can be distinguished, however, by these differences: SPINNER DOLPHIN SADDLEBACK DOLPHIN COLORATION Dark gray on back; tan or Dark gray to brownish gray yellowish tan on sides; white on back; white on belly with on belly; lacks crisscross crisscross or hourglass pattern pattern on sides; distinct of tan to yellow on sides; black stripe from flipper to distinct black stripe from eye. flipper to middle of lower jaw. Spinner dolphins might also be confused with bridled dolphins, but may be distinguished by the differences summarized on p. 108. Distribution Spinner dolphins are distributed in oceanic and coastal tropical waters. Though one specimen was collected from South Carolina, they have been more frequently reported from both coasts of Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and the West Indies. They have also been reported from Venezuela. They are said to be the most abundant dolphin species from the southeastern Caribbean. Some Pacific spinner dolphins are distributed in oceanic zones. Atlantic spinners may be abundant in offshore tropical waters as well. Stranded Specimens Stranded spinner dolphins are most readily identified by the extremely long rostrum and the 46-65 teeth, far more than any other species of dolphin. Note that the striped dolphins may have from 43 to 50 teeth per side in each jaw. However, striped dolphins are decidedly larger (to about 9 feet [2.7 m]), have a shorter beak, and are distinctly marked with dark stripes from the eye to the flipper, from the eye to the anus, and from the area behind the dorsal fin forward, towards but not reaching the head. Saddleback dolphins also have from 40 to 50 teeth on each side but are also easily distinguishable by the differences in coloration discussed above for living animals at sea. [Illustration: Figure 122.--Spinner dolphins occur in large herds in tropical waters. As illustrated by these photos of animals off Venezuela in 1969, spinner dolphins often leap clear of the water and may come to a moving vessel from considerable distances away to frolic in its bow wave. (_Photo by M. Bartlett._)] [Illustration: Figure 123.--A spinner dolphin jumping close beside a research vessel off the Virgin Islands. The distinctive color pattern (gray on the back, tan on the sides, and white on the belly) is clearly visible. The black-tipped rostrum and the black lips are key characters to this species. (_Photo by C. McCann._)] [Illustration: Figure 124.--Spinner dolphins are active bow riders and may stay with a vessel for long periods of time. (_Photo from off the Virgin Islands by H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 125.--Although all spinner dolphins so far examined have the same basic characteristics, the degree of expression of those characteristics varies from individual to individual or area to area. These small short-snouted dolphins (those on bottom stranded near St. Petersburg, Fla. and maintained alive by the Aquatarium in that city, and those on top photographed at sea, off the northwestern Africa coast in 1972) are spinners, although their classification is uncertain. There may be several species or geographical races of spinners in the Atlantic. (_Photos courtesy of W. F. Perrin (top) and Aquatarium (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 126.--A spinner dolphin harpooned in the fishery at St. Vincent, Lesser Antilles. Even after subtle aspects of the color pattern have faded, this species can be readily identified by the 46-65 teeth in both upper and lower jaws and by the distinctly black lips and black-tipped rostrum. (_Photo by W. A. Huck, courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] STRIPED DOLPHIN (T) _Stenella coeruleoalba_ (Meyen 1833) Other Common Names Euphrosyne dolphin (_Stenella styx_), Meyen's dolphin, blue-white dolphin, Gray's dolphin, striped porpoise, streaker porpoise. Description The striped dolphin is a widely distributed relative of the spinner and the Atlantic spotted dolphins, though it more closely resembles saddleback dolphins than either of these two species. It reaches a maximum length of about 9 feet (2.7 m) and is characterized by a series of distinctive black stripes. One band of black begins near the eye and extends down the side of the body to the area of the anus. (A small secondary stripe originating with this band turns off and disappears in the white coloration of the side just above the flippers.) A second band of black extends from the eye to the flipper. Some workers have contended that striped dolphins are separable into distinct species depending on whether the eye-to-flipper stripe has one (_S. coeruleoalba_) or two (_S. styx_) components. Most individuals have an additional distinctive finger of black coloration which extends from the black coloration behind the dorsal fin forward towards and about halfway to the eye. It is this feature which is most distinctive in animals riding the bow or leaping clear of the water. The back is dark gray to bluish gray, the sides are lighter gray, and the belly is white. Natural History Notes Though little is known of this species, it has been reported in herds of up to several hundred individuals and apparently exhibits behaviors very similar to those of the saddleback dolphins (p. 116), frequently jumping clear of the water. Atlantic and Mediterranean animals have been reported to bow ride. May Be Confused With This species is most likely to be confused with the saddleback dolphin, which it closely resembles. The two may be distinguished by the following characteristics: STRIPED DOLPHIN SADDLEBACK DOLPHIN LENGTH To about 9 feet (2.7 m) or Seldom greater than 7.5 feet more. (2.3 m). COLORATION Back from light gray to dark Back basically black or gray to bluish gray; sides brownish; distinct white gray; belly gray or white; chest or belly patch; distinctive black lateral hourglass or crisscross stripping from 1) eye to pattern on the sides; flipper, 2) eye to anus, and 3) distinct black stripe from dark color behind dorsal fin flipper to middle of lower forward, towards but not jaw. reaching head. Distribution Striped dolphins are widely distributed in the temperate, subtropical, and tropical seas of the western North Atlantic. They have been reported from at least Halifax, Nova Scotia, south as far as Jamaica. (Additional records, purportedly from southern Greenland, involved a museum specimen. Since striped dolphins of the eastern North Atlantic are rare north of England, the species occurrence near Greenland would be highly improbable.) Individuals have recently been reported from the Gulf of Mexico. Despite this wide distribution, striped dolphins appear to prefer warmer waters and are probably normally confined to the Gulf Stream or the waters off the continental slope. Individuals appearing to the north of the range seem to have ventured northward with fingers of warm water. Stranded Specimens Stranded striped dolphins should be readily identifiable by the highly distinctive patterns of lateral striping discussed above for living animals. If the color pattern has faded, they may still be identified by their size, larger than other dolphin species of similar appearance, and the relatively large number of teeth (43-50 per side in both upper and lower jaws). Only the spinner dolphin, much smaller in body length and having a much longer beak, has more teeth (46-65 per side in each jaw). [Illustration: Figure 127.--Despite some similarities in appearance and behavior to saddleback dolphins, striped dolphins can be readily identified by the prominent dark stripes on the side of the body. These striped dolphins were photographed between the Caribbean Islands of Curacao and Bonaire in 1972. (_Photo by D. Poppe._)] [Illustration: Figure 128.--When they ride the bow, the most apparent characteristic of striped dolphins is usually the dark streak beginning in the black coloration behind the dorsal fin and extending forward towards but not reaching the head. This stripe is not always present, however, and the species may sometimes appear uniformly pale gray from a distance. (_Photo from the tropical Atlantic by H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 129.--Stranded striped dolphins. Note the distinctive black stripes 1) eye to flipper, 2) eye to anus, and 3) (on top animal) from black behind dorsal fin forward towards but not reaching the head. Some workers contend that striped dolphins are separable into two species, depending on whether the eye-to-flipper stripe has one (_Stenella coeruleoalba_) or two (_S. styx_) components. Others contend that the two belong to the same species (_S. coeruleoalba_). Striped dolphins have from 43 to 50 teeth in each upper and lower jaw. (_Photos from Japan by W. E. Schevill (top) and from Indian Rocks Beach, Fla. by W. A. Huck, courtesy of Marineland of Florida (bottom)._)] SADDLEBACK DOLPHIN (T) _Delphinus delphis_ Linnaeus 1758 Other Common Names Saddleback porpoise, common dolphin, crisscross dolphin. Description Saddleback dolphins reach a maximum overall length of about 8.5 feet (2.6 m) though most individuals are less than 7.5 feet (2.3 m) long. Males are slightly larger than females of the same age. The body shape varies slightly but usually closely resembles that of the striped dolphin (p. 113). The dorsal fin varies from nearly triangular to distinctly falcate and is pointed on the tip. It is sometimes all black and sometimes black on the borders with a lighter grayish region of varying size near the middle. The back is basically black or brownish black, but this coloration and the extent of the striping patterns that form the impression of a saddle and the degree of color distinction between the different zones are highly variable. The chest and belly are cream white to white and are the most distinctive features from a distance. Up close, the sides will be seen to be distinctly marked with an hourglass or crisscross pattern of tan or yellowish tan. This crisscross pattern is diagnostic for the species. The rostrum is intermediate in length and shape between that of the spinner and that of the striped dolphin and is often black with a white tip. Natural History Notes Saddleback dolphins are often seen in herds of a thousand or more and are often very active, many animals leaping clear of the water at any time. Like spinner dolphins, saddleback dolphins are active bow-riders and often come to the boat from considerable distances. Once on the bow they often ride for extended periods of time. Saddleback dolphins feed on squid and on a variety of fishes, including anchovies, myctophids, and hake. May Be Confused With Saddleback dolphins might easily be confused with striped dolphins and must be examined closely to be distinguished from them. Primary differences apparent in encounters at sea are as follows: SADDLEBACK DOLPHIN STRIPED DOLPHIN COLORATION Back basically black or Back from light gray to dark brownish; distinct white gray to bluish gray; sides chest or belly patch; hourglass gray; belly gray or white; or crisscross pattern on distinctive black lateral sides, some tan to yellowish striping from 1) eye to tan; distinct black stripe flipper, 2) eye to anus, and from flipper to middle of 3) dark color behind dorsal lower jaw. fin forward, towards but not reaching head. LENGTH To 7.5 feet, rarely to 8.5 feet To 9 feet (2.7 m). (2.3-2.6 m). From a distance, saddleback dolphins might also be confused with spinner dolphins because of the habits of both species of congregating in large schools with much jumping and splashing. Both species ride the bow wave, and close examination should permit positive identification using the following characteristics: SADDLEBACK DOLPHIN SPINNER DOLPHIN COLORATION Dark gray to brownish gray Dark gray on back; tan or on back; white on belly with yellowish tan on sides; white crisscross or hourglass pattern on belly; lacks crisscross of tan to yellowish tan pattern on sides; distinct on side; distinct black stripe black stripe from flipper to from flipper to middle of eye. lower jaw. Distribution Saddleback dolphins are widely distributed in the temperate, subtropical, and tropical waters of the western North Atlantic Ocean. They have been reported off Newfoundland, Iceland, Nova Scotia, and the coast of Massachusetts, south along the coast of North America to the Caribbean (West Indies and Jamaica), in the Gulf of Mexico, and from South American waters at least to Margarita Island, Venezuela. The species' occurrence in the more northerly portions of this range during the summer and early fall months appears to coincide with the intrusion of warm waters into those areas. They are not uncommon off Nova Scotia in summer and fall and are casual members of the marine mammalian fauna of the remaining Maritime Provinces during that period. In previous years, saddleback dolphins were not uncommonly encountered by collectors of Marineland of Florida working the northeast coast of Florida, but the species has been conspicuously absent since about 1960. Reasons for this apparent shift of range are unknown. Stranded Specimens Saddleback dolphins have from 40 to 50 small, sharply pointed teeth in each side of both the upper and lower jaws. These numbers overlap with only those of the striped and spinner dolphins (with 43-50 and 46-65, respectively). Saddleback dolphins should be readily distinguishable from both these species by the features outlined under the descriptions of living animals and distinguishable from the bridled dolphins by the distinctive markings on the head of the two species (see Figs. 121 and 134). [Illustration: Figure 130.--Saddleback dolphins captured off St. Augustine, Fla., shown in the tank at Marineland of Florida. The highly distinctive crisscross or hourglass pattern of tan or yellowish tan on the sides is clearly visible. Note also the light tip of the snout and the dark line from the center of the lower jaw to the flipper. This last characteristic readily distinguishes the saddleback dolphin from the striped dolphin, in which the black stripe begins at the corner of the mouth rather than near the center of the lower jaw. (_Photos courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] [Illustration: Figure 131.--Saddleback dolphins on the bow of a ship off Massachusetts in 1966. The color pattern, including the dark brownish-gray back, the crisscross pattern on the sides, and the white belly, are clearly visible. The light tip of the snout helps distinguish this species from the spinner dolphins, which have a black-tipped snout. (_Photo by E. Wheeler._)] [Illustration: Figure 132.--The distinctive crisscross pattern of the sides of the saddleback dolphins is clearly visible even when comparatively little of the animal is seen. Note the falcate dorsal fin, which often, as here, is dark on the border, lighter near the center. (_Photo by R. K. Brigham, courtesy of National Marine Fisheries Service._)] [Illustration: Figure 134.--A saddleback dolphin stranded on Westerly Beach, R.I. The origin of the common name "crisscross dolphin" is evident in the color pattern of the side. Note also the distinctive black stripe from the center of the lower jaw to the origin of the flipper. (_Photo courtesy of H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 133.--Saddleback dolphins frequently jump clear of the water and may reenter in a variety of ways: 1) smoothly, head first; 2) with a chin slap; 3) with an accompanying tail lob; or 4) on the sides or back with a splash. This habit enables them to be spotted from a considerable distance. When stressed, herds bunch tightly together, like the group in the bottom photo. (_Photos from off Virginia by J. G. Mead (top) and off San Diego, Calif. by S. Leatherwood (bottom)._)] FRASER'S DOLPHIN (T) _Lagenodelphis hosei_ Fraser 1956 Other Common Names Sarawak dolphin, Bornean dolphin, Fraser's porpoise. Description Fraser's dolphins reach an overall length of at least 8 feet (2.4 m). They are extremely short-beaked and have a pronounced dark stripe, similar to that found on the striped dolphin, extending from the rostrum to the area of the anus. They are robust in build and have rather small flippers and dorsal fin relative to body size. The dorsal fin is slender, falcate, and pointed on the tip. The body is gray on the back and white on the belly. The color of the side is dominated by the striping pattern. A cream-white band beginning high on the rostrum extends above and past the eye, continues towards the tail, and finally dissipates in the body color above the anus. Just below and parallel to this cream-white band is a black one extending from the area of the eye to the anus. A second cream-white band below and parallel to this dark strip separates the darker gray coloration of the side from the white coloration of the belly. The flippers are dark above and below. Natural History Notes The little that is known of the natural history and behavior of the species may be summarized as follows: Fraser's dolphins occur in groups of up to at least 500 animals and in the Pacific are occasionally seen with spotted dolphins (_Stenella attenuata_). From all accounts, they are not uncommon in certain areas of the tropical Pacific and off South Africa. Fraser's dolphins appear to be deep divers. They are aggressive swimmers and, when they surface to breathe, often charge to the surface, creating a spray from their heads. They have also been reported leaping clear of the water. May Be Confused With Fraser's dolphin is intermediate in form between _Lagenorhynchus_ and _Delphinus delphis_ (thus the composite name _Lagenodelphis_). Because the species is apparently limited to tropical waters, however, and because of the prominent stripe on the side of the body, Fraser's dolphins are more likely to be confused with the striped dolphins (p. 113). The two species can be distinguished at sea by several characteristics: FRASER'S DOLPHIN STRIPED DOLPHIN COLORATION Single broad black stripe Color dominated by series of from beak and eye back to stripes from: 1) eye to anus; area of anus. 2) eye to flipper, and 3) black behind dorsal fin forward, towards but not reaching the head. BEAK Extremely short and indistinct. Longer, much more distinctive. BODY SHAPE Robust, particularly in front Slenderer. of dorsal fin. FLIPPERS Small, dark in color, and Longer, sometimes lighter originating in light color of on upper surface; note stripe sides. from front of flippers to eye. DORSAL FIN Small, slender, slightly Taller dorsal fin, broader at falcate, and pointed on top. base. Distribution Although Fraser's dolphins have yet to be described for the western North Atlantic Ocean, they are included here as "possibles" because of the recent discovery that their range is far more extensive than previously known. Records to date have been limited to offshore tropical waters. The species was first described in 1956 from the remains of a beach-washed specimen from Sarawak in the South China Sea. Since that time specimens have been collected from the eastern tropical Pacific, and others have stranded in such widely divergent localities as Australia, South Africa, and Japan. Recent summaries have added sighting records from the Central Pacific, near the Phoenix Island, from northwest of the Galapagos Islands, and from South African waters. Stranded Specimens Stranded Fraser's dolphins should be readily identifiable by 1) distinctive coloration of the body; 2) short, indistinctive beak; and 3) robust form. The only other species of small dolphins with beaks of similar length and general appearance are the Atlantic white-sided and white-beaked dolphins (p. 123 and 126); these dolphins, both with far more northerly ranges, have 30-40 and 22-28 teeth in each side of each jaw, respectively, while Fraser's dolphins have from 40 to 44 teeth in the upper jaw and from 39 to 44 in the lower jaw. [Illustration: Figure 135.--Fraser's dolphins, like these photographed off the Phoenix Islands in the Pacific (top) and this one off the Philippines (bottom), are definitely identifiable in their tropical range by the short snout, the dark flank stripe and the small dorsal fin and flippers. They may reach 8 feet (2.4 m), or more, in length and occur in herds of at least 500 animals, sometimes with spinner dolphins or Atlantic spotted dolphins. (_Photos by K. C. Balcomb (top) and T. Hammond (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 136.--Fraser's dolphins from the eastern tropical Pacific: adult (top and inset) and calf (bottom). Note the distinctive black lateral strip and the extremely small flippers and dorsal fin. (_Photos by R. Garvie (top and inset) and S. Leatherwood (bottom)._)] [Illustration] ATLANTIC WHITE-SIDED DOLPHIN (T) _Lagenorhynchus acutus_ (Gray 1828) Other Common Names Atlantic white-sided porpoise, jumper (Newfoundland). Description Atlantic white-sided dolphins reach about 9 feet (2.7 m) in maximum length and are robust in form with a small but distinct beak (less than 2 inches [5.1 cm] long). The dorsal fin is tall, distinctly back curved, and pointed on the tip. The tail stock is extremely thick and does not narrow laterally until very near the tail flukes. The back is distinctly black, the belly white. The sides have zones of gray, tan, and white. The single most distinctive feature of Atlantic white-sided dolphins is an elongated oval zone of white and yellowish white along the sides from just below the dorsal fin to the area above the anus. These patches of lighter coloration, clearly demarcated from each other and from the surrounding coloration, are frequently visible simultaneously with the dorsal fin as the animals roll at the surface to breathe. Even alone this feature permits positive identification of the species. The dorsal fin is often part gray, part black. The beak is all black. Natural History Notes Atlantic white-sided dolphins are known to congregate in herds of perhaps a thousand animals, though smaller herds are far more common. The species is often wary of ships and does not ordinarily ride the bow wave. Like a number of other species, white-sided dolphins have been reported in association with Atlantic pilot whales. May Be Confused With At sea, Atlantic white-sided dolphins are most likely to be confused with the white-beaked dolphins, with which they overlap in distribution. Though they are very similar in general appearance, the two can be distinguished in the following ways: ATLANTIC WHITE-SIDED DOLPHIN WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN COLORATION Elongated band of yellowish Two grayish areas--one in white and white along side, front, the other below and visible behind and below behind dorsal fin, visible as dorsal fin as animal rolls. animal rolls. BEAK All black. Sometimes white in parts of range though western Atlantic animals are usually dark. MAXIMUM SIZE To 9 feet (2.7 m). To 10 feet (3.1 m). DORSAL FIN Often part black, part lighter Uniformly dark. gray. Distribution Atlantic white-sided dolphins are distributed, primarily offshore, in the cool waters between the Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current. They have been observed from Hudson Canyon, off New York City, north to southern Greenland and perhaps Davis Straits. Their normal range shares a southern boundary with the white-beaked dolphin but does not extend as far to the north. Stranded Specimens In addition to the features described above for living animals at sea, stranded Atlantic white-sided dolphins can be distinguished from white-beaked dolphins by the following: ATLANTIC WHITE-SIDED DOLPHIN WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN NUMBER OF TEETH 30-40 per side per jaw, 22-28 per side per jaw; have sometimes more in upper. larger individual teeth--to 6 mm in diameter. FLIPPERS Lower portion of forward Lower portion of forward margin more curved. margin less acutely curved. VENTRAL COLOR White coloration of belly White coloration of belly extends high onto sides of extends to lower jaw but not body. above flippers on sides. CAUDAL CRESTS Tail stock strongly compressed Tail stock less laterally laterally; taller, narrows compressed, tapers more rapidly just in front of flukes. gently towards tail flukes. [Illustration: Figure 138.--An Atlantic white-sided dolphin off the eastern Canadian coast. These animals do not usually ride the bow wave, but when they can be examined at close range, they can be readily distinguished from their more northerly cousins, the white-beaked dolphins, by their highly distinctive color pattern. (_Photo by P. B. Beamish._)] [Illustration: Figure 137.--Atlantic white-sided dolphins at sea between Cape Cod, Mass. and Nova Scotia. This species can be positively identified by the elongated zone of white and the adjacent region of tan or yellowish tan below and behind the dorsal fin, visible even in the fast-swimming animal in the bottom picture. The top photo illustrates the origin of the Newfoundland common name "jumper." (_Photos by K. C. Balcomb (top) and H. E. Winn (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 139.--The highly distinctive pattern of the Atlantic white-sided dolphins is clearly visible in this animal stranded in Scotland. Even if the color pattern has faded, however, this species should be easy to identify. The 30-40 teeth in each of the upper and lower jaws permit distinction from the white-beaked dolphins, which have only about 22-28 per side in each jaw. (_Photos by B. Tullock, courtesy of A. S. Clarke._)] WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN (T) _Lagenorhynchus albirostris_ Gray 1846 Other Common Names White-beaked porpoise, squidhound (Newfoundland). Description White-beaked dolphins reach a maximum overall length of about 10 feet (3.1 m). The body is robust in form with a tall, uniformly dark-gray dorsal fin, and a short but distinct beak which, as the common name implies, is often light gray to white above and below, at least in European waters. The beak of animals in the western Atlantic populations is less frequently white. The back and sides are basically dark gray to black, and the belly is white to light gray. Swimming white-beaked dolphins can be most readily identified by the two areas of pale coloration on the sides, one in front of and another below and behind the dorsal fin. These areas are clearly visible from a ship or aircraft as the animals roll at the surface. Natural History Notes White-beaked dolphins may sometimes occur in herds of up to 1,500 individuals. Like their cousins, the Atlantic white-sided dolphins, they do not commonly ride the bow waves of vessels. White-beaked dolphins feed on squid, octopus, cod, herring, capelin, and sometimes on benthic crustaceans. May Be Confused With In their northerly range white-beaked dolphins are likely to be confused with only the Atlantic white-sided dolphins. The most distinctive features of white-beaked dolphins are 1) the two areas of paleness described above, 2) the prominent, dark gray dorsal fin, and sometimes 3) the white beak. Other features by which the two species may be distinguished in the brief encounters typical at sea are tabularized on p. 127. Distribution White-beaked dolphins are the more northerly of the two species of _Lagenorhynchus_ in the western North Atlantic. They are found from Cape Cod, Mass., north to western and southern Greenland and Davis Straits, though they are apparently far more numerous to the north of this range. They appear in Davis Straits in spring and summer and leave that area in autumn, sometimes as late as November, to move southward. They winter as far south as Cape Cod, where they are the common dolphin species in April, May, and June (sometimes to July). Their migrations are poorly known. Stranded Specimens Stranded white-beaked dolphins can be most readily distinguished from white-sided dolphins by the substantial differences in coloration and the differences in numbers of teeth. ATLANTIC WHITE-SIDED WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN DOLPHIN TEETH 22-28 per side per jaw. 30-40 per side per jaw, sometimes more in upper jaw. COLORATION Beak sometimes gray or Beak all black; side marked white above and below; two with elongated areas of pale areas visible on living white with streaking patterns animals not visible on stranded of yellow and tan. specimens. Additional characteristics by which the two species may be distinguished are summarized on p. 123. [Illustration: Figure 140.--Two views of white-beaked dolphins off Newfoundland. This species is characterized by a prominent uniform dark gray dorsal fin and two areas of paleness on the sides, one in front of and one below and behind the dorsal fin. White-beaked dolphins are distributed from Newfoundland north, extending to more northerly waters than Atlantic white-sided dolphins. (_Photos by H. E. Winn (bottom) and W. A. Watkins (top)._)] [Illustration: Figure 141.--White-beaked dolphins reach nearly 10 feet (3.1 m) in length. Stranded animals, such as this specimen from Scotland, should be distinguishable from Atlantic white-sided dolphins by their differences in coloration. This species sometimes has a white beak and always lacks the elongated white patch and tan or yellow streaking found on the side of Atlantic white-sided dolphins. (_Photos by A. S. Clarke._)] ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED DOLPHIN (T) _Tursiops truncatus_ (Montague 1821) Other Common Names Bottlenosed porpoise, gray porpoise, common porpoise.[12] [Footnote 12: See also p. 150 for use of this common name for another species, the harbor porpoise.] Description Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins reach a maximum overall length of about 12 feet (3.7 m) and weigh in excess of 1,430 pounds (650 kg). They have relatively stubby snouts and dorsal fins, which are broad at the base, tall, and falcate. Coloration varies slightly, but individuals are usually dark gray on the back, lighter gray on the side, grading to white or pink on the belly. Old females may have spots on the belly. The dark coloration of the back often appears as a highly distinct cape, particularly on the head. Natural History Notes Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins often occur in groups of up to several hundred individuals which usually consist of aggregations of small groups of no more than a dozen animals each. They frequently associate with the Atlantic pilot whales and are frequently found accompanying the right and humpback whales travelling along the Atlantic coast of Florida. Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins have catholic tastes, feeding on shrimp, eels, catfish, menhadden mullet, and miscellaneous trash fish, to mention only a few. They are frequently found near shrimp boats, feeding on fish stirred up by the trawls or on discarded trash fish. They sometimes move in to ride the bow wave of a vessel, turning on their sides, sometimes spinning completely around on their longitudinal axis when doing so. Individuals may also turn their heads downward or to the side. They are often found close to shore, in bays and lagoons, and sometimes venture up the larger rivers. Some individuals, especially the larger animals, are found as far offshore as the edge of the continental shelf. Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins sometimes ride the surf. Individuals may jump clear of the water as high as 15-20 feet (4.6-6.1 m), a behavior on which aquarium shows have capitalized. Members of this species are the dolphins most commonly maintained in captivity at zoos, aquariums, marine parks, and research institutions. For that reason, they are perhaps more familiar to the general public than any other species of porpoise, dolphin, or whale. May Be Confused With From at least Cape Hatteras southward, the range of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins distributed in inshore areas may overlap with that of Atlantic spotted dolphins, particularly during the spring and summer, when the Atlantic spotted dolphins move inshore. There the two species may be confused. The Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins and the Atlantic spotted dolphins can be distinguished, however, by the following characteristics: ATLANTIC ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED DOLPHIN SPOTTED DOLPHIN MAXIMUM SIZE 8 feet to as much as 12 feet 7.5-8 feet (2.3-2.4 m). (2.4 to 3.7 m). COLORATION Not spotted (old females may Dark purplish gray on back; have spots on belly); dark lighter gray on sides and gray on back; light gray on belly; body becomes increasingly sides; white or pink on belly. spotted with age. HEAD AND BEAK Head robust; beak relatively Head more slender; beak short. longer. Some Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins are distributed well offshore as far as the edge of the continental shelf. Those individuals may be confused with either rough-toothed dolphins (p. 135) or with grampus (p. 96). They may be distinguished from rough-toothed dolphins by the following: ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED DOLPHIN ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN BODY COLOR Dark gray on back; light Dark gray, almost purplish gray on side; white or pink on with yellow spots; lighter on belly. belly. SNOUT Relatively short and stubby, Long and slender; not and clearly demarcated from clearly demarcated from forehead; usually all gray; forehead; lower jaw and lips some older individuals have speckled white. white-tipped snouts and/or white lips. Distinguishing differences between the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins in offshore areas and grampus are tabularized on p. 96. In northeastern South America the range of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin apparently overlaps with that of the Guiana dolphin, which, except for size, it closely resembles (see p. 132). Distribution The Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins are widely distributed in the temperate and tropical waters of the western North Atlantic. They are known from at least Nova Scotia but are best known from New England southward to Florida, westward in the Gulf of Mexico, and thence throughout the West Indies and Caribbean to Venezuela. In the northern portion of that range, Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins are distributed offshore. In the southern portions of their range from at least North Carolina southward, the majority are found nearshore and often enter bays and lagoons, and sometimes venture up the larger rivers. Daily migrations in these areas may follow tidal flow. In these same southerly areas some Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins are distributed as far offshore as the edge of the continental shelf. Stranded Specimens Within their range, stranded Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins should be readily identifiable by 1) the robust body, 2) relatively short beak, and 3) the 20-26 teeth in each upper jaw and 18-24 in each lower jaw. [Illustration: Figure 142.--Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins leaping on the bow of a research vessel between Cape Cod, Mass. and Nova Scotia. Note the robust body, the falcate dorsal fin, and the gradation of color in three zones--dark gray on the back, to lighter gray on the sides, to white or pink on the belly. (_Photo by A. Taruski._)] [Illustration: Figure 143.--A side view of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins off St. Augustine, Fla. Note the dark grayish coloration of the back, the lighter coloration of the side, and the tall, sharply angled dorsal fin, pointed on the tip. Though dorsal fin shapes are highly variable, dorsal fins of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin are usually more falcate and less pointed on the tip than on these animals. (_Photo courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] [Illustration: Figure 144.--Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins frequently ride the bow wave, often turning on their sides as they do so. Note the distinctive color zones, the characteristic shape of the head and beak, and the smooth lines of the flippers. (_Photo by L. Rigley._)] [Illustration: Figure 145.--An Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin taken at Isla La Blanquilla, off Venezuela. Because they inhabit shallow waters, Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins are infrequent victims of strandings. (_Photo courtesy of F. Cervigon._)] [Illustration: Figure 146.--Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins have from 20 to 26 teeth in each side of the upper jaw and from 18 to 24 in each side of the lower jaw. These teeth, sharply pointed in younger animals, may wear substantially as the animal ages. (_Photo courtesy of Wometco Miami Seaquarium._)] GUIANA DOLPHIN (T) _Sotalia guianensis_ (P.-J. van Beneden 1864) Other Common Names None known. Description Guiana dolphins are the second smallest cetacean species in the western North Atlantic, reaching a maximum length of only about 5.6 feet (1.7 m). Their body shape is very similar to that of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin, though the beak is less clearly demarcated from the forehead. The rather prominent dorsal fin is nearly triangular, curving only slightly backwards near the tip. Guiana dolphins are steel blue to dark brown on the back and white on the belly. There is sometimes a brownish band extending from the dark color of the back in front of the dorsal fin back towards but not reaching the anus. Natural History Notes Guiana dolphins are usually found in groups of fewer than 10 individuals. May Be Confused With Because of their limited range and specialized habitats, Guiana dolphins are unlikely to be confused with any other cetacean species except perhaps Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins (p. 128). These two species can be distinguished by the following characteristics: GUIANA DOLPHINS ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED DOLPHINS SIZE To only 5.6 feet (1.7 m). 8 to as much as 12 feet (2.4 to 3.7 m). DORSAL FIN More nearly triangular; curved Broad-based, tall, and only slightly backwards falcate. near tip. DISTRIBUTION Found in rivers and estuaries, Sometimes found nearshore extend into only very and in bays, river mouths, shallow nearshore waters on and estuaries, but extend limited area of South American farther offshore. coast. Distribution Guiana dolphins are found in Lake Maracaibo, in the rivers of Guyana, and in the nearshore coastal waters of the northeastern portion of the Guianas. Stranded Specimens In their very limited range, stranded Guiana dolphins can be readily identified by their extremely small size (to 5.6 feet [1.7 m]) and nearly triangular dorsal fin. Furthermore, in addition to the characteristics listed above distinguishing living Guiana dolphins from Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins, the species can be distinguished by differences in the numbers of teeth: ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED GUIANA DOLPHINS DOLPHINS TEETH 20-26 in each upper jaw; 26-35 in each jaw; often 18-26 in each lower jaw. ragged in arrangement. [Illustration: Figure 147.--A Guiana dolphin from Kartabo, British Guiana. In the coastal portion of its range along the northeastern South American coast, this species is most likely to be confused with the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin. Guiana dolphins are much smaller, rarely exceeding 5.6 feet (1.7 m), have a more triangular dorsal fin, and tend to be found more frequently in estuaries and rivers. (_Photo by A. B. Van Beneden from Zoologica VII(4), by permission of the New York Zoological Society._)] [Illustration] [Illustration: Figure 148.--Guiana dolphins harpooned in Kartabo, British Guiana. Guiana dolphins have from 26 to 35 teeth in each jaw. Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins, which are larger but somewhat similar in appearance, have from 20 to 26 teeth in each upper jaw and from 18 to 26 in each lower jaw. (_Photo by A. B. Van Beneden from Zoologica VII (4), by permission of the New York Zoological Society._)] ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN (T) _Steno bredanensis_ (G. Cuvier in Lesson 1828) Other Common Names Rough-toothed porpoise, goggle-eyed porpoise. Description Rough-toothed dolphins reach a length of at least 8 feet (2.4 m). The coloration of the rough-toothed dolphins is quite variable. Individuals are often dark gray to dark purplish gray on the back with pinkish-white blotches on the sides and belly. The flippers and flukes are dark and the belly is white. Individuals are frequently scarred with numerous white streaks. The most distinctive characteristic of the rough-toothed dolphin is its beak, which is quite long and slender, may be white or pinkish white along both sides, including one or both lips and the tip of the snout, and is not separated from the forehead by the transverse groove present in other long-snouted dolphins. Because the forehead and the sides of the head slope smoothly into the rostrum, when this animal is seen from above or from the side, its entire head appears very long and nearly conical. Natural History Notes Rough-toothed dolphins occur in small groups of 50 animals or fewer and are usually found off the edge of the continental slope. They may ride the bow waves. May Be Confused With In their offshore habitat, rough-toothed dolphins are most likely to be confused with Atlantic spotted dolphins (p. 104) and with Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins (p. 128). They may be distinguished from Atlantic spotted dolphins by the following: ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN ATLANTIC SPOTTED DOLPHIN SNOUTS Long and slender; not clearly Moderate in length and demarcated from forehead. clearly demarcated from forehead. They may be distinguished from Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins by the characteristics tabularized on p. 128. Even at a distance the blotched coloration of the side and the white coloration of the rostrum of rough-toothed dolphins may be visible. If closer examination is possible, the distinctive shape and coloration of the beak make positive identification easy. Distribution Though records of rough-toothed dolphins from the western North Atlantic are scant, the species is assumed to be widely distributed in deep tropical to warm temperate waters. It has been reported from Virginia, Georgia, Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, the West Indies, and off the northeastern coast of South America. Stranded Specimens In addition to the characteristics listed above for distinguishing living animals, stranded rough-toothed dolphins can be readily identified by the fact that the 20-27 fairly large teeth per jaw per side have a series of fine vertical wrinkles on the crown, a characteristic from which the species derives its common name. (These wrinkles are often difficult to detect.) [Illustration: Figure 149.--Captive rough-toothed dolphins in Japan. Note the distinctive, smoothly tapering head and the white coloration of the sides and front of the snout. Rough-toothed dolphins are probably widely distributed in the offshore waters of the tropics. The streamers on the backs of the animals are marker tags (see Appendix A.) (_Photo courtesy of Japanese Whales Research Institute._)] [Illustration: Figure 150.--Closeups of the highly distinctive head of a rough-toothed dolphin showing the white lips and the lack of a clear demarcation between the snout and the forehead. This species has from 20 to 27 fairly large teeth in each side of both the upper and lower jaws. (_Photos at Sea Life Park, Hawaii, by K. C. Balcomb (top) and S. Leatherwood (bottom)._)] [Illustration: Figure 151.--A rough-toothed dolphin stranded near New Smyrna Beach, Fla. This species has from 20 to 27 fairly large teeth in each side of both the upper and lower jaws. Those teeth are sometimes marked by many fine vertical wrinkles along the crown, a characteristic from which the species derives its common name. (_Photos by D. K. Caldwell._)] PYGMY KILLER WHALE (T) _Feresa attenuata_ Gray 1874 Other Common Names Slender blackfish, slender pilot whale. Description Pygmy killer whales reach a length of about 8-9 feet (2.4-2.7 m). They are usually relatively slender-bodied with a rounded head, an underslung jaw, and no beak. The falcate dorsal fin, located about the center of the back, is usually between 8 and 12 inches (20.3 and 30.1 cm) tall (though it may reach 15 inches [38 cm] in some individuals), is sometimes very distinctive, and resembles that of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin. The flippers are slightly rounded on the tips. The color has been described as dark gray or black on the back, often lighter on the sides, extending higher in front of the dorsal fin and with a small zone of white on the underside, often a lighter gray area on the sides, and distinctive white regions around the lips. The chin may be completely white. This white zone on the chin, described as a "goatee," is often clearly visible in swimming animals. May Be Confused With The pygmy killer whale resembles the false killer whale but is much smaller and can be distinguished at close range by the zones of white coloration. False killer whales are almost all black and reach a length of up to at least 18 feet (5.5 m). Pygmy killer whales are dark gray on the back, often lighter on the sides, and show a region of white on the belly which may extend so high up onto the sides that it is visible on a swimming animal. Further, they reach only 8-9 feet (2.4-2.7 m). Pygmy killer whales may also be confused with the similarly sized and colored many-toothed blackfish. So little is known of the two species' appearance and behavior at sea that it is doubtful that they can be successfully distinguished, though many-toothed blackfish apparently lack the white region often seen on the sides of pygmy killer whales. Further, pygmy killer whales have rounded flippers and smoothly tapered heads, while those of the many-toothed blackfish are pointed on the tip and more sharply pointed (often described as a parrot beak). Distribution Pygmy killer whales are probably distributed in the tropical and subtropical waters of the western North Atlantic. They have been reported from Texas, the Atlantic coast of Florida, and St. Vincent Island, Lesser Antilles. Records of the species from the other oceans of the world suggest that its distribution is limited to tropical and subtropical waters. Stranded Specimens Stranded pygmy killer whales can be clearly distinguished from both the false killer whale and the many-toothed blackfish. In addition to the differences discussed above, the following are key differences between the pygmy and false killer whales: PYGMY KILLER WHALE FALSE KILLER WHALE TEETH 10-13 in each side of upper 8-11 per jaw per side, and lower jaws; lower teeth prominent. smaller. VENTRAL COLORATION White from anus to under tail Dark from anus to tail stock; stock, white may extend up lighter pale gray area forward sides. between flippers. FLIPPERS Smoothly rounded. Characteristic hump on forward margin. Pygmy killer whales can be distinguished from many-toothed blackfish on the basis of the second species' larger number of teeth. (Many-toothed blackfish have from 22 to 25 teeth in the upper jaw and from 21 to 24 in the lower jaw.) [Illustration: Figure 152.--Pygmy killer whales at sea northwest of Hawaii (top) off the island of Oahu, Hawaii (middle), and from southeastern Florida in the tank at the Wometco Miami Seaquarium (bottom). When swimming rapidly, pygmy killer whales may closely resemble the much larger false killer whales. In addition to their much smaller size, rarely exceeding 9 feet (2.7 m), however, pygmy killer whales can be distinguished by their more rounded head, the white coloration of the lips and chin, and the white zone on the belly, sometimes extending up the sides. (_Photos by S. Ohsumi (top); J. Naughton, National Marine Fisheries Service and courtesy of E. Shallenberger, Sea Life Park (middle); and courtesy of Wometco Miami Seaquarium (bottom)._)] [Illustration] [Illustration: Figure 153.--Pygmy killer whales 5 miles off Kaena Point, Oahu, Hawaii. These individuals were dark on the back with varying degrees of lighter coloration on the sides, extending high onto the sides in front of the dorsal fin. Many had a white "goatee" on the chin and lower jaw. The prominent dorsal fin is characteristic. (_Photos by E. Shallenberger, courtesy of Sea Life Park, Hawaii._)] [Illustration: Figure 154.--Side and belly views of a pygmy killer whale from South Africa. Note the slight white coloration of the lips, the white region on the ventral surface (extending up onto the sides just below the dorsal fin), and the falcate sharply pointed dorsal fin. Note also the flippers, which lack the hump on the forward margin characteristic of false killer whales. (_Photos courtesy of P. B. Best._)] [Illustration: Figure 155.--Pygmy killer whales have from 8 to 11 teeth in each side of the upper jaw and from 11 to 13 in each side of the lower jaw. Many specimens reportedly have one fewer on the right than on the left side. The teeth are smaller than those of the false killer whale and far less numerous than those of the more closely sized many-toothed blackfish. Note also the white lips. (_Photo courtesy of P. B. Best_)] MANY-TOOTHED BLACKFISH (T) _Peponocephala electra_ (Gray 1846) Other Common Names Hawaiian blackfish, melon-headed whale. Description Many-toothed blackfish reach lengths of at least 9 feet (2.7 m) and are similar in body shape to the larger false killer whale and the similar-sized pygmy killer whale. The body is elongated and slim with a rather slim tail stock. In general, the head is shaped like that of the false killer whale but has a sharper appearance to the snout, sometimes described as a parrot-beak. The forehead is rounded, slightly overhanging the lower jaw, and has no beak. The dorsal fin is up to 10 inches (25.4 cm). It is probably very distinctive as the animals surface to breathe. Many-toothed blackfish are black on the back and slightly lighter on the belly. The areas around the anus and genitals and the lips are unpigmented. Many-toothed blackfish are presumably rare. May Be Confused With Many-toothed blackfish may be confused with either the false killer whale or the pygmy killer whale. They are considerably smaller than the false killer whale, have a slightly more pointed snout, and lack the prominent humplike forward margin on the flippers which is characteristic of the false killer whale. They are approximately the same size as pygmy killer whales, but the white area around the genitals which extends up onto the side in pygmy killer whales may be lacking in many-toothed blackfish. This species has pointed flippers, while those of pygmy killer whales are rounded on the tips. Many-toothed blackfish also have a slightly more pointed snout. Otherwise, the two species are virtually indistinguishable in encounters at sea. Distribution Although many-toothed blackfish have not yet been reported in the western North Atlantic, they are included in this guide because of a record from the eastern tropical North Atlantic and the known tropical distribution in other areas. Stranded Specimens Stranded many-toothed blackfish can be distinguished from false killer and pygmy killer whales by the number of teeth alone. Many-toothed blackfish have more than 15 per side per jaw (usually 21-25); both other species have less than 15. [Illustration: Figure 156.--A live many-toothed blackfish in a holding pen in the Philippines. At sea these animals will be virtually impossible to distinguish from pygmy killer whales. (_Photos by T. Hammond._)] [Illustration: Figure 157.--A many-toothed blackfish stranded in Hawaii. This species is smaller than the false killer whale and can be positively identified by the number of teeth, larger than any other blackfish. Many-toothed blackfish have from 21 to 25 teeth per side in both the upper and lower jaws. Other blackfish species have fewer than 15; otherwise, with the exception of differences in flipper shape (those of this species are pointed while those of pygmy killer whales are rounded on the tip), coloration and body shape of the two species are similar. (_Photo courtesy of T. Dohl._)] PYGMY SPERM WHALE (T) _Kogia breviceps_ (Blainville 1838) Other Common Names None known. Description Pygmy sperm whales reach a length of at least 11 feet (3.4 m). They are characterized by 1) an extremely robust body that rapidly tapers near the tail, 2) a squarish head, and 3) a narrow, underslung lower jaw which is located well behind the tip of the snout. Along the side of the head, in approximately the same position where gill slits would be located on a fish of comparable size, there is a crescent-shaped bracket mark, often called a false gill. The flippers, which are smoothly curved on the forward margin and may reach a length of 18 inches (45.7 cm) or more on an adult specimen, are located well forward on the body, just below and behind the bracket mark. The dorsal fin is very small, falcate, and located in the latter half of the back. Though coloration can be described only from stranded specimens and a few encounters with living animals, pygmy sperm whales appear to be dark steel gray on the back, shading to a lighter gray on the sides, and gradually fading to a dull white on the belly. The outer surface of the flippers and the upper surface of the tail flukes are also steel gray. Natural History Notes From the few accounts, the following may be summarized about the behavior of pygmy sperm whales at sea: They reportedly usually rise slowly to the surface to breathe, produce a blow that is inconspicuous, and do not normally roll aggressively at the surface like most other species of small whales. They reportedly fold their flippers flat against their bodies when swimming. They have been reported to lie motionless in the water with the back of the head on the surface and the tail hanging loosely down in the water. (A similar behavior in sperm whales has made them a minor hazard to shipping, since it has resulted in some collisions with ships.) When they are startled in this posture, they may defecate, issuing a cloud of reddish brown to rust-colored fece. Beached pygmy sperm whales have also been observed to defecate a fine chocolate feces. Pygmy sperm whales apparently feed primarily on squid, but do take fish as well. May Be Confused With In general, when they can be examined at close range, pygmy sperm whales are so distinctive that they are unlikely to be confused with any other species except perhaps the dwarf sperm whales. At a distance, they might be confused with small individuals of any of the beaked-whale species (p. 78) that also have a relatively small, falcate dorsal fin located in the latter third of the back. Closer examination should permit easy separation, however, since the pygmy sperm whale has a blunted head, while the beaked whales, as the name implies, have elongated "dolphinlike" beaks and are considerably larger. At sea, pygmy sperm whales are most likely to be confused with their cousins the dwarf sperm whales (p. 148 and Fig. 160). The two species can be distinguished as follows: PYGMY SPERM WHALE DWARF SPERM WHALE MAXIMUM SIZE To 11 feet (3.4 m). To 9 feet (2.7 m). DORSAL FIN Small to 8 inches (20.3 cm), Taller, more like that of falcate; located in latter third bottlenosed dolphins; located of back. near the midpoint of the back. COLORATION Both species are dark steel gray on the back, grading to lighter on the belly. Distribution Because they have been rarely observed at sea, normal ranges for this species are not known. Based on stranding records, however, the following can be stated. In the western North Atlantic, pygmy sperm whales have been found as far north as Sable Island, Halifax, Nova Scotia, as far south as Cuba, and as far west as Texas in the Gulf of Mexico. They are frequently found stranded along the Atlantic coast of Florida and throughout the eastern and northern Gulf of Mexico. Stranded Specimens Because of the distinctive characters of the genus, stranded pygmy and dwarf sperm whales are unlikely to be confused with any other species of cetacean, though the rather narrow underslung jaw and the blunted head may result in their casual dismissal by some beach walkers as stranded sharks. The two species of Kogia may be distinguished by the following: PYGMY SPERM WHALE DWARF SPERM WHALE TEETH 12-16 (rarely 10-11) in lower 8-11 (rarely 13) small and jaw are larger; no teeth in extremely sharp teeth in upper. lower jaw; sometimes have up to 3 teeth in each upper jaw. THROAT No creases or grooves on Several short irregular creases throat. or grooves on throat. [Illustration: Figure 158.--In this rare photograph of a pygmy sperm whale at sea in the Pacific, the animal was startled by the approaching vessel, circled quickly, and then dived out of sight. The trail of material visible in the water in front of and to the right of the animal is feces, reddish brown to rust in color. Startled whales and porpoises often defecate in this manner. (_Photo by S. Ohsumi._)] [Illustration: Figure 159.--A young pygmy sperm whale swimming in a tank at the New York Aquarium. Note the shape and position of the dorsal fin and the shape of the head. (_Photo by H. E. Winn._)] [Illustration: Figure 160.--On the beach the two species of Kogia can be readily distinguished. The pygmy sperm whale, _K. breviceps_, (top) reaches a length of about 11 feet (3.4 m); its dorsal fin is a small nubbin located in the latter half of the back. The dwarf sperm whale, _K. simus_, (bottom) reaches only about 9 feet (2.7 m); its dorsal fin, much taller and more "dolphinlike" in appearance, is located near the middle of the back. Coloration of fresh specimens is probably similar for both species--the lightened areas in the lower photograph are the result of decomposition. (_Photos from Jekyll Island, Ga. (top) and Atlantic Beach, Fla. (bottom) by D. K. Caldwell._)] [Illustration: Figure 161.--Ventral view of a female pygmy sperm whale from Jekyll Island, Ga. Note the position and shape of the flippers and mouth, and the abrupt tapering of the body at the tail stock. (_Photo by D. K. Caldwell._)] [Illustration: Figure 162.--Head of a pygmy sperm whale from northeastern Florida showing gill-like, lightly pigmented "bracket marks." (_Photo by F. G. Wood._)] [Illustration: Figure 163.--A detailed view of the mouth of a pygmy sperm whale from the east coast of Florida. In both species of Kogia these long, curved, needle-sharp teeth, found in only the lower jaw, lock into sockets in the upper jaw. Pygmy sperm whales have from 12 to 16 (rarely 10 or 11) pairs of teeth; dwarf sperm whales have from 8 to 11 (rarely 13) pairs. (_Photo by D. K. Caldwell._)] DWARF SPERM WHALE (T) _Kogia simus_ (Owen 1866) Other Common Names Rat porpoise (West Indies). Description Dwarf sperm whales reach an overall length of approximately 9 feet (2.7 m). Like the other species of _Kogia_, the pygmy sperm whale (p. 144), the dwarf sperm whales are characterized by 1) a squarish head, 2) an extremely robust body which tapers rapidly near the tail stock, 3) a narrow, underslung lower jaw, and 4) a bracket mark or false gill on the side of the head. The dorsal fin of this species is tall and falcate, closely resembling that of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin, and is located near the midpoint of the back. There are several short, irregular creases or grooves on the throat similar to those found on the sperm whale (see Figs. 60, 165). Dwarf sperm whales are dark steel gray on the back, grading to lighter gray on the sides, and fading to dull white on the belly. May Be Confused With Because of their tall, falcate dorsal fin, dwarf sperm whales may be confused at a distance with any of the small dolphin species. Their all-black or dark steel-gray coloration and the blunted head increase the likelihood that they can be confused with pygmy killer whales or many-toothed blackfish. They will have to be examined at close range before they can be distinguished. Dwarf sperm whales may also be confused with pygmy sperm whales (p. 144 and Fig. 160). The two species can be differentiated by the characteristics tabularized on p. 144. Distribution Since it has only recently been recognized as a species distinct from the pygmy sperm whale and even more recently given a common name, records of dwarf sperm whales may have been confused with those of its close relatives. The dwarf sperm whale has been reported from at least Georgia south to St. Vincent, Lesser Antilles, and throughout the eastern and northern Gulf of Mexico. It is highly likely that this species, like the pygmy sperm whale, extends further to the north. Stranded Specimens Because of the distinctive characteristics of the genus, neither species of stranded _Kogia_ is likely to be confused with any other species. They can be distinguished from one another by the characteristics tabularized on p. 144. [Illustration: Figure 164.--A dwarf sperm whale stranded near St. Augustine, Fla., shown swimming in the tank at Marineland of Florida. In this species the dorsal fin is taller than that of the pygmy sperm whale and is located near the midpoint of the back (see Figs. 159 and 160). (_Photo courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] [Illustration: Figure 165.--Dwarf sperm whales have several short creases on the throat, similar to those found on the sperm whale (see Fig. 60); pygmy sperm whales lack these creases. To compare other features of the two species, refer back to Figure 160. (_Photo by D. K. Caldwell._)] [Illustration: Figure 166.--Closeup of the tail flukes of a dwarf sperm whale from the Florida east coast. Note that the dorsal ridge extends almost to the notch in the flukes. (_Photo by W. A. Huck, courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)] HARBOR PORPOISE (T) _Phocoena phocoena_ (Linnaeus 1758) Other Common Names Common porpoise, herring hog, puffing pig (Newfoundland and New England), Pourcils (Quebec), harbour porpoise. Description The harbor porpoise is the smallest cetacean species in the western North Atlantic Ocean, reaching a maximum overall length of about 5 feet (1.5 m). Its most distinctive identifying features in encounters at sea are 1) the small, chunky body; 2) the coloration, dark brown or gray on the back, fading to lighter grayish brown on the sides, often with speckling in the transition zone, and white on the belly extending farther up on the sides in front of the dorsal fin; 3) the small rounded head, lacking a distinctive beak; 4) the small, triangular dorsal fin; and 5) the shallow, inshore northerly distribution. Natural History Notes As the name implies, the harbor porpoise inhabits bays, harbors, river mouths, and all the relatively shallow inshore water between. Though it may travel in schools of nearly a hundred individuals, it is more often seen in pairs or in small groups of from 5 to 10 individuals. It often swims quietly at the surface. It will not ride the bow wave and is very difficult to approach closely by boat. May Be Confused With The harbor porpoise is not known to associate with dolphins but is sometimes seen in close proximity to fin whales and humpback whales off the Canadian coast in spring and summer. Because of its northern inshore habitat, the harbor porpoise is not likely to be confused with any other cetacean. Distribution Harbor porpoises are restricted to the colder waters of the western North Atlantic Ocean. They have been reported from North Carolina north to the Davis Straits and the waters of southwestern Greenland. Within this range they are probably most common in the Bay of Fundy and off southwest Greenland. Stranded Specimens In addition to the characteristics described above for living animals, stranded harbor porpoises can be readily identified by the small spade-shaped teeth, 22-28 per jaw. [Illustration: Figure 167.--Two views of a harbor porpoise just offshore from Rio del Mar, Seaside, Calif. Note the small size (usually less than 5 feet [1.5 m]), the small triangular dorsal fin, the dark brownish color of the back, and the lighter color of the sides and belly intruding higher up in front of the dorsal fin. Harbor porpoises frequent inshore areas, shallow bays, estuaries and harbors, and reportedly do not approach moving vessels nor ride bow waves. (_Photos by J. D. Hall._)] [Illustration: Figure 168.--A harbor porpoise harpooned in Passamaquoddy Bay, New Brunswick. Harbor porpoises have from 23 to 28 small, spade-shaped teeth in each upper jaw and from 22 to 26 in each lower jaw. Note the rounded head, the absence of a beak, and the triangular dorsal fin. (_Photo by D. E. Gaskin._)] ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Obviously this guide could not have been produced without the cooperation of many people. Of over 450 individuals and scientific organizations contacted in 14 countries, 255 responded to our letters and well over 100 provided photographs for review and selection. We were particularly pleased that for the majority of the species found in the western North Atlantic our most difficult problem was narrowing the choices and ultimately selecting illustrations from the many good materials made available to us. Although there are far too many contributors to mention all by name, their prompt and enthusiastic responses to requests for help are gratefully acknowledged, whether or not their materials were used. Although photo credits follow each figure, we would particularly like to cite the generosity of Marineland of Florida, Hideo Omura of the Japanese Whales Research Institute, J.G. Mead of the U.S. National Museum, K.C. Balcomb of Moclips Cetological Society, Seiji Ohsumi of the Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory, Jack Lentfer of the Alaskan Department of Fish and Game, the U.S. Naval Undersea Center (NUC), The University of Rhode Island, and William F. Perrin of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). Photographs by Taruski, McCann, Hain, Wheeler, and Rigley are in Winn's files. All others are in the files of Leatherwood and Caldwell. The illustrations for Figures B1 and D1 were prepared by George Galich of NUC. All other illustrations were prepared by Lois Winn. The extensive and often tedious job of preparing black and white photographs of suitable format from the vast array of black and white and color negatives and prints and from color transparencies was accomplished at the NUC Photographic Laboratory by the able team of Domingo Sanchez, Ray Krenik, Jeanne Lucas, and Alan McPhee. George E. Lingle and John C. Moore assisted with gathering and reviewing the literature and with cataloging and screening photo materials. The various drafts of the manuscript were typed by Linda Thomson, Margaret Alvarez, and Sandra Nolan. Sandra Peterson assisted with proofreading the later drafts. In preparing this guide we drew freely from the literature on cetaceans of this region and supplemented it with our own observations and with unpublished notes provided by our colleagues. A partial list of materials used, each a good source of reference material on cetaceans in general or on cetaceans of the western North Atlantic in particular, is provided in the following section, "Selected Bibliography." All of the following colleagues read all or part of the manuscript and made useful suggestions for its improvement: K.C. Balcomb, W.C. Cummings, J.G. Mead, Hideo Omura, W.F. Perrin, F.K. Rodgers, Allen N. Saltzman, D.E. Sergeant, W.A. Watkins, A.A. Wolman, and F.G. Wood. All of the information and photographs contributed by Lois Winn were obtained under grants from the Office of Naval Research. Funds and assistance for the preparation of intermediated drafts and logistics support for all stages of preparation of this guide were provided by Biological Systems, Inc., St. Augustine, Fla. In addition to securing funds for the preparation and publication of this guide, Paul Sund, Platforms of Opportunity Program, NMFS, Tiburon, Calif., provided continuing help and criticism. To these and to all who use this guide to further help knowledge about the cetaceans of the western North Atlantic, we are grateful. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSEN, H. T. (editor). 1969. The biology of marine mammals. Academic Press, N.Y., 511 p. BURT, W. H. 1952. A field guide to the mammals. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 200 p. CALDWELL, D. K., and M. C. CALDWELL. 1973. Marine mammals of the eastern Gulf of Mexico. _In_ J. I. Jones, R. E. Ring, M. O. Rinkel, and R. E. Smith (editors), A summary of knowledge of the eastern Gulf of Mexico, p. III-I-1--III-I-23. State Univ. Syst. Fla. Inst. Oceanogr., St. Petersburg, Fla. CALDWELL, D. K., and F. B. GOLLEY. 1965. Marine mammals from the coast of Georgia to Cape Hatteras. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 81:24-32. CALDWELL, D. K., H. NEUHAUSER, M. C. CALDWELL, and H. W. COOLIDGE. 1971. Recent records of marine mammals from the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina. Cetology 5:1-12. FRASER, F. C. 1937. Whales and dolphins. _In_ J. R. Norman and F. C. Fraser, Giant fishes, whales and dolphins, p. 201-349. Putnam and Sons, Lond. [There are several editions of this work, all with the same information.] 1966. Guide for the identification and reporting of stranded whales, dolphins and porpoises on the British coasts. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist., Lond., 34 p. GOLLEY, F. B. 1966. South Carolina mammals. The Charleston Museum, Charleston, S.C., xiv + 181 p. GUNTER, G. 1954. Mammals of the Gulf of Mexico. _In_ P. S. Galtsoff (coordinator), Gulf of Mexico, its origin, waters, and marine life, p. 543-567. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. Vol. 55. HALL, E. R., and K. R. KELSON. 1959. Order cetacea--cetaceans. _In_ The mammals of North America, 2:806-840. Ronald Press, N.Y. HERSHKOVITZ, P. 1966. Catalog of living whales. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus. 246, 259 p. KELLOGG, R. 1940. Whales, giants of the sea. Natl. Geogr. Mag. 77:35-90. LAYNE, J. N. 1965. Observations on marine mammals in Florida waters. Bull. Fla. State Mus., Biol. Sci. 9:131-181. LEATHERWOOD, S., W. E. EVANS, and D. W. RICE. 1972. The whales, dolphins, and porpoises of the eastern north Pacific. A guide to their identification in the water. Nav. Underseas Cent., Tech. Publ. 282, 175 p. LOWERY, G. H., JR. 1974. The mammals of Louisiana and its adjacent waters. Louisiana State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, 565 p. MITCHELL, E. D. 1973. The status of the world's whales. Nat. Can. 2(4):9-25. MOORE, J. C. 1953. Distribution of marine mammals to Florida waters. Am. Midl. Nat. 49:117-158. NORRIS, K. S. (editor). 1966. Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Univ. California Press, Berkeley, 789 p. PALMER, R. S. 1954. The mammal guide. Doubleday and Co., N.Y., 384 p. RICE, D. W. 1967. Cetaceans. _In_ S. Anderson and J. K. Jones (editors), Recent mammals of the world; a synopsis of families, p. 291-324. The Ronald Press, N.Y. RICE, D. W., and V. B. SCHEFFER. 1968. A list of the marine mammals of the world. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 579, 16 p. RIDGEWAY, S. H. (editor). 1972. Mammals of the sea; biology and medicine. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Ill., xiii + 812 p. SCHEVILL, W. E. 1974. The whale problem. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 297 p. SERGEANT, D. E., and H. D. FISHER. 1957. The smaller Cetacea of eastern Canadian waters. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 14:83-115. SERGEANT, D. E., A. W. MANSFIELD, and B. BECK. 1970. Inshore records of Cetacea of eastern Canada, 1949-68. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27:1903-1915. SLIJPER, E. J. 1962. Whales. Hutchinson and Co., Ltd., Lond., 475 p. [There is also an American edition.] TOMILIN, A. G. 1967. Cetacea. Mammals of the U.S.S.R. and adjacent countries. Isr. Program Sci. Transl., Jerusalem, Vol. IX, 717 p. [A compilation of worldwide data, originally published in Russian.] TOWNSEND, C. H. 1935. The distribution of certain whales as shown by logbook records of American whaleships. Zoologica (N.Y.) 19:1-50. TRUE, F. W. 1889. Contributions to the natural history of the cetaceans, a review of the family Delphinidae. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus. 36:1-192. WALKER, E. P. 1964. Mammals of the world. The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, p. 1083-1145. [Cetaceans. There is also a second, revised edition of this work, and a third, revised edition is planned.] APPENDIX A TAGS ON WHALES, DOLPHINS, AND PORPOISES Field studies of cetaceans are very difficult. First, it is extremely hard to be positive that an individual or a group of animals is the same from one encounter to the next. This means that it is nearly impossible to determine, for example, whether herds of animals are resident in an area or only seasonal visitors. Without information of this kind, determinations vital to population management, such as sizes of populations and natural ranges, are impossible to make. Secondly, as we frequently point out in this guide, individual cetaceans are usually visible to a surface observer only during the brief moments when they break the air-water interface to breathe. The majority of their vital activities (e.g., feeding, reproduction, communication, establishing and maintaining position within the herd, and defending against natural enemies) take place primarily below the surface, well out of view to a surface observer. In recent years, in an attempt to overcome some of these problems, scientists have been placing markers on various species of cetaceans and monitoring their movements. The following brief summary of major methods of tagging cetaceans is provided to acquaint the reader with markers he may expect to see in the western North Atlantic. Static Tags Since their development in the mid-1920's, numerous Discovery marks (small stainless steel projectiles with identifying information stamped on them) have been shot into commercially valuable species by means of a shotgun. The recovery of these marks from whales subsequently killed in the whaling industry has provided valuable information on the movement patterns and on basic aspects of the growth and development of harvested species of whales. Discovery marks are limited, however, because they are not visible in a living animal. Reduction in whaling activities will bring about a significant reduction in their use. More recent tagging developments relate to marks which will be visible on a free-swimming animal. Large whales, for instance, may be tagged with color-coded streamers, such as that shown in Appendix Figure A2. The tags, which are modified versions of the spaghetti tags first constructed for use on fishes, consist of a small stainless steel head for attachment to the blubber and a colorful streamer (sometimes stamped with information on agencies to which tags should be returned) which is visible above the surface of the animal. These tags may be applied by using either a pole applicator or a crossbow and crossbow bolts. Both applicators are equipped with a stop to limit the depth of penetration into the animal's blubber. Extensive experimentation indicates that the tags do not harm the animals and that their application is not traumatic. With the continued reduction in whaling activity, it is hoped that the use of such markers in the study of movements of big whales will be increased. Because they often ride the bow wave of a moving vessel, thereby making themselves accessible for tagging and capture, small porpoises and dolphins have been tagged with a greater variety of marks than large whales. In recent years, at least three kinds of static tags, including spaghetti streamers, have been placed on small and medium-sized cetaceans. Spaghetti tags, placed in the animal's blubber near the base of the dorsal fin as it rides the bow wave, stream to conform to the contour of the animal's body as it swims (App. Fig. A3). It is not possible to identify the numbers on the spaghetti tag of a moving animal, although color codes may be used to indicate different species, populations, or tagging areas. Button tags and freeze brands are placed on captured animals prior to their release. The button tags (App. Figs. A4, A5) are placed in the dorsal fin and should be visible as the animal surfaces to breathe or as it rides the bow wave. At close range, the number, letter, or design may also be visible. Freeze brands (App. Fig. A6) are placed on the back or dorsal fin with a supercooled branding iron, apparently without pain or discomfort to the animal, and provide a permanent mark which leaves the tagged animal free of encumbrances. The use of freeze brands shows promise and should come into more extensive use. Other static tagging techniques currently under investigation include the use of laser beams to apply small brands and the use of gas branding devices. Neither technique, however, has yet reached the field biologist. The success of any tagging program using static tags depends on the resighting of tagged animals and the recovery of tags. For that reason, we appeal to readers to be on the lookout for tagged animals and to report sightings to one of the authors. [Illustration: Appendix Figure A1.--Some of the basic kinds of tags used to mark porpoises, dolphins, and small whales. A, B, and C are nylon button tags, which are placed in the dorsal fin of animals and may be clearly visible as the animal surfaces to breathe. D is a vinyl spaghetti tag. (_Photo by R. Krenic, courtesy of Naval Undersea Center._)] [Illustration: Appendix Figure A2.--A spaghetti tag in the back of a blue whale off San Clemente Island, Calif. (_Photo by S. Leatherwood._)] [Illustration: Appendix Figure A3.--A spaghetti tag in the flank of a bottlenosed dolphin off Loreto, Baja California, Mexico. This particular tag was placed unusually low. The streamer and spaghetti tags are usually placed high on the back, just in front of the dorsal fin, and are clearly visible as the animal surfaces to breathe. (_Photo by W. E. Evans._)] [Illustration: Appendix Figure A4.--A button tag placed on the dorsal fin of a newly captured saddleback dolphin off Catalina Island, Calif. (_Photo by W. E. Evans._)] [Illustration: Appendix Figure A5.--This is the way the button tag appears on an animal swimming free in the open sea off Palos Verdes, Calif. (_Photo by B. Noble, courtesy of Marineland of the Pacific._)] [Illustration: Appendix Figure A6.--Freeze-branding is an apparently painless method of applying a permanent identifying mark to the body of a porpoise or whale. (_Photo of a bottlenosed dolphin off Sarasota, Fla., by A. B. Irvine._)] Radio Transmitter Tags In recent years, radio transmitter tags have been developed for use on marine mammals. As they continue to become more reliable, these tags are expected to come into more and more widespread use. Early radio tags (Fig. A7) were simple locator beacons which permitted the animal to be tracked by sending a signal to a tracking vessel or aircraft every time the animal surfaced and the antenna tip was exposed. Even these basic packages provide important information on movement, activity patterns, and respiration rates. Subsequent developments have involved the addition of sensors to monitor the maximum depth of each dive and environmental parameters such as the water temperature at that depth (Fig. A8). Logical extensions of these developments include the addition of numerous other sensors to permit simultaneous monitoring of multiple aspects of the animal's environment and the transmission of these data first to aircraft and subsequently to satellites for relay to shore-based laboratories. In addition to permitting scientists to define movement patterns and daily diving patterns of cetaceans, the use of such devices offers an exciting means of determining the environmental parameters that trigger changes in their behavior. Radio transmitter tags, in a variety of configurations, may be constructed and attached for short-term studies or for long-term monitoring of migrating animals. In either case, depending on their size and methods of attachment, radio transmitter tags may be visible on a free-swimming animal even at a considerable distance. [Illustration: Appendix Figure A7.--A saddleback dolphin wearing a radio tag transmitter surfaces to breathe off southern California. (_Photo courtesy of W. E. Evans._)] [Illustration: Appendix Figure A8.--A radio transmitter package attached to the dorsal ridge of a California gray whale. This yearling animal, captive for most of the first year of its life, was released into the ocean off San Diego, Calif., in March 1972 and subsequently tracked from shipboard and aircraft for over 30 days. The sensor transmitter package, shown in detail in the inset, was designed to measure the maximum depth of the animal's dive and the water temperature at that depth. (_Photo by S. Leatherwood._)] Natural Markings In addition to these man-made and applied tags, variations in natural markings and unusual appearances may be used to identify individuals and herds on repeated encounters. Although many species of cetaceans are characterized by changes in color pattern with age, individuals occasionally differ radically in their coloration from their fellows (App. Figs. A9, A10). In addition, individuals are sometimes seen with unusually shaped dorsal fins or scarring patterns (App. Fig. A11). These unusually marked animals should stand out in repeated encounters and can be a help in identifying a herd from one encounter to another. Obviously, this list of tags and anomalous markings is not exhaustive. New marks may be developed at any time. The discussion is intended to make the reader aware of the value of information on natural or man-made marks in studies of cetacean natural history. Your cooperation will perhaps help us to unravel some of the mystery surrounding the distribution and movements of porpoises, dolphins, and whales. [Illustration: Appendix Figure A9.--A piebald saddleback dolphin on the bow of a research vessel off San Clemente Island, Calif. (_Photo by B. C. Parks._)] [Illustration: Appendix Figure A10.--A nearly all-white pilot whale seen off Catalina Island, Calif., in April 1971. The observation of this same animal at least once each quarter of the year is evidence that it is resident in that area. (_Photo by S. Leatherwood._)] [Illustration: Appendix Figure A11.--A herd of pilot whales off Catalina Island, Calif., including an animal with a partially chopped-off dorsal fin, which has made him recognizable in repeated encounters with pilot whales around the various channel islands. (_Photo by G. E. Lingle._)] APPENDIX B RECORDING AND REPORTING OBSERVATIONS OF CETACEANS AT SEA To increase reliability of identifications, observers should train themselves to ask the following kinds of questions each time cetaceans are encountered: 1. How large was the animal? 2. Did it have a dorsal fin? If so, what was its size, shape, and position on the animal's back? 3. Was the animal's blow visible? If so, how tall did it appear? What was its shape? How frequently did the animal blow? 4. What was the animal's color and color pattern? 5. Did it have any highly distinctive markings? 6. If it was a large or medium-sized animal, did it show its tail flukes when it began its dive? 7. If it was a medium-sized or small animal, did it approach, avoid, or ignore the vessel? Did it ride the bow wave? 8. What was its behavior? Did it jump from the water? If so, did it make a smooth graceful arching jump, or did it spin, somersault, or reenter with a splash? One characteristic is rarely sufficient by itself, and the greater amount of relevant evidence the observer can obtain, the greater the likelihood he can make a reliable identification. But it is important to remember that even the most experienced cetologists are often unable to make an identification. Therefore, even if you cannot positively identify an animal or even make a good guess as to its identity, do not hesitate to fill out the rest of the sighting record form and submit it to an appropriate office. Listing the characters you observe and filling in as much of the form as possible may enable a cetologist to make an identification based on those characters and his knowledge of the distribution, movements, and behavior of cetaceans. In this regard, a sketch made as soon as possible after the encounter and photographs taken from as many angles as possible will aid in the identification. Two sample sighting reports are provided to demonstrate a method of recording observations. The first report, "Sighting Information," is completed as an example and is footnoted for explanation. The second report, "Cetacean Data Record." located at the end of the guide, is blank and may be photocopied in bulk for use in the field. Copies of this or similar forms are available from any of the authors or from National Marine Fisheries Service, Tiburon, Calif. Even if no form is available, however, observations should be recorded in rough form, in as much detail as possible. Reliable intermittent reports of cetaceans are of interest to cetologists. Their locations indicate seasonality of distribution, and their frequencies help indicate relative abundances of the various species. Because scientists are attempting to determine areas in which cetaceans are often, occasionally, seldom, or never found, and are ultimately describing why animals are found in one area and not another, persons who want to go a step further in their participation in observer programs may want to keep and report records of their entire cruise tracks and zones in which vigilance was maintained but no cetaceans were observed. Data obtained in this manner may be used as the foundation of estimates of cetacean populations, estimates which are extremely difficult to obtain by any other method. To be of maximum use in such calculations, however, records of this kind _must_ include the following minimum information: time and location of beginning and ending of each continuous watch, weather conditions as they affect visibility, sea state, ship's speed, height of the observer(s) above the water, number of persons on watch, and details of each sighting, particularly the estimated distance of the animal(s) from the ship's track. For a sample of a fictional continuous watch report might look like the following. If sighting forms are available, these observations may be recorded directly onto them. Additional information can be recorded on the opposite side of the forms. [Illustration: Appendix Figure B1.--A sample cruise track with cetacean sightings. See text for detailed data recording.] GENERAL INFORMATION RV Melville (34-foot converted fishing boat) U.S. Department of Commerce NMFS Hydrographic Cruise Miami, Florida to Flamingo, Florida 28-31 January 1973 2 observers (G.E. Lingle and G.M. Mohr) EYE LEVEL OF OBSERVERS: 16 feet above water AVERAGE SHIP SPEED: 8.0 knots during continuous watch CONTINUOUS WATCH INFORMATION (REFER TO FIG. B1): START END START END LEG DATE TIME TIME POSITION POSITION WEATHER--VISIBILITY 1-2 2/28 1200 1730 U. Miami Dock 25-42N Beaufort II Visibility Va. Key 80-02W 3 miles 3-4 2/29 0800 1500 24-26N 25-00N Beaufort I Visibility 80-04E 81-04W 3.5 miles 5-6 2/30 0700 1680 25-12N 25-12N 3.5 miles 80-46W 81-10W 7-8 2/31 0700 0900 25-00 Flamingo 3.5 miles 80-45W CETACEAN OBSERVATIONS (REFER TO FIG. B1): A-2/28 1048 16 bottlenosed dolphins, _Tursiops truncatus_. 6 miles outside our course, headed west--rode bow briefly. Large concentrations of sea birds in area. One porpoise freeze branded N-1 on dorsal fin. B-2/29 1100 2 right whales directly ahead of vessel headed NE--40-foot female? with calf. 2 bottlenosed dolphins accompanying the whales were riding pressure wave off whale's head. C-2/29 1400 25-30 spotted porpoises, _Stenella plagiodon_, 1.25 miles outside our course, heading 240° mag. Did not ride bow wave. D-2/30 1300 8 bottlenosed dolphins, _Tursiops truncatus_, 200-300 yards inshore of our course, milling in area of concentrations of mullet and other small schooling fishes, dolphins (porpoises) and birds feeding on fish. SIGHTING INFORMATION DATE AND LOCAL TIME [Handwriting: 27 January 1977 0845] LOCATION[13] [Handwriting: Ca. 25°00'N, 80°30'W] WEATHER CONDITIONS [Handwriting: Scattered rain squalls, visibility 1-1.5 mi, Temp 42°F] OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS[14] [Handwriting: Swells 1-2 feet, scattered white caps Winds from S.E. @ 3-8 knots, gusting in squalls to 15 knots.] SPECIES[15] [Handwriting: Right Whales, Eubalaena glacialis (45 ft/15 ft)] NUMBER OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: 2] HEADING OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: 015°] SPEED OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: 1-2] (MAGNETIC) (KNOTS) ASSOCIATED ORGANISMS[16] [Handwriting: Bottlenosed dolphins, Tursiops truncatus (3) and unidentified gulls (10-20)] TAGS OR UNUSUAL MARKINGS [Handwriting: One whale had deep slash across back about 3 ft. behind blowholes-area of slash was white.] CHARACTERISTICS OBSERVED WHICH RESULTED IN SPECIES IDENTIFICATION [Handwriting: 45 ft, No dorsal fin, smooth black back, high arching jaws, yellowish-orange growths on head, coastal habitat] BEHAVIOR OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: Adult whale swam steadily north, calf close beside, Bottlenosed dolphins riding in front of adults head.] SKETCHES [Hand-drawn illustration of whales, dolphins and distinguishing features.] PHOTOS AVAILABLE YES NO [Handwriting: Photos (GEL, Roll 16, frames 8-30)] ADDITIONAL REMARKS [Handwriting: Dolphins remained with whales entire 1/2 hour of observation, appently riding on pressure wave.] NAME AND ADDRESS OF OBSERVER (SHIP OR A/C) [Handwriting: G. E. Lingle, Naval Undersea Center, San Diego, California 92132 and G. A. Antonelis, NMFS, Seattle, Washington 98105 aboard the RV Cape] [Footnote 13: If latitude and longitude are not readily available, record best available position, for example 5 hours at 10 knots, SE of Miami.] [Footnote 14: Any oceanographic or bathymetric information obtainable at the time of sighting may be significant. Such measurements as water depth, presence of large fish schools, or deep scattering layer/organisms (DSL) characteristics of the bottom (e.g., flat sand plain, sea mount, submarine cliff), surface temperature, depth of thermocline, and salinity should be included if available. In the Pacific, similar data have been used to demonstrate reliable associations there between saddleback dolphins and significant features of bottom relief and relationships between the onset of their nighttime deep diving (feeding) patterns and the upward migration of the scattering layers.] [Footnote 15: Sometimes two or more species of cetacean are found together. If more than one species is sighted, try to identify each. Give both common and scientific names of each, and even if you cannot identify the animal(s) describe, sketch, and, if possible, photograph them and fill out the rest of the sighting report.] [Footnote 16: Describe any tags seen (see Appendix A) and state their size, shape, color, and position on the animal's body and any symbols or numbers they contain.] APPENDIX C STRANDED WHALES, DOLPHINS, AND PORPOISES With a Key to the Identification of Stranded Cetaceans of the Western North Atlantic Stranded Animals As we discussed briefly in the introduction to this guide, whales, dolphins, and porpoises sometimes "strand" or "beach" themselves, individually or in entire herds, for a complex of still incompletely understood reasons. Though the reasons suggested for these strandings appear almost as numerous as the strandings themselves, two tenable generalizations have recently been proposed. Strandings of lone individuals usually involve an animal which is sick or injured. Mass strandings, involving from several to several hundred individuals, appear to be far more complex and may result from fear reactions, from extremely bad weather conditions, from herd-wide disease conditions, or from failure of the echolocation system due to physiological problems or environmental conditions which combine to reduce its effectiveness, to mention only a few. Whatever their causes, however, cetacean strandings usually attract crowds and elicit much public interest and sympathy. There are frequently attempts to save the lives of the animals involved. Individually stranded cetaceans rarely survive, even if they are found soon after stranding and transported to adequate holding facilities. This does not mean that every attempt should not be made to save them. In mass strandings, some individuals may be entirely healthy, and if they are found soon enough after stranding, properly protected and transported, and correctly cared for in the initial few days after collection, they may survive in captivity. Attempts to rescue all the animals in a mass stranding by towing them out to sea have almost always been frustrating because the animals usually swim repeatedly back onto the beach. If you discover a stranding and before you become involved in an attempt to save a live stranded animal or to collect data from a dead one, you should be aware of the following: MARINE MAMMALS ARE CURRENTLY PROTECTED BY LAW. Under provisions of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, it is unlawful for persons without a permit to handle, harass, or possess any marine mammal. It is within the authority of State officials and employees of the National Marine Fisheries Service to arrange for the care of live animals through certified institutions, such as many of those listed in Appendix E. (Even if the animals were not protected by law, any impulse to take them to backyard swimming pools, for instance, should be tempered by the knowledge that their chances of survival are far greater in an institution with the facilities and expertise to properly care for them.) The best general rule is to notify the nearest State or National Marine Fisheries Service office. If you prefer, however, you may contact one of the institutions listed in the appendix and ask them to handle the situation. Some will already have permits to investigate strandings. Most will be anxious to help. Although _you cannot remove the animal from the beach without a permit_, you can help keep it alive until it can be removed. Here are a few hints. WHILE WAITING FOR HELP TO ARRIVE, ENDEAVOR TO KEEP THE ANIMAL AS COMFORTABLE AS POSSIBLE. IF IT IS NOT TOO LARGE AND SURF CONDITIONS PERMIT, IT SHOULD BE REMOVED TO SHALLOW WATER WHERE IT IS BARELY AFLOAT. The buoyancy of the water will reduce the stress to the animal and will help to keep it cool and prevent overheating--a real danger to stranded cetaceans. Whether or not the animal can be floated, CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN TO PROTECT IT FROM SUNBURN, DRYING OUT, AND OVERHEATING. IF IT IS AFLOAT, EXPOSED PARTS SHOULD BE FREQUENTLY SPLASHED DOWN. IF IT IS HIGH AND DRY, IT SHOULD BE COVERED WITH DAMP CLOTH, PARTICULARLY ON THE DORSAL FIN, FLIPPERS, AND FLUKES, AND THE BODY AND THE TERRAIN SHOULD BE FREQUENTLY WATERED TO PREVENT THE ANIMAL FROM OVERHEATING IN THE AREAS IN CONTACT WITH THE SAND OR ROCK. IN ANY CASE, BE CAREFUL TO LEAVE THE BLOWHOLE FREE SO THAT THE ANIMAL CAN BREATHE. NOTE ALSO THAT THE EYES ARE PARTICULARLY SENSITIVE AND SUSCEPTIBLE TO INJURY; THEY SHOULD BE COVERED WITH A WET CLOTH AND TREATED WITH SPECIAL CARE. With luck, this careful handling will be rewarded with the animal's being picked up and transported to an aquarium, where it can receive proper attention. But even IF THE ANIMAL CANNOT BE SAVED, COLLECTION AND EXAMINATION OF THE CARCASS CAN PROVIDE VALUABLE INFORMATION TO SCIENTISTS WORKING ON THE BIOLOGY OF CETACEANS, OR ON SUCH PROBLEMS AS THEIR DISEASE CONDITIONS AND THE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS ON THEM. DEAD STRANDED CETACEANS EVEN IN ADVANCED STAGES OF DECOMPOSITION ARE ALSO AN IMPORTANT SOURCE OF MATERIALS FOR MUSEUM STUDY AND DISPLAY. THEREFORE, EVERY ATTEMPT SHOULD BE MADE TO GET THE CARCASS INTO THE BEST HANDS. DEAD CETACEANS, LIKE THE LIVE ONES, ARE PROTECTED BY LAW AND MAY NOT BE REMOVED WITHOUT A PERMIT. The procedure for obtaining permission to collect them is the same as that outlined for live strandings. The majority of the institutions along the western North Atlantic coast will respond to calls about live or dead strandings. Even if you are unable to contact an appropriate official, you can still collect some valuable information by identifying the specimen, using the following key, and by collecting measurements (see Appendix D). [Illustration: Appendix Figure C1.--Whales and dolphins, like this mixed school of false killer whales and bottlenosed dolphins, sometimes strand themselves individually or as entire herds for a complex of still incompletely understood reasons. (_Photo from Japan by S. Ohsumi._)] Identifying the Animal Cetaceans may be found during or shortly after the stranding or many months later, when the carcass is bloated or rotted nearly beyond recognition. If the stranded animal is alive or freshly dead, it can be identified by any of the characteristics itemized in the text. But even if it is in an advanced stage of decomposition it can be identified using the key below. In general numbers and descriptions of teeth (Table 1) and numbers and descriptions of baleen plates (Table 2) persist longest as reliable identifying characteristics. If they are still detectable on the carcass, numbers and lengths of ventral grooves may also be used to separate the balaenopterine whales.[17] [Footnote 17: The tables were prepared primarily from Tomilin (1967) and supplemented by miscellaneous published papers and our own observations. The sections on toothed whales in the key were developed following the general outline of Moore (1953).] In order to use the key below, begin with the first pair of opposing characteristics--one of the two will apply to the specimen you are examining. On the line following that statement there will be a paragraph number, go to that paragraph. There you will find two more paired, opposing characteristics. Again, one of the two will apply to the specimen you are examining. Select that one and go to the paragraph indicated on the line following it. Continue this procedure until the statement which is true for your specimen is followed by a species name instead of a reference to another paragraph. This name identifies the specimen. To verify your identification go to the discussion of that species in the text. With a little practice and careful attention to details, identification of whales, dolphins, and porpoises will become easier. KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF STRANDED CETACEANS OF THE WESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC 1. a. Double blowhole; no teeth present in either jaw; baleen plates in upper jaws. (Baleen whale) Go to 2 b. Single blowhole; teeth present (sometimes concealed beneath the gums); no baleen plates in upper jaw. (Toothed whale) Go to 9 2. a. Ventral grooves present; dorsal fin present; viewed in profile, upper jaw relatively flat and broad. (Balaenopterine whale) Go to 3 b. Ventral grooves absent; dorsal fin absent; viewed in profile, upper jaw and lower lips strongly arched; upper jaw very narrow. (Right whale) Go to 8 3. a. Ventral grooves end before navel.[18] Go to 4 b. Ventral grooves extend to or beyond navel Go to 5 4. a. 50-70 ventral grooves, longest often ending between flippers; baleen less than 8 inches (20.3 cm), mostly white or yellowish white (some posterior plates may be dark) with 15-25 white bristles per centimeter; 300-325 plates per side. Minke whale, p. 63 b. 38-56 ventral grooves, longest ending well short of navel; baleen less than 31 inches (78.7 cm), black (some anteriormost plates may be white) and with 35-60 fine silky white bristles per centimeter; 318 340 plates per side. Sei whale, p. 32 5. a. Flippers one-fourth to one-third length of the body length and knobbed on leading edge; less than 22 broad and conspicuous ventral grooves, longest extending at least to navel; head covered with numerous knobs; baleen less than 24 inches (61 cm), ash black to olive brown (sometimes whitish) with 10-35 grayish white bristles per centimeter; 270-400 plates per side. Humpback whale, p. 40 b. Flippers less than one-fifth body length; no knobs; from 40 to 100 fine ventral grooves, longest extending at least to navel; head lacks knobs Go to 6 6. a. Three ridges on head, one from blowholes, forward towards tip of snout, one auxiliary groove along each side of main ridge; 40-50 ventral grooves; 250-300 slate-gray baleen plates with 15-35 dirty gray bristles per centimeter. Bryde's whale, p. 37 b. Only one prominent ridge on head,[19] from just in front of blowholes forward towards tip of snout; 55-100 ventral grooves Go to 7 7. a. Head broad and U-shaped; dorsal fin less than 13 inches (33 cm) and very far back on tail stock; baleen all black with 10-30 black bristles per centimeter; plates extremely broad relative to length. Blue whale, p. 19 b. Head broad at gape but sharply pointed on tip; dorsal fin to 24 inches (61 cm) and slightly more than one-third forward from tail; right front one-fifth to one-third of baleen ivory white to yellowish white, remainder dark gray to bluish gray streaked with yellowish white; plates have 10-35 gray or white bristles per centimeter and are narrow relative to length. Fin whale, p. 26 8. a. Top of snout not covered with callosities; 325-360 baleen plates per side, longest reaching 14 feet (4.3 m); plates black with black bristles (anterior portion of some plates may be whitish). Bowhead whale, p. 49 b. Top of snout covered with callosities, often including lice and/or barnacles; 250-390 baleen plates per side, longest reaching 7.2 feet (2.2 m); plates dirty or yellowish gray (some anterior plates all or part white and some posterior plates brown or black) with 35-70 bristles per centimeter. Right whale, p. 52 9. a. Upper part of head extending appreciably past tip of lower jaw; lower jaw markedly undershot and considerably narrower than upper jaw Go to 10 b. Upper part of head not extending appreciably past tip of lower jaw; lower jaw approximately same width as upper jaw Go to 12 10. a. Body more than 13 feet (4.0 m); head massive, to one-third of body length; blowhole located far forward of eyes and to left front of head; dorsal fin low, triangular or rounded followed by series of knuckles or crenulations; 18-25 teeth in each lower jaw fit into sockets in upper jaw (10-16 upper teeth rarely emerge). Sperm whale, p. 57 b. Body less than 13 feet (4.0 m); head considerably less than one-third body length; blowhole located approximately even with eyes on top of head, slightly displaced to left but not on left front of head; conspicuous dorsal fin present; 8-16 teeth in each lower jaw fitting into sockets in upper jaw Go to 11 11. a. No creases on throat; dorsal fin small and located in latter third of back; 12-16 teeth (rarely 10-11) in each lower jaw. Pygmy sperm whale, p. 144 b. Inconspicuous creases on throat; dorsal fin tall and falcate, resembling that of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin, and located near middle of back; 8-11 (rarely 13) extremely sharp teeth in each lower jaw; rarely 1-3 teeth in each upper jaw. Dwarf sperm whale, p. 148 12. a. Two conspicuous grooves on outer surface of throat forming V-shape pointed forward; notch absent or inconspicuous in flukes. (Beaked whale) Go to 13 b. No conspicuous grooves on outer surface of throat; deep median notch on rear margin of tail flukes Go to 18 13. a. A pair of teeth located at the tip of the lower jaw (erupted only in adult males, concealed in females and immature animals) Go to 14 b. No teeth at the tip of the lower jaw Go to 16 NOTE: Immature individuals of the species covered in paragraphs 14 and 15 may not be readily identifiable without museum preparation and examination. 14. a. Two well-developed teeth, erupted or hidden beneath the gum, are compressed so they appear elliptical in cross section; body to 16 feet (4.9 m); united portion of the lower jaws[20] more than one-fourth the length of the entire lower jaw. True's beaked whale, p. 77 b. Two well-developed teeth substantially less flattened so that they appear more nearly rounded in cross section Go to 15 15. a. Distinct elongated beak; pronounced bulge to forehead; blowhole located in lateral crease behind bulge; body to 32 feet (9.8 m); sometimes second pair of teeth behind first in lower jaw. Northern bottlenosed whale, p. 67 b. No distinct beak; forehead slightly concave in front of blowhole, increasing in concavity with increasing size; body to 23 feet (7.0 m); united portion of lower jaw less than one-fourth the length of the entire lower jaw; head of adult males all white. Goosebeaked whale, p. 70 16. a. A single pair of teeth in the united portion of the lower jaw, at the suture of the mandible (about one-third of the way from the tip of the snout to the gape); length to 22 feet (6.7 m); flukes less than one-fifth the body length. Antillean beaked whale, p. 78 b. A single pair of teeth back of united portion of lower jaw; body less than 17 feet (5.2 m) Go to 17 17. a. Teeth not exceptionally large and located immediately back of united portion of lower jaw, about half way from the tip of the snout to the gape. North Sea beaked whale, p. 82 b. Teeth exceptionally large, located on bony prominences near the corner of the mouth, and oriented backwards; corners of mouth, particularly in adult males, have high-arching contour; flukes to one-sixth or one-fifth of the body length. Dense-beaked whale, p. 80 18. a. Rostrum, if present, not sharply demarcated from forehead Go to 19 b. Head has a distinct, though sometimes short rostrum separated from the forehead by a distinct crease angle Go to 30 19. a. Teeth spade-shaped, laterally compressed and relatively small; body to only about 5 feet (1.5 m); 22-28 teeth in each upper and lower jaw. Harbor porpoise, p. 150 b. Teeth conical and sharply pointed (in cross section circular, or slightly flattened anteroposteriorly) Go to 20 20. a. No distinct dorsal fin; back marked instead with small dorsal ridge near midpoint of back. Go to 21 b. Distinct dorsal fin, in middle or forward third of the back Go to 22 21. a. 8-11 teeth in each upper jaw, 8-9 in each lower jaw; body of young slate gray or brownish, adults white; short broad rostrum. Beluga, p. 99 b. No visible teeth (or two teeth) in upper jaw of adults only; in males and sometimes females one or both of these may grow up to 9-foot (2.7 m) tusk in left-hand (sinestral) spiral; no rostrum. Narwhal, p. 102 22. a. Head long and conical Go to 23 b. Head blunt Go to 24 23. a. 20-27 teeth in each upper and lower jaw; crowns of teeth often marked with many fine vertical wrinkles; body to about 8 feet (2.4 m). Rough-toothed dolphin, p. 135 b. 26-35 teeth in each upper and lower jaw; teeth smooth; body to about 5.6 feet (1.7 m); distribution restricted to northern coast of South America, in the Guianas, and adjacent eastward territory of Venezuela. Guiana dolphin, p. 132 24. a. Teeth usually at front end of lower jaw only, 2-7 pairs (rarely teeth in upper jaw); all teeth may have fallen out of the lower jaw of older specimens or may be extensively worn; forehead with median crease; dorsal fin tall and distinct to 15 inches (38.1 cm); body to 13 feet (4.0 m). Grampus, p. 96 b. Teeth in both upper and lower jaws, 7 or more pairs, forehead with no median crease Go to 25 25. a. Flippers large and paddle-shaped, ovate, and rounded on the distal end; dorsal fin tall and erect to 6 feet (1.8 m) in males and 3 feet (0.9 m) in females; 10-12 teeth in each jaw; teeth to 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter. Killer whale, p. 84 b. Flippers long and pointed Go to 26 26. a. Dorsal fin located in forward one-third of body, very broad at the base; head bulbous. (Pilot whale) Go to 27 b. Dorsal fin located near midpoint of back; head long Go to 28 27. a. Flippers one-fifth of body length, or more. Atlantic pilot whale, p. 91 b. Flippers one-sixth of body length, or less. Short-finned pilot whale, p. 94 28. a. Flipper has distinctive hump on forward margin; 8-11 prominent teeth curved backwards and inwards, in each upper and lower jaw. False killer whale, p. 88 b. Flipper lacks distinctive hump on forward margin; 10-25 teeth in each upper and lower jaw Go to 29 29. a. 8-13 teeth in each jaw. Pygmy killer whale, p. 138 b. 20-25 teeth in each upper jaw, 21-24 teeth in each lower jaw. Many-toothed blackfish, p. 142 30. a. Beak short, usually less than about 1 inch (2.5 cm) Go to 31 b. Beak more than 1 inch (2.5 cm) Go to 33 31. a. Flippers very short; dorsal fin small and triangular; 38-44 teeth in each jaw; body to at least 8 feet (2.4 m); distinct black stripe from beak to area of anus; in profile beak shows very little separation from forehead. Fraser's dolphin, p. 120 b. Flippers long relative to body length; dorsal fin tall and distinctly falcate; 22-40 teeth in each jaw; in profile, beak shows distinct separation from forehead. (_Lagenorhynchus_ sp.) Go to 32 32. a. 22-28 teeth in each jaw; dorsal fin all black; body to about 10 feet (3.1 m). White-beaked dolphin, p. 126 b. 30-40 teeth in each jaw (some animals have greater number in upper than in lower jaw); dorsal fin part gray, part black; body to about 9 feet (2.7 m). Atlantic white-sided dolphin, p. 123 33. a. 20-26 teeth in the upper jaws; 18-24 in the lower jaws; body to 12 feet (3.7 m); teeth may be extensively worn. Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin, p. 128 b. 26 or more teeth in both upper and lower jaws Go to 34 34. a. 29-36 teeth in each upper jaw; 28-36 in each lower jaw. (Spotted dolphins) Go to 35 b. More than 40 teeth in each upper and lower jaw Go to 36 NOTE: Characters in paragraph 35 are usable only on fresh specimens. Spotted dolphins in advanced stages of decomposition can be distinguished only with museum preparation and examination. 35. a. Bridle present (dark lines from eye to rostrum and from flippers to corner of mouth); cape on head distinct; no spinal blaze. Bridled dolphin, p. 108 b. Bridle absent though there is a light line from the flipper to the eye; cape indistinct; spinal blaze. Atlantic spotted dolphin, p. 104 36. a. From 46-65 small, sharply pointed teeth; body dark gray on back, tan to light gray on sides, white on belly; beak dark gray or black above, white below, and often black-tipped; body to about 7 feet (2.1 m). Spinner dolphin, p. 110 b. From 40 to 50 teeth in each upper and lower jaw Go to 37 37. a. Body to 9 feet (2.7 m); black to dark gray on back, gray on sides, white on belly; distinctive black stripes from eye to anus, eye to flipper, and dark dorsal coloration to side above flipper. Striped dolphin, p. 113 b. Body to 8.5 feet (2.6 m) but usually less than 7.5 feet (2.3 m); body dark on back with light thoracic patch and crisscross or hourglass pattern on side; black stripe from middle of lower jaw to origin of flipper. Saddleback dolphin, p. 116 [Footnote 18: Counts of ventral grooves are made between the flippers and do not include shorter grooves often found on the side of the head and on the side above the flippers.] [Footnote 19: Blue whale has faint lateral ridges.] [Footnote 20: By feeling between the lower jaws on the ventral surface and moving the finger forward towards the tip of the snout, one can feel the point at which the two lower jaws become united (called the symphysis). This location is an important reference point in distinguishing among the species separated in paragraphs 14, 15, and 16.] APPENDIX D RECORDING AND REPORTING DATA ON STRANDED CETACEANS So that measurements of cetaceans taken at different times and at widely divergent locations can be compared, the measurements and the methods of taking them have been standardized, although there is still some disagreement about which of the measurements are most important. The data form located at the end of this guide, usable on both baleen and toothed whales, includes all the measurements routinely taken by cetologists plus a few new ones the authors consider important. The form and the directions for taking measurements are synthesized from those currently in use by the Naval Undersea Center, San Diego; the Fisheries Research Board of Canada; the University of Rhode Island; the University of Florida; the U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.; and the National Marine Fisheries Service, La Jolla, Calif. Data on stranded cetaceans should be collected by someone experienced in handling and measuring cetaceans. The legal problems associated with collection of a specimen are discussed in Appendix C. In addition to having a permit or knowing how to obtain permission to collect the specimen, persons active in cetacean research will usually have access to laboratory facilities where in-depth studies, including postmortem examinations and collection of tissues for specialized laboratory examinations, can be conducted. Furthermore, specialized equipment, and the number of steps required to do a complete job with the specimen, make the procedure prohibitive for most noncetologists. Diligent attempts should be made to contact one of the institutions listed in Appendix E. If no one is available and no permit or approval is obtainable, you are limited to photographing, sketching, and measuring the specimen without removing the carcass or any part of the carcass from the beach. Any person taking data on stranded cetaceans should follow the instructions itemized below, being careful to take measurements in the manner prescribed and to record data in as much detail as possible. 1. Specimens should be preserved in 10% neutral Formalin, except for the stomach contents, which should be kept in 70% ethyl or 40% isopropyl alcohol, or be frozen. Commercial rubbing alcohol will suffice. As a minimum, the head, flippers, and reproductive tract should be preserved. If no other method of handling the specimen is available, and only as a last resort, it may be buried in the sand well above the high tide line and carefully marked so it can later be recovered. Burying usually results in the loss of some vital parts. 2. The carcass should be examined for external parasites particularly in such areas as the blowhole(s), the eyes, any wounds on the trailing edges of the dorsal fin, flippers, and flukes. Occasionally barnacles will be found on teeth or baleen plates. Like the stomach contents, parasites should be preserved in alcohol. 3. Photographs and sketches are a valuable part of data collection--views of the animal(s) from as many angles as possible, and detailed shots of such features as baleen plates, mouth and teeth, ventral grooves, flippers, flukes, and unusual scars or coloration should be included. Including a ruler for size reference may be helpful. 4. Although scientific data are usually expressed in metric units, measurements should be taken in whatever units are readily available. All measurements should be taken in a straight line, as shown in the diagram, unless otherwise noted. Measurements which refer to the rostrum are taken from the tip of the upper jaw. The external auditory meatus (ear) is a small inconspicuous opening located just below and behind the eye. To locate the ear the observer must sometimes scrape away some of the skin to expose the unpigmented ear canal beneath it. 5. Throat grooves are short grooves found on the throat of beaked whales, sperm whales, and dwarf sperm whales. Ventral grooves are long grooves found only on balaenopterine whales. Ventral grooves should be counted between the flippers. It is difficult to overstress the importance of data from stranded cetaceans. For some species, the only data available have come from stranded individuals. By carefully gleaning from each specimen all the data that can be collected, you will make a valuable addition to the body of knowledge on these elusive animals. [Illustration: Appendix Figure D1.--Locations and details of important measurements.] APPENDIX E LIST OF INSTITUTIONS TO CONTACT REGARDING STRANDED CETACEANS The following list includes many of the institutions in the area covered by this guide, which are likely to respond to calls about stranded cetaceans. The institutions on the mainland are listed roughly in order from north to south, following the contour of the coast. Several island institutions and organizations are also listed. These institutions are the ones that come to mind as having taken an active interest in cetacean strandings in the recent past. In addition to these, almost any university biology or zoology department, State or Federal conservation agency or marine laboratory, or local natural history museum or society can recommend an interested biologist if no staff member is interested. Such organizations are widely distributed on or near the coasts and are usually adequately listed in local telephone directories. It should be obvious that organizations such as oceanaria are the most likely ones to be interested in live animals on an emergency basis. Even so, these organizations often cooperate with biologists with whom they are familiar and so will pick up dead animals for them as well. Conversely, museums and the like are most interested in the dead animals as they have no facilities for handling live ones. Nevertheless, they often cooperate with institutions equipped to handle live animals and will usually help in making arrangements for picking up the live ones. Therefore, rather than the finder's making a decision as to whether or not an institution should be called because the animal is alive or dead, we would urge that the nearest organization in the following list be contacted under any circumstances. Space is provided at the end of the list for additions of contacts inadvertently overlooked in compiling this list, or of institutions which come into being after its publication. CANADA Newfoundland Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's. Nova Scotia Bedford Institute, Dartmouth. Departments of Biology, Psychology and/or Physiology, Dalhousie University, Halifax. Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax. Quebec Arctic Unit, Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Ste. Anne de Bellevue. Ontario Department of Zoology, University of Guelph, Guelph. UNITED STATES Maine see Massachusetts. New Hampshire see Massachusetts. Massachusetts Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole. New England Aquarium, Central Wharf, Boston. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge. Rhode Island Narragansett Marine Laboratory, University of Rhode Island, Kingston. Connecticut Mystic Marine Life Aquarium, Mystic. New York New York Aquarium, Coney Island, Brooklyn. American Museum of Natural History, Department of Mammals, New York City. New Jersey Department of Biochemistry, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, also see New York. Delaware see New York, see New Jersey. Maryland Department of Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. also see District of Columbia. District of Columbia Division of Mammals, United States National Museum. Virginia Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point. also see District of Columbia. North Carolina Duke Marine Laboratory, Beaufort. Institute of Fisheries Research, University of North Carolina, Morehead City. South Carolina Charleston Museum, Charleston. Grice Marine Biological Laboratory, College of Charleston, Charleston. Georgia The Georgia Conservancy, The Clusky Building, 127 Abercorn Street, Savannah. University of Georgia Marine Institute, Sapelo Island (Darien). Florida Marineland of Florida, St. Augustine University of Florida Biocommunication and Marine Mammal Research Facility, St. Augustine. Ocean World, Ft. Lauderdale. Wometco Miami Seaquarium, Miami. University of Miami School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Miami. Sea World, Orlando. Mote Marine Laboratory, Placida. Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota. Aquatarium, St. Petersburg Beach. Florida's Gulfarium, Ft. Walton Beach. Alabama see Florida (Florida's Gulfarium). see Mississippi. Mississippi Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, Ocean Springs. Louisiana Museum of Natural Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. Marine Life Park, Gulfport. Texas Sea-Arama Marineworld, Galveston. Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station. Department of Zoology, University of Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi. University of Texas, Marine Science Institute, Port Aransas. Puerto Rico Commercial Fisheries Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez. Department of Agriculture, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Santurce (San Juan). Virgin Islands Caribbean Research Institute, Red Hook, St. Thomas. OTHERS Mexico Instituto Nacionale de Investigaciones Biologia Pesquera, Division de Vertebrados Marinos, Mexico 7, D.F. also see Texas. Venezuela Universidad de Oriente, Nucleo de Nueva Esparta, Isla Margarita. Jamaica Department of Zoology, University of the West Indies, Mona (Kingston). Science Museum, Institute of Jamaica, Kingston. Bahamas Lerner Marine Laboratory, Bimini. Nassau Aquarium, Nassau, New Providence. Bermuda Bermuda Biological Station, St. George's. Government Aquarium and Museum, Flatts. Cuba Laboratorio de Vertebrados, Instituto de Biologia, Academie de Ciencias de Cuba, Havana. SIGHTING INFORMATION DATE AND LOCAL TIME__________________________LOCATION_________________ WEATHER CONDITIONS____________________________________________________ OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS______________________________________________ SPECIES_______________________________________NUMBER OF ANIMAL(S)_____ HEADING OF ANIMAL(S)__________________________SPEED OF ANIMAL(S)______ (MAGNETIC) (KNOTS) ASSOCIATED ORGANISMS__________________________________________________ TAGS OR UNUSUAL MARKINGS______________________________________________ CHARACTERISTICS OBSERVED WHICH RESULTED IN SPECIES IDENTIFICATION_____ ______________________________________________________________________ BEHAVIOR OF ANIMAL(S)_________________________________________________ SKETCHES PHOTOS AVAILABLE YES___NO____ ADDITIONAL REMARKS____________________________________________________ NAME AND ADDRESS OF OBSERVER (SHIP OR A/C)____________________________ CETACEAN DATA RECORD SPECIES___________________________________SEX___LENGTH_____WEIGHT_____ DATE/TIME STRANDED__________________DATE/TIME DATA COLLECTED__________ LOCATION OF COLLECTION________________________________________________ OBSERVER NAME/ADDRESS_________________________________________________ SPECIMEN SENT TO______________________________________________________ Straight line parallel to the body axis Point to point MEASUREMENTS: 1. Tip of upper jaw to deepest part of fluke notch ______________________ ______________ 2. Tip of upper jaw to center of anus ______________________ ______________ 3. Tip of upper jaw to center of genital slit ______________________ ______________ 4. Tip of lower jaw to end of ventral grooves ______________________ ______________ 5. Tip of upper jaw to center of umbilicus ______________________ ______________ 6. Tip of upper jaw to top of dorsal fin ______________________ ______________ 7. Tip of upper jaw to leading edge of dorsal fin ______________________ ______________ 8a. Tip of upper jaw to anterior insertion of flipper (right)______________________ ______________ b. Tip of upper jaw to anterior insertion of flipper (left) ______________________ ______________ 9. Tip of upper jaw to center of blowhole(s) ______________________ ______________ 10. Tip of upper jaw to anterior edge of blowhole(s) ______________________ ______________ 11a. Tip of upper jaw to auditory meatus (right) ______________________ _____________ b. Tip of upper jaw to auditory meatus (left) ______________________ _____________ 12a. Tip of upper jaw to center of eye (right) ______________________ _____________ b. Tip of upper jaw to center of eye (left) ______________________ _____________ 13. Tip of upper jaw to angle of gape ______________________ _____________ 14. Tip of upper jaw to apex of melon ______________________ _____________ 15. Rostrum--maximum width ______________________ _____________ 16. Throat grooves--length ______________________ _____________ Straight line parallel to the body axis Point to point 17. Projection of lower jaw beyond upper (if reverse, so state) _____________________ 18. Center of eye to center of eye ______________ 19a. Height of eye (right) ______________________ b. Height of eye (left) ______________________ 20a. Length of eye (right) ______________________ b. Length of eye (left) ______________________ 21a. Center of eye to angle of gape (right) ______________________ ______________ b. Center of eye to angle of gape (left) ______________________ ______________ 22a. Center of eye to external auditory meatus (right) ______________________ ______________ b. Center of eye to external auditory meatus (left) ______________________ ______________ 23a. Center of eye to center of blowhole (right) ______________________ ______________ b. Center of eye to center of blowhole (left) ______________________ ______________ 24. Blowhole length ______________________ 25. Blowhole width ______________________ 26. Flipper width (right) ______________ 27. Flipper width (left) ______________ 28a. Flipper length--tip to anterior insertion (right)______________________ b. Flipper length--tip to anterior insertion (left)_______________________ 29a. Flipper length--tip to axilla (right) _______________________ b. Flipper length--tip to axilla (left) _______________________ 30. Dorsal fin height _______________________ 31. Dorsal fin base _______________________ 32. Fluke span _______________________ 33. Fluke width _______________________ 34. Fluke depth of notch _______________________ Straight line parallel to the body axis Point to point 35. Notch of flukes to center of anus ______________________ 36. Notch of flukes to center of genital aperture ______________________ ______________ 37. Notch of flukes to umbilicus______________________ 38. Notch of flukes to nearest point on leading edge of flukes___________________ 39. Girth at anus ______________________ 40. Girth at axilla ______________________ 41. Girth at eye ______________________ 42. Girth ___ cm in front of notch of flukes ______________ 43a. Blubber thickness (middorsal) ______________ b. Blubber thickness (lateral) ______________ c. Blubber thickness (midventral) ______________ 44. Width of head at post-orbital process of frontals _______________________ 45. Tooth counts: right upper _______ right lower _______ left upper _______ left lower _______ 46. Baleen counts: right upper _______ left upper _______ 47. Baleen plates, length longest ______________ 48. Baleen plates, no. bristles/cm over 5 cm _______________________ 49a. Mammary slit length (right) b. Mammary slit length (left) _______________________ 50. Genital slit length _______________________ 51. Anal slit length _______________________ * * * * * NOAA TECHNICAL REPORTS National Marine Fisheries Service, Circulars The major responsibilities of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) are to monitor and assess the abundance and geographic distribution of fishery resources, to understand and predict fluctuations in the quantity and distribution of these resources, and to establish levels for optimum use of the resources. NMFS is also charged with the development and implementation of policies for managing national fishing grounds, development and enforcement of domestic fisheries regulations, surveillance of foreign fishing off United States coastal waters, and the development and enforcement of international fishery agreements and policies. NMFS also assists the fishing industry through marketing service and economic analysis programs, and mortgage insurance and vessel construction subsidies. It collects, analyzes, and publishes statistics on various phases of the industry. The NOAA Technical Report NMFS CIRC series continues a series that has been in existence since 1941. The Circulars are technical publications of general interest intended to aid conservation and management. Publications that review in considerable detail and at a high technical level certain broad areas of research appear in this series. Technical papers originating in economics studies and from management investigations appear in the Circular series. NOAA Technical Reports NMFS CIRC are available free in limited numbers to governmental agencies, both Federal and State. They are also available in exchange for other scientific and technical publications in the marine sciences. Individual copies may be obtained (unless otherwise noted) from D83, Technical Information Division, Environmental Science Information Center, NOAA. Washington, D.C. 20235. Recent Circulars are: 315. Synopsis of biological data on the chum salmon, _Oncorhynchus keta_ (Walbaum) 1792. By Richard G. Bakkala. March 1970. iii + 89 p., 15 figs., 51 tables. 319. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory, Ann Arbor, Michigan. By Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. March 1970, 8 p., 7 figs. 330. EASTROPAC Atlas: Vols. 1-7. Catalog No. I 49.4:330/(vol.) 11 vols. Available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 331. Guidelines for the processing of hot-smoked chub. By H. L. Seagran, J. T. Graikoski, and J. A. Emerson. January 1970, iv + 23 p., 8 figs., 2 tables. 332. Pacific hake. (12 articles by 20 authors.) March 1970, iii + 152 p., 72 figs., 47 tables. 333. Recommended practices for vessel sanitation and fish handling. By Edgar W. Bowman and Alfred Larsen. March 1970, iv + 27 p., 6 figs. 335. Progress report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Center for Estuarine and Menhaden Research, Pesticide Field Station, Gulf Breeze, Fla., fiscal year 1969. By the Laboratory staff. August 1970, iii + 33 p., 29 figs., 12 tables. 336. The northern fur seal. By Ralph C. Baker, Ford Wilke, and C. Howard Baltzo. April 1970, iii + 19 p., 13 figs. 337. Program of Division of Economic Research, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, fiscal year 1969. By Division of Economic Research, April 1970, iii + 29 p., 12 figs., 7 tables. 338. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Auke Bay, Alaska. By Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, June 1970, 8 p., 6 figs. 339. Salmon research at Ice Harbor Dam. By Wesley J. Ebel. April 1970, 6 p., 4 figs. 340. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Technological Laboratory, Gloucester, Massachusetts. By Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, June 1970, 8 p., 8 figs. 341. Report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Beaufort, N.C., for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1968. By the Laboratory staff. August 1970, iii + 24 p., 11 figs., 16 tables. 342. Report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, St. Petersburg Beach, Florida, fiscal year 1969. By the Laboratory staff. August 1970, iii + 22 p., 20 figs., 8 tables. 343. Report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Galveston, Texas, fiscal year 1969. By the Laboratory staff. August 1970, iii + 39 p., 28 figs., 9 tables. 344. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Tropical Atlantic Biological Laboratory progress in research 1965-69, Miami, Florida. By Ann Weeks. October 1970, iv + 65 p., 53 figs. 346. Sportsman's guide to handling, smoking, and preserving Great Lakes coho salmon. By Shearon Dudley, J. T. Graikoski, H. L. Seagran, and Paul M. Earl. September 1970, iii + 28 p., 15 figs. 347. Synopsis of biological data on Pacific ocean perch, _Sebastodes alutus_. By Richard L. Major and Herbert H. Shippen. December 1970, iii + 38 p., 31 figs., 11 tables. 349. Use of abstracts and summaries as communication devices in technical articles. By F. Bruce Sanford. February 1971, iii + 11 p., 1 fig. 350. Research in fiscal year 1969 at the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Beaufort, N.C. By the Laboratory staff. November 1970, ii + 49 p., 21 figs., 17 tables. 351. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Exploratory Fishing and Gear Research Base, Pascagoula, Mississippi, July 1, 1967 to June 30, 1969. By Harvey R. Bullis, Jr. and John R. Thompson. November 1970, iv + 29 p., 29 figs., 1 table. 352. Upstream passage of anadromous fish through navigation locks and use of the stream for spawning and nursery habitat, Cape Fear River, N.C., 1962-66. By Paul R. Nichols and Darrell E. Louder. October 1970, iv + 12 p., 9 figs., 4 tables. 356. Floating laboratory for study of aquatic organisms and their environment. By George R. Snyder, Theodore H. Blahm, and Robert J. McConnell. May 1971, iii + 16 p., 11 figs. 361. Regional and other related aspects of shellfish consumption--some preliminary findings from the 1969 Consumer Panel Survey. By Morton M. Miller and Darrel A. Nash. June 1971, iv + 18 p., 19 figs., 3 tables, 10 apps. 362. Research vessels of the National Marine Fisheries Service. By Robert S. Wolf. August 1971, iii + 46 p., 25 figs., 3 tables. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 364. History and development of surf clam harvesting gear. By Phillip S. Parker. October 1971, iv + 15 p., 16 figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 365. Processing EASTROPAC STD data and the construction of vertical temperature and salinity sections by computer. By Forrest R. Miller and Kenneth A. Bliss. February 1972, iv + 17 p., 8 figs., 3 appendix figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 366. Key to field identification of andromous juvenile salmonids in the Pacific Northwest. By Robert J. McConnell and George R. Snyder. January 1972, iv + 6 p., 4 figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 367. Engineering economic model for fish protein concentration processes. By K. K. Almenas, L. C. Durilla, R. C. Ernst, J. W. Gentry, M. B. Hale, and J. M. Marchello. October 1972, iii + 175 p., 6 figs., 6 tables. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 368. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory and study, Florida: Phase I, area description. By J. Kneeland McNulty, William N. Lindall, Jr., and James E. Sykes. November 1972, vii + 126 p., 46 figs., 62 tables. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 369. Field guide to the anglefishes (Pomacanthidae) in the western Atlantic. By Henry A. Feddern. November 1972, iii + 10 p., 17 figs., For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Continued on inside back cover. 370. Collecting and processing data on fish eggs and larvae in the California Current region. By David Kramer, Mary J. Kalin, Elizabeth G. Stevens, James R. Thrailkill, and James R. Zweifel. November 1972, iv + 38 p., 38 figs., 2 tables. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 371. Ocean fishery management: Discussions and research. By Adam A. Sokoloski (editor). (17 papers, 24 authors.) April 1973, vi + 173 p., 38 figs., 32 tables, 7 appendix tables. 372. Fishery publications, calendar year 1971: Lists and indexes. By Thomas A. Manar. October 1972, iv + 24 p., 1 fig. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 374. Marine flora and fauna of the northeastern United States. Annelida: Oligochaeta. By David G. Cook and Ralph O. Brinkhurst. May 1973, iii + 23 p., 82 figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 375. New Polychaeta from Beaufort, with a key to all species recorded from North Carolina. By John H. Day. July 1973, xiii + 140 p., 18 figs., 1 table. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 20402. 376. Bottom-water temperatures on the continental shelf. Nova Scotia to New Jersey. By John B. Colton, Jr. and Ruth R. Stoddard. June 1973, iii + 55 p., 15 figs., 12 appendix tables. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 377. Fishery publications, calendar year 1970: Lists and indexes. By Mary Ellen Engett and Lee C. Thorson. December 1972, iv + 34 p., 1 fig. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 378. Marine flora and fauna of the northeastern United States. Protozoa: Ciliophora. By Arthur C. Borror. September 1973, iii + 62 p., 5 figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 379. Fishery publications, calendar year 1969: Lists and indexes. By Lee C. Thorson and Mary Ellen Engett. April 1973, iv + 31 p., 1 fig. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 380. Fishery publications, calendar year 1968: Lists and indexes. By Mary Ellen Engett and Lee C. Thorson. May 1973, iv + 24 p., 1 fig. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 381. Fishery publications, calendar year 1967: Lists and indexes. By Lee C. Thorson and Mary Ellen Engett. July 1973, iv + 22 p., 1 fig. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 382. Fishery publications, calendar year 1966: Lists and indexes. By Mary Ellen Engett and Lee C. Thorson, July 1973, iv + 19 p., 1 fig. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 383. Fishery publications, calendar year 1965: Lists and indexes. By Lee C. Thorson and Mary Ellen Engett. July 1973, iv + 12 p., 1 fig. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 384. Marine flora and fauna of the northeastern United States. Higher plants of the marine fringe. By Edwin T. Moul. September 1973, iii + 60 p., 109 figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 20402. 385. Fishery publications, calendar year 1972: Lists and indexes. By Lee C. Thorson and Mary Ellen Engett. November 1973, iv + 23 p., 1 fig. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 386. Marine Flora and fauna of the northeastern United States. Pyenogonida. By Lawrence R. McCloskey. September 1973, iii + 12 p., 1 fig. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 387. Marine flora and fauna of the northeastern United States. Crustacea: Stomatopoda. By Raymond B. Manning. February 1974, iii + 6 p., 10 figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 388. Proceedings of the first U.S.-Japan meeting on aquaculture at Tokyo, Japan. October 18-19, 1971. William N. Shaw (editor). (18 papers, 14 authors.) February 1974, iii + 133 p. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 389. Marine flora and fauna of the northeastern United States. Crustacea: Decapoda. By Austin B. Williams. April 1974, iii + 50 p., 111 figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 390. Fishery publications, calendar year 1973: Lists and indexes. By Mary Ellen Engett and Lee C. Thorson. September 1974, iv + 14 p., 1 fig. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. * * * * * UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES SERVICE SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS STAFF ROOM 450 1107 N.E. 45TH ST. SEATTLE, WA 98105 OFFICIAL BUSINESS * * * * * POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE COM-210 THIRD CLASS BULK RATE [Illustration: U.S. MAIL logo] [Illustration: American Revolution Bicentennial 1776-1976 logo] [Illustration: America's First Industry '76 logo] * * * * * Transcriber's Notes: page 57: "Alantic" changed to "Atlantic" (Sperm whales are widely distributed in oceanic areas of the western North Atlantic.) page 69, caption to figure 70: "Rijks Musum" changed to "Rijksmuseum" (...courtesy of Rijks Musum van Natuurlijke Historie te Leiden.) page 80, cross reference to page 84 should be to figure 84 ( ...a peculiar high, arching contour to the mouth (Fig. 84)) page 88: "5.5 cm" changed to "5.5 m" (False killer whales in the western North Atlantic reach a length of at least 18 feet (5.5 m).) page 88: "my" changed to "may" ( ...an extensive region of white on the belly which may extend onto the sides ...) page 132: "identifed" changed to "identified" ( ...stranded Guiana dolphins can be readily identified by their extremely small size ...) page 138: changed "sharpely" to "sharply" ( ...those of the many-toothed blackfish are pointed on the tip and more sharply pointed ...) page 154: changed "themselve" to "themselves" (thereby making themselves accessible for tagging and capture) Appendix Figure A3 caption: "breath" changed to "breathe" ( ...and are clearly visible as the animal surfaces to breathe.) Appendix Figure A5 caption: "botton" changed to "button" (This is the way the button tag appears ...) page 158: "usually" changed to "unusually" (These unusually marked animals should stand out in repeated encounters ...) page 161: "vessle" changed to "vessel" (2 right whales directly ahead of vessel headed NE ...) page 166: added closing parenthesis "(in cross section circular, or slightly flattened anteroposteriorly)". page 168 (Footnote 20): "feet" changed to "feel" (... one can feel the point at which the two lower jaws become united) 
33653	----	A New Pocket Gopher (Genus Thomomys) From Wyoming and Colorado BY E. RAYMOND HALL University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 13, pp. 219-222 December 15, 1951 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 13, pp. 219-222 December 15, 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1951 24-1359 A New Pocket Gopher (Genus Thomomys) from Wyoming and Colorado By E. RAYMOND HALL Among small mammals accumulated, from Wyoming, in the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas, specimens of the wide-spread species _Thomomys talpoides_ are abundantly represented. Subspecific names are available for most of these, but specimens from the Sierra Madre Mountain Range of Wyoming and Colorado prove upon comparison to pertain to an heretofore unnamed subspecies which may be described and named as follows: #Thomomys talpoides meritus# new subspecies _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin, no. 25628 Mus. Nat. Hist. Univ. Kansas; from 8 mi. N and 19-1/2 mi. E Savery, 8800 ft., Carbon County, Wyoming; obtained on July 19, 1948, by George M. Newton; original no. 4. _Range._--Sierra Madre Mountain Range of southern Wyoming and northern Colorado. _Diagnosis._--Size small (see measurements); color dark, upperparts in worn pelage of July darker than (near, _n_) Raw Umber (capitalized terms are of Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912) and in fresh pelage of August between (near, 16') Prout's Brown and Mummy Brown; skull small; relative to basilar length, skull narrow across rostrum, zygomata and mastoids; nasals short and posteriorly truncate; premaxillae extending behind nasals; temporal lines faint and divergent posteriorly. _Comparisons._--From _Thomomys talpoides rostralis_ (North Platte River Valley, SW of Saratoga, Wyoming), the subspecies to the east and south, _T. t. meritus_ differs in: Lesser size, darker color, smaller and slenderer skull. The slenderness is especially noticeable in the breadth across the zygomata, mastoids, and rostrum. From _Thomomys talpoides clusius_ (topotypes), the subspecies to the north and west, _T. t. meritus_ differs in: Color much darker; rostrum longer; skull narrower across mastoids and zygomata; tympanic, and also mastoid, bullae smaller. Resemblance to _T. t. clusius_ is shown in the narrowness of the skull interorbitally and in the shortness of the tooth-row. _Remarks._--The specimens of _Thomomys_ from Wyoming on which the name _T. t. meritus_ is based were obtained by Mr. E. Lendell Cockrum and his associates with the thought that intergradation might be shown between _T. t. rostralis_ to the east and _T. t. clusius_ to the west. The animals showed instead, that there was a subspecies differing from each of the two mentioned subspecies in small size, dark color and slenderness of skull. Acknowledgment of assistance with field work is made to the Kansas University Endowment Association. _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of seven adult males and five adult females, from the type locality, are as follows: Total length, [Male] 204 (193-226), [Female] 207 (193-210); length of tail, 56 (46-68), 56 (50-63); length of hind foot, 27.6 (26-30), 27.4 (27-28); basilar length, 30.7 (29.0-33.0), 30.1 (29.5-30.7); zygomatic breadth, 20.4 (18.9-21.6), 19.5 (18.8-20.0); least interorbital breadth, 6.2 (5.8-6.6), 6.1 (5.9-6.3); mastoidal breadth, 17.9 (16.9-18.5), 17.2 (16.7-17.6); length of nasals, 13.7 (12.4-14.7), 13.2 (12.8-13.9); breadth of rostrum, 7.0 (6.5-7.5), 6.9 (6.7-7.3); length of rostrum, 16.3 (15.3-17.5), 15.8 (15.3-16.1); alveolar length of maxillary tooth-row, 7.1 (6.9-7.3), 7.1 (6.8-7.5). _Specimens examined._--Total number 26 and unless otherwise indicated in the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas. #Wyoming.#--_Carbon County_: Savery (8 mi. N and 19-1/2 mi. E, 8800 ft., 12; 7 mi. N and 17 mi. E, 8300 ft., 1; 6 mi. N and 12-1/2 mi. E, 8400 ft., 1; 6 mi. N and 13-1/2 mi. E, 8400 ft., 2; 6 mi. N and 14-1/2 mi. E, 8350 ft., 1; 5 mi. N and 3 mi. E, 6800 ft., 1; 4 mi. N and 8 mi. E, 7800 ft., 7300 ft., 3; 4 mi. N and 10 mi. E, 7800 ft., 3) 24. #Colorado#--_Routt Co._ ?: Elkhead Mts., 20 mi. SE Slater, 2 (U. S. B. S.). _Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence. Transmitted October 20, 1951._ 24-1359 
33659	----	UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 361-393, 8 figs. January 18, 1971 Mammals of Northwestern South Dakota KENNETH W. ANDERSEN and J. KNOX JONES, JR. UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1971 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors of this number: Frank B. Cross, Philip S. Humphrey, William E. Duellman Volume 19, No. 5, pp. 361-393, 8 figs. Published January 18, 1971 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PRINTING SERVICE LAWRENCE, KANSAS 1971 [Transcriber's Note: Words surrounded by tildes, like ~this~ signifies words in bold. Words surrounded by underscores, like _this_, signifies words in italics.] Mammals of Northwestern South Dakota BY KENNETH W. ANDERSEN and J. KNOX JONES, JR. The mammalian fauna of the western Dakotas and adjacent Montana is relatively poorly known. Few published reports have dealt with mammals from this part of the Northern Great Plains, and none of these involved detailed study of a restricted area. The present report summarizes information gathered in Harding County, northwestern South Dakota, and includes material on the more than 50 species of mammals that are known to occur there. Harding County has an area of approximately 2700 square miles (Fig. 1). The county first was organized in 1881, but the present boundaries were not fixed until 1908. Physiographically, it lies in that part of the Missouri Plateau frequently termed the "Cretaceous Table Lands." The general topography is one of rolling hills and flats--mostly range land vegetated by short grasses and sage--broken by spectacular buttes and hills that rise 400 to 600 or more feet above the surrounding plains. These monadnocks are "... part of a system of Tertiary erosional remnants standing above the Late Cretaceous rocks of northwestern South Dakota...," according to Lillegraven (1970:832), who went on to point out: "The butte tops are flat and grass-covered. The western sides are being actively cut away by slumping, and the topography below the western cliff walls is hummocky with sparse vegetation. The eastern flanks of the tables are, by contrast, less cliff-forming and less slumped and are generally well forested with coniferous and deciduous trees." Slim Buttes, the North and South Cave Hills, the East and West Short Pine Hills, and the Long Pine Hills, which barely enter the county north of Camp Crook, comprise the pine-clad buttes; other prominences, such as Table Mountain and Sheep Buttes, are all but nude of coniferous cover. The highest point in the county, "Harding Peak," is 4019 feet above sea level. Sediments underlying northwestern South Dakota include rocks assignable to the Pierre (shale), Fox Hills (sand), and Hell Creek formations of Cretaceous age and the Ludlow and Tongue River formations of the Paleocene. These rocks may be exposed at the surface, but usually are overlain by relatively thin soils that are mostly derived from them; the best soil in the county for agricultural purposes is the loessal sandy or silty loam in the northeastern quarter, which is derived from Tongue River sediments (Baker, 1952). [Illustration: FIG. 1. Map of Harding County, South Dakota, showing location of places named in text.] The climate of northwestern South Dakota is characteristic of the northern part of the interior grasslands of North America--that is, the winters are cold and the summers hot and dry. Weather data for the period 1896-1967 at Camp Crook are representative of those gathered at the several stations maintained in the county. At Camp Crook the mean temperature for January is 17.3 F, whereas that for July is 71.2 F; precipitation averages 13.17 inches annually, most falling in the months of April through September; snowfall amounts to an average of 33.2 inches per year and is recorded from every month from September through May (Climatogeography of the United States, no. 20-39, Camp Crook, South Dakota, 1969). Major surface drainage systems in Harding County include the Little Missouri River, which flows northward through most of the western part of the county, the South Fork of the Grand River, which originates in the east-central part of the county and flows generally eastward, and by the North Fork of the Moreau River, which originates in the south and drains in a southeasterly direction. Permanent standing surface water was virtually unknown prior to the development of artificial impoundments. [Illustration: FIG. 2. Central part of Slim Buttes as viewed from the east.] Vegetation of the grassland areas in the county is typical of that found throughout the semi-arid Northern Great Plains. Cover on upland soils, especially those that are clayey in substance, generally is sparse; areas along water courses and well-watered sites elsewhere tend to have denser stands of grasses such as bluestem (_Andropogon_). Dominant grasses of upland are gramma, buffalo grass, wheat grass, stipa, and tickle grass. Sage (_Artemisia_) and numerous forbs are prominent in many areas. These grasslands are used extensively for grazing of sheep and cattle. [Illustration: FIG. 3. Fuller Canyon, North Cave Hills.] [Illustration: FIG. 4. Little Missouri River southwest of Ladner. Note beaver dam in background and nature of riparian community.] [Illustration: FIG. 5. Stand of pines on northern part of Slim Buttes.] [Illustration: FIG. 6. Draw with deciduous trees in North Cave Hills.] [Illustration: FIG. 7. Spring-fed artificial impoundment in Deer Draw, Slim Buttes.] [Illustration: FIG. 8. Farm land in northeastern part of Harding County.] The wooded buttes mentioned above are at least in part within the boundaries of Custer National Forest and support western yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_) and junipers (_Juniperus_ sp.). In some ravines and other protected sites there are groves of deciduous trees such as cottonwood, aspen, boxelder, ash, hackberry, elm, dogwood, and hawthorn, usually associated with shrubs such as buckbrush, chokeberry, plum, currant, and gooseberry. These groves frequently are associated with small springs, as the one in Deer Draw of the Slim Buttes. The major water courses and their tributaries are essentially treeless, although occasional stands of cottonwoods and other deciduous trees and shrubs occur in some places--for example along the Little Missouri near Camp Crook. Some representative habitats in Harding County are illustrated in Figs. 2-8. Our interest in Harding County dates from August of 1960, when one of us (Jones) and Robert R. Patterson visited the area briefly and obtained a small collection of mammals. Subsequently, field parties from the Museum of Natural History collected mammals in the county in the periods 14-30 June 1961, 23 March-11 April 1963, 5-7 July 1965, and 13 May-11 June 1968. Incidental collection also occurred in the extreme western part of the county in the period 29 June-24 July 1970 when a group was working primarily in the Long Pine Hills of adjacent Carter County, Montana. There are few published references to mammals in Harding County. Visher (1914), in an early biological survey of the area, listed 40 species of mammals, but his accounts are mainly of historic value. Subsequently, publications by Bailey (1915), Young (1944), Goldman (1944), Over and Churchill (1945), Jones and Genoways (1967), and Henderson _et al._ (1969) have recorded mammals from the county. ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES Fifty-three species of mammals known from Harding County, South Dakota, are treated in the accounts that follow. Appended is a brief discussion of 10 additional species that may be found there. In most accounts, specimens that have been examined (a total of 644) are listed in telegraphic style preceding remarks; localities are arranged from north to south in such lists. Unless otherwise noted, specimens are housed in the Museum of Natural History. All measurements are in millimeters (those of embryos are crown-rump lengths) and weights are given in grams. Order Chiroptera ~Myotis evotis evotis~ (H. Allen, 1864) Long-eared Myotis _Specimens examined_ (20).--NW 1/4 sec. 15, R. 5 E, T. 22 N, 2; 5 mi. N, 2 mi. W Camp Crook, 1; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 16; 7 mi. S, 4-1/2 mi. E Harding, 1. The long-eared myotis is not uncommon in and around wooded buttes. The species may be mostly limited to these areas; an individual of unknown sex found dead in a small stream southeast of Harding (several miles south of the East Short Pine Hills) is the only specimen not taken in such a situation. North of Camp Crook, on the eastern edge of the Long Pine Hills, several _M. evotis_ used an abandoned shed as a night roost in the summer of 1970; one was captured in a bat trap set at one of the entrances to the shed. Females obtained on May 29 and June 17 and 19 carried single embryos that measured 3, 14, and 15, respectively. A male young of the year taken on August 6 was nearly of adult size. Testes of two May-taken males measured 4 and 2, whereas those of one taken on July 17 and another captured on August 3 measured 6.0 and 7.5, respectively. Of seven adults collected in the period August 3 to 6, three females and two of four males were in fresh pelage; molt was nearly completed on the two remaining males. A male taken in mid-July was in an early stage of molt. New pelage is pale yellowish brown in contrast to the golden brown pelage of specimens taken in May and June. Chiggers, _Leptotrombidium myotis_ (Ewing), were found on the ears of one long-eared myotis. ~Myotis leibii ciliolabrum~ (Merriam, 1886) Small-footed Myotis Eight males of this saxicolous species were shot or netted as they foraged over a small man-made pond in wooded Deer Draw in the Slim Buttes, 10 mi. S and 5 mi. W Reva--six in late June and two in early August. Probably this bat will be found in rocky areas elsewhere in the county. One specimen taken on June 23 was molting over much of the body. ~Myotis lucifugus carissima~ Thomas, 1904 Little Brown Myotis _Specimens examined_ (27).--2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 1; NW 1/4 sec. 15, R. 5 E, T. 22 N, 4; NE 1/4 sec. 24, R. 8 E, T. 21 N, 20; 4 mi. S, 7 mi. W Ladner, 1; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 1. This bat is widely distributed in northwestern South Dakota and was the only species of _Myotis_ reported by Visher (1914:91) in his early natural history survey of Harding County. We took specimens from several of the wooded buttes and also in areas well-removed from timber; one was shot, for example, as it foraged over the Little Missouri River in the extreme western part of the county. On May 28, 1968, a barn was located in which an incipient maternal colony (several hundred adult females) roosted between double rafters supporting a metal roof. The owner of the barn, Robert Parks of Ralph, stated that bats have utilized this place as a summer roost for several years. The barn stands adjacent to the nearly treeless Big Nasty Creek, which flows through the hilly terrain of the northeastern section of the county. Fourteen of 20 females taken from the colony each carried a single embryo (crown-rump lengths measured 2 to 11 with a mean of 5.4). The other six were not visibly pregnant upon gross examination but had enlarged uteri, possibly indicating recent implantation. Of the remaining females from Harding County, three collected on May 29 had enlarged uteri, whereas two collected in late June evidenced no gross reproductive activity. A male obtained May 29 had testes that measured 4. Ectoparasites obtained from this species include chiggers, _Leptotrombidium myotis_ (Ewing), a tick, _Ornithodoros kelleyi_ Cooley and Kohls, fleas, _Myodopsylla gentilis_ Jordan and Rothschild and _M. insignis_ (Rothschild), and an unidentified species of mite. ~Myotis volans interior~ Miller, 1914 Long-legged Myotis _Specimens examined_ (43).--2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 4; NW 1/4 sec. 15, R. 5 E, T. 22 N, 12; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 27. The long-legged myotis is one of the commonest bats of the wooded buttes, accounting for almost half of all chiropterans taken in these areas. Most of our specimens were shot as they foraged among trees and over water in the evening; a few were captured in mist nets. Uteri of eight females obtained in the period May 23 to 31 were enlarged; two females collected on June 29 carried single embryos that measured 20 and 22. A lactating female was taken on August 3, but three other adult females taken early in the same month evidenced no reproductive activity. Testes measured 2 to 4 in three May-taken males and 4 in each of two from June. Two males obtained June 16 and 23 were molting as evidenced by new hairs under the old pelage over much of the body. _Myotis volans_ that we examined for ectoparasites harbored chiggers, _Leptotrombidium myotis_ (Ewing), and fleas, _Myodopsylla gentilis_ Jordan and Rothschild. ~Lasionycteris noctivagans~ (LeConte, 1831) Silver-haired Bat A single female, which contained two embryos that measured 4, represents the only record of a silver-haired bat from Harding County. This specimen was shot at dusk on June 1, 1968, as it foraged over a small pond in Deer Draw of the Slim Buttes (10 mi. S and 5 mi. W Reva). Several other bats believed to be of this species were seen at the same place that evening. We initially assumed that these were late migrants, but recent findings indicate that this species is a common summer inhabitant of the Long Pine Hills in adjacent Carter County, Montana, and likely, therefore, also a resident in favored sites in Harding County. ~Eptesicus fuscus pallidus~ Young, 1908 Big Brown Bat _Specimens examined_ (11).--NW 1/4 sec. 15, R. 5 E, T. 22 N, 3; 7 mi. N, 2 mi. W Camp Crook, 3300 ft., 2; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 6. The big brown bat is a common inhabitant of the Slim Buttes and North Cave Hills, where individuals were shot or netted as they foraged over water or among trees late in the evening. Two May-taken females had enlarged uteri and one taken on July 8 was lactating. The testes of a May-taken male measured 5, whereas those of one obtained in early July measured 9. One of two males shot on August 4 was a young of the year; the other, an adult, was in fresh pelage as was an adult male shot on July 8. The July-taken lactating female and three June-taken specimens were in old pelage. Several specimens were parasitized on the ears by chiggers, _Leptotrombidium myotis_ (Ewing). ~Lasiurus cinereus cinereus~ (Palisot de Beauvois, 1796) Hoary Bat The hoary bat seemingly is an uncommon summer resident of Harding County as but one specimen, a non-pregnant female, has been taken there. This bat was shot on the evening of June 22, 1961, in the Slim Buttes as it foraged over a small pond in Deer Draw (10 mi. S and 5 mi. W Reva). ~Plecotus townsendii pallescens~ (Miller, 1897) Townsend's Big-eared Bat _Specimens examined_ (4).--2 mi. S, 3-1/4 mi. W Ludlow (Ludlow Cave), 2 (1 SDSU); 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 2. This big-eared bat evidently is uncommon in northwestern South Dakota. Of the four specimens examined, two were taken at Ludlow Cave and two were taken in June in the southern part of Slim Buttes--a female shot as it foraged over a pond in Deer Draw and another female netted over a water tank at Summit Spring about a half mile south of Deer Draw. Ludlow Cave, in the caprock on the southeastern edge of the North Cave Hills, was formed by water erosion, resulting in numerous pockets and crevises in the ceiling and walls. The cave faces northwest; the mouth measures approximately 10 feet in diameter. A few feet from the entrance the cave narrows and approximately 50 feet back it is no more than three feet in diameter, although in the first 30 feet or so the ceiling varies from 10 to 15 feet in height. A thorough search of this cave on June 18, 1961, revealed one bat, a male _Plecotus_, which was shot from the ceiling about 15 feet from the entrance. No bats were found when the cave was visited on May 16 and again on June 4, 1968. Visher (1914:92) reported that several _Plecotus_ were found there in early September, 1912. Probably Ludlow Cave, along with the several abandoned coal mines in the county, serves as a hibernaculum for some species of bats. Order Lagomorpha ~Lepus townsendii campanius~ Hollister, 1915 White-tailed Jack Rabbit _Specimens examined_ (15).--NW 1/4 sec. 23, R. 1 E, T. 23 N, 1; sec. 24, R. 1 E, T. 22 N, 1; 2 mi. N, 2 mi. E Ladner, 1; 4 mi. S, 7 mi. W Ladner, 2; 10 mi. S Ladner, 1; 6 mi. N, 2-1/2 mi. W Camp Crook, 1; 2 mi. N Buffalo, 1; sec. 30, R. 3 E, T. 19 N, 1; SW 1/4 sec. 26, R. 2 E, T. 19 N, 1; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 3; 12 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 1; 17 mi. S, 4 mi. W Reva, 1. This jack rabbit is abundant throughout the areas of short grass in the county and individuals occasionally utilize grassy slopes of buttes. Extensive favorable habitat and the paucity of natural predators resulting from control operations probably are the principal factors favoring the heavy concentrations of this hare noted by all of our field parties. A female examined on May 21 carried five fetuses and each of two others examined late in May carried six; all fetuses were nearly of the same size (110 to 120) and were completely covered with hair. A female obtained on May 31 appeared to have recently weaned young and females examined on June 5 and 17 were lactating. A female shot on June 28 and another taken on July 12 proved to be approximately half grown, although young of the year collected on June 16, 26, and 28 were nearly of adult size. In late March of 1963, white-tailed jack rabbits were molting to summer pelage from the white pelage of winter. ~Sylvilagus audubonii baileyi~ (Merriam, 1897) Desert Cottontail _Specimens examined_ (12).--2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 2; 10 mi. S, 4 mi. W Ladner, 1; 7 mi. N, 2-1/2 mi. W Camp Crook, 3300 ft., 1; 5 mi. W Buffalo, 1; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 7. The desert cottontail is a common inhabitant of the uplands of Harding County, especially where varied local relief and in some instances brushy vegetation provide suitable cover. A female shot on May 26 in a dense stand of pines in the North Cave Hills carried five embryos that measured 75, another taken on July 4 was pregnant with six embryos that measured 18, and two females collected on June 16 and another on June 24 carried seven embryos that measured 32, 40, and 45, respectively. Two subadults collected in late June and two collected in early August were nearly full grown. The testes of an adult male obtained on March 28 measured 50. The male mentioned above was completely in winter pelage. Adults taken on June 16, 23, and 24 had almost completed molt to summer pelage, but each retained some evidence of active hair replacement, most often over the shoulders; a pregnant female obtained on July 4 had only partially completed the molt to summer pelage. An adult female in summer pelage that was taken on August 4 was inexplicably molting on the sides and over the shoulders. A May-taken female was parasitized by fleas, _Cediopsylla inaequalis_ (Baker). ~Sylvilagus floridanus similis~ Nelson, 1907 Eastern Cottontail _Specimens examined_ (2).--4 mi. S, 7 mi. W Ladner, 1; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 1. This rabbit is uncommon in northwestern South Dakota and evidently is strictly associated with riparian habitats. Our only specimens were taken along the Little Missouri River, where thickets and small cottonwood trees were prevalent, and at the edge of a thicket in spring-fed Deer Draw of the Slim Buttes. A female obtained on June 26 carried eight embryos that measured 26, and was in process of seasonal molt. Testes of a male shot on May 20 measured 35. Order Rodentia ~Eutamias minimus pallidus~ (J. A. Allen, 1874) Least Chipmunk _Specimens examined_ (31).--2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 15; NW 1/4 sec. 15, R. 5 E, T. 22 N, 2; 2 mi. S, 3-1/4 mi. W Ludlow, 2; NW 1/4 sec. 32, R. 1 E, T. 20 N, 1; 9 mi. S, 7 mi. W Reva, 1; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 9; NE 1/4 sec. 8, R. 8 E, T. 16 N, 1. The least chipmunk is common in the buttes and associated badlands where it most frequently inhabits rocky areas. Visher (1914:88) reported _E. minimus_ from Harding County ("abundant in badlands"), but his paper has been overlooked by most subsequent workers. Visher's mention of a chipmunk from the mouth of the Moreau River in north-central South Dakota, incidentally, would seem to be in error, as would the report by Over and Churchill (1945:28) of _Eutamias_ inhabiting "... thickets along the Little Missouri River of Harding County." Females evidently bear but one litter annually (in late May) in northwestern South Dakota and young are weaned by the latter part of June. Females taken on May 15 and 19 carried embryos (five measuring 30 and three measuring 28, respectively). A lactating female with five placental scars was obtained on May 24, but eight adult females taken after June 23 previously had weaned young. Juveniles were collected on June 24 and 25. Testes of two adult males collected in mid-May measured 11 and 18, but males taken in summer had much smaller testes. In late spring, most adult least chipmunks molt from the worn, drab-gray pelage of winter to a brighter, more tawny summer pelage, but molt in a few females, perhaps originally delayed by reproductive activity, continues well into the summer months. Of seven specimens taken between May 15 and 24, two (one male and one lactating female) were in an early stage of molt, whereas the remainder were in winter pelage. Nine specimens (four females and five males) taken in mid- and late June were molting, but two females collected then were in winter pelage, and three animals, two males and a female, had completed molt to summer pelage. One adult female taken on August 5 had yet to complete molt to summer pelage. In our material, the first indication of molt from winter to summer pelage appears on the top of the head and the cheeks. Thereafter, molt proceeds posteriorly over the shoulder region and more or less evenly along the back and sides. In two specimens, small patches of molt preceded the general molt line. Molt on the venter apparently begins after molt on the dorsum approaches completion, but we could discern no definite pattern; on four specimens, hair was being replaced on the venter in scattered patches. An August-taken young of the year engaged in post-juvenal molt had new adult pelage in a vague hour-glass pattern in the dorsal trunk region as well as on the cheeks and anterior part of the head. It was actively molting on top of the head, between the ears, over the shoulders, laterally behind the front feet, and along the sides, and had old pelage on the rump. Ventrally, the new adult pelage was evident only along the midline. One adult male examined for ectoparasites harbored a tick, _Dermacentor andersoni_ Stiles, and fleas, _Monopsyllus eumolpi_ Rothschild. ~Spermophilus tridecemlineatus pallidus~ J. A. Allen, 1874 Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel _Specimens examined_ (22).--2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 5; 19 mi. N, 1 mi. E Camp Crook, 2; 2 mi. S, 2 mi. W Ladner, 1; 6-1/2 mi. N, 2 mi. W Camp Crook, 1; 1/2 mi. W Reva, 3; 4 mi. S, 1/2 mi. W Reva, 1; 6 mi. W Reva, 7; 15 mi. S, 4 mi. W Reva, 1; 7 mi. S, 4-1/2 mi. E Harding, 1. Ground squirrels are common in areas of short grass; we observed them most frequently along roadways and fencerows in otherwise overgrazed flats. Many of our specimens were shot or taken in break-back traps baited with rolled oats in just such situations. Young from the first litters of the year were above ground by late June and represented the largest segment of the population at that time; for example, only three of 17 individuals collected from June 20 to 27 were adults. Adult females collected on June 20 and July 7 had enlarged mammae but were no longer lactating. Time of emergence from hibernation in northwestern South Dakota is unknown, but many ground squirrels were active in the last week of March, 1963. A male obtained on March 28 had testes that measured 27 and was in full winter pelage, which is easily distinguished from the shorter, darker pelage of summer. ~Cynomys ludovicianus ludovicianus~ (Ord, 1815) Black-tailed Prairie Dog _Specimens examined_ (5).--Sec. 25, R. 3 E, T. 22 N, 2; 1-1/2 mi. W Buffalo, 1; 1/2 mi. W Camp Crook, 3200 ft., 2. The extensive flatlands of short grasses on relatively deep soils provide ideal habitat for the black-tailed prairie dog in Harding County. Visher (1914:89) mentioned extensive colonies along "flats" of streams and reported one "town" west of the Little Missouri River that covered several sections and another "on the table of the West Short Pine Hills." Recently, emphasis on control of numbers of prairie dogs in the area has reduced many formerly extensive colonies to small, disjunct units. According to Robert Kriege (personal communication, 1968), a "town" of approximately 3000 acres, about five miles east of the Little Missouri River (in R. 2 E, T. 21 N), is the largest remaining in the county. Thirteen other colonies then known to him ranged in approximate size from 25 to 300 acres. White-colored prairie dogs apparently are not uncommon in some areas of the county and local residents reported to us a number of instances of sighting such individuals. One "town" located 7-1/2 mi. N and 12 mi. W Ladner, in the northwestern corner of the county, contained at least six families of white individuals, congregated together at the edge of the colony, in the spring of 1968. White prairie dogs also were noted by one of our field parties in 1963 in a "town" formerly located 7-1/2 mi. W Buffalo. ~Tamiasciurus hudsonicus dakotensis~ (J. A. Allen, 1894) Red Squirrel Visher (1914:88) reported that he obtained a red squirrel in the Long Pine Hills, along the western border of Harding County, in July of 1910 and noted that the species had been reported to him as occurring also in the West Short Pine Hills. Visher's record evidently has been overlooked by subsequent cataloguers (see, for example, Hall and Kelson, 1959: map 257). Insofar as we can ascertain, _T. hudsonicus_ does not now occur on any of the pine-clad buttes and ridges of the county, although the species is present in relatively dense stands of ponderosa pine in the Long Pine Hills of adjacent Carter County, Montana, at a place only a few miles west of the South Dakota border. Probably some individuals stray into the relatively small and sparsely-wooded areas of the Long Pine Hills that extend eastward to the north of Camp Crook. On the basis of color, specimens we have examined from the Long Pines clearly are assignable to _T. h. dakotensis_ rather than to _T. h. baileyi_, substantiating in part the statement of the distribution of _dakotensis_ published by Miller and Kellogg (1955:263). ~Thomomys talpoides bullatus~ Bailey, 1914 Northern Pocket Gopher _Specimens examined_ (22).--NE 1/4 sec. 22, R. 1 E, T. 23 N, 1; 7 mi. N, 2-1/2 mi. W Camp Crook, 3300 ft., 3; Camp Crook, 1; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 10; 10 mi. S, 4 mi. W Reva, 4; 2 mi. S, 5 mi. E Harding, 2; Crow Buttes, 1 (USNM). The northern pocket gopher probably occurs in most areas of northwestern South Dakota where the soil is sufficiently deep for constructing burrows, but we found it commonest in the lower grassy slopes of buttes and in relatively sandy areas along some of the major streams. A female obtained on June 20 contained two embryos that measured 3. Testes of an adult male trapped on May 18 measured 19 and those of one taken on July 6 measured 9. Juveniles were collected in both May and June. Bailey (1915:102) referred a specimen from Crow Buttes to _T. t. bullatus_, but Swenk (1941:3), in the original description of _T. t. pierreicolus_, suggested that this same specimen "probably" was referable to the latter because he assumed it came from soils of the Pierre series. However, Baker (1952:8) included the Crow Buttes in the Hell Creek formation and, in any event, one of us (Jones) examined the specimen in question and found it clearly referable to the subspecies _bullatus_. Over and Churchill (1945:32) erroneously assigned pocket gophers from northwestern South Dakota to two different subspecies (_bullatus_ and _clusius_), referring at least one individual from Harding County to _T. t. clusius_. Fleas, _Dactylopsylla ignota_ (Baker), were found on one individual examined. Molting adults were taken in each month from May through August. ~Perognathus fasciatus fasciatus~ Wied-Neuwied, 1839 Olive-backed Pocket Mouse _Specimens examined_ (16).--2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 3; 4 mi. S, 7 mi. W Ladner, 9; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 1; 14 mi. S, 4 mi. W Reva, 2; 15 mi. S, 4 mi. W Reva, 1. This pocket mouse is not uncommon in areas of short grass and sage in Harding County. None of five adult females taken late in June was pregnant or lactating, but three had enlarged mammae indicative of reproductive activity earlier in the spring, to which young of various sizes in our series also attest. Active molt was evident on adults taken on June 19, 26, and 28. Our specimens are intergrades between _Perognathus fasciatus fasciatus_ and the paler _P. f. olivaceogriseus_. Average external measurements of seven adults (two males and five females) are: total length, 138.0 (130-150); length of tail, 65.3 (59-74); length of hind foot, 17.1 (15-18.5); length of ear (six specimens only), 6.8 (6-7); weight in grams (five specimens only), 12.9 (11.2-14.6). Selected cranial measurements of the two males and two of the females are, respectively, as follows: occipitonasal length, 24.0, 23.2, 23.5, 22.3; interorbital breadth, 4.9, 5.2, 5.0, 5.0; mastoid breadth, 13.0, 13.1, 12.2, 11.9; length of maxillary toothrow, 3.3, 3.3, 3.1, 3.4. ~Perognathus hispidus paradoxus~ Merriam, 1889 Hispid Pocket Mouse An adult female, not reproductively active, that was trapped in rather sparsely vegetated rangeland to the southwest of Slim Buttes (14 mi. S and 4 mi. W Reva) on July 19, 1961, is the only specimen of the hispid pocket mouse on record from Harding County. Other species of small mammals taken in the same or adjacent traplines were _Perognathus fasciatus_, _Dipodomys ordii_, _Reithrodontomys megalotis_, _Peromyscus maniculatus_, and _Onychomys leucogaster_. A single individual reported from Wade, Grant Co., North Dakota, by Bailey (1927:123), approximately 100 miles to the northeast, is the only specimen known from a more northerly locality. ~Dipodomys ordii terrosus~ Hoffmester, 1942 Ord's Kangaroo Rat _Specimens examined_ (13).--NE 1/4 sec. 22, R. 1 E, T. 23 N, 6; 2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 1; 2 mi. S, 11 mi. W Reva, 1; 14 mi. S, 4 mi. W Reva, 4; 15 mi. S, 4 mi. W Reva, 1. Ord's kangaroo rat is found in sparsely vegetated flatlands throughout Harding County, although it appears to be uncommon except in localized areas of relatively sandy soils. Five of seven specimens taken from June 18 through 24, 1961, were young of the year, as were three of six individuals trapped on May 31, 1968. One adult female (81.1 grams) obtained on May 31 was lactating and had four placental scars, whereas another that weighed 67.2 grams evidenced no recent reproductive activity. An adult male (67.9 grams) taken on May 31 had testes that measured 9; those of a subadult male (46.5 grams) taken on the same date measured only 6. The two May-taken adult females mentioned above still were completely in winter pelage, but the adult male trapped at the same time was molting. An adult male (57.2 grams) obtained on June 22 had completed molt save for a small patch between the ears and immediately behind the head. ~Castor canadensis missouriensis~ Bailey, 1919 Beaver _Specimens examined_ (2).--Sec. 22, R. 1 E, T. 20 N, 1; 32 mi. SE Buffalo, 1. According to local residents, the beaver is common along many of the water courses in the county. One of our two specimens came from a tributary of the Little Missouri River north of Camp Crook and the other was taken from a tributary of the Moreau River in the southeastern part of the county. Robert Kriege of Buffalo reported to us that beaver are not restricted to wooded areas, but frequently inhabit streams and more or less permanent impoundments bordered by grassland. In such places they are said to construct bank dens and eat principally sage and forbs. Visher (1914:89) reported this species along the Little Missouri River, Boxelder Creek, the forks of Grand River, Bull Creek, and "Devil's Gulch" in the North Cave Hills, and figured (pl. 6) a dam on Rabbit Creek. We have observed evidence of beaver activity along the Little Missouri River southwest of Ladner and along aspen-wooded stream banks in the Short Pine Hills, where in the spring of 1963 abundant sign was found. ~Reithrodontomys megalotis dychei~ J. A. Allen, 1895 Western Harvest Mouse _Specimens examined_ (27).--NE 1/4 sec. 22, R. 1 E, T. 23 N, 1; 4 mi. S, 7 mi. W Ladner, 3; 2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 7; 1/2 mi. W Reva, 14; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 1; 14 mi. S, 4 mi. W Reva, 1. The western harvest mouse was taken commonly in stands of tall grasses and forbs, particularly along roadways and fencerows. Occasional individuals were trapped in areas of mixed shrubs and grasses. Four pregnant females taken in late June carried the following number of embryos (crown-rump lengths in parentheses): seven (4), six (5), six (10), five (4). Three adult males taken in the same period had testes that measured 7, 7, and 8, whereas those of two May-taken males measured 12 and 6. Molt from winter to summer pelage was in progress, from anterior to posterior, on both the dorsum and venter of many May- and June-taken animals. Some individuals had completed molt, or had but a small patch of winter pelage remaining on the rump, as early as the last week in June. ~Reithrodontomys montanus albescens~ Cary, 1903 Plains Harvest Mouse _Specimens examined_ (3).--2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 2; 1/2 mi. W Reva, 1. This harvest mouse is uncommon in northwestern South Dakota, although the species probably occurs sparingly in upland grassy habitats throughout Harding County. Our specimens, along with one in the collections of the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, not previously reported, from 11 mi. S Mandan, Morton Co., North Dakota, represent the northernmost known records of this mouse. A young adult female, obtained on June 21, carried three embryos that measured 17 and was in summer pelage; an adult male taken on June 27 still was in a worn winter pelage. At the locality 1/2 mi. W Reva, where traps were set in sparse to relatively lush grassy areas along South Dakota Highway 20, the following small mammals were taken in the same trapline (or adjacent lines) in which one plains harvest mouse was captured: _Spermophilus tridecemlineatus pallidus_, _Reithrodontomys megalotis dychei_, _Peromyscus maniculatus nebrascensis_, _Microtus ochrogaster haydenii_, and _Microtus pennsylvanicus insperatus_. ~Peromyscus leucopus aridulus~ Osgood, 1909 White-footed Mouse Seven adults of this woodland inhabitant were trapped along shrub-covered banks of the spring-fed stream and small impoundment in Deer Draw of the Slim Buttes (10 mi. S and 5 mi. W Reva). Deciduous trees grew in the bottom of the draw, but the slopes above supported ponderosa pine and juniper. No white-footed mice were found along the generally treeless tributaries of the Moreau and Grand rivers to the east of Slim Buttes nor were these mice found along the Little Missouri River or in likely-looking habitat in the North Cave Hills. The _P. leucopus_ of Deer Draw likely represent, therefore, an isolated segment of a formerly much more broadly distributed population of white-footed mice on the Northern Great Plains in post-Wisconsin times. Other such populations may exist in Slim Buttes and perhaps elsewhere in the county. _Zapus hudsonius_ and _Microtus pennsylvanicus_ were trapped in Deer Draw in association with white-footed mice. Females collected on June 15 and August 7 were lactating and one taken on June 20 contained six embryos that measured 15. Two males taken on June 2 had testes that measured 12 and 15. These two males and a lactating female taken on June 15 still were in winter pelage, whereas a non-breeding female obtained on June 15 and a male and female (pregnant) trapped on June 20 were in summer pelage or an advanced stage of molt to that pelage. A lactating female taken on August 7 was in summer pelage excepting that what definitely appeared to be new winter pelage was present on the head, cheeks, and below the ears, and molt was evident adjacent to these areas. Selected average (and extreme) measurements of the seven adults from Deer Draw are: total length, 184.4 (175-199); length of tail, 77.4 (70-88); length of hind foot, 21.1 (20-22); length of ear, 16.7 (16-18); greatest length of skull, 27.8 (27.0-28.4); zygomatic breadth, 14.6 (14.0-14.9); least interorbital width, 4.1 (4.0-4.3); length of maxillary toothrow, 4.2 (4.0-4.4). Three males and two non-pregnant females weighed 34.9, 34.6, 30.5, 32.2, and 31.4 grams, respectively. ~Peromyscus maniculatus nebrascensis~ (Coues, 1877) Deer Mouse _Specimens examined_ (214).--19 mi. N, 1 mi. E Camp Crook, 5; 18 mi. N Camp Crook, 2; 2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 58; 4 mi. S, 7 mi. W Ladner, 14; 9 mi. N, 3 mi. W Camp Crook, 3400 ft., 3; 7 mi. N, 2-1/2 mi. W Camp Crook, 3300 ft., 2; NW 1/4 sec. 32, R. 1 E, T. 20 N, 4; 1/2 mi. W Reva, 2; SW 1/4 sec. 30, R. 7 E, T. 18 N, 5; 9 mi. S, 7 mi. W Reva, 3; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 64; 14-15 mi. S, 4 mi. W Reva, 33; 2 mi. S, 5 mi. E Harding, 16; 7 mi. S, 4-1/2 mi. E Harding, 3. The deer mouse is the most abundant and widespread small mammal in northwestern South Dakota. We took specimens in all terrestrial habitats, although the species was commonest in upland situations such as grassy fencerows, rocky areas, and hillsides supporting shrubs, juniper, or pine. Adult mice in reproductive condition were taken in each month from May through August, although most of our information is for the months of May and June. In the last half of May, seven pregnant females carried an average of 5.0 (4-6) embryos that ranged in crown-rump length from 2 to 10; three others taken in the same period had six, six, and three recent placental scars, and another was lactating. Twenty-three males collected late in May had testes that measured 5 to 15 (average 10.2). In the last half of June, 19 females contained an average of 4.9 (2-7) embryos that ranged in size from 3 to 30 in crown-rump length, and two more were lactating; seven males obtained in the period June 15-25 had testes that averaged 8.7 (8-10). Additionally, we took lactating females on July 6, July 7, and August 7, and two individuals with recent placental scars on August 5. Twenty adult males collected in the period July 6 to 18 had testes that averaged 9.3 (6-11.5), whereas those of two taken on August 4 and 5 measured 10 and 12, respectively. Young animals in juvenal pelage were captured in each month, May through August, the earliest being taken on May 20. The first female young of the year that was found carrying embryos was trapped on June 16. Molt from winter to summer pelage is evident on some specimens taken as early as the latter part of May, but most individuals from that period and from the first part of June still retained winter pelage. By the last half of June, some mice had completed (or nearly so) the seasonal molt, but many retained at least some worn pelage of winter into the first week of July. Two distinctive maturational pelages are seen in our material--juvenal and post-juvenal or subadult, which generally resembles adult pelage (of season) in texture but is duller of color. Collins (1918) for _P. maniculatus_, Hoffmeister (1951) for _P. truei_, and Brown (1963) for _P. boylii_, among others, have described maturational pelages and sequence of maturational molts similar to those observed in our specimens. Deer mice from Harding County clearly are referable to _P. m. nebrascensis_ (rather than to the smaller and paler _P. m. luteus_, which occurs to the east and southeast), even though adults average somewhat paler than adults of typical populations of that subspecies. A tick of the _Ixodes ochotonae-angustus_ complex was obtained from one specimen. ~Onychomys leucogaster missouriensis~ (Audubon and Bachman, 1851) Northern Grasshopper Mouse _Specimens examined_ (4).--NE 1/4 sec. 22, R. 1 E, T. 22 N, 2; 2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 1; 14 mi. S, 4 mi. W Reva, 1. We found the grasshopper mouse uncommon in Harding County. All four of the mice listed as examined were trapped in areas supporting sage and short grasses, with relatively little ground cover. Three of our four specimens are immature--two males collected on May 31 (testes 10, 12) and a female taken on June 25. An adult male trapped on June 18 was in winter pelage, but molt was underway on the crown, between the ears, and over the upper back and shoulders. ~Neotoma cinerea rupicola~ J. A. Allen, 1894 Bushy-tailed Wood Rat _Specimens examined_ (8).--2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 5; 12 mi. N Buffalo, 1 (USNM); 7 mi. N, 2-1/2 mi. W Camp Crook, 3300 ft., 1; 2 mi. S, 5 mi. E Harding, 1. This woodrat is relatively uncommon, yet widely distributed, in northwestern South Dakota. The species probably occurs throughout the rocky areas in the hills and buttes of Harding County, and also frequents abandoned or little-used buildings and feed stations for livestock. All of our specimens were trapped in rocky habitats, but in many such places we trapped unsuccessfully for _Neotoma cinerea_, even though some sign of its presence frequently was evident. Five of our seven specimens (all taken late in June or early in July) are young of the year in grayish pelage. An adult male trapped on July 14 had testes that measured 14. Over and Churchill (1945:40) mentioned a specimen, which they referred to the subspecies _N. c. cinerea_, that "probably came from the Slim Butte area of Harding County." Visher (1914:89) recorded the species as "plentiful and general" in the county. ~Microtus ochrogaster haydenii~ (Baird, 1858) Prairie Vole _Specimens examined_ (40).--NE 1/4 sec. 22, R. 1 E, T. 23 N, 1; NW 1/4 sec. 15, R. 5 E, T. 22 N, 1; 2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 4; 4 mi. S, 7 mi. W Ladner, 19; 1/2 mi. W Reva, 2; SW 1/4 sec. 30, R. 7 E, T. 18 N, 3; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 10. The prairie vole is the most abundant of the three microtines that are known from Harding County. Our specimens came primarily from areas of relatively dense grasses, such as those found in stream bottoms and along fencerows. At two places, along a fencerow 1/2 mi. W Reva and in Deer Draw, 10 mi. S and 5 mi. W Reva, _Microtus ochrogaster_ and the meadow vole, _M. pennsylvanicus_, were trapped together. Nine females taken late in May and in June carried an average of 4.4 (3-6) embryos that averaged 14.8 (4-25) in crown-rump length. Each of two lactating females taken in late May had six placental scars. Testes of seven adult males taken in May and June averaged 13.1 (12-16) in length. ~Microtus pennsylvanicus insperatus~ (J. A. Allen, 1894) Meadow Vole _Specimens examined_ (14).--1/2 mi. W Reva, 1; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 12; 7 mi. S, 4-1/2 mi. E Harding, 1. This vole evidently is limited in Harding County to habitats of dense grass and forbs adjacent to water. We failed to trap the species in some areas that appeared to be suitable for occupancy. Two females, collected on May 15 and June 2, contained three and six embryos, respectively, that measured 15. One female with five placental scars (May 15) and two with six (May 16, June 2) also were trapped, and a lactating female was captured on June 20. Testes of two adult males taken in spring (May 18 and June 2) measured 15, and those of one weighing 45.6 grams that was taken early in June measured 17. ~Ondatra zibethicus cinnamominus~ (Hollister, 1910) Muskrat The muskrat is common in Harding County. Half a century ago Visher (1914:89) noted that it was "Fairly plentiful along the streams having deep permanent 'holes'." Seven adults, all in winter pelage, were taken late in March from a pond near the west side of Slim Buttes (5 mi. S and 14 mi. E Buffalo). Testes of three adult males measured 17, 19, and 22; of three females, none evidenced reproductive activity. ~Mus musculus~ Linnaeus, 1758 House Mouse The house mouse evidently is uncommon in rural environments in northwestern South Dakota. One subadult female was trapped along a "weedy" fencerow, 2 mi. N and 5 mi. W Ludlow. ~Zapus hudsonius campestris~ Preble, 1899 Meadow Jumping Mouse Eleven specimens of this jumping mouse were taken from a relict population restricted to a shrub-grass habitat adjacent to a small spring-fed stream and impoundment in Deer Draw (10 mi. S and 5 mi. W Reva). Similar isolated populations may be present in the few other suitable mesic habitats in Harding County, but we have trapped extensively, yet unsuccessfully, for _Zapus_ in such situations; specimens are known, however, from the Long Pine Hills and from along the Little Missouri River in adjacent Carter County, Montana. It is of interest that a relict population of _Peromyscus leucopus_ also occurs in Deer Draw. The testes of two adult males obtained on June 3 measured 7, whereas those of one taken on May 16 measured 16. Seven embryos (measuring 8 in crown-rump length) were carried by a molting female trapped on June 16. Our specimens of _Zapus_, currently under study by Paul B. Robertson, appear to be intergrades between the subspecies _campestris_ and _intermedius_, but resemble the former more closely than the latter. ~Erethizon dorsatum bruneri~ Swenk, 1916 Porcupine _Specimens examined_ (11).--NW 1/4 sec. 15, R. 5 E, T. 22 N, 1; 2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 3; 4 mi. S, 7 mi. W Ladner, 1; 10 mi. S, 4 mi. W Reva, 1; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 4; 2 mi. S, 5 mi. E Harding, 1. The porcupine is a common resident of the pine-clad buttes of Harding County and individuals were occasionally encountered some distance from pines. We noted porcupines almost nightly in June of 1961 along the road that parallels the Slim Buttes to the east, and found a number that had been struck by automobiles along this and other roadways in, or adjacent to, wooded areas. Visher (1914:90) earlier reported _Erethizon_ from Harding County. Order Carnivora ~Canis latrans latrans~ Say, 1823 Coyote _Specimens examined_ (8).--North Cave Hills, 1; N of Slim Buttes, 1; N end Slim Buttes, 1; 6 mi. N, 4 mi. W Camp Crook, 2; W of East Short Pine Hills, 1; E of Short Pine Hills, 1; Sheep Mountain, 1. The coyote population in Harding County and adjacent areas is low owing to an active predator control program that is supported by local ranchers and by state and federal agencies. Our field parties neither saw nor heard coyotes, although tracks were found at one or two places in March of 1963. According to Robert Kriege (personal communication), the few coyotes that do reside in the area find refuge in the most rugged parts of the hills and buttes. Visher (1914:90) reported that this carnivore was "generally considered as abundant." Our specimens all are skulls of individuals killed by a federal trapper in the winter of 1961-62. ~Canis lupus nubilus~ Say, 1823 Gray Wolf Visher (1914:90) stated that wolves were "quite plentiful" in the early 1900's; he quoted figures for a two-month period in 1910 when a government trapper took five adults and 25 pups in the vicinity of the Short Pine Hills and two adults and 11 pups in the general area of the Cave Hills. According to local residents, wolves were common in Harding County in the 1920's. One (the famous "Three Toes") trapped 20 mi. NW Buffalo in July of 1925 had eluded capture for more than 13 years, and in that period caused an estimated $50,000 in damage to livestock (Young, 1944:259, 277). It seems likely that the skull of this animal, in the U.S. National Museum, is the one referred to by Goldman (1944:445). Wolves apparently had become rare by about 1930. The last one known to have been killed in northwestern South Dakota was taken on January 27, 1945, near Red Elm, Ziebach County (Carl Cornell, personal communication). We have seen a photograph of this wolf, which was mounted and now is on display in Deadwood, South Dakota. As noted by Goldman (1944:442), the subspecies _nubilus_ probably is extinct. ~Vulpes vulpes regalis~ Merriam, 1900 Red Fox _Specimens examined_ (6).--1 mi. S, 5 mi. E Ladner, 3; 3 mi. S, 12 mi. E Ludlow, 1; 2 mi. W Camp Crook, 3200 ft., 1; 4 mi. S, 1 mi. E Buffalo, 1. This fox was present, although apparently not abundant, in Harding County in the early part of this century (Visher, 1914:90). He reported knowledge of "two or three" that had been trapped in the county and further noted a report that red foxes were "not rare along the Lone Pines." Visher's paper evidently was overlooked by Hall and Kelson (1959: map 447), who did not include the western half of South Dakota within the distribution of the species. The only foxes observed by our field parties were two seen in July of 1970--one an immature animal held captive in Camp Crook and remains of another that had been killed on a county road about 18 miles north of that place. Five specimens that had been killed by hunters were acquired in March 1963 and an isolated skull was picked up west of Camp Crook in 1970. There is a continuing demand from sheep ranchers in the county that foxes be controlled, yet this species seems to maintain considerably higher populations than does the coyote. According to federal trapper Robert Kriege (personal communication), dens of the red fox have been found principally in the badlands and in certain grassland areas, but rarely in the buttes proper. Records kept by Mr. Kriege indicate that litters are born in mid-March in Harding County. He estimated that over the past few years he has examined whelps from an average of 50 dens a year, but that more than 170 dens were found in the spring of 1963. ~Ursus americanus americanus~ Pallas, 1780 Black Bear Visher (1914:91) reported that a black bear "was seen near the Cave Hills in July, 1910." He further noted: "Bears have been recently killed in the Long Pine and Ekalaka forests [of adjacent Montana], but their day of extermination is here near at hand." We know of no other reports of this carnivore from the area. ~Ursus arctos horribilis~ Ord, 1815 Grizzly Bear According to Visher (1914:91) a grizzly bear was killed in the early 1890's a short distance southwest of Camp Crook. ~Procyon lotor hirtus~ Nelson and Goldman, 1930 Raccoon _Specimens examined_ (10).--2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 4; 1/2 mi. W Reva, 1; 4 mi. E Reva, 2; NW 1/4 sec. 32, R. 1 E, T. 20 N, 3. The raccoon evidently is one of the commonest carnivores in Harding County. On June 24, 1961, a den with three young (average total length, 429) was found in one of the numerous pockets eroded from the caprock of the North Cave Hills, and on May 21, 1968, another den, this one containing five young (average total length of three, 271), was found in a similar situation on the east edge of the Long Pine Hills. A female trapped on June 20, 1961, was lactating. Three individuals that had been killed at Ralph, along nearly treeless Big Nasty Creek, were examined on May 28, 1968. ~Mustela frenata longicauda~ Bonaparte, 1838 Long-tailed Weasel This mustelid seems uncommon in northwestern South Dakota. The only recent reports from Harding County that have come to our attention are of a female and four or five young that were found in a haystack "several years prior to 1963" (Robert Kriege, personal communication), and of several individuals seen by a rancher in a hay field along the Little Missouri about 7 mi. N Camp Crook during mowing operations in July 1970. Visher (1914:91) regarded the species as "quite common," and noted that "4 or 5 dead ones" were seen along roads in the summer of 1910. ~Mustela nigripes~ (Audubon and Bachman, 1851) Black-footed Ferret In a recent summary of the natural history of this species in South Dakota, Henderson _et al._ (1969) listed seven localities in Harding County (all in prairie dog "towns") at which ferrets had been sighted or trapped as follows (dates in parentheses): near Ladner (March, 1963); 17 mi. N Camp Crook (about 1956 or 1957); T. 20 N, R. 3 E (1964); T. 20 N, R. 4 E (winter, 1964); T. 19 N, R. 1 E (late November, 1966); T. 17 N, R. 8 E (summer, 1965); T. 15 N, R. 1 E (winter, 1963). These authors also reported a specimen in the U.S. National Museum (no. 243990) that was taken at Govert on November 1, 1923. Additionally, Wesley Broer, then the local game warden, reported to one of our parties that a ferret was seen on February 27, 1963, at a place 7 mi. N and 16 mi. W Buffalo. Visher (1914) made no mention of this species in his report of the natural history of Harding County. ~Mustela vison letifera~ Hollister, 1913 Mink Tracks of a mink were observed by a member of one of our field parties (T. H. Swearingen) in late March of 1963 at a pond 5 mi. S and 14 mi. E Buffalo, and one was reported to have been trapped in the same area the previous winter. Reports by local residents indicate that mink occur along the Little Missouri River as well as streams on the north side of the North Cave Hills. Visher (1914:91) reported the species to be uncommon but he knew of one trapped in February of 1911 on Bull Creek. ~Taxidea taxus taxus~ (Schreber, 1778) Badger _Specimens examined_ (4).--Sec. 25, R. 3 E, T. 22 N, 1; NE 1/4 sec. 28, R. 4 E, T. 19 N, 1; 4 mi. E Reva, 1; 10 mi. S, 2 mi. W Buffalo, 1. Local residents regarded the badger as relatively common in the grasslands of Harding County, although this species was only rarely observed by members of our field parties. Visher (1914:91) reported it to be "quite common." ~Spilogale putorius interrupta~ (Rafinesque, 1820) Spotted Skunk We took no spotted skunks in northwestern South Dakota and both local residents and government trappers reported this species to be rare in the area. Visher (1914:91) indicated that it was "much more common than the large skunk" in the early part of this century. ~Mephitis mephitis hudsonica~ Richardson, 1829 Striped Skunk Visher (1914:91) found this species to be "uncommon" in Harding County, as we did more than a half century later. Some local residents, however, reported this skunk to be fairly abundant. We took one specimen, an adult female having enlarged mammae that was captured on July 6, 1965, at a place 7 mi. S and 4-1/2 mi. E Harding, just south of the Short Pine Hills. Site records of several other striped skunks were obtained as follows: 14 mi. N Buffalo; 6 mi. N and 2-1/2 mi. W Camp Crook; 5-1/2 mi. WNW Buffalo; 1-1/2 mi. S and 1/2 mi. E Buffalo; 4 mi. S Buffalo; 10 mi. SW Ralph; and 1 mi. S Reva. ~Lutra canadensis interior~ Swenk, 1920 Otter We have no record of this species in Harding County other than Visher's (1914:91) report that an individual was "recently trapped along the Little Missouri River." ~Felis concolor hippolestes~ Merriam, 1897 Mountain Lion This large cat likely occurred throughout northwestern South Dakota prior to settlement by white man. No specimens are available from Harding County, but Visher (1914:91) reported that an individual "visited the East Short Pines in the winter of 1910-11." It is doubtful that _Felis concolor_ occurs in the area today, except possibly as an occasional transient. ~Lynx rufus pallescens~ Merriam, 1899 Bobcat _Specimens examined_ (3).--12 mi. N, 9 mi. W Buffalo, 1; 11 mi. N, 7 mi. W Buffalo, 1; 9 mi. N, 9 mi. W Buffalo, 1. The bobcat, although not abundant, is generally distributed throughout Harding County, particularly in the buttes and badlands. Visher (1914:90) reported the species as common in the early part of this century. Our three specimens were shot in March 1963 by professional hunters sponsored by the Western South Dakota Sheepman Association, two from the air and one on the ground. Two other bobcats were killed in the same three-day period (March 25-27). We tentatively assign our specimens to the subspecies _pallescens_ owing to their pale color and the general agreement of their external and cranial measurements with those reported for other specimens of that race. Geographic variation in _Lynx rufus_ from throughout the Northern Great Plains is poorly documented, however, and is in need of critical analysis. External measurements of the three specimens, all males (adult and two young adults, respectively), are: total length, 870, 925, 820; length of tail, 142, 176, 155; length of hind foot, 191, 192, 178; length of ear, 82, 84, 71; weight (pounds), 23, 17, 16. Respective lengths of testes were 30, 36, and 15. Selected cranial measurements of the adult and largest young adult are: condylobasal length, 113.7, 111.5; zygomatic breadth, 88.3, 83.7; interorbital constriction, 24.5, 23.5; length of nasals, 30.1, 30.8; length of maxillary toothrow, 37.7, 38.6. Order Artiodactyla ~Cervus elaphus canadensis~ Erxleben, 1777 Wapiti or Elk Visher (1914:87) reported that the last native elk in Harding County was killed in the Long Pine Hills in 1879, and also mentioned skulls picked up in the Cave Hills. The origin of a wapiti allegedly shot in the Slim Buttes in 1956 (Robert Kriege, personal communication) is unknown, but presumably this individual was a wanderer, possibly from the Black Hills to the south where elk were reintroduced some years ago. ~Odocoileus hemionus hemionus~ (Rafinesque, 1817) Mule Deer _Specimens examined_ (6).--2 mi. N, 5 mi. W Ludlow, 1; 9 mi. N, 10 mi. W Buffalo, 2; 10 mi. S, 5 mi. W Reva, 3. The mule deer is common in the buttes and adjacent badland areas of the county, and many were seen by members of each of our field parties. Local residents reported "black-tails" to be widespread in the area and State Game Protector Merritt Paukarbek reported to Andersen that even though hunting success was high in the autumn of 1967, there was no apparent reduction in numbers in the spring of 1968. In contrast, Visher (1914:88) found this species absent in Harding County in the early 1900's, and stated that it was "exterminated by 1900." An adult female taken on June 26, 1961, in the North Cave Hills was molting and evidenced no indication of reproductive activity. ~Odocoileus virginianus dacotensis~ Goldman and Kellogg, 1940 White-tailed Deer _Specimen examined_ (1).--8-1/2 mi. N, 1-1/2 mi. E Camp Crook, 1. The white-tailed deer is less abundant in northwestern South Dakota than is _O. hemionus_, but a number were seen by members of our parties (in Deer Draw of the Slim Buttes, for example), and local residents reported many sightings to us. Visher (1914:82) earlier recorded this species as once "fairly plentiful in the forest reserves" in Harding County, but stated that it had become rare when he made his biological survey of the area in 1910 and 1912. ~Antilocapra americana americana~ (Ord, 1815) Pronghorn _Specimens examined_ (2).--Sec. 28, R. 8 E, T. 23 N, 1; 12 mi. S, 10 mi. W Buffalo, 1. This species is the most conspicuous (and possibly the most abundant) ungulate in Harding County. It ranges throughout the county on flat and rolling grasslands where small groups, and occasionally herds of up to 50 individuals, were seen in 1960, 1961, 1963, 1968, and 1970. Visher (1914:88) reported that the pronghorn was common in the area until about 1900, but that it was near the point of extinction when he visited the county in 1910 and 1912. ~Bison bison bison~ (Linnaeus, 1758) Bison According to historical accounts (Anonymous, 1959), the bison was rare or absent in Harding County at the time of settlement in 1876. By the early 1880's, however, herds were of regular occurrence, and there is one record (_op. cit._: 95-96) of thousands crossing the Little Missouri near Camp Crook in November of 1882. One report has it that the last bison killed in the county was shot in the summer of 1884 (_op. cit._: 73-74), but Visher (1914:88) reported that an "old settler" had seen "a small bunch in 1886." Visher also reported finding bison remains, probably in 1910 or 1912, to the northeast of the North Cave Hills and west of the South Cave Hills. ~Ovis canadensis auduboni~ Merriam, 1901 Mountain Sheep According to Visher (1914:88), mountain sheep formerly inhabited all the areas of buttes in Harding County but were extirpated in the 1890's. Sheep Mountain, a large butte just below the south end of the Slim Buttes, was reported to be the last area in which these animals occurred. Over and Churchill (1945:54) mentioned both the Cave Hills and Slim Buttes as localities formerly inhabited by _O. c. auduboni_. Early in 1961, the South Dakota Game Commission introduced 12 animals, four rams and eight ewes, from Alberta (subspecies _O. c. canadensis_) on the Slim Buttes, but none is known to have survived to 1968. SPECIES OF UNVERIFIED OCCURRENCE The ten species of mammals listed below are not known certainly to occur in Harding County, but there is a strong likelihood that some will be found in the area or once occurred there. Three were mentioned by Visher (1914) as having been seen or taken in the county at the time of, or prior to, his biological survey of 1910 and 1912, but his accounts were not supported by adequate documentation. In addition to the kinds listed, several other mammals, such as Keen's bat (_Myotis keenii septentrionalis_), the red bat (_Lasiurus borealis borealis_), or the least weasel (_Mustela nivalis campestris_) are known to occur near enough to the area that the possibility of their presence cannot be discounted. ~Sorex cinereus haydeni~ Baird, 1858.--No shrews presently are known from Harding County. This species almost certainly will be found in relatively mesic habitats there, however, as our field parties have taken specimens in adjacent Bowman County, North Dakota, and only a few miles to the west of the county in the Long Pines Hills of Montana. ~Sorex merriami merriami~ Dobson, 1890.--This shrew inhabits somewhat more xeric areas than most other members of the genus and surely occurs in northwestern South Dakota. Specimens are on record from western North Dakota and northwestern Nebraska, and in the summer of 1970 a field party from The University of Kansas took one but a half mile west of the Harding County (state) line in Carter County, Montana. ~Spermophilus richardsonii richardsonii~ (Sabine, 1822).--Visher (1914:88) reported that he saw individuals of this species "in the extreme northwestern corner" of Harding County. However, the limits of the presently known range of the species are approximately 150 miles distant from that area. ~Sciurus niger rufiventer~ E. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, 1803.--The fox squirrel presently is unrecorded from much of the West River part of South Dakota. Hoffmann _et al._ (1969:589), however, recently have reported specimens from along the Yellowstone River in eastern Montana and this squirrel now may occur also along the Little Missouri River. It was not surprising, therefore, when residents of Camp Crook reported to us that in recent years they have seen what were believed to be fox squirrels along the Little Missouri near that town. Specimens now are needed to verify these reports. ~Lagurus curtatus pallidus~ (Merriam, 1888).--The sagebrush vole undoubtedly occurs, albeit probably uncommonly, in areas of sage in northwestern Harding County, because specimens have been taken recently a few miles north and west of the county in North Dakota and Montana, respectively. We trapped unsuccessfully (900 trap nights) for this vole on sage flats to the north of Camp Crook and west of the Little Missouri River in the summer of 1970. "Sign," which appeared to be that of _Lagurus_, was found in this area, but only _Peromyscus maniculatus_ and _Spermophilus tridecemlineatus_ were trapped there. ~Rattus norvegicus~ (Berkenhout, 1769).--No records of this introduced murid are available from northwestern South Dakota, but it seems likely that the species has reached the area. ~Vulpes velox~ (Say, 1823).--Visher (1914:90) reported seeing a swift fox "along the Little Missouri Valley in North Dakota" and further noted that an early settler [Sol Catron] had "trapped a few" in Harding County. Whatever the former status of this fox in northwestern South Dakota may have been, the species evidently does not occur in the area today, or is rare, and the subspecific status of _V. velox_ throughout much of the Northern Great Plains is in question. A specimen obtained in February of 1970 at a place 9 mi. N and 2 mi. E Scranton, Slope Co., North Dakota, is the only swift fox taken north of Nebraska in recent years (Pfeifer and Hibbard, 1970:835). ~Urocyon cinereoargenteus ocythous~ Bangs, 1899.--Jones and Henderson (1963:288) reported a gray fox from Deer Ear Buttes, Butte Co., South Dakota, approximately 15 miles south of the Harding County line. This species appears to have dispersed westward in recent years, and its future occurrence in the county is likely. ~Gulo gulo luscus~ (Linnaeus, 1758).--The wolverine probably occurred sparingly in northwestern South Dakota until the time of early settlement, but we know of no verified records from Harding County or surrounding areas. A recent report of a specimen taken south of Timber Lake, Dewey Co., South Dakota (Jones, 1964:283), indicates that it may again be found in the area. ~Lynx canadensis canadensis~ Kerr, 1792.--We have no reports of this species in Harding County save that Visher (1914:90) noted that local residents claimed specimens had "been taken recently in the Cave Hills." Hoffmann and Pattie (1968:53) reported that the lynx occurs presently in eastern Montana and we suspect that individuals may occasionally range into Harding County. ZOOGEOGRAPHIC COMMENTS Of the 53 mammals listed in the foregoing accounts, all but one (_Mus musculus_) are native North American species. These fall into five rather well-defined faunal groupings as outlined by Hoffmann and Jones (1970:364-365). A majority (27) can be characterized as "widespread species." Most of these have broad distributions over much of North America; a few do not, but are widely enough distributed that it is impossible to assign them with certainty to a more circumscribed assemblage. Mammals from northwestern South Dakota that can be characterized as widespread are: _Myotis leibii_, _Myotis lucifugus_, _Eptesicus fuscus_, _Lasionycteris noctivagans_, _Lasiurus cinereus_, _Castor canadensis_, _Peromyscus maniculatus_, _Ondatra zibethicus_, _Erethizon dorsatum_, _Canis latrans_, _Canis lupus_, _Vulpes vulpes_, _Ursus americanus_, _Ursus arctos_, _Procyon lotor_, _Mustela frenata_, _Mustela vison_, _Taxidea taxus_, _Mephitis mephitis_, _Lutra canadensis_, _Felis concolor_, _Lynx rufus_, _Cervus elaphus_, _Odocoileus hemionus_, _Odocoileus virginianus_, _Antilocapra americana_, and _Bison bison_. The above list is composed mainly of volant or relatively large and mobile mammals, several of which occur also in Eurasia or range well into the Neotropics. A few widespread species deserve special comment. Two, the pronghorn and bison, are typical inhabitants of the interior grasslands of North America and might be considered steppe species save for the fact that each has an extensive distribution beyond that region. Four other species, _Erethizon dorsatum_, thought of primarily as a mammal of coniferous forests, and _Ursus arctos_, _Taxidea taxus_, and _Odocoileus hemionus_, all more or less western taxa, are not so broadly distributed as are other members of this grouping. Of the five bats, three are year-round residents, but _Lasiurus cinereus_ and evidently _Lasionycteris noctivagans_ are migrants. The remaining 25 kinds of mammals are representative of four regional faunal groupings as follows: boreomontane species (10), steppe species (nine), species with Sonoran affinities (four), and species of the eastern deciduous forest (two). _Boreomontane species._--Of the 10 mammals in this faunal group, three (_Eutamias minimus_, _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, and _Microtus pennsylvanicus_) are distributed both in the boreal forests to the north of the plains and in montane areas to the west. Six species (_Myotis evotis_, _Myotis volans_, _Plecotus townsendii_, _Thomomys talpoides_, _Neotoma cinerea_, and _Ovis canadensis_) are primarily montane in distribution and evidently reached northwestern South Dakota from the west in late Wisconsin or post-glacial times; all but the pocket gopher occur there now only in the vicinity of coniferous timber or rocky buttes. The remaining species, _Zapus hudsonius_, is a glacial "relic." The nearest populations now are far to the north, and this jumping mouse occupies only restricted habitats in northwestern South Dakota and adjacent regions. In Harding County, _Z. hudsonius_ presently is known only from Deer Draw in the Slim Buttes. _Steppe species._--Taxa intimately associated with the Great Plains are: _Lepus townsendii_, _Cynomys ludovicianus_, _Spermophilus tridecemlineatus_, _Perognathus fasciatus_, _Perognathus hispidus_, _Reithrodontomys montanus_, _Microtus ochrogaster_, _Mustela nigripes_, and _Spilogale putorius_ (subspecies _interrupta_). A few of these are endemic to the plains, but most occur in grassland habitats beyond the borders of the region. All clearly are well adapted to, and therefore presumably evolved in response to, the environment of the interior grasslands; this zoogeographic unit, then, is characterized by truly steppe species that have relatively narrow habitat requirements and largely concordant patterns of distribution. The case of the spotted skunk deserves brief commentary. This species was not taken or observed by members of our field parties and local residents made no claim to its presence except for a few vague recollections of spotted skunks having been seen "years ago." Visher (1914:91), however, reported that _Spilogale_ was much commoner than _Mephitis_ in the early part of the century. However that may have been, _Spilogale putorius_, as currently understood, would be judged to be a widespread species except that recent evidence strongly suggests that the plains race (_interrupta_) is not of the same species as spotted skunks to the west (subspecies _gracilis_). Furthermore, the ranges of the two are not in contact. Whatever its ultimate specific affinities may be, _S. p. interrupta_ clearly is a plains mammal, and thus is here considered in that zoogeographic unit. _Sonoran species._--_Sylvilagus audubonii_, _Dipodomys ordii_, _Reithrodontomys megalotis_, and _Onychomys leucogaster_ are invaders to the Northern Great Plains from the Sonoran region to the southwest. The latter two, however, are rather broadly distributed on the Great Plains and their assignment as Sonoran species is somewhat arbitrary. It is of interest that as many as nine mammals with southwestern affinities occur as far north as southwestern South Dakota and adjacent Wyoming. _Eastern species._--Only _Sylvilagus floridanus_ and _Peromyscus leucopus_ can be identified as species primarily associated with the eastern deciduous forest. The former is limited in northwestern South Dakota to brushy habitats in riparian communities, whereas _P. leucopus_ is restricted to relatively good stands of deciduous timber and presently is known to occur only in Deer Draw of the Slim Buttes. Throughout its known range in the western part of the Northern Great Plains, _P. leucopus_ is represented by small and disjunct populations associated with riparian deciduous timber. The known population nearest to Harding County is on the Black Hills to the south; next nearest are several isolated or semi-isolated populations along the Yellowstone River in eastern Montana. Presumably, this white-footed mouse spread northwestward into the western part of the plains region along river systems, in company with deciduous trees, in some post-glacial period when the climate was warmer and wetter than now. Subsequent drying altered substantially the distribution and perhaps composition of riparian forests, and isolated populations of _P. leucopus_ evidently survived only in restricted areas, such as Deer Draw, many of them probably marginal habitat for the species. _Unverified species._--If the 10 species listed as of "unverified occurrence," it seems highly likely that as many as eight will be found to occur, or occurred within historic time, in Harding County. Among these eight are one steppe species (_Vulpes velox_), three with boreomontane affinities (_Sorex cinereus_, _Gulo gulo_, and _Lynx canadensis_), two (_Sciurus niger_ and _Urocyon cinereoargenteus_) that are associated with the eastern deciduous forests, and two (_Sorex merriami_ and _Lagurus curtatus_) that are Great Basin elements. It is noteworthy that the last-mentioned faunal unit is not known to be represented in northwestern South Dakota. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For assistance in the field, we are especially grateful to the students who were enrolled in the Field Course in Vertebrate Zoology at The University of Kansas in the summers of 1961, 1965, and 1970, and to M. A. Levy, R. R. Patterson, and T. H. Swearingen. In 1965 and 1970, the summer field course was supported in part by grants (GE-7739 and GZ-1512, respectively) from the National Science Foundation; Andersen was supported in the field in 1968 by a grant from the Kansas City Council for Higher Education. Personnel of the U.S. Forest Service (Sioux Division, Custer National Forest), particularly District Ranger Timothy S. Burns, were most helpful to us in the field, as were Wardens Wesley Broer and Merritt Paukarbek of the South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks. Robert Kriege, Federal predator control agent stationed in Buffalo, was most generous in sharing with us his knowledge of rodents and carnivores in the area, and many present or former residents, particularly Carl Cornell and Spike Jorgensen, also provided useful information and were helpful in other ways. Ectoparasites reported here were identified by Cluff E. Hopla (fleas), Richard B. Loomis (chiggers), and Glen M. Kohls (ticks). Other than mammals housed in the Museum of Natural History, we examined only three, two in the U.S. National Museum (USNM) and one in the collection at South Dakota State University, Brookings (SDSU). LITERATURE CITED ANONYMOUS 1959. Building an empire: a historical booklet on Harding County, South Dakota. Buffalo Times-Herald, 108 pp. BAILEY, V. 1915. Revision of the pocket gophers of the genus Thomomys. N. Amer. Fauna, 39:1-136. 1927. A biological survey of North Dakota. N. Amer. Fauna, 49: vi + 1-226 [this publication is dated 1926, but actually was published on January 8, 1927]. BAKER, C. L. 1952. Geology of Harding County. Rept. South Dakota State Geol. Surv., 68:1-36 (mimeographed). BROWN, L. N. 1963. Maturational molts and seasonal molts in Peromyscus boylii. Amer. Midland Nat., 70:466-469. COLLINS, H. H. 1918. Studies of normal moult and of artificially induced regeneration of pelage in Peromyscus. Jour. Exp. Zool., 27:73-99. GOLDMAN, E. A. 1944. Classification of wolves. Pp. 387-507, _in_ The wolves of North America (S. P. Young and E. A. Goldman), Amer. Wildlife Inst., Washington, D.C., xx + 636 pp. HALL, E. R., and K. R. KELSON 1959. The mammals of North America. Ronald Press, New York, 2: xxx + 1-546 + 79 and 2: viii + 547-1083 + 79. HENDERSON, F. R., P. F. SPRINGER, and R. ADRIAN 1969. The black-footed ferret in South Dakota. South Dakota Dept. Game, Fish and Parks, Pierre, 37 pp. HOFFMANN, R. S., and J. K. JONES, JR. 1970. Influence of late-glacial and post-glacial events on the distribution of Recent mammals on the Northern Great Plains. Pp. 355-394, _in_ Pleistocene and Recent environments of the Central Great Plains (W. Dort, Jr., and J. K. Jones, Jr., eds.), Univ. Press of Kansas, Lawrence, xii + 433 pp. HOFFMANN, R. S., and D. L. PATTIE 1968. A guide to Montana mammals.... Univ. Montana, Missoula, x + 133 pp. HOFFMANN, R. S., P. L. WRIGHT, and F. E. NEWBY 1969. Distribution of some mammals in Montana. I. Mammals other than bats. Jour. Mamm., 50:579-604. HOFFMEISTER, D. F. 1951. A taxonomic and evolutionary study of the pinon mouse, Peromyscus truei. Illinois Biol. Monogr., 21: ix + 1-104. JONES, J. K., JR. 1964. Distribution and taxonomy of mammals of Nebraska. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:1-356. JONES, J. K., JR., and H. H. GENOWAYS 1967. Annotated checklist of bats from South Dakota. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 70:184-196. JONES, J. K., JR., and F. R. HENDERSON 1963. Noteworthy records of foxes from South Dakota. Jour. Mamm., 44:283. LILLEGRAVEN, J. A. 1970. Stratigraphy, structure, and vertebrate fossils of the Oligocene Brule Formation, Slim Buttes, northwestern South Dakota. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 81:831-850. MILLER, G. S., JR., and R. KELLOGG 1955. List of North American Recent mammals. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 205: xii + 1-954. OVER, W. H., and E. P. CHURCHILL 1945. Mammals of South Dakota. Univ. South Dakota Mus., 56 pp. (mimeographed). PFEIFER, W. K., and E. A. HIBBARD 1970. A recent record of the swift fox (_Vulpes velox_) in North Dakota. Jour. Mamm., 51:835. SWENK, M. H. 1941. A study of subspecific variation in the Richardson pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides) in Nebraska, with description of two new subspecies. Missouri Valley Fauna, 4:1-8. VISHER, S. S. 1914. Report on the biology of Harding County, northwestern South Dakota. Bull. South Dakota Geol. Surv., 6:1-103. YOUNG, S. P. 1944. Their history, life habits, economic status, and control. Pp. 1-385, _in_ The wolves of North America (S. P. Young and E. A. Goldman), Amer. Wildlife Inst., Washington, D.C., xx + 636 pp. 
33710	----	Comments on the Taxonomy and Geographic Distribution of Some North American Marsupials, Insectivores and Carnivores BY E. RAYMOND HALL and KEITH R. KELSON University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 25, pp. 319-341 December 5, 1952 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1952 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 25, pp. 319-341 December 5, 1952 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1952 Transcriber's Note: Words and phrases printed in bold are marked with ~; i.e., ~This is bold.~ Comments on the Taxonomy and Geographic Distribution of Some North American Marsupials, Insectivores and Carnivores BY E. RAYMOND HALL and KEITH R. KELSON In preparing maps showing the geographic distribution of North American mammals we have found in the literature conflicting statements and questionable identifications, which have led us to examine the specimens concerned with results as set forth below. Our studies have been aided by a contract (NR 161-791) between the Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy, and the University of Kansas. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the persons in charge of the several collections of mammals consulted for permission to examine and study the specimens therein. ~Didelphis marsupialis californica~ Bennett From Cuernavaca, Morelos, Hooper (Jour. Mamm., 28:43, February 1, 1947) lists a specimen, as he says, on purely geographic grounds, as of the subspecies _Didelphis mesamericana tabascensis_. We have examined this specimen, an unsexed skull-only, which falls within the range of individual variation of _Didelphis marsupialis californica_ and refer the specimen to that subspecies. ~Didelphis marsupialis etensis~ J. A. Allen From El Muñeco, Costa Rica, Harris (Occas. Papers, Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, no. 476:7, October 8, 1943) lists as _Didelphis richmondi_ a specimen ([Male], No. 67550 U.M.). Our examination of the specimen shows it to be within the range of individual variation of populations that have been referred to _D. m. etensis_ from adjoining areas. We identify the specimen as _Didelphis marsupialis etensis_. ~Didelphis marsupialis tabascensis~ J. A. Allen From Minatitlán, Veracruz, J. A. Allen (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:168, June 15) listed a specimen under the name _Didelphis marsupialis_ [in the trinomial sense] instead of under the name _Didelphis marsupialis tabascensis_, which would be expected, on geographic grounds, to apply. The specimen is No. 78123, U.S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll. Our examination of the specimen reveals that it is within the range of individual variation of _Didelphis marsupialis tabascensis_ and we identify the specimen as of that subspecies. From Yaruca, Honduras, Bangs (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 39:157, July, 1903) doubtfully listed as _Didelphis yucatanensis_ a specimen, No. 10611, M.C.Z. Our examination of the specimen indicates that it is within the range of variation expectable in _Didelphis marsupialis tabascensis_, known from surrounding areas, and we identify the specimen as _Didelphis marsupialis tabascensis_. ~Didelphis marsupialis virginiana~ Kerr J. A. Allen (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:166, May 28, 1901) and A. H. Howell (N. Amer. Fauna, 45:20, October 28, 1921) have identified four skulls from Sylacuga, Alabama, as _Didelphis virginiana pigra_. The two subspecies _virginiana_ and _pigra_ are not known to differ cranially. We have, however, examined the skulls which are Nos. 44057-44060 in the U.S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll. Because they are from a place north of other localities (Auburn and Greensboro, Alabama) from which the subspecies _virginiana_ has been recorded, and within the geographic range of _virginiana_, we identify the specimens as _Didelphis marsupialis virginiana_. Sycamore Creek (synonymous with Fort Worth), Texas, is a place from which J. A. Allen (_op. cit._:173) recorded a specimen as _Didelphis marsupialis texensis_. This specimen (No. 24359/31765 U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.) is in the black color-phase. There are only a few white hairs on the hind feet, and the basal fourth of the tail is black. The black phase occurs all through the range of the species _D. marsupialis_ and our examination of the specimen reveals no characters by which it can be distinguished from _D. m. virginiana_ of the surrounding region and we accordingly identify the specimen as _Didelphis marsupialis virginiana_. ~Didelphis marsupialis pigra~ Bangs Davis (Jour. Mamm., 25:375, December 12, 1944) was one writer who presented evidence that _Didelphis virginiana_ (through its subspecies _virginiana_ or _pigra_ or both) was only subspecifically distinct from the species _Didelphis mesembrinus_ (= _D. marsupialis_) through the subspecies _texensis_. Davis, however, did not actually employ a name combination that would enforce his conclusion and he remarked that he had not seen specimens which showed actual intergradation in the color of the toes. As the remarks below will show, Davis (_loc. cit._) was correct in his supposition that J. A. Allen had seen such specimens. Deming Station, Matagordo, and Velasco, Texas, are three places from which J. A. Allen (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:162, May 28, 1901) listed specimens as _Didelphis virginiana_. The specimens concerned are in the Biological Surveys Collection of the U.S. Nat. Museum and bear catalogue numbers as follows: Deming Station, 32430/44266, 32432/44268, 32433/44269; Matagordo, 32431/44267; Velasco, 32812/44833. In each specimen the tail is shorter than the head and body. The specimen from Velasco is semi-black, has the basal tenth of the tail black and there is no white on the ears or tail. The specimen from Matagordo is grayish, has the basal fifth of the tail black, ears black, the right hind foot black, but there is some white on the toes of the left hind foot and on each of the forefeet. Of the three specimens from Deming Station, all are in the gray color-phase. The first has the tail black only as far from the base as there is hair and there is considerable whitish on the hind toes. The second specimen has the basal fifth of the tail black and a slight amount of whitish on the hind toes. The third specimen has the basal third of the tail black and the toes are all black. In the sum total of their characters the specimens mentioned above are referable to _Didelphis marsupialis pigra_. These five specimens, and indeed the three from Deming Station alone, show intergradation in coloration of the feet between _Didelphis marsupialis texensis_ and _Didelphis virginiana pigra_. Probably there is three-way intergradation here at Deming Station in that _D. v. virginiana_ immediately to the north is involved. The specimens mentioned above, along with the information recorded by Davis (_loc. cit._) and other authors (for example, J. A. Allen, _loc. cit._, and Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:249-279, August 18, 1902), give basis for arranging the North American _Didelphis_ as follows: _Didelphis marsupialis virginiana_ Kerr. 1792. _Didelphis virginiana_ Kerr, Animal Kingdom, p. 193, type locality Virginia. _Didelphis marsupialis pigra_ Bangs. 1898. _Didelphis virginiana pigra_ Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 28:172, March, type from Oak Lodge, opposite Micco, Brevard Co., Florida. _Didelphis marsupialis texensis_ J. A. Allen. 1901. _Didelphis marsupialis texensis_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:172, June 15, type from Brownsville, Cameron County, Texas. _Didelphis marsupialis californica_ Bennett. 1833. _Didelphis Californica_ Bennett, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 40, May 17, type probably from northwestern part of present Republic of Mexico. 1924. _Didelphis mesamericana mesamericana_, Miller. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 128:3, April 29, 1924, and authors. Type locality, northern Mexico. (_Did[elphys]. mesamericana_ Oken, Lehrbuch d. naturgesch., pt. 3, vol. 2, p. 1152, 1816, along with other names from Oken 1816, is judged to be unavailable under current rules of zoological nomenclature.) _Didelphis marsupialis tabascensis_ J. A. Allen. 1901. _Didelphis marsupialis tabascensis_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:173, June 15, type from Teapa, Tabasco. _Didelphis marsupialis yucatanensis_ J. A. Allen. 1901. _Didelphis yucatanensis_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:178, June 15, type from Chichenitza, Yucatán. _Didelphis marsupialis cozumelae_ Merriam. 1901. _Didelphis yucatanensis cozumelae_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:101, July 19, type from Cozumel Island, Yucatan. _Didelphis marsupialis richmondi_ J. A. Allen. 1901. _Didelphis richmondi_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:175, June 15, type from Greytown, Nicaragua. 1920. _D[idelphis], m[arsupialis], richmondi_, Goldman, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 69(5):46, April 24. _Didelphis marsupialis etensis_ J. A. Allen. 1902. _Didelphis marsupialis etensis_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:262, August 18, type from Eten, Piura, Perú. _Didelphis marsupialis battyi_ Thomas. 1902. _Didelphis marsupialis battyi_ Thomas, Novitates Zoologicae, 9:137, April 10, type from Coiba Island, Panamá. _Didelphis marsupialis particeps_ Goldman. 1917. _Didelphis marsupialis particeps_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 30:107, May 23, type from San Miguel Island, Panamá. _Didelphis marsupialis insularis_ J. A. Allen. 1902. _Didelphis marsupialis insularis_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:259, August 18, type from Caparo, Trinidad. In listing the subspecific names given immediately above we are aware of the possibility that a thorough study of the geographic variation in _Didelphis marsupialis_ may contract or expand the list of recognizable subspecies. We are aware also that Hershkovitz (Fieldiana: Zoology, 31 (No. 47):548, July 10, 1951) has arranged several of the subspecific names listed immediately above as synonyms of _Didelphis marsupialis californica_ Bennett. We have not employed his arrangement because he has not given proof that the currently recognized subspecies are indistinguishable. ~Caluromys derbianus canus~ (Matschie) Matschie (Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin, Jahrgang 1917, p. 284 (for April), September, 1917) applied the name _Micoureus canus_ to a specimen on which the locality was no more precise than Nicaragua. Comparison of Matschie's description with specimens in the United States National Museum (including the holotype of _Philander centralis_ Hollister and referred specimens of _Philander laniger pallidus_ Thomas) reveals that Matschie's specimen was intermediate in coloration between the other two kinds of woolly opossums named above and that there is nothing distinctive, in the specific sense, in the cranial measurements which Matschie published (_op. cit._). _M. canus_, therefore, may be merely an intergrade between the two previously named woolly opossums (_C. d. centralis_ and _C. d. pallidus_), an individual variant of a previously named kind, say, _C. d. pallidus_, or a valid subspecies. If it is a recognizable subspecies, it probably comes from somewhere in the eastern half of Nicaragua. As a means of handling the name, _Micoureus canus_ Matschie, we tentatively place it as a subspecies of the species _Caluromys derbianus_. The name may, therefore, stand as _Caluromys derbianus canus_ (Matschie), with type locality in Guatemala. ~Caluromys derbianus fervidus~ (Thomas) Elliott (Field Columb. Mus. Nat. Hist., Publ. No. 115, Zool. Ser., 8:5, 1907) lists as _Caluromys laniger pallidus_ a specimen from Honduras that was acquired for the Field Columbian Museum (= Chicago Natural History Museum) by purchase from Ward's Natural Science Establishment of Rochester, New York. On August 4, 1951, in the Chicago Natural History Museum, we found in the catalogue of the collection of Recent mammals an entry for a male _Caluromys_ bearing catalogue number 6 and listed as from "San Pedro Sula [Honduras]. From Wards. Mounted". In the collection of study specimens there is no specimen from Honduras that was purchased from Ward's, mounted or unmounted. In the sealed, glass-fronted, exhibit cases of mammals on display there is one, and only one, _Caluromys_. It is presumed to be specimen No. 6. This specimen is not _C. d. pallidus_ because it is too dark. It could be _Caluromys derbianus fervidus_ and we tentatively refer it to that subspecies. ~Caluromys derbianus pallidus~ (Thomas) From Puntarenas, Costa Rica, Harris (Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 476:7, October 8, 1943) listed as _Caluromys laniger centralis_ a female, skull and skin, No. 62702 in the Museum of Zoology of the University of Michigan. We have examined this specimen, the color of which is darker than in some other specimens of _C. d. pallidus_ but lighter than that of specimens of _C. d. centralis_ (for example, specimens from Turrialba, Costa Rica) and on basis of color we refer No. 62702 to _Caluromys derbianus pallidus_. ~Scalopus aquaticus aereus~ (Bangs) Bangs' (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:138, December 28, 1896) name _S. a. aereus_ was based on a single specimen that shows more than an average amount of coppery color. Jackson (N. Amer. Fauna, 38:52, September 30, 1915) and subsequent authors accord full specific rank to the specimen under the name _Scalopus aereus_. Blair (Amer. Midland Nat., 22:98, July, 1939) recorded, from the type locality of _Scalopus aereus_, normally colored individuals of _Scalopus aquaticus pulcher_ Jackson. Previously, Scheffer (Kansas State Agric. College, Exp. Bull., 168:4, August 1, 1910) reported that in his examination of 100 individuals of _Scalops_ [= _Scalopus_] _aquaticus_ from Manhattan, Kansas, there were two individuals "that were suffused all over with rich golden brown." Because our examination of the type specimen of _Scalops texanus aereus_ Bangs reveals no features additional to coppery color that differentiate _aereus_ from other individuals of _Scalopus aquaticus pulcher_ Jackson (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:19, February 2, 1914) we conclude that Jackson's name and Bangs' name (_Scalops texanus aereus_) apply to the same subspecies. Bangs' name has priority and the correct name, therefore, for the populations of moles that in recent years have been designated as _Scalopus aereus_ Bangs and _Scalopus aquaticus pulcher_ Jackson will be _Scalopus aquaticus aereus_ (Bangs). This name combination was previously used by Miller (U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:8, December 31, 1912). ~Scalopus aquaticus australis~ (Chapman) Quay (Jour. Mamm., 30:66, February 14, 1949) recorded _Scalopus aquaticus_ from Springhill Plantation, 10 miles south-southwest of Thomasville, Georgia. He stated that the specimens were intermediate between the subspecies _S. a. australis_ and _S. a. howelli_, but did not refer the specimens to either subspecies. The locality whence the material was obtained is approximately half way between the geographic ranges, as previously known, of _S. a. australis_ and _S. a. howelli_ (see Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 38, September 30, 1915). The specimens recorded by Quay probably are two females in the Cleveland Museum of Natural History bearing Catalogue Nos. 18136 and 18262 and labeled as from Springhill Plantation, Thomas County, Georgia. We have examined these specimens and find that they resemble _S. a. howelli_ in narrowness across the upper tooth-rows, but that they resemble _S. a. australis_ in length of tail (22, 24), in shortness of maxillary tooth-row (9.5, 9.5), and in convex dorsal outline of the skull. Accordingly, we refer the specimens to _Scalopus aquaticus australis_. ~Sorex cinereus cinereus~ Kerr In his revision of the American long-tailed shrews, Jackson (N. Amer. Fauna, 51, vi + 238, 13 pls., 24 figs., July 24, 1928) referred specimens of _Sorex cinereus_ from Tyonek, Cook Inlet, Alaska, to the subspecies _S. c. cinereus_ (_op. cit._: 46) and one specimen from Chester Creek, Anchorage, Alaska, to the subspecies _S. c. hollisteri_ (_op. cit._: 56). Thus, the geographic ranges of the two subspecies would seem to overlap around the northern shores of Cook Inlet. In an attempt to resolve this seemingly anomalous distribution, we have examined pertinent materials in the Biological Surveys Collection, U.S. National Museum. We agree with Jackson (_op. cit._) that the series of specimens from Tyonek is readily referable to _S. c. cinereus_. To our eye, however, the specimen, No. 232691, from Anchorage is referable to _Sorex cinereus cinereus_, rather than to _S. c. hollisteri_. The reference is made on the basis of the darker color, especially of the underparts. In this specimen, other characters that distinguish the two mentioned subspecies are not apparent, probably because it is relatively young; the teeth show only slight wear. ~Sorex trowbridgii humboldtensis~ Jackson In his account of the long-tailed shrews, Jackson (N. Amer. Fauna, 51:98, July 24, 1928) listed under specimens examined of _Sorex trowbridgii montereyensis_ four specimens from 7 mi. N Hardy, Mendocino Co., California. Under his account of the subspecies _S. t. humboldtensis_, however, he (_op. cit._:97) mentions that specimens (seemingly the same four) from 7 mi. N Hardy "have shorter tails than typical representatives of _humboldtensis_, but in color and cranial characters they are similar to this [_humboltensis_] subspecies." We conclude, therefore, that the specimens mentioned were inadvertently listed as _S. t. montereyensis_ and are _Sorex trowbridgii humboldtensis_. This conclusion is supported by the fact that the locality concerned, 7 mi. N Hardy, is within the geographic range assigned to _S. t. humboldtensis_ by Jackson (_op. cit._:97); his southern records of occurrence of _S. t. humboldtensis_ are Sherwood and Mendocino, both in Mendocino County, California. Our conclusion is further supported by Grinnell's (Univ. California Publ. Zool., 40(2):80, September 26, 1933) statement of the range of _S. t. montereyensis_ as "from southern Mendocino County south...." ~Blarina brevicauda churchi~ Bole and Moulthrop Kellogg (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 86:253, February 14, 1939) tentatively referred specimens of the short-tailed shrew from the mountainous parts of eastern Tennessee to the subspecies _Blarina brevicauda talpoides_, with the remark that they were unlike specimens of that subspecies obtained in eastern and southern West Virginia. Subsequently, Bole and Moulthrop (Sci. Publ. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:109, September 11, 1942) named the subspecies _Blarina brevicauda churchi_ with type locality at Roan Mountain, North Carolina. We have examined the specimens in the U.S. National Museum recorded by Kellogg (_loc. cit._) from the following localities: Shady Valley, 2900 ft. (Catalogue No. 267182); Holston Mtn., 4 mi. NE Shady Valley, 3800 ft. (Nos. 267176-267178, 267180, and 267181); Holston Mtn., 3 mi. NE Shady Valley, 3000 ft. (No. 267179); Roan Mtn., (Nos. 267469-267475); Mt. Guyot, 6300 ft. (No. 267183); 4-1/2 mi. SE Cosby, 3300 and 3400 ft. (Nos. 267184 and 267185); and Snake Den Mtn., 3800 ft. (No. 267186). Among named kinds of _Blarina brevicauda_, we find these specimens to resemble most closely _Blarina brevicauda churchi_ and so refer them. They are readily distinguishable from specimens of _B. b. kirtlandi_, that occurs farther north in the same mountain range, by larger size and longer tail. Incidentally, in the specimens that we have examined, we do not find that _B. b. churchi_ is darker colored than other subspecies of _Blarina brevicauda_; _B. b. churchi_, to us, is indistinguishable in color from _B. b. kirtlandi_. Bole and Moulthrop (_op. cit._) thought that _B. b. churchi_ was notably darker than other subspecies from adjoining areas. ~Blarina brevicauda carolinensis~ (Bachman) Blair (Amer. Midland Nat., 22(1):99, July, 1939) referred specimens of the short-tailed shrew from the Arbuckle Mountain area of Oklahoma to _Blarina brevicauda hulophaga_ and specimens from Mohawk Park, Tulsa County, Oklahoma, to _B. b. carolinensis_. Later Bole and Moulthrop (Sci. Publs. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:108, September 11, 1942) saw two of the specimens from Mohawk Park and assigned them to _B. b. hulophaga_. According to the most recent published account, therefore, _B. b. hulophaga_ would seem to have a peculiarly discontinuous geographic range. We have examined the material seen by Blair and by Bole and Moulthrop (Nos. 75946, 75947, 75643, Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan) in an attempt to form our own judgment as to their subspecific identity. The teeth of No. 75946 are well worn, whereas the teeth of the other two are scarcely worn. We are unable to distinguish No. 75946 from topotypes of _B. b. carolinensis_ by size, color, or cranial features. The two younger specimens are smaller and paler, but do not agree with the description of _B. b. hulophaga_. The nearly-complete narrow, white girdle of No. 75947 is clearly an individual variation. We assign the animals to _Blarina brevicauda carolinensis_ (Bachman) as did Blair (_loc. cit._). ~Blarina brevicauda minima~ Lowery Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 25:207, October 24, 1905) identified as _Blarina brevicauda carolinensis_ one specimen from Joaquin and two specimens from Big Thicket, 8 mi. NE Sour Lake, both localities in eastern Texas. Strecker and Williams (Jour. Mamm., 10:259, August 10, 1929) later recorded the specimens again under the same name. The subsequent naming of _B. b. plumbea_ from Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, Aransas County, Texas (Davis, Jour. Mamm., 22(3):317, August 14, 1941) and _B. b. minima_ from Louisiana (Lowery, Occas. Papers Mus. Zool., Louisiana St. Univ., 13:218, November 22, 1943) leaves the identity of the specimens from eastern Texas in doubt. We have examined the following specimens in the Biological Surveys Collection, U.S. National Museum: No. 117372, from Joaquin; No. 136407, from 7 mi. NE Sour Lake; and No. 136788, from 8 mi. NE Sour Lake. We judge these to be the specimens referred to by Bailey (_loc. cit._). We find that they are indistinguishable from specimens of _Blarina brevicauda minima_ and they seem to differ from _B. b. plumbea_ in being chestnut rather than plumbeous in color and in lacking the highly-arched posterior border of the palate. They are easily distinguished from _B. b. carolinensis_ by their chestnut, rather than slaty-black, color and small size. They are distinguishable from _B. b. hulophaga_, to which they might conceivably be referred on geographic grounds, by their color and small size. We refer them to _Blarina brevicauda minima_ Lowery. ~Spilogale angustifrons angustifrons~ A. H. Howell In his "Revision of the skunks of the genus Spilogale" (N. Amer. Fauna, 26, November 24, 1906) A. H. Howell identified certain specimens in the United States National Museum as follows: _Spilogale leucoparia_, [Male] sad. 55585 from Tulancingo, Hidalgo (_op. cit._:21). _Spilogale gracilis_, [Male] sad. 88154 from San Sebastian in Jalisco, [Male] ad. 79017 from Lagos in Jalisco, [Male] ad. 47177 from Pátzcuaro in Michoacán (_op. cit._:23). _Spilogale ambigua_, [Male] ad. 35667/20437 from Barranca Ibarra in Jalisco, [Male] yg. 120101 from Ocotlán in Jalisco (_op. cit._:25). Hall and Villa (Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist, 1:448, December 27, 1949) inferred that No. 47177 from Pátzcuaro was instead referable to _Spilogale angustifrons angustifrons_. Our examination of No. 47177 and of each of the other specimens mentioned by catalogue number immediately above leads us to conclude that they all are of one species, and that, among named kinds of _Spilogale_, they should be referred to the subspecies _Spilogale angustifrons angustifrons_ Howell. Our examination of all of the specimens that Howell (_op. cit_.) identified as _Spilogale [angustifrons] angustifrons_ reveals that none of the specimens from the type locality had attained full adult stature; the holotype is a subadult and the other specimens from the type locality are even younger. The small size of these specimens from the type locality seems to have misled Howell into thinking that they were taxonomically distinct from the larger specimens--those from Jalisco, Michoacán and Hidalgo--that he identified as other kinds. ~Spilogale gracilis gracilis~ Merriam In the genus _Spilogale_ four specific names, concerning the status of which we have been uncertain, are listed below in the order of their appearance in the literature. 1890. _Spilogale gracilis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 3:83, September 11, type from bottom of canyon, Grand Canyon, Arizona. 1890. _Spilogale leucoparia_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:11, October 8, type from Mason, Mason County, Texas. 1891. _Spilogale phenax arizonae_ Mearns, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:256, June 5, type from near Fort Verde, Yavapai County, Arizona. 1897. _Spilogale ambigua_ Mearns, Preliminary diagnoses of new mammals ... from the Mexican boundary line, p. 3, January 12 [reprinted in Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 20:460, December 24, 1897], type from summit of Eagle Cliff Mtn., 2 mi. S of Monument No. 5 of Emory's Survey which, according to Miller (U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:134, April 29, 1924), is "Eagle Mountain, Chihuahua, Mexico, about four miles south of Dona Ana County, New Mexico." In 1906 (N. Amer. Fauna, 26:1-55, 10 pls., November 24) A. H. Howell's "Revision of the skunks of the genus Spilogale" was published and the four names listed above were retained by him as applying to four species (not subspecies). His map (_op. cit._, pl. 1) showing the geographic distribution of the four kinds looks reasonable enough at first inspection and does not indicate any overlapping of the geographic ranges of the species in question, but if a map be made by plotting the localities of occurrence recorded by Howell (_op. cit._), for specimens examined by him, a notably different geographic distribution is shown. For one thing the geographic ranges of _gracilis_, _leucoparia_, _arizonae_ and _ambigua_ coincide over a considerable part of Arizona. Also, specimens collected in recent years from Arizona and adjoining areas do not readily fit into the "species" recognized by Howell; some specimens are structurally intermediate between two or more of these species and other specimens combine the diagnostic characters ascribed to two or more of the alleged species. For these and other reasons a re-appraisal of the application of the names mentioned above long has been indicated. Before re-appraising the names it is pertinent to recall that Howell's paper in 1906 on _Spilogale_ was only the second revisionary paper that he prepared. It was prepared by a man who at that time lacked much taxonomic experience, and who held to a morphotype concept. Howell worked under the guidance, in the literal sense, of Dr. C. Hart Merriam. The concept of species and subspecies held by Merriam fortunately was recorded by him (Jour. Mamm., 1:6-9, November 28, 1919). Merriam's reliance on degree of difference and his disregard of intergradation were naturally (and necessarily, we think, in Howell's work in 1906) adopted by Howell. For example, of six specimens from Point Reyes in west-central California, a place less than ten miles from the type locality of _Spilogale phenax phenax_, Howell (_op. cit._:33) assigned one specimen to the subspecies _Spilogale phenax latifrons_! _S. p. latifrons_ occurs in Oregon and in northern California--no nearer than 200 miles to Point Reyes. Howell's assignment of this specimen to _S. p. latifrons_ was not a _lapsus_, as persons with the modern (geographic) concept of a subspecies would be likely to suppose. Howell's assignment of the one specimen to _S. p. latifrons_ and the other five specimens to _S. p. phenax_ was intentional, as he told one of us (Hall). He explained that he relied upon the morphological characters of the individual animal instead of upon the morphological characters of a population of animals. To him, therefore, there was nothing inconsistent in his procedure in 1906. Also, variation that was the result of difference in age and variation that was the result of individual deviation were not understood, or at least not taken into account, by Howell in 1906, nor by Merriam in 1890. For example, Merriam selected the most extensively white specimen available to him for the holotype of _Spilogale leucoparia_. He, and Howell in 1906, used the extensiveness of the white areas of that particular specimen (see fig. 3, pl. 2, N. Amer. Fauna, 26, 1906) as a character diagnostic of the "species" _S. leucoparia_ although each of the authors had available two other specimens of _S. leucoparia_ from the type locality, and all of the other referred specimens in the United States National Museum, that were less extensively white than the holotype. The _individual specimen_ was the primary basis for the species or subspecies and one selected specimen alone often was used in making comparisons between a given named kind and some other species or subspecies. Also, be it remembered, degree of difference, and not presence or absence of intergradation, was the basis on which subspecific _versus_ specific rank was accorded to a named kind of animal. Howell wrote on the labels of some specimens of _Spilogale_ "not typical" when the individuals differed from the type specimen in features that owe their existence to individual variation, and he wrote the same words on the labels of other specimens that had not yet developed mastoidal crests because the animals were not yet adult. Anyone who examines the specimens that Howell used will do well to bear in mind the circumstances noted above concerning Howell's paper of 1906; otherwise the reasons for Howell's identifications of certain specimens can not be understood. We have examined and compared the holotypes, and other specimens used by Howell. While doing so we have borne in mind the degree of individual variation well shown by each of several series of specimens (for example, that in six adult males, from the Animas Mountains of New Mexico, recorded by V. Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 53:339, 1932) and age variation (for example, that shown in specimens of _S. interrupta_ from Douglas County, Kansas). The degree of each of these kinds of variation, although considerable, is not extraordinary. That is to say, the variations are of approximately the same degree as we previously have ascertained to exist in _Mephitis mephitis_ and in _Mustela frenata_, two species that are in the same family, Mustelidae, as _Spilogale_. As a result of our comparisons, we conclude, first that the four names mentioned at the beginning of this account all pertain to one species, and second that the three names _S. gracilis_, _S. p. arizonae_ and _S. ambigua_, and probably also _S. leucoparia_, were based on individual variations in one subspecies. _S. gracilis_ has priority and will apply; the other names are properly to be arranged as synonyms of it, as follows: 1890. _Spilogale gracilis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 3:83, September 11. 1890. _Spilogale leucoparia_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:11, October 8. 1891. _Spilogale phenax arizonae_ Mearns, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:256, June 5. 1897. _Spilogale ambigua_ Mearns, Preliminary diagnoses of new mammals ... from the Mexican boundary line, p. 3, January 12. Some information in support of the above arrangement, along with some other observations on _Spilogale_, are as follows: The type specimen of _Spilogale gracilis_ bears on the original skin-label in the handwriting of Vernon Bailey, the collector, the statement that the tail was imperfect. The recorded measurements of 400 for total length and 142 for length of tail, therefore, are presumed to be subject to correction. This presumption and the further circumstance that other specimens from Arizona and New Mexico are as large as specimens of comparable age and sex that we have examined from Nevada and Utah of _Spilogale gracilis saxatilis_ Merriam, indicate that _S. g. saxatilis_ differs less from the allegedly smaller _S. g. gracilis_ than was previously thought. Nevertheless, from north to south (for example, from northern Nevada to southern Arizona) there is an increase in extent of white areas at the expense of black areas of the pelage. As a result, the lateralmost white stripe in _S. g. saxatilis_ averages narrower (and often is wanting) than in _S. g. gracilis_. The absence, or narrowness, of the lateralmost white stripe seems to be the principal basis for recognizing _S. g. saxatilis_, just as the tendency to narrow rostrum in Coloradan specimens seems to be the principal basis for recognizing _Spilogale gracilis tenuis_ A. H. Howell. Both _S. g. saxatilis_ and _S. g. tenuis_ are "poorly" differentiated from _S. g. gracilis_ and from each other. The holotype of _Spilogale ambigua_ Mearns is slightly smaller than other adult males of comparable age, and the braincase, relative to its width, is slightly deeper than in the average adult male. These variations, nevertheless, are within the range of individual variation, as also are those characterizing the holotype of _Spilogale phenax arizonae_ Mearns. The latter specimen is an adult male, with much inflated mastoidal bullae, nearly straight dorsal profile on the skull, relatively shallow braincase, and only slightly worn teeth. The holotype of _Spilogale leucoparia_ Merriam, as pointed out above, is an extreme example of the extensiveness of the white areas of the pelage at the expense of the black areas. This feature occurs more often in the southwestern desert areas of the United States than it does farther north. In addition to the extensiveness of the white markings, the other two characters allegedly distinctive of _S. leucoparia_ are broad and much flattened braincase and great degree of inflation of the mastoidal bullae. Although these three mentioned features do distinguish _S. leucoparia_ from _S. indianola_ to the eastward, they seem not to set _S. leucoparia_ apart from _S. gracilis_ to the westward. For example, in Arizona some specimens are extensively white and some others have the braincase flattened and the mastoidal bullae much inflated. V. Bailey (N. Amer. Fauna, 53:339, 1932) refers to a specimen ([Male], No. 147252 USBS) from the head of the Rio Mimbres in New Mexico in which, as our comparisons show, the inflation of the mastoidal bullae exceeds that of any Texan specimen of _S. leucoparia_, the holotype included. Also, at the type locality of _S. leucoparia_, subadult male No. 188467 USNM and adult male No. 188468 USNM are narrower across the mastoidal region than is the holotype. In summary and review, specimens from the eastern part of the range heretofore ascribed to _S. leucoparia_ nearly all have much inflated mastoidal bullae whereas less than half of the specimens of _Spilogale_ from western New Mexico and Arizona have these bullae as greatly inflated; but, in No. 147252 from the head of the Rio Mimbres of New Mexico the inflation of the bullae is more extreme than in any specimen that we know of that has been referred to _S. leucoparia_. If intergradation occurs between _Spilogale gracilis gracilis_ and _Spilogale indianola_ and between one or both of these kinds on the one hand and _Spilogale interrupta_ on the other hand, central Texas would be a logical place to collect intergrades. We suppose that such intergradation will be found to occur and that eventually _Spilogale putorius_ will be the specific name to apply to all of the Recent subspecies of spotted skunks. Until proof of such intergradation is forthcoming we employ current nomenclature. ~Spilogale gracilis microdon~ A. H. Howell A. H. Howell (N. Amer. Fauna, 26:31, November 24, 1906) listed as _Spilogale arizonae martirensis_ one specimen ([Female] sad.-yg., 145886 USBS) from Comondú, which is the type locality of _S. microdon_. Our examination of [Female] No. 145886 convinces us that it is referable to _S. microdon_. Examination of the materials used by Howell (_op. cit._) reveals that there is an increase in size of animal and its skull from within the geographic range of _S. g. martirensis_ southward to Cape St. Lucas which is the type locality of _S. lucasana_. Specimens of _S. microdon_, which so far has been recorded only from Comondú, the type locality, are, as would be expected, intermediate in size between _S. g. martirensis_ and _S. lucasana_. The differential characters of these three named kinds of _Spilogale_ are principally those of size, and we can see no characters judged to be of more than subspecific worth. Consequently the named kinds should stand as: _Spilogale gracilis martirensis_ Elliott; _Spilogale gracilis microdon_ A. H. Howell; _Spilogale gracilis lucasana_ Merriam. ~Spilogale gracilis microrhina~ Hall When Hall (Jour. Mamm., 7:53, February 15, 1926) named as new _Spilogale phenax microrhina_, he did not mention specimens previously recorded by A. H. Howell (N. Amer. Fauna, 26:32, November 24, 1906) as _Spilogale phenax_ from San Bernardino Peak (57026 USBS), La Puerta (99580 USBS), Dulzura (55848, 56173, 56873, 33693/45728, 36291/48656 and 36292/48657) in southern California. On geographic grounds these specimens would be expected to be _S. g. microrhina_ although geographically slightly outside the area that could be delimited by Hall's (_op. cit._) marginal record-stations of occurrence. Our examination of the pertinent specimens reveals that they are _Spilogale gracilis microrhina_. The localities from which the specimens came are, respectively, the northeasternmost, easternmost and southernmost occurrences so far listed for the subspecies. ~Conepatus mesoleucus mearnsi~ Merriam Examination of the holotypes of _Conepatus filipensis_ Merriam, _Conepatus pediculus_ Merriam, _Conepatus sonoriensis_ Merriam, and _Conepatus mesoleucus mearnsi_ Merriam, and other specimens of the two kinds last named, convinces us that all are the same species and that the names should stand as follows: _Conepatus mesoleucus filipensis_ Merriam (type locality, Cerro San Felipe, Oaxaca); _Conepatus mesoleucus pediculus_ Merriam (Sierra Guadalupe, Coahuila); and _Conepatus mesoleucus sonoriensis_ Merriam (Camoa, Río Mayo, Sonora). One method of designating the ages of individuals in _Conepatus_ is to recognize four categories from younger to older, as follows: 1) juvenile--retaining one or more deciduous teeth; 2) young--sutures open and clearly to be seen between bones of the facial part of the skull; 3) subadult--skull of adult form, but lacking sagittal and lambdoidal crests and retaining faint traces of sutures between facial bones; and 4) adult--sutures obliterated, lambdoidal ridge high and temporal ridges (of females) or sagittal crest (of males) prominent. On this basis of designating age, the holotype of _C. pediculus_ is young and nearer the juvenal than the subadult stage. Its small size is partly the result of its youth. Other than its small size we find no characters to distinguish it from _C. m. mearnsi_. Unfortunately no young male of _C. m. mearnsi_ of the same age as the holotype of _C. pediculus_ is available. Also, from the general area of the Sierra Guadalupe, Coahuila, only the one specimen of _Conepatus mesoleucus_ (the holotype of _C. m. pediculus_) is known. Consequently, we can not yet prove that some young males of _C. m. mearnsi_ are as small as the holotype of _C. pediculus_. Because of this lack of proof we tentatively recognize the subspecies _Conepatus mesoleucus pediculus_ instead of placing the name _Conepatus pediculus_ in the synonomy of _Conepatus mesoleucus mearnsi_. The holotype of _C. sonoriensis_ is a young female, older than the holotype of _C. pediculus_, and approximately midway between the juvenal and subadult stages. The holotype of _C. filipensis_ is an adult male. We suppose that _C. mesoleucus mesoleucus_ Lichtenstein and _C. mesoleucus mearnsi_ Merriam on the one hand, and _Conepatus leuconotus leuconotus_ Lichtenstein and _C. l. texensis_ Merriam on the other hand will be found to intergrade, in which event the name _Conepatus leuconotus_, having page priority over _Conepatus mesoleucus_, will apply to the species. Proof of complete intergradation is not yet available. The one difference between the two that prevents our uniting them as subspecies of one species is the larger size of _C. l. leuconotus_ and _C. l. texensis_. Measurements of the smallest adult male and female available to us of _C. l. texensis_ and of the largest adult male and female of _C. m. mearnsi_ are given below. Where the geographic ranges of the two species approach one another the only taxonomically significant difference detected by us is in size, _C. leuconotus_ being larger than _C. mesoleucus_. Other characters that are useful in separating the two alleged species now are known to vary geographically in a fashion that indicates only subspecific status for the two kinds. For example, three specimens from Laredo, Texas (previously recorded by V. Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 25:205, October 24, 1905--Nos. 24839/32237, 24840/32238 and 24842/32245 USBS), bridge the gap in color pattern between _C. l. texensis_ to the east and _C. m. mearnsi_ to the west. _C. l. texensis_ characteristically has the white stripe terminating anteriorly in an obtuse angle, and on the hinder back the area of white is restricted to a narrow line or is wanting. _C. m. mearnsi_ characteristically has the white stripe truncate anteriorly and approximately as broad on the hinder back as on the shoulders. In the specimens from Laredo, the young female, No. 24842, has the white nearly truncate anteriorly (pointed in the other two specimens, adult females). In No. 24839 the area of white on the hinder back is only slightly restricted in width (noticeably restricted but present in the other two specimens). The proof of intergradation, or the lack of it, between the two alleged species, _Conepatus mearnsi_ and _Conepatus leuconotus_, would seem to be profitably sought by obtaining specimens along the Rio Grande in Texas between the Blocker Ranch ("50 miles southeast of Eagle Pass") and Laredo. Measurements illustrating the size difference between the two alleged species are as follows: TABLE 1. Measurements of _Conepatus_ from Texas Column Heading Legend: Col. A: [Male] ad. 186455 USNM, Mason, Texas. Type Col. B: [Male] ad. 31970/24575 USBS, Blocker Ranch, Texas Col. C: [Female] ad. 126241 USBS, 8 mi. S Langtry, Texas Col. D: [Male] ad. 47122 USBS, Brownsville, Texas. Type Col. E: [Male] ad. 45132/33129 USBS, Brownsville, Texas Col. F: [Male] yg. 45900/33865 USBS, Brownsville, Texas Col. G: [Female] ad. 47121/34865 USBS, Brownsville, Texas Col. H: [Female] ad. 24839/32237 USBS, Laredo, Texas Col. I: [Female] ad. 24840/32328 USBS, Laredo, Texas Col. J: [Male]? sad. 16651 AMNH, Kingsville, Texas ============================================+========================== C. mesoleucus mearnsi | C. leuconotus texensis ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- Total | 633 | ... | 610 | 800 | 920 | 770 | 670 | 685 | 700 | ... length | | | | | | | | | | ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- Length | ... | ... | 269 | 360 | 410 | 300 | 250 | 220 | 260 | ... of tail | | | | | | | | | | ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- Length | 72[1]| 75[1]| 71 | 74 | 70 | 90 | 65 | 78 | 80 | ... of hind | | | | | | | | | | foot | | | | | | | | | | ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- Condylo- | 72.0 | 72.8 | 64.5| 83.5| 78.9| 78.2| 72.0| 75.7| 74.5| ... basal | | | | | | | | | | length | | | | | | | | | | ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- Zygomatic | 51.3 | 50.1 | 43.4| 55.3| 76.8| ... | 48.3| 49.0| 48.0|50.3 breadth | | | | | | | | | | ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- Mastoidal | 41.0 | 44.2 | 37.0| 47.3| 78.2| 43.7| 40.5| 40.5| 40.7| ... breadth | | | | | | | | | | ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- Length | 28.9 | 29.8 | 31.8| 28.9| 28.0| 25.8| 32.7| 55.3| 30.4|29.9 of upper | | | | | | | | | | tooth-rows| | | | | | | | | | ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- Outside | 7.3 | ... | 6.1| 8.5| 53.2| 7.5| 7.5| 6.6| 7.7| 7.6 length | | | | | | | | | | of P4 | | | | | | | | | | ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- Outside | 7.8 | 7.0 | 6.7| 9.2| 52.7| 8.4| 8.3| 7.6| 9.3| 9.1 length | | | | | | | | | | of M1 | | | | | | | | | | ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- Breadth | 7.6 | 7.0 | 6.5| 9.3| ... | 8.6| 8.2| 7.9| 9.4| 8.2 of M1 | | | | | | | | | | ----------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- [1] Measured dry. ~Conepatus mesoleucus venaticus~ Goldman When Goldman (Jour. Mamm., 3:40, February 10, 1921) named _C. m. venaticus_ from Arizona he did not mention material which Merriam (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:163, August 6, 1902) had recorded from Ft. Verde, Arizona, under the name _Conepatus mesoleucus mearnsi_. This material seems to be specimens in the American Museum of Natural History of which the two oldest specimens are as follows: No. 2486/1921, male, adult, from Box Cañon, 20 mi. S Ft. Verde; No. 2487/1922, female, subadult, from Verde River, Arizona. Pertinent measurements of these specimens are, respectively, as follows: condylobasal length, 72.4, 68.8; zygomatic breadth, 50.0, 44.2; width of braincase at constriction behind zygomata, 36.4, 33.8; mastoidal breadth, 44.3, 38.4. Comparison of these measurements with those given for _C. m. venaticus_ (Goldman, _loc. cit._) reveals that the specimens concerned agree in narrowness of skull with _C. m. venaticus_ (_C. m. mearnsi_ is relatively wider) and it is on this basis that we refer the specimens to _Conepatus mesoleucus venaticus_. ~Urocyon cinereoargenteus costaricensis~ Goodwin J. A. Allen (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 20:48, February 29, 1904) listed two specimens of gray fox from Pozo Azul, Costa Rica, as _Urocyon guatemalae_. Goodwin, in his "Mammals of Costa Rica" (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 87(5):271-474, December 31, 1946) did not mention any material from Pozo Azul. We have examined the skull of the adult female (No. 19208 AMNH) taken on July 17, 1902, at Pozo Zul [sic], by M. A. Carriker and find it to be indistinguishable from other specimens of _Urocyon cinereoargenteus costaricensis_ to which subspecies we therefore refer the specimen. ~Canis lupus griseoalbus~ Baird In 1823 Sabine (No. V, Zoological Appendix, p. 654, _In_ Narrative of a journey to the shores of the Polar Sea ... xvi + 768, 30 pls., 4 maps, 1823, London, by John Franklin) applied the name _Canis Lupus-Griseus_ to the gray wolf in the vicinity of Cumberland House, Saskatchewan. On the following page (p. 655) he employed the name _Canis Lupus-Albus_ for a white wolf obtained at Fort Enterprise, Northwest Territories. In 1937 Goldman (Jour. Mamm., 18(1):45, February 14) did not consider the wolves of the Cumberland House region to be sufficiently different from animals from surrounding areas to warrant nominal separation for them and he placed the name _Canis lupus griseus_ Sabine as a synonym of _Canis lupus occidentalis_ Simpson. Anderson (Jour. Mamm., 24(3):386, August 17, 1943) revived Sabine's name _griseus_ and assigned to _Canis lupus griseus_ an extensive geographic range in central Canada. Later, Goldman (Part II, Classification of wolves, p. 395 and 424, _In_ The Wolves of North America, American Wildlife Institute, May 29, 1944) by implication, again arranged _griseus_ of Sabine as a synonym of _Canis lupus occidentalis_ and pointed out (_op. cit._:395) that, in any event, the name _griseus_ is preoccupied by _[Canis] Griseus_ Boddaert, 1784 [= _Urocyon cinereoargenteus_ (Schreber), 1775]. Still later, Anderson (Bull. 102, Nat. Mus. Canada, p. 54, January 27, 1947) again recognized the subspecies formerly known as _Canis lupus griseus_ Sabine, and, because of Boddaert's prior usage of _[Canis] griseus_, renamed the subspecies _Canis lupus knightii_. It appears, however, that there is an earlier name available for this subspecies. Goldman (_op. cit._, 1943:395) points out that "apparently combining the names _Canis (Lupus) griseus_ and _Canis (Lupus) albus_ of Sabine ... as _Canis occidentalis_ var. _griseo-albus_, Baird [Mammals, Repts. Explor. and Surv. for R. R. to Pacific Ocean, Washington, p. 104, vol. 8, (1857) July 14, 1858] seems to have entertained a somewhat composite concept of a widely ranging race varying in color from 'pure white to grizzled gray.' No type was mentioned and the name does not appear to be valid or clearly assignable to the synonomy of any particular race." We agree with Goldman that Baird's concept was a composite one, but Baird's name, _Canis occidentalis_ var. _griseo-albus_, was clearly based on the primary names of Sabine (_griseus_ and _albus_), of De Kay (_occidentalis_), of Maxmillian (_variabilis_, a synonym of _Canis lupus nubilis_) and of Townsend (_gigas_, a synonym of _Canis lupus fuscus_). Nevertheless, the name _griseo-albus_ was applied to, among others, the subspecies of wolf the type locality of which is at Cumberland House, Saskatchewan, and, by restriction, the name _Canis lupus griseoalbus_ Baird is available for the subspecies and, of course, antedates _Canis lupus knightii_ of Anderson (_op. cit._, 1947:54). It might be argued that Baird did not intend to propose a new name, but that he did so is a _fait accompli_. _Canis lupus albus_ Sabine, 1823, is not available since it is preoccupied by _C[anis]. Lupus albus_ Kerr (Animal Kingdom, Class I, Mammalia, p. 137, 1792), a name applied to the wolf of the Yenisei region of Siberia. The name and synonomy of the wolf of central Canada should stand as follows: ~Canis lupus griseoalbus~ Baird 1858. _Canis occidentalis_, var. _griseo-albus_ Baird, Mammals, Repts. Explor. and Surv. for R. R. to Pacific Ocean, Washington, vol. 8, p. 104 (1857), July 14, 1858, based on _Canis Lupus-Griseus_ Sabine 1823 from the vicinity of Cumberland House, Saskatchewan. 1823. _Canis Lupus-Griseus_ Sabine, No. V, Zool. App. p. 654, _In_ Narrative of a journey to the shores of the Polar Sea ... by John Franklin (_nec [Canis] Griseus_ Boddaert, Elench. Anim. p. 97, 1794, a synonym of _Urocyon cinereaorgenteus_ (Schreber), Säugethiere, p. 92, 1775). 1943. _Canis lupus griseus_, Anderson, Jour. Mamm., 24(3):386, August 17. 1947. _Canis lupus knightii_ Anderson, Bull. 102, Nat. Mus. Canada, p. 54, January 24. (A renaming of _Canis Lupus-Griseus_ Sabine, 1823.) The name _Canis Lupus-Albus_ Sabine, 1823 (_nec C[anis]. Lupus albus_ Kerr, Animal Kingdom, p. 137, 1792) should, of course, be retained as a synonym of _Canis lupus mackenzii_ Anderson as arranged by Anderson (Bull. 102, Nat. Mus. Canada, p. 55, January 24, 1947). When Anderson (_op. cit._:54) recognized the subspecies _Canis lupus knightii_ [= _C. l. griseoalbus_] he made no mention of a specimen of wolf from Norway House, Manitoba, which Goldman (_op. cit._, 1944:427) had referred to _C. l. occidentalis_, but the subspecific identity of which was placed in doubt by Anderson's action. We have examined the specimen, No. 115995, in the Biological Surveys Collection, U.S. National Museum, and have compared it with specimens, including topotypes, of _C. l. occidentalis_ and _C. l. hudsonicus_. The specimen fits the description of _C. l. griseoalbus_ and differs from _C. l. occidentalis_ in its long and narrow incisive foramina, larger skull, more nearly straight frontal profile (not markedly concave), and slightly higher coronoid processes. Other differences alleged to obtain between these two subspecies offer no assistance in the present case. The specimen from Norway House differs from _C. l. hudsonicus_ in larger size of skull and stouter, blunter, postorbital processes, the posterior borders of which turn less abruptly inward. In brief, among currently recognized subspecies, the specimen from Norway House seems best referred to _Canis lupus griseoalbus_ Baird. ~Canis niger rufus~ Audubon and Bachman Goldman (Part II, Classification of wolves, p. 486, _In_ The wolves of North America, American Wildlife Institute, May 29, 1944) referred two specimens of the red wolf from Reeds Spring, Missouri, to the subspecies _C. n. gregoryi_. Leopold and Hall (Jour. Mamm., 26(2):143, July 19, 1945) referred wolves from 5 mi. N Gainesville and from 3 mi. N Thomasville, both localities in Missouri, to _C. n. rufus_. The identification of Leopold and Hall was made on the basis of the small size of their specimens and they did not have the advantage of comparative material. The locations of these and other records of occurrence in Missouri and Arkansas suggest that the specimens from Reeds Spring might be better referred to _C. n. rufus_, the more western subspecies. An examination and comparison of the two specimens from Reeds Spring, Nos. 244127 and 244527, Biological Surveys Collection, discloses that they are intergrades between _C. n. rufus_ and _C. n. gregoryi_. They resemble _C. n. rufus_ in small size and cranial characters, but are more nearly _C. n. gregoryi_ in the darker, less brightly rufescent color of the pelage. Being, in this case, more strongly influenced by the size and cranial features than by the color, we consider the animals from Reeds Spring best referred to _Canis niger rufus_. _Transmitted July 15, 1952._ 
33915	----	Mammals Taken Along the Alaska Highway BY ROLLIN H. BAKER University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 9, pp. 87-117, 1 figure in text November 28, 1951 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1951 University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 9, pp. 87-117, 1 figure in text November 28, 1951 University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1951 [Union Label] 23-7607 Mammals Taken Along the Alaska Highway BY ROLLIN H. BAKER INTRODUCTION Mammals from along the Alaska Highway were obtained for the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History in the summers of 1947 and 1948 by Mr. J. R. Alcorn, field representative of the Museum. He and his family visited Alberta, British Columbia, the Yukon Territory and Alaska in an automobile and trailer from June 9, 1947, to September 6, 1947, and again from June 8, 1948, to August 24, 1948. In 1947, considerable time was spent by Alcorn in Alaska; trips were made on the Steese Highway to Circle and on the Glenn Highway to Anchorage. In 1948, most of the collecting was done in British Columbia and in the Yukon Territory but a side trip was taken to Haines, Alaska. The collecting stations are shown in figure 1. Alcorn's 1,252 specimens include several large series from areas where few or no mammals had been taken previously. Time spent at each collecting station was of short duration (usually less than three days) and although 56 species and subspecies of mammals are represented in the collections, it is recognized that not all of the kinds of mammals at any one locality were taken. For the loan of comparative mammalian material, grateful acknowledgment is made to officials of the following institutions: California Academy of Sciences; Biological Surveys collection of the U. S. National Museum; Provincial Museum, Victoria, B. C.; National Museum of Canada. The promptness of officials of the game commissions of the provinces and territories concerned, in providing permits for collecting also is acknowledged. A part of the funds for field work was made available by a grant from the Kansas University Endowment Association. Elevations above sea level are given in feet. Capitalized color terms refer to those in Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912. [Illustration: Fig. 1. Map showing localities where J. R. Alcorn collected mammals in Alaska, Yukon Territory, British Columbia, and Alberta, in 1947 and 1948.] COLLECTING LOCALITIES SHOWN IN FIGURE 1. Alaska 1. Circle. 2. Twelve Mile Summit, Steese Highway. 3. Chatanika River, 14 mi. E and 25 mi. N Fairbanks. 4. 1 mi. SW Fairbanks. 5. North side Salcha River, 25 mi. S and 20 mi. E Fairbanks. 6. Richardson Highway, 32 mi. S and 4 mi. W Big Delta. 7. Yerrick Creek, 21 mi. W and 4 mi. N Tok Junction. 8. Tok Junction. 9. Fish Creek, 5 mi. N and 1 mi. E Paxson. 10. East side Deadman Lake, 15 mi. SE Northway. 11. Glenn Highway, 6 mi. WSW Snowshoe Lake. 12. 1 mi. NE Anchorage. 13. East side Chilkat River, 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines. 14. 1 mi. S Haines. Yukon Territory To avoid undue crowding, or overlapping, of symbols, two or more collecting localities, in some instances, are represented by a single symbol (solid circle) in figure 1. 15. Junction Grafe and Edith Creeks. 16. 6 mi. SW Kluane. 17. East side Aishihik River, 17 mi. N Canyon. 18. 25 mi. NW Whitehorse. 19. { 2 mi. NNW Whitehorse. { McIntyre Creek, 3 mi. NW Whitehorse. { 1 mi. NE Whitehorse. { ½ mi. W Whitehorse. 20. West side Lewes River, 2 mi. S Whitehorse. 21. { Marshall Creek, 3 mi. N Dezadeash River. { Champagne, North side Dezadeash Lake. { SW end Dezadeash Lake. 22. { 5 mi. W Teslin River, 16 mi. S and 53 mi. E Whitehorse. { 2 mi. W Teslin River, 16 mi. S and 56 mi. E Whitehorse. { West side Teslin River, 16 mi. S and 58 mi. E Whitehorse. { East side Teslin River, 16 mi. S and 59 mi. E Whitehorse. 23. { Unahini River, 5 mi. N and 1 mi. E Dalton Post. { Unahini River, 3 mi. N and 1 mi. E Dalton Post. 24. 1½ mi. E Tatshenshini River, 1½ mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post. British Columbia 25. 1 mi. NW junction of Irons Creek and Liard River. 26. Screw Creek, 10 mi. S and 50 mi. E Teslin. 27. { 15 mi. NW Kelsall Lake. { Stonehouse Creek, 5½ mi. W junction Stonehouse Creek and { Kelsall River. 28. 14 mi. N Fort Halkett, West side Smith River. 29. West side Mt. Glave, 14 mi. S and 2 mi. E Kelsall Lake. 30. North side Liard River, Fort Halkett. 31. { Hot Springs, 3 mi. WNW junction Trout River and Liard River. { North side Liard River, ½ mi. W junction Trout River and { Liard River. { ¼ mi. S junction Trout River and Liard River. 32. 12 mi. S junction Trout River and Liard River. 33. { NE end Muncho Lake. { SE end Muncho Lake. 34. 10 mi. W Fort Nelson. 35. North side Muskwa River, 4 mi. W Fort Nelson. 36. South side Toad River, 10 mi. S and 21 mi. E Muncho Lake. 37. Summit Pass, 10 mi. S and 70 mi. W Fort Nelson. 38. North Fork Tetsa River, 4 mi. ENE Summit Pass. 39. East side Minaker River, 1 mi. W Trutch. 40. Buckinghorse River, 94 mi. S Fort Nelson. 41. Beatton River, 115 mi. S Fort Nelson. 42. 5 mi. W and 3 mi. N Fort St. John. Alberta 43. Assineau River, 10 mi. E and 1 mi. N Kinuso. ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES Sorex cinereus cinereus Kerr Cinereous Shrew _Sorex arcticus cinereus_ Kerr, Animal Kingdom, p. 206, 1792. (Type from Fort Severn, Ontario, Canada.) _Sorex cinereus cinereus_ Jackson, Jour. Mamm., 6:56, February 9, 1925. _Specimens examined._--Total 56, as follows: _Alaska_: Chatanika River, 700 ft., 14 mi. E and 25 mi. N Fairbanks, 3; N side Salcha River, 600 ft., 25 mi. S and 20 mi. E Fairbanks, 10; Yerrick Creek, 21 mi. W and 4 mi. N Tok Junction, 2; E side Deadman Lake, 1800 ft., 15 mi. SE Northway, 1. _Yukon Territory_: 6 mi. SW Kluane, 2550 ft., 1; McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 2; W side Lewes River, 2150 ft., 2 mi. S Whitehorse, 2; SW end Dezadeash Lake, 4; 1½ mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post, 2500 ft., 10. _British Columbia_: Stonehouse Creek, 5½ mi. W jct. Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River, 9; Hot Springs, 3 mi. WNW jct. Trout River and Liard River, 6; ¼ mi. S jct. Trout River and Liard River, 4; 5 mi. W and 3 mi. N Fort St. John, 1. _Alberta_: Assineau River, 1920 ft., 10 mi. E and 1 mi. N Kinuso, 1. _Remarks._--Shrews from extreme northwestern British Columbia (Stonehouse Creek) average slightly larger than typical S. c. cinereus, especially in length of tail. These animals show definite evidence of intergradation with the larger subspecies, _S. c. streatori_, but are referable to _S. c. cinereus_. The pallor of some shrews from east-central Alaska (Chatanika River and Salcha River) suggests intergradation with the pale _S. c. hollisteri_. Alcorn found the cinereous shrew at most of his trapping stations. It was captured in mouse traps baited with "chewed" rolled oats; one was taken in a trap baited with a grasshopper. Rand (1944:35) and Alcorn each found this shrew to be one of the commoner mammals along the Alaska Highway, but Alcorn did not find it to be so abundant as some of the rodents in areas in which he trapped. The cinereous shrew was taken principally in moist woodlands, grassy areas, and adjacent to water. One female taken on July 18 was lactating. Sorex cinereus streatori Merriam Cinereous Shrew _Sorex personatus streatori_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:62, December 31, 1895. (Type from Yakutat, Alaska.) _Sorex cinereus streatori_ Jackson, Jour. Mamm., 6:56, February 9, 1925. _Specimens examined._--Total 19, as follows: _Alaska_: E side Chilkat River, 100 ft., 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines, 10; 1 mi. S Haines, 5 ft., 9. _Remarks._--Average and extreme external measurements of the nine adult specimens from 1 mile south of Haines are as follows: Total length, 103 (98-105); tail, 45 (43-46); and condylobasal length, 16.2 (16.0-16.4). Corresponding measurements of an adult specimen (No. 1676, UKMNH) from Sitka, Alaska, are 108, 47, and 16.5. Measurements of ten adult specimens from the Chilkat River, 9 miles west and 4 miles north of Haines, are 100 (91-106), 44 (40-50), 16.0 (15.5-16.5). The slightly smaller average size of the latter specimens indicates a trend toward the smaller _S. c. cinereus_, which occurs farther inland. Skulls of some of the specimens from the Chilkat River have a more slender rostrum than those of the specimens from 1 mile south of Haines, and more nearly resemble _S. c. cinereus_ in this respect. Evidently, as indicated by Jackson (1928:54), _S. c. streatori_ occupies only an extremely narrow strip of mainland in the vicinity of Haines. Sorex cinereus hollisteri Jackson Cinereous Shrew _Sorex cinereus hollisteri_ Jackson, Jour. Mamm., 6:55, February 9, 1925. (Type from St. Michael, Alaska.) _Specimens examined._--Two from _Alaska_: 1 mi. NE Anchorage, 100 ft. _Remarks._--Both specimens of this pale subspecies were trapped, along with six _Clethrionomys_ and one _Mus_, in a grassy area bordered on one side by the road and on the other by a spruce forest. No. 21069, [male]?, taken on August 21, is in molt, with one patch of new fur on the rump and another along the midline of the nape and shoulders. Sorex obscurus obscurus Merriam Dusky Shrew _Sorex obscurus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:72, December 31, 1895. (Type from near Timber Creek, altitude 8200 ft., Salmon River Mountains, now Lemhi Mountains, 10 miles west of Junction, Lemhi County, Idaho.) _Specimens examined._--Total 12, as follows: _Yukon Territory_: McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 1; SW end Dezadeash Lake, 2; 1½ mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post, 2500 ft., 1. _British Columbia_: Stonehouse Creek, 5½ mi. W jct. Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River, 4; W side Mt. Glave, 4000 ft., 14 mi. S and 2 mi. E Kelsall Lake, 1; Hot Springs, 3 mi. WNW jct. Trout River and Liard River, 1. _Alberta_: Assineau River, 1920 ft., 10 mi. E and 1 mi. N Kinuso, 2. _Remarks._--Some of the shrews taken in extreme southwestern Yukon Territory (1½ miles south and 3 miles east of Dalton Post) and in extreme northwestern British Columbia (Stonehouse Creek and Mt. Glave) show evidence of intergradation with the coastal subspecies, _S. o. alascensis_, in length of hind foot. These individuals have a long hind foot (14 and 15); the hind feet of specimens from the other localities listed measure 13 and 14. Alcorn, like Rand (1944:35), found the dusky shrew to be less common than the cinereous shrew; both were taken in the same trap lines. The dusky shrew was taken at a higher altitude (4000 feet, on Mt. Glave) than the cinereous shrew. Sorex obscurus shumaginensis Merriam Dusky Shrew _Sorex alascensis shumaginensis_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 2:18, March 14, 1900. (Type from Popof Island, Shumagin Islands, Alaska.) _Sorex obscurus shumaginensis_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist, 16:228, July 12, 1902. _Specimens examined._--Total 3, as follows: _Alaska_: 1 mi. NE Anchorage, 100 ft., 1; Glenn Highway, 6 mi. WSW Snowshoe Lake, 2. _Remarks._--These three shrews, in comparison with those referred to _S. o. obscurus_, are paler, and the one complete skull has a slightly higher braincase. All of the specimens were obtained in grassy areas adjacent to the roadway. Sorex obscurus alascensis Merriam Dusky Shrew _Sorex obscurus alascensis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:76, December 31, 1895. (Type from Yakutat, Alaska.) _Specimens examined._--Total 22, as follows: _Alaska_: E side Chilkat River, 100 ft., 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines, 12; 1 mi. S Haines, 5 ft., 10. Sorex palustris navigator (Baird) Water Shrew _Neosorex navigator_ Baird, Report Pacific R. R. Survey, 8, pt. 1, Mammals, p. 11, 1857. (Type from near head of Yakima River, Cascade Mountains, Washington.) _Sorex_ (_Neosorex_) _palustris navigator_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:92, December 31, 1895. _Specimens examined._--Total 20, as follows: _Alaska_: E side Chilkat River, 100 ft., 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines, 2. _Yukon Territory_: McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 11; SW end Dezadeash Lake, 2; 1½ mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post, 2500 ft., 3. _British Columbia_: Stonehouse Creek, 5½ mi. W jct. Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River, 2. _Remarks._--Those males with worn teeth seem to have a slightly longer and deeper rostrum with a larger, more inflated cranium than specimens of _S. p. navigator_ from Washington, but in other ways resemble typical _S. p. navigator_. An adult male, with slightly worn teeth, from Dezadeash Lake has sagittal and lambdoidal crests. All of the water shrews were taken in July and early August and at the edge of water in traps baited with rolled oats. None of the females had embryos. Myotis lucifugus lucifugus (LeConte) Little Brown Bat _Vespertilio lucifugus_ LeConte, McMurtrie's Cuvier, Animal Kingdom, vol. 1, appendix, p. 431, 1831. (Type from Georgia; probably the LeConte plantation, near Riceboro, Liberty County.) _Myotis lucifugus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:59, October 16, 1897. _Specimens examined._--Thirty-eight from _British Columbia_: NE end Muncho Lake. _Remarks._--The 38 bats were from a colony of approximately 75 individuals, found on the south side of a house. The paper was loose and had buckled in numerous places allowing room for the bats to ensconce themselves between the paper and outside wall. Myotis lucifugus alascensis Miller Little Brown Bat _Myotis lucifugus alascensis_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:63, October 16, 1897. (Type from Sitka, Alaska.) _Specimens examined._--One from _British Columbia_: Screw Creek, 10 mi. S and 50 mi. E Teslin. _Remarks._--The specimen is considerably darker both above and below than either of two specimens of _M. l. alascensis_ from Red Bluff Bay, Alaska. Alcorn searched ten frame buildings in an abandoned camp on the east side of Screw Creek, for bats and found only the one bat. It was above some droppings. No droppings were found in other buildings. Ochotona collaris (Nelson) Collared Pika _Lagomys collaris_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 8:117, December 21, 1893. (Type from near head of Tanana River, about 200 miles south of Fort Yukon, Alaska.) [_Ochotona_] _collaris_ Trouessart, Catal. Mamm. viv. foss., p. 648, 1897. _Specimens examined._--Total 14, as follows: _British Columbia_: Stonehouse Creek, 5½ mi. W jct. Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River, 1; W side Mt. Glave, 4000 ft., 14 mi. S and 2 mi. E Kelsall Lake, 13. _Remarks._--In comparing specimens obtained by Alcorn with published descriptions of _O. collaris_ in Howell (1924:35), it appeared that measurable geographic variation might be present in this monotypic species. Accordingly, comparisons were made with materials in the Biological Surveys collection of the U. S. National Museum, the Provincial Museum, Victoria, B. C., and the National Museum of Canada. A comparison of specimens of similar ages showed that no subspecific separation is justified although animals from the Yukon Territory, British Columbia, and Northwest Territories, as compared with available material from Alaska, tend to be grayer in color and longer in total length with a slightly larger skull and greater alveolar length of molariform tooth-row in both upper and lower jaws. Specimens used for comparison were from the following localities: _Alaska_: Mts. near Eagle (USBS), 15; 200 mi. S Fort Yukon (USBS), 2; Upper Little Delta River, Glacier Creek, Mt. Hayes region (USBS), 1; Glacier Creek, Mt. Hayes region (USBS), 3; Little Delta River, Slate Creek, Red Mt. Camp, Mt. Hayes region (USBS), 1; Muldron Glacier, Mt. McKinley (USBS), 2; Mt. McKinley (USBS), 3; Summit of Chugach Mts., on Richardson Highway, N of Valdez (USBS), 1; Chitina River Glacier (Nat. Mus. Canada), 3. _Yukon Territory_: McMillan Pass, Canol Road, mile 282 (Nat. Mus. Canada), 2; Rose River, Canol Road, mile 95 (Nat. Mus. Canada), 8; Tepee Lake (Nat. Mus. Canada), 1; Conrad (Nat. Mus. Canada), 1; near Teslin Lake (Nat. Mus. Canada), 1. _Northwest Territories_: headwaters of Caracajou River, Canol Road, mile 111E (Nat. Mus. Canada), 1. _British Columbia_: White Mt., Moose Arm, Tagish Lake, Atlin (Prov. Mus., Victoria, B.C.), 2. Lepus americanus macfarlani Merriam Varying Hare _Lepus americanus macfarlani_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 2:30, March 14, 1900. (Type from Fort Anderson, near mouth of Anderson River, Mackenzie, Canada.) _Specimens examined._--Total 3, as follows: _Yukon Territory_: W side Lewes River, 2150 ft., 2 mi. S Whitehorse, 1; 5 mi. W Teslin River, 2400 ft., 16 mi. S and 53 mi. E Whitehorse, 1. _British Columbia_: 14 mi. N Fort Halkett, W side Smith River, 1. _Remarks._--Alcorn reports seeing few hares on his two trips to Alaska. Near the Miniker River, a geologist told him that the numbers of these animals had steadily declined since 1943. One of three seen in a spruce forest on July 8, 1947, near Whitehorse was taken by Alcorn. A young one was captured in a rat trap in a building near the Teslin River on July 5 of the same year. Tamiasciurus hudsonicus columbiensis A. H. Howell Red Squirrel _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus columbiensis_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 49:135, August 22, 1936. (Type from Raspberry Creek, about 30 mi. SE of Telegraph Creek, northern British Columbia.) _Specimens examined._--Total 18, as follows: _Yukon Territory_: McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 1; W side Lewes River, 2150 ft., 2 mi. SW Whitehorse, 1; 2 mi. W Teslin River, 2400 ft., 16 mi. E Whitehorse, 1. _British Columbia_: 1 mi. NW jct. Irons Creek and Liard River, 1; ¼ mi. S jct. Trout River and Liard River, 3; S side Toad River, 10 mi. S and 21 mi. E Muncho Lake, 3; Summit Pass, 4200 ft., 10 mi. S and 70 mi. W Fort Nelson, 8. _Remarks._--Rand (1944:42) experienced difficulty in assigning subspecific names to red squirrels taken along the Alaska Highway in northern British Columbia. Some variability as found by Rand is noted in adults taken by Alcorn in this area. All of the specimens assigned to _T. h. columbiensis_ have a darker tail and more tawny feet than _T. h. preblei_. The average of skulls of adults is smaller than the skull of an adult of _T. h. preblei_ from Yerrick Creek, Alaska. Alcorn obtained most of the squirrels in rat traps and steel traps, using "chewed" rolled oats as well as bits of fish and mouse bodies as bait. Tamiasciurus hudsonicus petulans (Osgood) Red Squirrel _Sciurus hudsonicus petulans_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 19:27, October 6, 1900. (Type from Glacier, White Pass, Alaska.) _T[amiasciurus]. hudsonicus petulans_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 49:136, August 22, 1936. _Specimens examined._--Total 7, as follows: _Alaska_: 1 mi. S Haines, 5 ft., 2. _Yukon Territory_: SW end Dezadeash Lake, 1; 1½ mi. E Tatshenshini River, 1½mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post, 4. _Remarks._--Specimens from extreme southwestern Yukon Territory appear to be referable to this subspecies. The one adult female (skull only, with body measurements) from the southwestern end of Dezadeash Lake has a shorter skull than does any adult female of _T. h. columbiensis_. No skins of adults are in the series, but the skins of three subadults have darker upper parts, a darker tail and less olivaceous sides than _T. h. columbiensis_. Tamiasciurus hudsonicus preblei A. H. Howell Red Squirrel _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus preblei_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 49:133, August 22, 1936. (Type from Fort Simpson, Mackenzie District, Northwestern Territories.) _Specimens examined._--Total 3, as follows: _Alaska_: Chatanika River, 700 ft., 14 mi. E and 25 mi. N Fairbanks, 1; N side Salcha River, 600 ft., 25 mi. S and 20 mi. E Fairbanks, 1; Yerrick Creek, 21 mi. W and 4 mi. N Tok Junction, 1. _Remarks._--In comparison with specimens of _T. h. hudsonicus_ from Iskwasum Lake, District of the Pas, Manitoba, the squirrel from Yerrick Creek, an adult female, is larger and paler on the upper parts and tail. The squirrel taken at Yerrick Creek was captured in a rat trap; Alcorn found these animals to be "fairly common" in that area. He obtained no evidence that the natives use them for food. Marmota monax ochracea Swarth Woodchuck _Marmota ochracea_ Swarth, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 7:203, February 18, 1911. (Type from Forty-mile Creek, Alaska.) _Marmota monax ochracea_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 37:34, April 7, 1915. _Specimens examined._--Total 3, as follows: _British Columbia_: Hot Springs, 3 mi. WNW jct. Trout River and Liard River, 1; ¼ mi. S jct. Trout River and Liard River, 2. Citellus parryii plesius (Osgood) Parry Ground Squirrel _Spermophilis empetra plesius_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 19:29, October 6, 1900. (Type from Bennett City, head of Lake Bennett, British Columbia.) _Citellus paryii plesius_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:97, May 18, 1938. _Specimens examined._--Total 42, as follows: _Alaska_: Richardson Highway, 2000 ft., 32 mi. S and 4 mi. W Big Delta, 5. _Yukon Territory_: 6 mi. SW Kluane, 2550 ft., 1; McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 1; 2 mi. NNW Whitehorse, 2100 ft., 1; 1 mi. NE Whitehorse, 1; ½ mi. W Whitehorse, 2150 ft., 1; SW end Dezadeash Lake, 1; 2 mi. W Teslin River, 2400 ft., 16 mi. S and 56 mi. E Whitehorse, 7; 1½ mi. E Tatshenshini River, 1½ mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post, 3. _British Columbia_: Stonehouse Creek, 5½ mi. W jct. Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River, 14; W side Mt. Glave, 4000 ft., 14 mi. S and 2 mi. E Kelsall Lake, 7. _Remarks._--The specimens vary much in color; most color variation is the result of wear and fading. In pallor of coloration the specimens taken on August 16 along the Richardson Highway, 32 miles south and 4 miles west of Big Delta, Alaska, show some resemblance to _C. p. ablusus_, which occurs to the westward, although in other diagnostic characters these specimens are typically _C. p. plesius_. Specimens in early stages of molt were taken on July 3, 4, and 14; another specimen in an advanced stage of molt was obtained on July 10. One melanistic individual was taken one mile northeast of Whitehorse on July 11. Alcorn found these ground squirrels locally abundant, especially in the vicinity of Whitehorse in Yukon Territory. A large population was observed along the highway west of the Teslin River; animals were seen for several miles along the road, principally in open coniferous forests where there was little or no underbrush. Alcorn caught several animals near the city dump at Whitehorse. Along the Richardson Highway he observed these ground squirrels almost continuously for approximately ten miles. He comments that the animals appeared to be more numerous in the man-cleared areas along the highway than in "unmolested areas farther back from the highway." Specimens were taken with collecting gun and in rat traps baited with "chewed" rolled oats. Eutamias minimus borealis (J. A. Allen) Least Chipmunk _Tamias asiaticus borealis_ J. A. Allen, Monogr. N. Amer. Rodentia, p. 793, August, 1877. (Type from Fort Liard, Mackenzie, Canada.) _Eutamias minimus borealis_ A. H. Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:183, August 4, 1922. _Specimens examined._--Total 10, as follows: _British Columbia_: N side Muskwa River, 1200 ft., 4 mi. W Fort Nelson, 1; E side Minaker River, 1 mi. W Trutch, 5; Beatton River, 115 mi. S Fort Nelson, 1; 5 mi. W. and 3 mi. N Fort St. John, 1. _Alberta_: Assineau River, 1920 ft., 10 mi. E and 1 mi. N Kinuso, 2. _Remarks._--Specimens with worn pelage are conspicuously paler and grayer than those in fresh pelage. Chipmunks in early stages of molt with fresh pelage extending posteriorly to the middle of the dorsal part of the back were taken on June 19, 20, and 22; others in fresh pelage above, except for the hind quarters, were taken on June 15 and on September 2. Alcorn found this species nowhere abundant; for example, in 187 museum special traps set near Charlie Lake, 5 miles west and 3 miles north of Fort St. John, in British Columbia, he took only one chipmunk. Eutamias minimus caniceps Osgood Least Chipmunk _Eutamias caniceps_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 19:28, October 6, 1900. (Type from Lake Lebarge, Yukon Territory.) _Eutamias minimus caniceps_ A. H. Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922. _Specimens examined._--Total 36, as follows: _Yukon Territory_: 6 mi. SW Kluane, 2550 ft., 2; McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 3; 2 mi. NNW Whitehorse, 2100 ft., 1; W side Lewes River, 2150 ft., 2 mi. S Whitehorse, 1; SW end Dezadeash Lake, 10; 5 mi. W Teslin River, 2400 ft., 16 mi. S and 53 mi. E Whitehorse, 1; W side Teslin River, 16 mi. S and 58 mi. E Whitehorse, 2; 1½ mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post, 2500 ft., 5. _British Columbia_: 1 mi. NW jct. Irons Creek and Liard River, 2; S side Toad River, 10 mi. S and 21 mi. E Muncho Lake, 6; Summit Pass, 4200 ft., 10 mi. S and 70 mi. W Fort Nelson, 3. _Remarks._--Some of the specimens taken between Summit Pass and Toad River show evidence of intergradation between the paler and grayer _E. m. caniceps_ and the brighter and browner _E. m. borealis_. Rand (1944:41) also found evidence of intergradation between these two subspecies in this area. Along the highway, Alcorn found this species to be somewhat more abundant in the Yukon Territory than in British Columbia. He often found the animals occupying abandoned road camps; seemingly they were more numerous in these areas than in undisturbed natural habitat. Glaucomys sabrinus zaphaeus (Osgood) Flying Squirrel _Sciuropterus alpinus zaphaeus_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 18:133, April 18, 1905. (Type from Helm Bay, Cleveland Peninsula, southeastern Alaska.) _Glaucomys sabrinus zaphaeus_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:43, June 13, 1918. _Specimens examined._--One from _Yukon Territory_: 1½ mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post, 2500 ft. _Remarks._--Although comparative material is not available at this writing, descriptions in the literature indicate that this single adult female belongs to the coastal form, _G. s. zaphaeus_. In both color and in cranial and external measurements, this specimen appears to agree closely with descriptions given by Howell (1918:43) and by Cowan (1937:78 and 82), although its measurements are also in the range of those given for _G. s. alpinus_ by Cowan (_loc. cit._). It may be pointed out that Swarth (1936:402) regarded a specimen from 15 miles south of Atlin, British Columbia, as _G. s. alpinus_. Measurements of Alcorn's specimen are as follows: total length, 331; tail, 143; hind foot, 42; ear from notch, 23; greatest length of skull, 41.7; zygomatic breadth, 25.7; mastoid breadth, 21.7; length of nasals, 12.2; length maxillary tooth-row, 8.2; interorbital constriction, 8.2; and postorbital constriction, 9.0. Castor canadensis sagittatus Benson Beaver _Castor canadensis sagittatus_ Benson, Jour. Mamm., 14:320, November 13, 1933. (Type from Indianpoint Creek, 3200 ft., 16 mi. NE Barkerville, British Columbia.) _Specimens examined._--Two from _British Columbia_: Fort Halkett, N side Liard River. _Remarks._--Two beaver skulls obtained by Alcorn from trapper Johnny Pie appear to be of this subspecies. Anderson (1947:133) records this subspecies from the Liard River, in the area from which these specimens were taken. The trapper told Alcorn that he shot these two beavers in the winter of 1947-48 and hung the skulls in a tree. Peromyscus maniculatus algidus Osgood White-footed Mouse _Peromyscus maniculatus algidus_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, No. 28:56, April 17, 1909. (Type from head of Lake Bennett, site of old Bennett City, British Columbia.) _Specimens examined._--Total 93, as follows: _Alaska_: E side Chilkat River, 100 ft., 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines, 20; 1 mi. W Haines, 5 ft., 7. _Yukon Territory_: 6 mi. SW Kluane, 2550 ft., 10; McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 6; 2 mi. NNW Whitehorse, 2100 ft., 2; W side Lewes River, 2150 ft., 2 mi. S Whitehorse, 16; SW end Dezadeash Lake, 9; 1½ mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post, 15. _British Columbia_: Stonehouse Creek, 5½ mi. W jct. Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River, 8. _Remarks._--Specimens from the localities listed above are in the geographic range of _P. m. algidus_ as outlined by Anderson (1947: 136). Specimens from the vicinity of Haines, Alaska, are slightly darker indicating intergradation with _P. m. hylaeus_; Osgood (1909a: 54 and 56) also noted that intergradation between _P. m. algidus_ and _P. m. hylaeus_ occurs in this area. Peromyscus maniculatus borealis Mearns White-footed Mouse _Peromyscus maniculatus borealis_ Mearns, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 24:102, May 15, 1911. Substitute name for _P. m. arcticus_ Mearns. (Type from Fort Simpson, Mackenzie, Canada.) _Specimens examined._--Total 214, as follows: _Yukon Territory_: 2 mi. W Teslin River, 2400 ft., 16 mi. S and 56 mi. E Whitehorse, 8; W side Teslin River, 2300 ft., 16 mi. S and 58 mi. E Whitehorse, 24; E side Teslin River, 2300 ft., 16 mi. S and 59 mi. E Whitehorse, 7. _British Columbia_: 1 mi. NW jct. Irons Creek and Liard River, 10; Hot Springs, 3 mi. WNW jct. Trout River and Liard River, 6; N side Liard River, ½ mi. W jct. Trout River and Liard River, 13; ¼ mi. S jct. Trout River and Liard River, 20; SE end Muncho Lake, 5; S side Toad River, 10 mi. S and 21 mi. E Muncho Lake, 45; N side Muskwa River, 1200 ft., 4 mi. W Fort Nelson, 9; North Fork Tetsa River, 3900 ft., 4 mi. ENE Summit Pass, 13; Summit Pass, 4200 ft., 10 mi. S and 70 mi. W Fort Nelson, 17; E side Minaker River, 1 mi. W Trutch, 18; Beatton River, 115 mi. S Fort Nelson, 2; 5 mi. W and 3 mi. N Fort St. John, 7. _Alberta_: Assineau River, 1920 ft., 10 mi. E and 1 mi. N Kinuso, 10. _Remarks._--Specimens from 2 miles west of Teslin River resemble _P. m. borealis_ more than _P. m. algidus_ both in size of skull and in color, although I find it difficult to distinguish the specimens by color. Alcorn, like Rand (1945:43), found the mouse in almost every habitat along the Alaska Highway. On the east side of the Minaker River, one mile west of Trutch, Alcorn took 26 _Peromyscus_ and four _Microtus_ in 70 museum special traps baited with chewed rolled oats, set in a grassy area where there were birches and clumps of willows. _Peromyscus_ was usually abundant in old construction camps along the highway; on July 27 in 50 traps set under abandoned buildings at Summit Pass, Alcorn took 21 _Peromyscus_. Apparently, as Swarth (1936:402) notes, the white-footed mouse makes itself at home in such buildings, and local populations probably increase as a result of the artificial environment that provides favorable conditions for existence. Neotoma cinerea drummondii (Richardson) Bushy-tailed Wood Rat _Myoxus drummondii_ Richardson, Zool. Jour., 3:517, 1828. (Type probably from near Jasper House, Alberta, Canada.) _Neotoma cinerea drummondii_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 7:25, April 13, 1892. _Specimens examined._--Total 4, as follows: _British Columbia_: Summit Pass, 4500 ft., 10 mi. S and 70 mi. W of Fort Nelson, 1; 5 mi. W and 3 mi. N Fort St. John, 3. _Remarks._--Wood rats were obtained at only two locations, Alcorn's field notes indicating that the animals were rare and spotty in distribution. Rand (1944:44) comments that the rats were "scarce north of the Lower Liard Crossing." At both localities where specimens were taken, Alcorn noted first their characteristic droppings. At Summit Pass, droppings were found in a rock slide at the upper limit of timber line; one rat was taken. At the trapping station five miles west and three miles north of Fort St. John, droppings were found in and under an old abandoned building; four young (two prepared) and one adult were obtained. Synaptomys borealis dalli Merriam Northern Bog Lemming _Synaptomys_ (_Mictomys_) _dalli_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:62, March 19, 1896. (Type from Nulato, Alaska.) _Synaptomys borealis dalli_ A. B. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 50:24, (June 30) August 5, 1927. _Specimens examined._--Total 6, as follows: _Alaska_: E side Deadman Lake, 1800 ft., 15 mi. SE Northway, 1. _Yukon Territory_: McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 5. _Remarks._--The northern bog lemming is evidently not generally distributed along the Alaska Highway but may be locally numerous in cover of grass and sedge especially in marsh and bog habitat. Five specimens were obtained in a grassy area 30 feet wide by 60 feet long which was approximately 50 feet from McIntyre Creek in the Yukon Territory. In 22 mouse traps set the first night in this locality, three _Synaptomys_, six _Microtus_ and one _Sorex_ were taken. One additional _Synaptomys_ was taken on each of the following two nights in the same area. At Deadman Lake, Alaska, one _Synaptomys_ was taken in heavy sedge bordering a small pond. Clethrionomys rutilus dawsoni (Merriam) Dawson Red-backed Mouse _Evotomys dawsoni_ Merriam, Amer. Nat., 22:650, July, 1888. (Type from Finlayson River, a northern source of the Liard River, lat. 61° 30' N, long. 129° 30' W, Yukon, Canada.) _Clethrionomys rutilus dawsoni_ Rausch, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 40:135, April 21, 1950. _Specimens examined._--Total 126, as follows: _Alaska_: Chatanika River, 700 ft., 14 mi. E and 25 mi. N Fairbanks, 17; 1 mi. SW Fairbanks, 440 ft., 1; N side Salcha River, 600 ft., 25 mi. S and 20 mi. E Fairbanks, 15; 25 mi. S and 20 mi. E Fairbanks, 3; Yerrick Creek, 21 mi. W and 4 mi. N Tok Junction, 32; Tok Junction, 1600 ft., 1; E side Deadman Lake, 1800 ft., 15 mi. SE Northway, 9; 1 mi. NE Anchorage, 100 ft., 9; Glenn Highway, 6 mi. WSW Snowshoe Lake, 1; E side Chilkat River, 100 ft., 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines, 2; 1 mi. S Haines, 5 ft., 2. _Yukon Territory_: Jct. Grafe Creek and Edith Creek, 2; 6 mi. SW Kluane, 2250 ft., 4; 2 mi. NNW Whitehorse, 2100 ft., 2; W side Lewes River, 2150 ft., 2 mi. S Whitehorse, 6; SW end Desadeash Lake, 15. _British Columbia_: Stonehouse Creek, 5½ mi. W jct. Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River, 1; S side Toad River, 10 mi. S and 21 mi. E Muncho Lake, 2; Summit Pass, 4500 ft., 10 mi. S and 70 mi. W Fort Nelson, 2. _Remarks._--Specimens from one mile northeast of Anchorage show little tendency toward _C. r. orca_ from the Prince William Sound area (see Orr, 1945:73). One specimen from this locality is slightly darker than the others. Red-backed mice were numerous in most localities where Alcorn trapped. A number of specimens were taken adjacent to and within abandoned road camps, where second growth vegetation was rank. As in the case of _C. gapperi_, he found _C. rutilus_ in varied habitats. Clethrionomys gapperi athabascae (Preble) Red-backed Mouse _Evotomys gapperi athabascae_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 27:178, October 26, 1908. (Type from Fort Smith, Slave Lake, Mackenzie District, Northwest Territories, Canada.) _Clethrionomys gapperi athabascae_ Harper, Jour. Mamm., 13:28, February 9, 1932. _Specimens examined._--Total 14, as follows: _British Columbia_: N side Muska River, 1200 ft., 4 mi. W Fort Nelson, 1; E side Minaker River, 1 mi. W Trutch, 3; 5 mi. W and 3 mi. N Fort St. John, 4. _Alberta_: Assineau River, 1920 ft., 10 mi. E and 1 mi. N Kinuso, 6. _Remarks._--These red-backed mice were taken in various habitats: grassy areas in aspen and poplar forest, heavy spruce forest with no undergrowth excepting lichens and moss, thick underbrush in river flood plain, and at the site of an old sawmill. The northwestern distribution of this species along the Alaska Highway as found by Alcorn is approximately the same as that found by Rand (1944:44). Ondatra zibethicus spatulatus (Osgood) Muskrat _Fiber spatulatus_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 19:36, October 6, 1900. (Type from Lake Marsh, Yukon, Canada.) _Ondatra zibethica spatulata_ Miller, N. Amer. Land Mamm. 1911, p. 231, December 31, 1912. _Specimens examined._--Total 2, as follows: _Alaska_: N side Salcha River, 600 ft., 25 mi. S and 20 mi. E Fairbanks, 1; E side Deadman Lake, 1800 ft., 15 mi. NE Northway, 1. _Remarks._--One muskrat was shot in an old beaver pond on the north side of the Salcha River. A skull from a carcass, that had been left by a trapper the previous winter, was obtained at Deadman Lake. Phenacomys intermedius mackenzii Preble Lemming Mouse _Phenacomys mackenzii_ Preble, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:182, August 6, 1902. (Type from Fort Smith, Slave River, Mackenzie, Canada.) _Phenacomys intermedius mackenzii_ Crowe, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist, 80:403, February 4, 1943. _Specimen examined._--One from _Yukon Territory_: SE end Dezadeash Lake. _Remarks._--A subadult taken only a few miles from the Alaskan border in Yukon Territory constitutes an extension of the known range of this species to the northwest. The mouse is evidently rare or irregular in its distribution since Alcorn did considerable trapping in the area from which only one was taken. Microtus pennsylvanicus Pennsylvania Meadow Mouse The Pennsylvania meadow mouse is an abundant mammal along the Alaska Highway. Alcorn obtained specimens at most of his trapping stations, frequently in company with _Microtus oeconomus_ at the more northern localities. A preferred habitat was grassy areas and willow clumps along streams or at the edges of lakes. The best catches were made along well-used runways, especially where there were piles of cut grass. These runways were used also by _Clethrionomys_ and other small animals. Specimens of _M. pennsylvanicus_ were frequently taken in the daytime; one was taken on June 29 as it was swimming at the edge of a small lake near the junction of the Liard River and Irons Creek in British Columbia. Lacking sufficient comparative material in the past, most workers have considered that _M. pennsylvanicus_ ranges without appreciable geographic variation throughout most of northwestern Canada and Alaska, where it has been referred to the subspecies, _M. p. drummondii_. Dale (1940), in studying collections made in British Columbia and southeastern Alaska, found evidence of geographic variation and recognized two new subspecies; thus he not only pointed out geographically variable characters but reduced the size of the range ascribed to _M. p. drummondii_. A later work by Rand (1943) considered the northwestern populations of _M. pennsylvanicus_ as being too variable to show distinctive groupings. The large collection made by Alcorn offers evidence that other separable subspecies with constant characters are present. Study of this material indicates the presence of two unnamed subspecies, which are named and described as follows: Microtus pennsylvanicus alcorni new subspecies _Type._--Female, adult, skin with skull, No. 21552, Univ. Kansas, Mus. Nat. Hist., 6 mi. SW Kluane, 2550 feet elevation, Yukon Territory, Canada; 24 August 1947; obtained by J. R. Alcorn; original No. 5240. _Range._--Extreme southwestern Yukon Territory and adjacent parts of Alaska as far south as Haines, as far north as Northway, and as far west along the Alaskan coast as Anchorage and Tyonek. _Diagnosis._--Size large (see measurements); color of upper parts near (_l_) Brussels Brown; skull noticeably ridged; zygomatic arches heavy, rounded and relatively short; rostrum heavy; auditory bullae not greatly expanded; maxillary teeth relatively heavy and low-crowned. _Comparisons._--From _M. p. drummondii_ (specimens from vicinity of Whitehorse, Y. T., Trutch, B. C., and Kinuso, Alberta), _M. p. alcorni_ differs as follows: Averaging larger in all measurements taken except lengths of tail and hind foot, which are the same; color of upper parts slightly paler and more gray and less brown; underparts paler; zygomatic arches heavier, rounder and shorter; skull proportionately more massive, except the auditory bullae which are less inflated; maxillary teeth heavier and lower-crowned. From _M. p. rubidus_ (specimens from Atlin, B. C.), _M. p. alcorni_ differs as follows: Averaging larger in all cranial measurements taken except length of the maxillary tooth-row which is the same; color of upperparts more gray and less brown; underparts darker; skull longer with longer nasals and heavier zygomatic arches; skull of adult more heavily ridged. From _M. p. admiraltiae_ (specimens from Admiralty Island), _M. p. alcorni_ differs as follows: Averaging larger in all measurements taken; color of upper parts more gray and less brown, underparts darker. _Remarks._--_Microtus p. alcorni_ is a well-defined subspecies differing markedly from adjacent subspecies by a larger and heavier skull and broader, more rounded and heavier zygomatic arches. Characters examined in the specimens available are constant. Specimens from Haines are slightly darker than those from Kluane. An adult (No. 21534, UKMNH) from Northway has slightly more inflated auditory bullae than those from Kluane. An adult from Tyonek (No. 986, UKMNH) has richer brown upper parts. Measurements of this specimen resemble closely those of animals from Kluane, although the rostrum is noticably heavier. Several adults were available from many of the localities of occurrence of _M. p. alcorni_. At the locality 9 miles west and 4 miles north of Haines, there were four which were considered to be old adults. These four had larger measurements than others considered to be fully adult. In addition, the skulls were larger and more rugged. There were occasionally old adults in other series. For the sake of uniformity, I have not considered these aforementioned old adults in the comparative studies of younger adults. This subspecies is named in honor of J(oseph). R(aymond). Alcorn, the collector. _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of six adults of both sexes of _M. p. alcorni_ from the type locality are as follows: Total length, 162 (149-172); length of tail, 43 (39-45); condylobasal length, 26.3 (25.6-26.3); basal length, 25.2 (24.2-25.9); length of nasals, 7.3 (6.9-7.5); zygomatic breadth, 15.3 (14.9-15.6); breadth across auditory bullae, 12.8 (12.4-13.2); alveolar length of upper molariform tooth-row, 6.4 (6.1-6.7). Seven adults of both sexes from 9 miles west and 4 miles north of Haines have the following measurements: 158 (148-165); 45 (41-50); 26.1 (25.5-26.8); 24.8 (24.4-25.7); 7.3 (7.0-7.6); 14.9 (14.3-15.1); 12.2 (11.8-13.0); 6.2 (5.9-6.3). _Specimens examined._--Total 65, distributed by localities of capture as follows and deposited in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History: _Alaska_: E side Deadman Lake, 1800 ft., 15 mi. SE Northway, 7; 1 mi. NE Anchorage, 100 ft., 1; Tyonek, Cook's Inlet, 1; E side Chilkat River, 100 ft., 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines, 37. _Yukon Territory_: 6 mi. SW Kluane, 2250 ft., 14; SW end Dezadeash Lake, 2; 1½ mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post, 2500 ft., 3. Specimens reported by Osgood (1904:35) have not been seen by me but may be of this subspecies, and are tentatively referred to it. These are from the following localities in Alaska: Lake Clark near Keejik, near the mouth of the Chulitna River, and Kakhtul River near the junction with the Malchatna. Microtus pennsylvanicus tananaensis new subspecies _Type._--Female, adult, skin with skull, No. 21509, Univ. Kansas, Mus. Nat. Hist., Yerrick Creek, 21 mi. W and 4 mi. N Tok Junction, Alaska; 20 July 1947; obtained by J. R. Alcorn; original No. 5023. _Range._--East-central Alaska as far south as Tok Junction, as far west as Mt. McKinley, as far north as Fairbanks and as far east as Eagle. _Diagnosis._--Size medium (see measurements); color of upper parts dark, near (_n_) Prout's Brown, with some individual variation; skull with zygomatic arches moderately heavy and wide; nasals relatively long; auditory bullae inflated. _Comparisons._--From _M. p. alcorni_ (see description), _M. p. tananaensis_ differs as follows: Smaller in all measurements taken except alveolar length of upper molariform tooth-row which is the same; color of upper parts darker, more richly brown and less gray; underparts darker; zygomatic arches less massive and narrower; auditory bullae larger and more inflated. From _M. p. drummondii_ (see comparisons under _M. p. alcorni_), _M. p. tananaensis_ differs as follows: Larger in all cranial measurements taken except nasal length which is the same; color everywhere slightly darker; wider across zygomatic arches; zygoma thicker; nasals, relative to length of skull, shorter; auditory bullae larger and more inflated. _Remarks._--For the most part the material available of this subspecies consisted of subadults; however, comparison of adults with those of adjacent subspecies indicates that this subspecies can be distinguished by color of the upper parts, cranial measurements, and size of the zygomatic arches and the auditory bullae. Specimens from 14 miles east and 25 miles north of Fairbanks are especially dark. One subadult (No. 21467, UKMNH) has blackish hair on the feet and a blackish unicolored tail. No. 241696, USBS, an old adult female, from Ketchumstock, is larger. The specimens referred to this subspecies, vary some in color, but vary less in cranial characters. Additional adults are needed from western Alaska to determine how far this subspecies extends down the valley of the Yukon River. Bailey (1900:24) lists one specimen from Nulato, as _drummondii_; I have not seen it but on geographic grounds tentatively assign it to _M. p. tananaensis_. _Measurements._--Measurements of the type specimen are as follows: Total length, 160; length of tail, 40; condylobasal length, 26.0; basal length, 24.9; length of nasals, 6.7; zygomatic breadth, 14.5; breadth across auditory bullae, 12.5; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth-row, 6.2. Two specimens from Eagle (Nos. 128295 and 128320, USBS) have the following measurements respectively: 161, 154; 37.5, 36; 25.3, 25.4; 23.8, 23.9; 6.5, 6.8; 14.5, 14.6; 11.9, 12.3; 6.1, 6.1. _Specimens examined._--Total 34, distributed by localities of capture as follows and unless otherwise stated in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History: _Alaska_: Near Buster Creek, Chatanika River, 1 (USBS); Chatanika River, 700 ft., 14 mi. E and 25 mi. N Fairbanks, 4; Fairbanks, 2 (USBS); head of Glacier Creek, Mt. McKinley, 1 (USBS); Moose Creek, Mt. McKinley, 2 (USBS); head of Toklat River, 1 (USBS); Eagle, 4 (USBS); Yerrick Creek, 21 mi. W and 4 mi. N Tok Junction, 13; Ketchumstock, 2 (USBS); 9 mi. from mouth of Robertson River, 1 (USBS); Tanana, 3 (USBS); Tanana Crossing, 1 (USBS). Osgood (1909b:24) records specimens which may be of this subspecies from the following localities in Alaska: Charlie Creek, Circle, 20 miles above Circle, 40 miles above Circle, Nation Creek, and Seventy Mile Creek. Osgood (1900:36) also records specimens from near Fort Yukon. None of these has been seen by me; they are only tentatively assigned to this subspecies. Microtus pennsylvanicus drummondii (Audubon and Bachman) _Arvicola drummondii_ Audubon and Bachman, Quadr. North Amer., 3:166, 1854. (Type, by subsequent designation, from vicinity of Jasper House, Alberta.) _Microtus pennsylvanicus drummondii_ Hollister, Canadian Alp. Jour., Special Number, p. 23, February 17, 1913. _Specimens examined._--Total 93, as follows: _Yukon Territory_: McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 26; W side Lewes River, 2150 ft., 2 mi. S Whitehorse, 4; 5 mi. W Teslin River, 2400 ft., 16 mi. S and 53 mi. E Whitehorse, 7; E side Teslin River, 2300 ft., 16 mi. S and 59 mi. E Whitehorse, 1. _British Columbia_: 1 mi. NW jct. Irons Creek and Liard River, 8; Hot Springs, 3 mi. WNW jct. Trout River and Liard River, 3; N side Liard River, ½ mi. W jct. Liard River and Trout River, 1; ¼ mi. S jct. Trout River and Liard River, 13; S side Toad River, 10 mi. S and 21 mi. E Muncho Lake, 2; Summit Pass, 4200 ft., 10 mi. S and 70 mi. W Fort Nelson, 2; E side Minaker River, 1 mi. W Trutch, 19; Beatton River, 115 mi. S Fort Nelson, 1; 5 mi. W and 3 mi. N Fort St. John, 2. _Alberta_: Assineau River, 1920 ft., 10 mi. E and 1 mi. N Kinuso, 4. _Remarks._--Adults among the specimens listed above vary but little; one female from Assineau River in Alberta is notably more reddish than others taken elsewhere. Average and extreme measurements of nine adults of both sexes of _M. p. drummondii_ from E side Minaker River, 1 mi. W Trutch, British Columbia, are as follows: Total length, 157 (148-165); length of tail, 42 (37-46); condylobasal length, 25.1 (24.7-26.0); basal length, 24.2 (23.4-25.0); length of nasals, 6.8 (6.4-7.2); zygomatic breadth, 14.4 (13.9-14.7); breadth across auditory bullae, 12.4 (12.0-12.7); alveolar length of upper molariform tooth-row, 6.1 (6.0-6.2); Nine adults of both sexes from McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 miles northwest of Whitehorse, Yukon Territory, have the following measurements: 153 (147-168); 40 (33-47); 24.9 (24.2-25.5); 24.0 (23.6-24.6); 6.6 (6.2-7.2); 14.4 (13.9-15.1); 12.1 (11.7-12.5); 6.1 (6.0-6.2). Microtus _cf._ cantator Anderson Yukon Singing Mouse _Microtus cantator_ Anderson, Nat. Mus. Canada, Bull. No. 102, Biol. Ser. No. 31:161, [for 1946], January 24, 1947. (Type "taken in tundra-slide above timber-line on mountain top near Tepee Lake on north slope of St. Elias Range," Yukon Territory, Canada.) _Specimen examined._--One from _Alaska_: Fish Creek, 3400 ft., 5 mi. N and 1 mi. E Paxson. _Remarks._--The single adult male, obtained by Alcorn, has been compared by Dr. Henry W. Setzer with specimens of _Microtus muriei_ Nelson, _M. miurus miurus_ Osgood, and _M. m. oreas_ Osgood in the United States National Museum. He reports that the specimen is related most closely to _M. miurus_ but exhibits characters by which it is, at least, subspecifically distinct from these two forms of this species. Three specimens of _M. andersoni_ Rand and one of _M. cantator_ Anderson, borrowed from the National Museum of Canada are less mature than the specimen in question. Even so, the male from Fish Creek is less gray than _M. andersoni_ and as seen from measurements of the type, an adult male (Rand, 1945:42), is larger with longer tail and has a shorter and narrower skull and is judged to be taxonomically separable. _M. cantator_ was named from two specimens; both the paratype (seen by me) and seemingly the type are too young to show clearly subspecific characters. Alcorn's specimen is tentatively referred to _M. cantator_ until some adult topotypes can be obtained. Measurements of the male, No. 21539, from Fish Creek, are: Total length, 152; length of tail, 30; hind foot, 22; condylobasal length, 28.0; basal length, 26.6; length of nasals, 7.1; zygomatic breadth, 13.8; breadth across auditory bullae, 11.5; least interorbital breadth, 3.3; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth-row, 6.2. Alcorn took this specimen in an area above timberline where a low growth of willow was the dominant vegetation. Traps were set where he had seen a mouse go into a small burrow. The next morning, August 18, 1947, he found this specimen and two _Microtus oeconomus macfarlani_ in his traps. Microtines of the subgenus _Stenocranius_ from continental areas of Alaska and Northwestern Canada are represented in collections by a few specimens from widely separated localities. Lacking material from intermediate localities, describers have given specific recognition to several of these isolated populations. Future collecting will be necessary to disclose whether the North American mice of this subgenus belong to one or to more than one species and may disclose whether or not there has been more than one invasion of the North American continent by members of this Asiatic group. Microtus longicaudus vellerosus J. A. Allen Long-tailed Meadow Mouse _Microtus vellerosus_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 12:7, March 4, 1899. (Type from upper Liard River, British Columbia, Canada.) _Microtus longicaudus vellerosus_ Anderson and Rand, Canadian Field-Nat., 58:20, April 1, 1944. _Specimens examined._--Total 127, as follows: _Alaska_: N side Salcha River, 600 ft., 25 mi. S and 20 mi. E Fairbanks, 1. _Yukon Territory_: 6 mi. SW Kluane, 2550 ft., 2; McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 10; ½ mi. W Whitehorse, 1; SW end Dezadeash Lake, 18; 1½ mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post, 2500 ft., 24. _British Columbia_: Stonehouse Creek, 5½ mi. W jct. Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River, 20; Hot Springs, 3 mi. WNW jct. Trout River and Liard River, 4; ¼ mi. S jct. Trout River and Liard River, 15; S side Toad River, 10 mi. S and 21 mi. E Muncho Lake, 27; SE end Muncho Lake, 4; Summit Pass, 4500 ft., 10 mi. S and 70 mi. W Fort Nelson, 1. _Remarks._--Specimens from 1½ miles south and 3 miles east of Dalton Post and from Dezadeash Lake in Yukon Territory and from Stonehouse Creek in British Columbia are referred to _M. l. vellerosus_ although in color of upper parts they show close relationship with _M. l. littoralis_. These specimens are less gray and more brown than specimens more typical of _M. l. vellerosus_ from the Liard River area. Alcorn found the long-tailed meadow mouse in widely separated areas. Most specimens were obtained in grassy situations near water or on moist ground. The single male from Summit Pass in British Columbia was taken above timberline. Microtus longicaudus littoralis Swarth Long-tailed Meadow Mouse _Microtus mordax littoralis_ Swarth, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 46:209, October 26, 1933. (Type from Shakan, Prince of Wales Island, Alaska.) _Microtus longicaudus littoralis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 19:491, November 14, 1938. _Specimens examined._--Total 29, as follows: _Alaska_: E side Chilkat River, 100 ft., 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines, 9; 1 mi. S Haines, 5 ft., 20. _Remarks._--In comparison with the series of _M. l. vellerosus_ from the Liard River area, the long-tailed meadow mice from near Haines are more reddish brown, have a longer tail, and have a smaller skull with smaller auditory bullae. This subspecies is restricted to the coastal area, and as noted under the account of _M. l. vellerosus_, intergradation between these two forms occurs a relatively short distance inland. Microtus oeconomus macfarlani Merriam Tundra Mouse _Microtus macfarlani_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 2:24, March 14, 1900. (Type from Fort Anderson, Anderson River, Mackenzie district, Northwest Territories, Canada.) _Microtus oec[onomus] macfarlani_ Zimmerman, Archiv f. Naturgesch., 11:187, September 12, 1942. _Specimens examined._--Total 70, as follows: _Alaska_: Circle, 664 ft., 1; Chatanika River, 700 ft., 14 mi. E and 25 mi. N Fairbanks, 13; Twelve Mile Summit, 3225 ft., Steese Highway, 6; 1 mi. SW Fairbanks, 440 ft., 3; N side Salcha River, 600 ft., 25 mi. S and 20 mi. E Fairbanks, 28; Yerrick Creek, 21 mi. W and 4 mi. N Tok Junction, 9; Fish Creek, 3400 ft., 5 mi. N and 1 mi. E Paxson, 3; Glenn Highway, 6 mi. WSW Snowshoe Lake, 1. _Yukon Territory_: Jct. Grafe and Edith Creeks, 1; 6 mi. SW Kluane, 2550 ft., 2; SW end Dezadeash Lake, 1. _British Columbia_: Stonehouse Creek, 5½ mi. W jct. Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River, 2. _Remarks._--Alcorn found the tundra mouse in many of the localities at which he trapped in east-central Alaska. Specimens were taken above timberline, along roads, in grassy areas which had been cleared of timber, and in low vegetation bordering streams. On August 17 at Fish Creek, 5 miles north and 1 mile east of Paxson, Alaska, Alcorn obtained one of these mice in a tree in the daytime. Immature specimens taken at Stonehouse Creek are, to my knowledge, the first records for this species in British Columbia. Mus musculus Linnaeus House Mouse _[Mus] musculus_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1:62, 1758. (Type from Upsala, Sweden.) _Specimens examined._--Total 6, as follows: _Alaska_: 1 mi. NE Anchorage, 100 ft., 2. _Yukon Territory_: McIntyre Creek, 2259 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 2; 2 mi. NNW Whitehorse, 2100 ft., 1. _Alberta_: Assineau River, 1920 ft., 10 mi. E and 1 mi. N Kinuso, 1. _Remarks._--Alcorn took house mice in and near areas inhabited by man. One mouse was taken near Whitehorse on July 10 under a building which had not been occupied for one year. Another was taken at the Whitehorse city dump. Near Kinuso, one specimen was obtained at the site of an old sawmill. Zapus hudsonius hudsonius (Zimmermann) Meadow Jumping Mouse _Dipus hudsonius_ Zimmermann, Geogr. Gesch., 2:358, 1780. (Type from Hudson Bay, Canada.) _Zapus hudsonius_ Coues, Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr., ser. 2, 1:253, January 8, 1876. _Specimens examined._--Total 8, as follows: _British Columbia_: 1 mi. NW jct. Irons Creek and Liard River, 3; Hot Springs, 3 mi. WNW jct. Trout River and Liard River, 1; E side Minaker River, 1 mi. W Trutch, 1; 5 mi. W and 3 mi. N Fort St. John, 1. _Alberta_: Assineau River, 1920 ft., 10 mi. E and 1 mi. N Kinuso, 1. _Remarks._--The jumping mice listed above have been compared with specimens of _Z. h. hudsonius_ from Ontario and Michigan. The zone of contact between _Z. h. hudsonius_ and _Z. h. alascensis_ is still unknown; Alcorn obtained no specimens between Irons Creek and Whitehorse. To my knowledge there are no records from this extensive area. Alcorn took _Zapus_ in grassy areas at the edge of water, in an old gravel pit, and at the site of an old sawmill. Animals were taken as early as June 30 and as late as September 2. Zapus hudsonius alascensis Merriam Meadow Jumping Mouse _Zapus hudsonius alascensis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:223, July 15, 1897. (Type from Yakutat Bay, Alaska.) _Specimens examined._--Total 18, as follows: _Alaska_: 1 mi. SW Fairbanks, 440 ft., 1; E side Chilkat River, 100 ft., 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines, 8. _Yukon Territory_: McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 4; SW end Dezadeash Lake, 1. _British Columbia_: Stonehouse Creek, 5½ mi. W jct. Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River, 4. _Remarks._--Specimens taken by Alcorn were compared with representatives of both _Z. princeps_ (Wyoming, Idaho, Oregon) and _Z. hudsonius_ (Ontario, Michigan, Kansas, Wyoming). All have been referred to _Z. hudsonius_ although one female from Stonehouse Creek shows some tendency toward _Z. princeps_ in external measurements, length of upper molariform tooth-row, and length of incisive foramina. Erethizon dorsatum myops Merriam Porcupine _Erethizon epixanthus myops_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 2:27, March 14, 1900. (Type from Portage Bay, Alaska Peninsula, Alaska.) _Erethizon dorsatum myops_ Anderson and Rand, Canadian Jour. Res., 21:293, September 24, 1943. _Specimens examined._--Total 2, as follows: _Alaska_: Yerrick Creek, 21 mi. W and 4 mi. N Tok Junction, 1. _Yukon Territory_: 2 mi. W Teslin River, 2400 ft., 16 mi. S and 56 mi. E Whitehorse, 1. _Remarks._--Alcorn found little evidence of porcupines along the highway. The female from the Teslin River was found under a building. The female from Yerrick Creek was in dense underbrush in a spruce forest and weighed 20 pounds. Canis latrans incolatus Hall Coyote _Canis latrans incolatus_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zool., 40:369, November 5, 1934. (Type from Isaacs Lake, 3000 ft., Bowron Lake region, British Columbia, Canada.) _Specimens examined._--Total 2, as follows: _Yukon Territory_: 25 mi. NW Whitehorse, 1. _British Columbia_: Buckinghorse River, 94 mi. S Fort Nelson, 1. Canis lupus pambasileus Elliot Wolf _Canis pambasileus_ Elliot, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 18:79, February 21, 1905. (Type from Susitna River, region of Mount McKinley, Alaska.) _Canis lupus pambasileus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 18:45, February 14, 1937. _Specimens examined._--Total 3, as follows: _Yukon Territory_: E side Aishihik River, 17 mi. N Canyon, 1; SW end Dezadeash Lake, 1; Marshall Creek, 3 mi. N Dezadeash River, 1. _Remarks._--Alcorn reported wolf sign at many of his camps along the highway. Skulls were obtained from trappers. Canis lupus occidentalis Richardson Wolf _Canis lupus occidentalis_ Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:60, 1829. (Type not designated, restricted to Fort Simpson, Mackenzie, Canada, by Miller, Smithson. Misc. Coll., 59 (no. 15):4, June 8, 1912.) _Specimens examined._--Two from _British Columbia_: Buckinghorse River, 94 mi. S Fort Nelson. Canis lupus columbianus Goldman Wolf _Canis lupus columbianus_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 54:110, September 30, 1941. (Type from Wistaria, north side of Ootsa Lake, Coast District, British Columbia, Canada.) _Specimens examined._--One from _British Columbia_: Screw Creek, 10 mi. S and 50 mi. E Teslin. Vulpes fulva abietorum Merriam Red Fox _Vulpes alascensis abietorum_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 2:669, December 28, 1900. (Type from Stuart Lake, British Columbia, Canada.) _Vulpes fulva abietorum_ Bailey, Nature Mag., 28:317, November 1936. _Specimens examined._--Total 11, as follows: _Yukon Territory_: 6 mi. SW Kluane, 2559 ft., 1; Marshall Creek, 3 mi. N Dezadeash River, 6; Champagne, N side Dezadeash River, 3; 1½ mi. E Tatshenshini River, 1½ mi. S and 3 mi. E Dalton Post, 1. _Remarks._--Specimens obtained are skulls only, mostly taken in the winter months by trappers. One fox was found dead with porcupine quills stuck in and around its mouth. Ursus americanus cinnamomum Audubon and Bachman Black Bear _Ursus americanus var. cinnamomum_ Audubon and Bachman, Quadr. North Amer., 3; 125, 1854. (Type from Northern Rocky Mountains.) _Specimens examined._--Total 3, as follows: _British Columbia_: 10 mi. W Fort Nelson, 1; Buckinghorse River, 94 mi. S Fort Nelson, 2. _Remarks._--One large, unsexed skull from Buckinghorse River with part of the rostrum gone has the frontal shield strongly dished. A young adult female taken 10 miles west of Fort Nelson on August 23, 1948, has the following external measurements: Total length, 1345; tail, 65; hind foot, 256; ear from notch, 135. Ursus species Grizzly _Specimens examined._--Total 5, as follows: _Yukon Territory_: E side Aishihik River, 17 mi. N Canyon, 1; Unahini River, 5 mi. N and 1 mi. E Dalton Post, 1; Unahini River, 3 mi. N and 1 mi. E Dalton Post, 2. _British Columbia_: Buckinghorse River, 94 mi. S Fort Nelson, 1. _Remarks._--Of three specimens obtained at the Unahini River, two males resemble each other closely, while the third, an old adult represented by an unsexed skull with broken cranium, is markedly different, the skull being noticeably shorter with shorter rostrum and lower jaw and other distinctive features. It closely resembles the skull of an adult male taken at the Aishihik River. Furthermore, the first two animals show close relationships with an unsexed skull which Alcorn obtained at the Buckinghorse River in British Columbia. Two males taken at the Unahini River in the Yukon Territory have the following external measurements: Total length, 1933, 1812; tail, 150, 96; hind foot, 262, 260; ear from notch, 129, 131. Other specimens, skulls only, obtained from native hunters, are partly broken. Alcorn writes that the local hunters always shoot a grizzly in the head to be certain that it is dead. Mustela erminea arctica (Merriam) Ermine _Putorius arcticus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:15, June 30, 1896. (Type from Point Barrow, Alaska.) _Mustela erminea arctica_ Ognev, The mammals of U. S. S. R. and adjacent countries, 3:31, 1935. _Specimens examined._--Four from _Alaska_: N side Salcha River, 600 ft., 25 mi. S and 20 mi. E Fairbanks. _Remarks._--One ermine was caught in a rat trap; the others were taken within 50 yards of the trapped animal by attracting them with squeaking calls to within shooting range. One of the weasels approached to within ten feet of Alcorn, while he was making the mentioned call. Mustela erminea richardsonii Bonaparte Ermine _Mustela richardsonii_ Bonaparte, Charlesworth's Mag. Nat. Hist., 2:38, January, 1838. (Type from Fort Franklin, at western end of Great Bear Lake, Mackenzie district, Northwest Territories, Canada.) _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:180, July 19, 1945. _Specimens examined._--One from _Yukon Territory_: McIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse. Mustela erminea alascensis (Merriam) Ermine _Putorius richardsonii alascensis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:12, June 30, 1896. (Type from Juneau, Alaska.) _Mustela erminea alascensis_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:180, July 19, 1945. _Specimens examined._--One from _Alaska_: E side Chilkat River, 100 ft., 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines. Mustela vison energumenos (Bangs) Mink _Putorius vison energumenos_ Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 27:5, March, 1896. (Type from Sumas, British Columbia, Canada.) _Mustela vison energumenos_ Miller, North Amer. Land Mamm. 1911, p. 101, December 31, 1912. _Specimen examined._--One (broken and unsexed skull) from _Yukon Territory_: Champagne, N side Dezadeash River. _Remarks._--While studying moose at Medicine Lake, near Circle Hot Springs, Alaska, on August 9, 1947, Alcorn observed some mink concerning which he records the following: "After waiting about an hour a large mink was seen traveling northward on land at the edge of the lake. It continued and went out of sight. I waited about two minutes and then started a series of loud squeaks. To our surprise we soon saw what we judged was the same mink. In company with this mink were five others.... These mink were much interested in the squeaking noise and some came within 10 feet of me. They stayed on land most of the time but some of them made short swims a few feet out into the lake. One had a white chin, another had a white spot on its chest. This group may have been an adult female with her young." Martes pennanti columbiana Goldman Fisher _Martes pennanti columbiana_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 48:176, November 15, 1935. (Type from Stuart Lake, near headwaters of Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada.) _Specimens examined._--Total 2, as follows: _British Columbia_: 14 mi. N Fort Halkett, W side Smith River, 1; N side Liard River, Fort Halkett, 1. Martes americana actuosa (Osgood) Marten _Mustela americana actuosa_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 19:43, October 6, 1900. (Type from Fort Yukon, Alaska.) _Martes americana actuosa_ Miller, N. Amer. Land Mamm. 1911, p. 93, December 31, 1912. _Specimen examined._--One from _British Columbia_: N side Liard River Fort Halkett, 1. Lynx canadensis canadensis Kerr Canada Lynx _Lynx canadensis_ Kerr, Anim. Kingd., vol. 1, systematic catalogue inserted between pages 32 and 33 (description, p. 157), 1792. (Type from Eastern Canada.) _Specimens examined._--Total 4, as follows: _Yukon Territory_: Marshall Creek, 3 mi. N Dezadeash River, 1. _British Columbia_: 14 mi. N Fort Halkett, W side Smith River, 2; Buckinghorse River, 94 mi. S Fort Nelson, 1. Alces americana gigas Miller Moose _Alces gigas_ Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:57, May 29, 1899. (Type from North side Tustumena Lake, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska.) _Alces americanus gigas_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 24:29, November 23, 1904. _Specimens examined._--One from _British Columbia_: 15 mi. NW Kelsall Lake. Oreamnos americanus columbiae Hollister Mountain Goat _Oreamnos montanus columbianus_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 20:20, February 10, 1904. Not _Capra columbiana_ Desmilins, 1823. _Oreamnos americanus columbiae_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 25:186, December 24, 1912. (Type from Shesley Mountains, northern British Columbia, Canada.) _Specimens examined._--Two from _British Columbia_: 12 mi. S jct. Liard River and Trout River. _Remarks._--Two skulls of male goats were obtained from a trapper, Johnny Pie, who shot them on July 4, 1948. Field notes indicate that both mountain goats and mountain sheep are frequently taken by natives in the Liard River area. Ovis dalli stonei Allen Northern Mountain Sheep _Ovis stonei_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:111, April 8, 1897. (Type from headwaters of the Stikine River, British Columbia, Canada.) _Ovis dalli stonei_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 31:28, March 4, 1912. _Specimen examined._--One from _British Columbia_: Summit Pass, 4200 ft., 10 mi. S and 70 mi. W Fort Nelson. _Remarks._--The specimen has the following external measurements: Total length, 1474; tail, 84; length of hind foot, 400; ear from notch, 91. The individual is a male, seven years old, as judged by the rings of growth on the horns. The skull is accompanied by a skin now tanned for study purposes. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, R. M. 1937. Mammals and birds of the Western Arctic District, Northwest Territories, Canada. Reprinted from Canada's Western Northland, Dept. of Interior, Ottawa, pp. 97-122, 5 figs., 1 map, July 9. 1947. Catalogue of Canadian Recent mammals. Nat. Mus. Canada, Bull. 102, Biol. Ser. 31:v+238 pp., [for 1946], January 24. Bailey, V. 1900. Revision of American voles of the genus Microtus. N. Amer. Fauna, 17:1-88, 5 pls., 17 figs., June 6. Cowan, I. M. 1937. The distribution of flying squirrels in western British Columbia with the description of a new race. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 50:77-82, June 22. Dale, F. H. 1940. Geographic variation in the meadow mouse in British Columbia and southeastern Alaska. Jour. Mamm., 21:332-340, August 14. Howell, A. H. 1918. Revision of the American flying squirrels. N. Amer. Fauna, 44:1-64, 7 pls., 4 figs., June 13. 1924. Revision of the American pikas. N. Amer. Fauna, 47:1-57, 6 pls., 4 figs., August 21. Jackson, H. H. T. 1928. A taxonomic review of the American long-tailed shrews. N. Amer. Fauna, 51:i-vi+1-238, 13 pls., 24 figs., July. Orr, R. T. 1945. A study of the _Clethrionomys dawsoni_ group of red-backed mice. Jour. Mamm., 26:67-74, February 27. Osgood, W. H. 1900. Results of a biological reconnaissance of the Yukon River region. N. Amer. Fauna, 19:1-100, 7 pls., October 6. 1904. A biological reconnaissance of the base of the Alaska Peninsula. N. Amer. Fauna, 24:1-86, 7 pls., November 23. 1909a. Revision of the mice of the American genus Peromyscus. N. Amer. Fauna, 28:1-285, 8 pls., 12 figs., April 17. 1909b. Biological investigations in Alaska and Yukon Territory. N. Amer. Fauna, 30:1-96, 5 pls., October 7. Rand, A. L. 1943. Canadian forms of the meadow mouse (_Microtus pennsylvanicus_). Canadian Field-Nat., 57:115-123, January 24. 1944. The southern half of the Alaska highway and its mammals. Nat. Mus. Canada, Bull. No. 98, Biol. Ser. No. 27:1-50, 21 pls., 1 fig. 1945. Mammal investigations on the Canol Road, Yukon and Northwest Territories, 1944. Nat. Mus. Canada, Bull. No. 99, Biol. Ser. No. 28:1-52, 20 pls., 1 fig. Swarth, H. S. 1936. Mammals of the Atlin region, northwestern British Columbia. Jour. Mamm., 17:398-405, November 14. _Transmitted April 9, 1951._ * * * * * * * * Transcriber's Notes The text presented is essentially that in the original printed document with the exception of some minor punctuation changes and the typographical corrections detailed below. Typographical Corrections Page 103 under Dawson Red-backed Mouse: Territoy => Territory Page 104 under Muskrat: Mann. => Mamm. Page 114 under Red Fox: procupine => porcupine * * * * * * * * 
34295	----	Tadarida femorosacca (Merriam) in Tamaulipas, Mexico BY WALTER W. DALQUEST and E. RAYMOND HALL University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 1, No. 13, pp. 245-248 December 10, 1947 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1947 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, H. H. Lane, Edward H. Taylor Volume 1, No. 13, pp. 245-248 December 10, 1947 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1947 22-1401 Tadarida femorosacca (Merriam) In Tamaulipas, Mexico By WALTER W. DALQUEST AND E. RAYMOND HALL [Illustration: FIG. 1. Map showing localities of known occurrence of the pocketed free-tailed bat (_Tadarida femorosacca_).] On January 23, 1946, two pocketed free-tailed bats (_Tadarida femorosacca_, Catalogue nos. 17852 and 17853) were obtained in a large cave 10 kilometers north-northeast of the village of Antiguo Morelos, in the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico. This extends the known range of this species to the Atlantic Slope and more than 300 miles to the northeast of Zacoalco, Jalisco, the only locality in central Mexico from which the species was previously known (see Shamel, H. H., Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 78, art. 19, p. 13, 1931). The total length of the skull (18 mm.) and the basal length (15.0, 15.2) are less than recorded by Shamel (_op. cit._) for any one of the eight specimens studied by him. Otherwise our two specimens answer the description of _femorosacca_. They were found lying on the floor of the cave. One was dead and the other alive but incapable of flight. Shooting into the cracks of the roof of the cave more than a hundred feet high failed to dislodge other bats but stimulated a volume of squeaking of bats which indicated that thousands of individuals, possibly of this species, were ensconsed there. The cave had long been used by bats as attested by the large deposit of guano, much of which had been removed for fertilizer. _Transmitted October 20, 1947._ 
34303	----	A New Bat (Genus Myotis) From Mexico BY WALTER W. DALQUEST and E. RAYMOND HALL University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 1, No. 12, pp. 237-244 December 10, 1947 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1947 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, H. H. Lane, Edward H. Taylor Volume 1, No. 12, pp. 237-244 December 10, 1947 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1947 22-1402 A New Bat (Genus Myotis) From Mexico[1] By WALTER W. DALQUEST AND E. RAYMOND HALL While one of us (Dalquest) was in a dugout canoe that was being paddled up a small unnamed tributary of the Rio Coatzacoalcos, through dense jungle, he grasped a decayed and termite damaged tree-trunk projecting approximately three feet above the surface of the water to steady the canoe. At that instant two bats were detected in one of the many small holes in the trunk, which was eight to nine inches in diameter. It was a simple matter to enlarge the hole and extract the animals. Superficially they resembled silvery-haired bats (_Lasionycteris_) but their naked interfemoral membranes and other features suggested that they belonged to the genus _Myotis_. Subsequently, study in the laboratory showed this to be the fact and revealed also that they are of an heretofore unnamed species which may be known as: #Myotis argentatus#, new species _Type._--Male, adult, skin with skull, No. 19228, Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas; 14 kilometers southwest of Coatzocoalcos, 100 feet elevation, Veracruz, Mexico; 2 February 1947; obtained by Walter W. Dalquest; original No. 7052. _Range._--Known only from the type locality. _Diagnosis._--Size medium for the genus (see measurements), tail short; foot long; ears and membranes black; pelage long (maximum length on middle of back 9 mm.) and black; upper parts with overhairs tipped with whitish especially on rump; underparts from posterior part of thorax posteriorly with all of the hairs tipped with this same whitish color; skull with preorbital part small in relation to brain case; teeth small in relation to total area of palate; brain case much inflated; ventral margin of foramen magnum evenly rounded. _Comparison._--From _Myotis albescens_ (E. Geffroy) known to us by specimens in the United States National Museum from Paraguay (Tacural), Panama (Tabernilla), and Nicaragua (Prinzapolca R. and Escondido R.), _argentatus_ differs in: Body and foot longer; tail relatively shorter (57 and 58% of length of head and body versus 76 (62-83)% in _albescens_); tibia shorter; pelage longer, and black instead of brown; silver tipping of fur on hinder back markedly more conspicuous; precranial part of skull, when viewed from above, larger in relation to brain case; postorbital constriction less abrupt, that is to say, skull "longer-waisted"; occlusal surfaces of teeth of equal area and therefore occupying a relatively smaller percentage of total area of palatal surface; ventral margin of foramen magnum less deeply indented; ventrally prominent part of basioccipital twice as wide. _Remarks._--The relatively slight wear on the teeth of the female of _M. argentatus_ and the large ends on the bones of the wings indicate that it is immature. Its measurements, recorded below, average smaller than those of the adult holotype, a male, and the silvery tipping on the upper parts is almost lacking from the pelage which is shorter than in the holotype. [Illustration: FIGS. 1-6. _Myotis_. From left to right, dorsal, lateral and ventral views. All × 2. FIGS. 1-3. _Myotis argentatus_, no. 19228, Univ. Kan. Mus. Nat. Hist., type. FIGS. 4-6. _Myotis albescens_, no. 105664, [F], U. S. Nat. Mus., from Tacuaral, Paraguay; obtained on November 13, 1900, by Wm. T. Foster, orig. no. 128.] Among at least American kinds of _Myotis_, _argentatus_ is extreme in small area of occlusal surface of the upper molariform teeth in relation to the total area of the palatal surface of the skull. _M. albescens_ previously was regarded as extreme in this feature. The distance across the third upper molars, from the outside of one tooth to the outside of the other, is 5.5 mm. in the holotype of _argentatus_ and 5.4 mm. in a specimen of corresponding age and sex of _albescens_. The distance between the third upper molars, from the lingual side of one tooth to the lingual side of the other, is 2.9 mm. in _argentatus_ and 2.8 mm. in _albescens_. In each of our two specimens there is no sagittal crest but instead a low ridge one millimeter wide which marks the space between the margins of the two temporal muscles. Allusion already has been made to the resemblance of the newly named _Myotis argentatus_ to the silvery-haired bat, _Lasionycteris noctivagans_ (LeConte). The whitish tips of the hairs are slightly more yellowish in _argentatus_ but the difference is so slight as to be detected by only the most careful comparison. The remainder of the pelage in _argentatus_ is black as in the darkest individuals of _Lasionycteris_. Among named kinds of the genus _Myotis_, the species _argentatus_ most closely resembles _Myotis albescens_ which, up to now has been recorded from as far south as Argentina, in South America, and as far north as Nicaragua, in Central America (Miller and Allen, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 144:202, 203, 1928). The differences detected between the two species are indicated above in the paragraph of comparisons and some other differences can be detected by comparing measurements given below with those of _M. albescens_ as recorded by Miller and Allen (_op. cit._: 204-205). In initial comparisons with _albescens_, only Paraguayan specimens were employed. It was felt that specimens of _albescens_ from the northernmost localities of occurrence might more closely resemble _argentatus_. Accordingly, we appealed a second time to Dr. A. R. Kellogg for comparative material and he lent us the specimens (alcoholics with skulls separate) in the U. S. National Museum from Central America. These also differ from our newly named bat in the same fashion as do the South American specimens. Further, the number and magnitude of the differences between _albescens_ and _argentatus_ greatly exceed any that can be pointed to between the American subspecies of any other one full species of the genus _Myotis_. Full specific, rather than mere subspecific, status, therefore, is suggested for the bat here named _Myotis argentatus_. _Measurements._--The adult, male type, and the immature female specimen measure, respectively, as follows: Head and body, 55, 51 mm.; tail, 32, 29; tibia, 13.7, 13.2; foot, 8, 9; forearm, 33.0, 34.5; thumb, 5.8, 5.7; third metacarpal, 32.2, 30.5; fifth metacarpal, 31.5, 30.3; greatest length of skull, 14.5, 14.0; condylobasal length, 13.8, 13.0; zygomatic breadth, 9.1, 9.0; interorbital constriction, 4.3, 4.0; breadth of brain case, 7.5, 7.4; occipital depth, 5.7, 5.7; mandible, 10.5, 10.0; maxillary tooth row, 5.3, 5.0; maxillary breadth at M3, 5.5, 5.7; mandibular tooth row, 5.6, 5.3. _Specimens examined._--Two, from the type locality. _Transmitted October 20, 1947._ FOOTNOTE [1] Assistance with field work is acknowledged from the University of Kansas Endowment Association. 
34532	----	A Synopsis of the American Bats of the Genus Pipistrellus BY E. RAYMOND HALL and WALTER W. DALQUEST University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 1, No. 26, pp. 591-602, 1 figure in text January 20, 1950 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1950 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Edward H. Taylor, A. Byron Leonard, Robert W. Wilson Volume 1, No. 26, pp. 591-602, 1 figure in text January 20, 1950 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1950 [Illustration: Union Label] 23-1546 A Synopsis of the American Bats of the Genus Pipistrellus By E. RAYMOND HALL AND WALTER W. DALQUEST Four nominal species of the genus _Pipistrellus_ are currently recognized in North America. They are _Pipistrellus subflavus_ (F. Cuvier) of eastern North America, _Pipistrellus hesperus_ (H. Allen) of western North America, _Pipistrellus veracrucis_ (Ward) from Veracruz, Mexico, and _Pipistrellus cinnamomeus_ Miller from Tabasco, Mexico. In the past three years, specimens have been obtained in Veracruz (by Dalquest) of each of the southern species. One of these, _P. cinnamomeus_, previously was known from a single specimen; the other, _P. veracrucis_, was known only from six specimens which now are lost or misplaced. The results of our study of these recently acquired Mexican specimens constitute our principal contribution in this paper; we have done little more with the material from the United States and Canada than to codify the findings of other mammalogists with respect to the systematic status and geographic distribution. Study of the available specimens reveals that there are only two species, _Pipistrellus hesperus_ and _Pipistrellus subflavus_; _Pipistrellus veracrucis_ proves to be only a subspecies (geographic race) of _P. subflavus_, and _Pipistrellus cinnamomeus_ proves to be a species of another genus, _Myotis_ (see Hall and Dalquest, page 583 of this volume). Genus +Pipistrellus+ Kaup 1829. _Pipistrellus_ Kaup, Skizzirte Entw.-Gesch. u. natürl. Syst. europ. Thierw., Vol. 1, p. 98, Type, _Vespertilio pipistrellus_ Schreber (not seen by us, after Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:87, 1897). _Range in the New World._--In North America from southern Canada to Honduras (47 degrees to 5 degrees North Latitude) and from the Atlantic to the Pacific; not recorded from the West Indies or South America. _Characters._--Size small; tail approximately as long as outstretched leg; ears well developed with prominent tragus; dental formula: i.2/3; c.1/1; p.2/2; m.3/3; two upper incisors subequal and outer one lacking a concavity on surface facing canine; dentition otherwise essentially as in _Myotis_ Kaup except that third premolar is always, instead of rarely, absent. _Remarks._--There are two species in North America. Their geographic ranges, as now known, meet, but do not overlap. Certain differences between the two species are listed in the parallel columns below. Most of these differences in the skull and teeth are illustrated in figures 22 and 23 on page 92 of Miller's "Revision of the North American bats of the family Vespertilionidae (N. Amer. Fauna, 13, 1897)." ====================================================================== Structure | _P. hesperus_ | _P. subflavus_ ====================================================================== Color | Predominately gray | Predominately brown --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- Foot | Less than half as long | More than half as long | as tibia | as tibia --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- Thumb, length of | Less than 4.9 mm. | More than 4.9 mm. --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- Tragus | Blunt, terminal part | Narrow, straight | bent forward | --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- Skull | Nearly straight | Dish-faced (dorsal profile) | | --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- Braincase | Small | Large (viewed from above) | | --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- Palate | Extending far behind | Extending short | molars; spine short, | distance behind | | molars; spine long, | narrow at base | wide at base --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- I2 | Unicuspidate | Bicuspidate --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- I3 | Accessory cusp present | Accessory cusp absent | on anterointernal | on anterointernal | face | face --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- P1 (occlusal view) | Less than a seventh as | More than a seventh | large as canine | as large as canine --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- P1 (labial view) | Concealed by C1 and P4 | Not concealed --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- P4 | Touching canine | Not touching canine --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- i3 | Touching i2 and c1 | Separated by space | | from i2 and c1 --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- p3 | Lower than anterior | As high as anterior | cusp of canine | cusp of canine --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- Distance from c1 | Less than length of m2; | More than length of to m1 | premolars crowded | m2; premolars less | | crowded --------------------+-------------------------+----------------------- +Pipistrellus hesperus+ (Synonomy under subspecies) _Range._--Arid Sonoran life-zones of western North America from Washington southward to Jalisco. _Characters._--Smoke Gray to Buff Brown (Capitalized color terms after Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912) dorsally; total length, 60 to 86; foot less than half as long as tibia; tragus blunt with terminal part bent forward; skull nearly straight in dorsal profile; inner upper incisor unicuspidate; outer upper incisor with accessory cusp on anterointernal face; P1, viewed from occlusal face, less than a seventh of area of canine, and from labial aspect concealed by canine and fourth premolar; lower, third premolar lower than anterior cusp of canine; lower premolars crowded, distance between canine and first molar less than length of second lower molar. _Remarks._--In the United States and in the northern part of Mexico, _P. hesperus_ is the smallest bat found. Little is known about its habits. It emerges earlier in the evening than other species of bats. The frequency with which it is seen near cliffs suggests that it finds concealment under rocks. In winter, in Nevada (Hall, Mammals of Nevada, p. 150, 1946), _P. hesperus_ has been found singly in crevices in the roofs of mine tunnels. In the United States National Museum in July, 1949, the specimen providing the easternmost record station of occurrence was examined by us. This is No. 23591, in alcohol, taken on August 24, 1890, by William Lloyd, original No. 88, at the mouth of the Pecos River in Texas. In the same collection there is a specimen of _Pipistrellus subflavus_ providing the westernmost record of occurrence of that species. This specimen, a skin with skull, is No. 126729, [Male], taken on May 3, 1903, by Jas. H. Gaut, original No. 1271, at Comstock, Texas. The two localities concerned are in the Valley of the Rio Grande, and are only about five miles apart. Nevertheless, the two specimens are clearly referable to their respective species and show no tendency toward intergradation. Consequently, confidence is felt in treating _Pipistrellus hesperus_ and _Pipistrellus subflavus_ as two distinct species. The most recent report upon geographic variation throughout the entire species, _Pipistrellus hesperus_, was that by Hatfield (Jour. Mamm., 17:257-262, August 14, 1936). Later, as explained below in the account of _P. h. australis_, Burt (Miscl. Publ., Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 39:25, February 15, 1938) examined specimens from Sonora, Mexico, and for them and for specimens from southern Arizona proposed a different nomenclatural arrangement. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Map showing the geographic ranges of species and subspecies of _Pipistrellus_. 1. _Pipistrellus h. hesperus_ 2. _Pipistrellus h. merriami_ 3. _Pipistrellus h. australis_ 4. _Pipistrellus h. maximus_ 5. _Pipistrellus h. santarosae_ 6. _Pipistrellus s. subflavus_ 7. _Pipistrellus s. obscurus_ 8. _Pipistrellus s. veracrucis_ ] +Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus+ (H. Allen) _Scotophilus hesperus_ H. Allen, Smithsonian, Miscl. Coll., No. 165, Vol. 7 (art. 1): p. 43, June, 1864. _Vesperugo hesperus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885. _Pipistrellus hesperus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:88, October 16, 1897. _Type locality._--Old Fort Yuma, Imperial County, California, on right bank of Colorado River, opposite present town of Yuma, Arizona. _Range._--Intermontane region of the United States from south-central Washington south to Cataviñá, Baja California, and from southeastern California eastward to southeastern Utah. Marginal occurrences (unless otherwise indicated, after Hatfield, Jour. Mamm., 17:258, 1936) are: _Washington_ (Dalquest, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 2:165, 1948): Maryhill; Vantage; Almota. _Oregon_: Watson. _Idaho_: 8 mi. W Rogerson (Davis, Mamms. Idaho, p. 120, 1939). _Nevada_: Middle Stormy Spring (Hall, Mamms. Nevada, p. 151, 1946). _Utah_: Goodridge. _Arizona_: 11 mi. NW Kayenta; Tinajas Altas. _Baja California_: Cataviñá; San José; Laguna Hanson. _California_: Dos Palmos Spring; Banning; Victorville; 12 mi. below (down river) Bodfish; Little Lake; 2 mi. S Benton Station. _Nevada_: 2 mi. NW Morgans Ranch; Deephole. _Oregon_: Princeton. _Diagnosis._--Size medium for the species; total length, 71.8(66-74); tibia, 12.0(10.7-13.5); forearm, 29.4(27.8-31.8); greatest length of skull, 11.9(11.5-12.3); breadth of braincase, 6.3(6.1-6.4). Color between Drab Gray and Smoke Gray, dorsally; between Smoke Gray and Pale Smoke Gray, ventrally (after Hatfield, Jour. Mamm., 17:257, 1936). +Pipistrellus hesperus merriami+ (Dobson) _Vesperugo merriami_ Dobson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 18(ser. 5): 124, August, 1896. _Pipistrellus hesperus merriami_ Grinnell, Proc. California Acad. Sci., 3(ser. 4):279, August 28, 1913. _Type locality._--Red Bluff, Tehama County, California. _Range._--California west of the Sierra Nevada; the Sacramento Valley, the San Joaquin Valley, and the Coast Range from San Francisco Bay south to San Diego County. Marginal occurrences (after Hatfield, Jour. Mamm., 17:260, 1936, unless otherwise noted) are: _California_: Dales on Paines Creek; Fyffe; Yosemite Valley; Shaver Ranger Station; Springville; Fort Tejon; Painted Gorge (P. H. Krutzsch, MS); Carrizo Creek; thence northward up the coast probably to San Francisco Bay; in the Sacramento Valley west to Rumsey. _Diagnosis._--Size medium for the species; total length, 71.3(66-78); tibia, 11.2(10.6-11.7); forearm, 28.9(27.5-30.8); greatest length of skull, 11.8(11.3-12.2); breadth of braincase, 6.4(6.0-6.6). Color Buffy Brown to Army Brown, dorsally; Wood Brown to Buffy Brown, ventrally (after Hatfield, _op. cit._: 258, 260). +Pipistrellus hesperus australis+ Miller _Pipistrellus hesperus australis_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:90, October 16, 1897. _Pipistrellus hesperus apus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., pub. 90, zool. ser., 3:269, March 8, 1904. Type from Providencia Mines, Sonora, Mexico. _Type locality._--Barranca Ibarra, Jalisco, Mexico. _Range._--Central Arizona south to Jalisco and including the southern half of Baja California. Marginal occurrences (after Hatfield, _op. cit._: 261, unless otherwise indicated) are: _Arizona_: Camp Verde; Fort Bowie. _Sonora_: Pilares (Burt, Miscl. Publ., Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 39:24, 1938). _Jalisco_: Barranca Ibarra (Miller, orig. descr.). _Baja California_: Miraflores; San Ignacio. _Arizona_: Bates Well. _Diagnosis._--Size small for the species; total length, 67.1(60-72); tibia, 11.3(10.1-12.3); forearm, 28.4(26.3-30.0); greatest length of skull, 11.7(11.3-12.0); breadth of braincase, 6.1(5.9-6.3). Color: between Cinnamon Drab and Drab, dorsally; Wood Brown to Light Drab, ventrally (after Hatfield, _op. cit._:260). _Remarks._--Hatfield (_op. cit._) examined no specimens from Mexico (Baja California excepted) and Burt (_op. cit._) who did examine some specimens (from Sonora), referred one from northwestern Sonora to _P. h. hesperus_ and those from northeastern Sonora to _P. h. merriami_. Since our treatment of subspecies of _Pipistrellus_ (_P. s. veracrucis_ excepted) aims merely to reflect the latest systematic treatment accorded the animals, we would follow Burt (_op. cit._) were it not for the fact that he shows the geographic range of _P. h. merriami_ separated by the range of _P. h. hesperus_ into two parts. This is inconsistent with the ordinarily accepted concept of subspecies. Consequently, we have followed Hatfield (_op. cit._). Clearly, a critical study is needed of adequate material of _Pipistrellus hesperus_ of Mexico. +Pipistrellus hesperus maximus+ Hatfield _Pipistrellus hesperus maximus_ Hatfield, Jour. Mamm., 17:261, August 14, 1936. _Type locality._--Dog Spring, Hidalgo County, New Mexico. _Range._--Southern New Mexico, western Texas and probably the adjoining parts of Mexico. Marginal occurrences (after Hatfield [_op. cit._:261] except as otherwise indicated) are: _New Mexico_: Animas Valley; Florida Mountains; Carlsbad Cave. _Texas_: Mouth of Pecos River (Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 25:210, 1905); Boquillas (Borell and Bryant, Univ. California Publ. Zool., 48:9, 1942); Glen Spring (Borell and Bryant, _loc. cit._). _Diagnosis._--Size large for the species; total length, 80.3(78-83); tibia, 12.3(11.7-13.1); forearm, 32.9(31.8-33.3); greatest length of skull, 12.7(12.3-12.9); breadth of braincase, 6.6(6.5-6.7). Color between Smoke Gray and Pale Drab (after Hatfield, _op. cit._:261). +Pipistrellus hesperus santarosae+ Hatfield _Pipistrellus hesperus santarosae_ Hatfield, Jour. Mamm., 17:261, August 14, 1936. _Type locality._--Santa Rosa, Guadalupe County, New Mexico. _Range._--New Mexico (excepting southern part) and western Colorado. Marginal occurrences (after Hatfield, _op. cit._:262) are: _Colorado_: Bedrock. _New Mexico_: Santa Rosa; Socorro; Laguna. _Diagnosis._--Size large for the species; total length, 82.0(80-86); tibia, 12.4(11.9-13.0); forearm, 32.8(31.7-34.1); greatest length of skull, 12.7(12.3-13.1); breadth of braincase, 6.6(6.3-6.8). Color between Buffy Brown and Wood Brown (after Hatfield, _op. cit._:261, 262). +Pipistrellus subflavus+ (Synonomy under subspecies) _Range._--Canadian to Tropical life-zones of eastern North America from Quebec southward to Honduras. _Characters._--Sayal Brown to darker than Mummy Brown, dorsally; total length, 73-89; foot more than half as long as tibia; tragus tapering and straight; dorsal profile of skull convex in interorbital region; inner upper incisor bicuspidate; outer upper incisor unicuspidate (lacking accessory cusp on anterointernal face); P1 viewed from occlusal face more than a seventh of area of canine and visible from labial aspect; lower, third premolar as high as anterior cusp of canine; lower premolars less crowded than in _P. hesperus_ and distance between canine and first molar less than length of second lower molar. _Remarks._--In winter this species hibernates in caves in clusters of fewer than fifty individuals, but in summer fewer of the bats live there and at this season some have been captured as far as thirty miles from any such retreat suggesting that the bats inhabit other types of shelter. The wide range of this species in respect to life-zones is noteworthy; it occurs in the Canadian Life-zone (Joliet, Quebec), the Tropical Life-zone (30 km. SSE Jesús Carranza, Veracruz) and in the intervening life-zones. The longer thumb of this species, in comparison with that of _Pipistrellus hesperus_, was verified by measuring the thumb including its claw and the pad at the base of the thumb in 12 _P. s. veracrucis_ and 10 _P. h. maximus_. In _veracrucis_ the mean was 5.9 millimeters and the extremes were 5.5 and 6.4. In _maximus_ the corresponding figures were 3.9, 3.6 and 4.3. +Pipistrellus subflavus subflavus+ (F. Cuvier) _V[espertilio]. subflavus_ F. Cuvier, Nouv. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, 1: 17, 1832. _Vespertilio erythrodactylus_ Temminck, Monogr. de Mamm., II, 13me monogr., p. 238, 1835-1841 (not seen--after Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:90, October 16, 1897). _Scotophilus georgianus_ H. Allen, Smithsonian Miscl. Coll., No. 165, Vol. 7 (art. 1), p. 35, June, 1864. _Vesperugo carolinensis_ H. Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 43:121, March 14, 1894. _Pipistrellus subflavus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:90, figs. 22,23, October 16, 1897. _Type locality._--Eastern United States, probably Georgia. _Range._--From approximately 40 degrees North Latitude in Pennsylvania and Kansas southward to central Florida and at least to extreme southern Texas; from the Atlantic Coast westward to south-central Kansas and Val Verde County, Texas. Marginal occurrences are: _Kansas_ (K. U. Collection): 4-1/2 mi. SW Sun City; Ft. Leavenworth. _Illinois_ (Necker and Hatfield, Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci., 6(3):45, 1941): Quincy; Urbana. _Indiana_ (Lyon, Amer. Midland Nat., 17:73, 1936): Monroe County; Franklin Co. _Ohio_ (Bole and Moulthrop, Sci. Publs. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., 5(6):115, 1942: Hamilton Co.; Smoky Creek. _West Virginia_ (Kellogg, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 84:449, 1937): Charleston; Smoke Hole Cave. _Pennsylvania_ (Rhoads, Mamms. Pa. and N. J., p. 211, 1903): Carlisle; Germantown. _New Jersey_: Haddonfield (Rhoads, Mamms. Pa. and N. J., p. 211, 1903). _Florida_: Tarpon Springs (Sherman., Proc. Florida Acad. Sci., p. 107, 1936). _Texas_: Brownsville (Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 25:211, 1905); Comstock (Bailey, _loc. cit._); Kerr Co. (Taylor and Davis, Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. Bull., 50:17, 1947). _Oklahoma_: 10 mi. S and 2 mi. E Sulphur (Blair, Amer. Midland Nat., 22:100, 1939). _Diagnosis._--Size large; eight specimens from Barber and Butler counties, Kansas, measure in total length, 84(77-89); tibia, 14.8(14.5-15); forearm, 33.5(31.8-35.3); greatest length of skull (exclusive of incisors), 12.8(12.3-13.1); breadth of braincase immediately above roots of zygomatic arches, 6.5(6.4-6.7). Color ranging from Snuff Brown to Sayal Brown. +Pipistrellus subflavus obscurus+ Miller _Pipistrellus subflavus obscurus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:93, October 16, 1897. _Type locality._--Lake George, Warren County, New York. _Range._--From southern Quebec and southern Ontario south to southern Ohio and West Virginia; from the Atlantic Coast west into Wisconsin. Marginal occurrences are: _Minnesota_: St. Peter (Swanson and Evans, Jour. Mamm., 17:39, 1936); Marine (Swanson, Tech. Bull. No. 2, Minnesota Dept. Conservation, p. 60, 1945). _Wisconsin_: Hurley (Greeley and Beer, Jour. Mamm., 30:198, 1949). _Quebec_: Joliet (Anderson, Nat. Mus. Canada, Biol. ser. No. 31, Bull. 102:30, 1946). _Vermont_: Brandon (Osgood, Jour. Mamm., 19:436, 1938). _Maine_: No locality more precise than the state (Allen, Occ. Papers Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 7(3):35, June, 1904). _New York_: Hastings on Hudson (Rowley, Abstr. of Proc. Linnean Soc. N. Y., for yr. ending March 11, 1902, p. 57). _Pennsylvania_: Beaver (Rhoads, Mamms. Pa. and N. J., 1903, p. 211). _West Virginia_: Cornwall's Cave (Frum, Jour. Mamm., 25:195, 1944). _Ohio_: Cat Run (Bole and Moulthrop, Sci. Publs. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., 5(6):116, 1942); Symmes Creek (Bole and Moulthrop, _loc. cit._); Dry Cave (Bole and Moulthrop, _loc. cit._); "Union County" (Rausch, Jour. Mamm., 27:275, 1946). _Wisconsin_: Devils Lake (Jackson, Jour. Mamm., 1:38, 1919). _Diagnosis._--"... color duller and less yellow, and dark tips of shorter hairs on back more conspicuous" than in _P. subflavus subflavus_ according to the original description. _Remarks._--No one, as far as we know, has carefully studied the variation in _Pipistrellus subflavus_ of the United States and Canada since Miller named _P. s. obscurus_. With the more abundant material now available, such an appraisal would be worth-while. The occurrences cited above for Minnesota and Wisconsin were recorded in the literature under the specific name without indication of subspecific affinity. The reference of specimens from these states to the subspecies _P. s. obscurus_ is an arbitrary assignment on our part; we have not seen them. However, two specimens in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History from Potosi (Snake Cave) Grant County, Wisconsin, are referable to _P. s. obscurus_. These provide the southwesternmost record station of occurrence in Wisconsin but are not shown on the distribution map because the specimens were received after figure 1 was prepared. It is noteworthy that the species _Pipistrellus subflavus_ has not yet, as far as we can ascertain, been recorded from Michigan, northern Indiana, northern Illinois, or Iowa. Probably the species occurs in these areas. +Pipistrellus subflavus veracrucis+ (Ward) _Vesperugo veracrucis_ Ward, Amer. Nat., 25:745, August, 1891. _Pipistrellus veracrucis_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:93, October 16, 1897. _Type locality._--Las Vigas, 8,500 ft., Veracruz. _Range._--Eastern Mexico, certainly from the type locality southward into Honduras. Records of occurrence are: _Veracruz_: Las Vigas (13 specimens from 4 km. E Las Vigas, 8,500 ft., K. U.); 30 km. SSE Jesús Carranza, 1 (K. U.). _Honduras_: Jilamo Farm, Tela District, 3 (Univ. Michigan). _Diagnosis._--Size small for the species; measurements of 13 near topotypes are: total length, 78(73-85); tibia, 12.9(11.8-14.7); forearm, 31.8(29.5-33.1); greatest length of skull (exclusive of incisors), 12.2(11.8-12.6); breadth of braincase immediately above roots of zygomatic arches, 6.3(6.0-6.7). Color darker than Mummy Brown above and below. _Remarks._--The specimen from thirty kilometers south-southeast of Jesús Carranza, Veracruz, and the three specimens from Honduras agree in all respects with topotypes. The color of _P. s. veracrucis_ is much darker than that of _P. s. obscurus_ and is between black and the darkest brown in Ridgway's (_op. cit._) color key. Rinker (Jour. Mamm., 29:179-180,1948) described the three specimens from Honduras without assigning a specific name to them because he lacked topotypes of _P. s. veracrucis_. We find nothing in his description to correct, but can add that the upper tooth-rows in many, but not in all, specimens of _P. s. veracrucis_ are straighter than in _P. s. subflavus_. Probably it was this feature to which Rinker referred when he said that in _veracrucis_ "The tooth rows tend to be more convergent posteriorly." Rinker did not refer the three specimens from Honduras to _P. veracrucis_ because Ward's original description states that _veracrucis_ has evenly spaced lower incisors and a basal cusp on the lower canine on only its forward edge. Rinker's specimens from Honduras have the first incisors in contact with each other, the second incisors in contact with the first incisors and the third incisor on each side of the lower jaw separated by a space from the second incisor and from the canine. The specimens from Honduras have a basal cusp on the hinder edge of the lower canine. In these two features they agree with the specimens from Veracruz and with specimens of _Pipistrellus subflavus_ from the United States and Canada. It is clear that Ward (Amer. Nat., 25:747,1891) was mistaken in stating that the lower incisors of _veracrucis_ were evenly spaced and that the canine had a basal cusp on only the forward edge. Ward (_loc. cit._) was correct in regarding his _Vesperugo veracrucis_ as "most closely related to _V. georgianus_ [= _Pipistrellus subflavus_]," but for want of actual specimens of _P. subflavus_ to use in comparison was incorrect in supposing that _P. subflavus_ had only two bands of color on the fur, more hair on the legs, and a larger area of hair on the interfemoral membrane. In these respects we perceive no difference between specimens from Veracruz and the United States. _Vesperugo veracrucis_ Ward, therefore, proves to be only a subspecies of _Pipistrellus subflavus_, but is well characterized by dark color and small size. _University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, Lawrence, Kansas._ _Transmitted October 31, 1949._ [] 23-1546 * * * * * Transcriber's Notes The text presented in this file is that contained in the original printed version. Only one typographical error was noted in the conversion of the printed document to digital format. Typographical Error Page 598: P.h. veracrucis => P. s. veracrucis Emphasis Notation In order to represent the emphasis styling displayed in the original, the following formatting has been employed: _Text_ = Italic +Text+ = Bold * * * * * 
34836	----	A New Pocket Gopher (Genus Thomomys) from Eastern Colorado BY E. RAYMOND HALL University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 5, No. 8, pp. 81-85 October 1, 1951 University of Kansas LAWRENCE 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Volume 5, No. 8, pp. 81-85 October 1, 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1951 23-7439 A New Pocket Gopher (Genus Thomomys) from Eastern Colorado By E. RAYMOND HALL The pocket gophers of the species _Thomomys talpoides_ in east-central Colorado have long been referred to the subspecies _Thomomys talpoides clusius_ Coues with type locality at Bridger Pass, Wyoming. Recently, two subspecies, _T. t. attenuatus_ and _T. t. rostralis_ (see Hall and Montague, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5(3):25-32, February 28, 1951) were named from along the Wyoming-Colorado boundary with the result that the populations of _Thomomys talpoides_ in east-central Colorado are separated from _T. t. clusius_ of Wyoming by the geographic ranges now ascribed to the recently named _T. t. attenuatus_ and _T. t. rostralis_. The subspecific identity of the animals from east-central Colorado thus is left in doubt. Examination of pertinent materials was made in the expectation that the names _Thomomys talpoides macrotis_ F. W. Miller (Proc. Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:41, December 14, 1930) and _Thomomys talpoides cheyennensis_ Swenk (Missouri Valley Fauna, 4:5, March 1, 1941) would apply to the specimens, the identity of which is in doubt. This examination discloses instead, as set forth in more detail below, that neither of the two names mentioned immediately above does apply; the Coloradan specimens in question are referable to an heretofore unrecognized subspecies which may be named and described as follows: #Thomomys talpoides retrorsus# new subspecies _Thomomys clusius_, Warren, The Mammals of Colorado, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, p. 80, 1910; Cary, N. Amer. Fauna, 33:132, August 17, 1911. _Thomomys talpoides clusius_, Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:100, November 15, 1915; F. W. Miller, Proc. Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:41, December 14, 1930; Warren, The Mammals of Colorado, Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman, p. 162, 1942. _Type._--Male, subadult, skull and skin, No. 69840 Biological Surveys Collection, U. S. Nat. Hist.; from Flagler, Kit Carson County, Colorado; obtained on November 26, 1894, by Clark P. Streator; original No. 4460. _Range._--Western end of the Arkansas Divide in Colorado from eight miles south of Seibert westward to Colorado Springs _Diagnosis._--Size medium (see measurements); upper parts grayish brown; underparts lighter; skull small; tympanic bullae moderately inflated and angular anterolaterally; interpterygoid space narrowly U-shaped; pterygoid hamuli without transverse enlargement; nasals truncate posteriorly; premaxillary tongues projecting posteriorly behind nasals for distance of eight-tenths (0.5-1.1) of a millimeter. _Comparisons._--In comparison with _T. t. fossor_ and _T. t. rostralis_, which occur farther west, selected differences of _T. t. retrorsus_ are: lighter color; larger skull; more inflated tympanic bullae; greater relative (to length of skull) breadth across upper incisors, rostrum, and zygomata. The difference in color is greater in comparison with _fossor_ than with _rostralis_. In comparison with _T. t. macrotis_ (specimens from the type locality), _T. t. retrorsus_ is indistinguishable in color, length of tail, and length of tooth-row, but averages smaller in all other measurements. There is no overlap in length of body, basilar length, zygomatic breadth, mastoidal breadth or length of nasals. The temporal ridges, which mark the limits of the temporal muscles, are straight as opposed to curved and are lower. The tympanic bullae are more angular anterolaterally in _T. t. retrorsus_. From _T. t. attenuatus_ to the north, _T. t. retrorsus_ differs in darker (more brown) color, consistently longer body, relatively (to length of skull) shorter rostrum and nasals. Linear measurements of the two latter structures and length of tail are approximately the same in the two subspecies but all other measurements average more in _T. t. retrorsus_. Also in the latter the temporal lines are approximately parallel instead of being bowed outward in their middle extent and instead of being more widely separated posteriorly than anteriorly. From _T. t. cheyennensis_ to the northeast, _T. t. retrorsus_ differs in slightly darker (more brownish) color, consistently shorter body and rostrum, usually a more narrowly V-shaped interpterygoid space, and smaller average dimensions of the skull, notably in mastoidal breadth and length of the rostrum. _Remarks._--Miller's (Proc. Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:42, December 14, 1930) mention of a specimen taken on November 9, 1930, "near the head of Beaver Creek in extreme northeastern Elbert County" refers to the specimen, No. 2426 Colo. Mus. Nat. Hist., which is labeled as "8 mi. N. E. Agate, Elbert Co., Colo." Specimens from Colorado Springs, in the collection of the late E. R. Warren, have not been examined but the fact that Cary, Warren 1942, and Bailey (see under synonymy above) each referred the specimens to _clusius_ instead of to the darker _fossor_ gives basis for tentatively referring the specimens to _T. t. retrorsus_. Grateful acknowledgment is made to those persons in charge of the mammal collections of the Denver Museum of Natural History and the Biological Surveys collection of mammals in the United States National Museum for permission to examine and report upon the material listed below (see specimens examined). The study here reported upon was aided also by a contract between the Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy, and the University of Kansas (NR 161-791). Essential comparative materials were obtained with assistance from the Kansas University Endowment Association. _Measurements._--Measurements of the type, a male, are followed by the measurements of three adult females (69835, 69839 and 69838) from the type locality. Total length, 216, 207, 210, 200; length of tail, 59, 58, 64, 56; length of hind foot, 28, 28, 28, 26; basilar length of skull, 32.8, 32.2, 32.3, 30.8; zygomatic breadth, 23.1, 22.5, ----, 20.5; least interorbital breadth, 6.0, 6.7, 6.2, 6.1; mastoidal breadth, 18.2, 18.8, 17.7, 17.7; length of nasals, 13.0, 13.7, 13.9, 14.0; breadth of rostrum, 7.6, 7.9, 7.4, 7.2; length of rostrum, 14.8, 15.6, 15.7, 16.0; alveolar length of maxillary tooth-row, 7.6, 7.2, 7.7, 7.6. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 13, all from Colorado, as follows: _Elbert County_ (Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist. [= Denver Mus. Nat. Hist.]): Bijou Creek, "near El Paso Co. line", 3; 8 mi. NE Elbert, 1. _Lincoln Co._ (U. S. Biol. Surv. Coll.): Limon, 1. _Kit Carson Co._ (U. S. Biol. Surv. Coll.): Flagler, 7; 8 mi. S Seibert, 1. _Transmitted, February 28, 1951._ 23-7439 
25918	----	HEADS AND TALES. PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE AND COMPANY EDINBURGH AND LONDON [Illustration: The Tasmanian Wolf. (_Thylacinus Cynocephalus._)] HEADS AND TALES; OR, ANECDOTES AND STORIES OF QUADRUPEDS AND OTHER BEASTS, CHIEFLY CONNECTED WITH INCIDENTS IN THE HISTORIES OF MORE OR LESS DISTINGUISHED MEN. COMPILED AND SELECTED BY ADAM WHITE, LATE ASSISTANT IN THE ZOOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT, BRITISH MUSEUM. Second Edition. LONDON: JAMES NISBET & CO., 21 BERNERS STREET. MDCCCLXX. PREFACE. In this work, a part of which is, so far as it extends, a careful compilation from an extensive series of books, the great order mammalia, or, rather, a few of its subjects, is treated anecdotically. The connexion of certain animals with man, and the readiness with which man can subdue even the largest of the mammalia, are very curious subjects of thought. The dog and horse are our special friends and associates; they seem to understand us, and we get very much attached to them. The cat or the cow, again, possess a different degree of attachment, and have "heads and hearts" less susceptible of this education than the first mentioned. The anecdotes in this book will clearly show facts of this nature. In the Letter of the Gorilla, under an appearance of exaggeration, will be found many facts of its history. We have a strong belief that natural history, written as White of Selborne did his Letter of Timothy the Tortoise, would be very enticing and interesting to young people. To make birds and other animals relate their stories has been done sometimes, and generally with success. There are anecdotes hinging, however, on animals which have more to do with man than the other mammals referred to in the little story. These stories we have felt to be very interesting when they occur in biographies of great men. Cowper and his Hares, Huygens and his Sparrow, are tales--at least the former--full of interesting matter on the history of the lower animal, but are of most value as showing the influence on the man who amused himself by taming them. We like to know that the great Duke, after getting down from his horse Copenhagen, which carried him through the whole battle of Waterloo, clapped him on the neck, when the war-charger kicked out, as if untired. We could have added greatly to this book, especially in the part of jests, puns, or cases of _double entendre_. The few selected may suffice. The so-called conversations of "the Ettrick Shepherd" are full of matter of this kind, treated by "Christopher North" with a happy combination of rare power of description and apt exaggeration of detail, often highly amusing. One or two instances are given here, such as the Fox-hunt and the Whale. The intention of this book is primarily to be amusing; but it will be strange if it do not instruct as well. There is much in it that is _true_ of the habits of mammalia. These, with birds, are likely to interest young people generally, more than anecdotes of members of orders like fish, insects, or molluscs, lower in the scale, though often possessing marvellous instincts, the accounts of which form intensely interesting reading to those who are fond of seeing or hearing of "the works of the Lord," and who "take pleasure" in them. CONTENTS. MAMMALIA.[1] PAGE MAN 1 Gainsborough's Joke--Skull of Julius Cæsar when a boy 2 Sir David Wilkie's simplicity about Babies 3 James Montgomery translates into verse a description of Man, after the manner of Linnæus 4 Addison and Sir Richard Steele's Description of Gimcrack the Collector 5 MONKEYS 9 The Gorilla and its Story 9 The Orang-Utan 11 The Chimpanzee 12 Letter of Mr Waterton 20 Mr Mitchell and the Young Chimpanzee 22 Lady Anne Barnard pleads for the Baboons 24 S. Bisset and his Trained Monkeys 25 Lord Byron's Pets 26 The Ettrick Shepherd's Monkey 27 The Findhorn Fisherman and the Monkey 29 "We ha'e seen the _Enemy_!" 29 The French Marquis and his Monkey 30 George IV. and Happy Jerry.--Mr Cross's Rib-nosed Baboon at Exeter Change 31 The Young Lady's pet Monkey and the poor Parrot 33 Monkeys "poor relations" 34 Sydney Smith on Monkeys 34 Mrs Colin Mackenzie on the Apes at Simla 35 The Aye-Aye, or Cheiromys of Madagascar 36 BATS 38 One of Captain Cook's Sailors sees a Fox-Bat, and describes it as a devil 39 Fox Bats (_with a Plate_) 41 Dr Mayerne and his Balsam of Bats 47 HEDGEHOG 48 Robert Southey to his Critics 48 MOLE 49 Mole, cause of Death of William III. 49 BROWN BEAR 56 The Austrian General and the Bear--"Back, rascal, I am a general!" 58 Lord Byron's Bear at Cambridge 59 Charles Dickens on Bear's Grease and Bear-keepers 59 A Bearable Pun 60 A Shaved Bear 61 POLAR BEAR 61 General History and Anecdotes of Polar Bear, as observed on recent Arctic Expeditions (_with a Plate_) 61 Nelson and the Polar Bear 67 A Clever Polar Bear 67 Captain Ommaney and the Polar Bear 70 RACCOON 71 "A Gone Coon" 71 BADGER 71 Hugh Miller sees the "Drawing of the Badger" 72 The Laird of Balnamoon and the Brock 75 FERRET 75 Collins and the Rat-catcher, with the Ferret 76 POLE-CAT 76 Fox and the Poll-Cat 77 DOG 77 Phrases about Dogs 77 Cowper's Dog 79 Cowper and his dog Beau 81 Burns's "Twa Dogs" 81 Dog of Assyrian Monument 86 Bishop Blomfield bitten by a Dog 88 Sydney Smith's Remark on it 88 Bishop of Bristol--"Puppies never see till they are nine days old" 88 Mrs Browning, the Poetess, and her dog Flush 89 Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, Bart., and his dog Speaker 93 Lord Byron and his dog Boatswain 94 Lady's reason for calling her dog Perchance 96 Collins the Artist and his dog Prinny--the faithful Model 96 Soldier and Dog 97 Bark and Bite!--Curran on Lord Clare and his Dog 98 Mrs Drew and the two Dogs 98 Gainsborough and his Wife and their Dogs 100 Sir William Gell's Dog, which was said to speak 101 The Duke of Gordon's Wolf-hounds 102 Frederick the Great and his Italian Greyhounds 104 The Dog and the French Murderers 104 Hannah More on Garrick's Dog 105 Rev. Robert Hall and the Dog 106 A Queen (Henrietta Maria) and her Lap-Dog 106 The Clever Dog that belonged to the Hunters of Polmood 107 The Irish Clergyman and the Dogs 108 Washington Irving and the Dog 108 Douglas Jerrold and his Dog 109 Sheridan and the Dog 109 Charles Lamb and his dog "Dash" 110 French Dogs of Louis XII. 110 Martin Luther observes a Dog at Lintz 111 Poor Dog at the Grotta del Cane 111 Dog a Postman and Carrier 113 South and Sherlock--Dog-matic 113 General Moreau and his Greyhound 113 Duke of Norfolk and his Spaniels 114 Lord North and the Dog 115 Perthes derives Hints from his Dog 115 Peter the Great and his dog Lisette 116 The Light Company's Poodle and Sir F. Ponsonby 118 Admiral Rodney and his dog Loup 119 Ruddiman and his dog Rascal 119 Mrs Schimmelpenninck and the Dogs 120 Sir Walter Scott and his Dogs 122 Sheridan on the Dog-Tax 123 Sydney Smith dislikes Dogs.--An ingenious way of getting rid of them 124 Sydney Smith on Dogs 125 Sydney Smith.--"Newfoundland Dog that breakfasted on Parish Boys" 126 Robert Southey on his Dogs 126 A Dog that was a good judge of Elocution.--Mr True and his Pupil 127 Dog that tried to please a Crying Child 128 Horace Walpole's pet dog Rosette 128 Horace Walpole.--Arrival of his dog Tonton 129 Horace Walpole.--Death of his dog Tonton 130 Archbishop Whateley and his Dogs 131 Archbishop Whately on Dogs 132 Sir David Wilkie.--A Dog Rose 133 Ulysses and his Dog 133 WOLF 135 Polson and the Last Wolf in Sutherlandshire 135 "If the tail break, you'll find that" 137 FOX 138 An Enthusiastic Fox-hunting Surgeon 138 Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd, on the Pleasures of Fox-hunting, and the gratification of the Fox 139 Arctic Foxes converted into Postmen, with Anecdotes (_with a plate_) 142 JACKAL 148 Burke on the Jackal and Tiger 149 CAT 149 Jeremy Bentham and his pet cat "Sir John Langborn 150 S. Bisset and his Musical Cats 152 Constant, Chateaubriand, and their Cats 153 Liston, the Surgeon, and his Cat 153 The Banker Mitchell's Antipathy to Kittens 154 James Montgomery and his Cats 155 David Ritchie's Cat 157 Sir Walter Scott's Visit to the Black Dwarf 157 Southey, the Poet, and his Cats 158 Archbishop Whateley and the Cat that used to ring the Bell 160 TIGER AND LION 161 Bussapa, the Tiger-slayer, and the Tiger 162 John Hunter and the Dead Tiger 164 Mrs Mackenzie on the Indian's regard and awe for the Tiger 165 Jolly Jack-tar on Lion and Tiger 166 Androcles and the Lion 167 Sir George Davis and the Lion 170 Canova's Lions and the Child 171 Admiral Napier and the Lion in the Tower 173 Old Lady and the Beasts on the Mound 173 SEALS 174 Dr Adam Clarke on Shetland Seals 175 Dr Edmonstone and the Shetland Seals 176 The Walrus or Morse (_with a Plate_) 182 KANGAROO 188 Charles Lamb on its Peculiarities 188 Captain Cooke's Sailor and the first Kangaroo seen 189 Charles Lamb on Kangaroos having Purses in front 189 Kangaroo Cooke 189 TIGER WOLF 190 SQUIRREL, &c. 194 Jekyll on a Squirrel 195 Pets of some of the Parisian Revolutionary Butchers 195 Sir George Back and the poor Lemming 196 McDougall and Arctic Lemming 197 RATS AND MICE 198 Duke of Wellington and Musk-Rat 200 Lady Eglinton and the Rats 200 General Douglas and the Rats 201 Hanover Rats 202 Irishman Shooting Rats 203 James Watt and the Rat's Whiskers 204 Gray the Poet compares Poet-Laureate to Rat-catcher 204 Jeremy Bentham and the Mice 205 Robert Burns and the Field Mouse 206 Fuller on Destructive Field Mice 208 Baron Von Trenck and the Mouse in Prison 209 Alexander Wilson, the American Ornithologist, and the Mouse 211 HARES, RABBITS, GUINEA-PIG 212 William Cowper on his Hares 213 Lord Norbury on the Exaggeration of a Hare-Shooter 220 Duke of L. prefers Friends to Hares 221 S. Bisset and his Trained Hare and Turtle 221 Lady Anne Barnard on a Family of Rabbits all blind of one eye 222 Thomas Fuller on Norfolk Rabbits 222 Dr Chalmers and the Guinea-Pig 223 SLOTH 224 Sydney Smith on the Sloth--a Comparison 224 THE GREAT ANT-EATER (_with a Plate_) 225 ELEPHANT 229 Lord Clive--Elephant or Equivalent? 230 Canning on the Elephant and his Trunk 232 Sir R. Phillips and Jelly made of Ivory Dust 233 J. T. Smith and the Elephant 234 Sydney Smith on the Elephant and Tailor 235 Elephant's Skin--a teacher put down 236 FOSSIL PACHYDERMATA 236 Cuvier's Enthusiasm over Fossils 236 SOW 238 "There's a hantle o' miscellaneous eatin' aboot a Pig" 238 "Pig-Sticking at Chicago" 238 Monument to a Pig at Luneberg 239 WILD BOAR (_with a Plate_) 239 THE RIVER PIG (_with a Plate_) 245 S. Bisset and his Learned Pig 250 Quixote Bowles fond of Pigs 251 On Jekyll's treading on a small Pig 251 Good enough for a Pig 251 Gainsborough's Pigs 252 Theodore Hook and the Litter of Pigs 253 Lady Hardwicke's Pig--her Bailiff 253 Pigs and Silver Spoon 253 Sydney Smith on Beautiful Pigs 254 Joseph Sturge, when a boy, and the Pigs 255 RHINOCEROS 229 The Lord Keeper Guildford and the Rhinoceros in the City of London 230 HORSE 256 Horse shot under Albert 256 Bell-Rock Lighthouse Horse 257 Edmund Burke and the Horse 257 David Garrick and his Horse, "A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!" 258 Bernard Gilpin's Horses stolen and recovered 260 The Herald and George III.'s Horse 261 Rev. Rowland Hill and his Horse 261 Holcroft on the Horse 263 Lord Mansfield, his Joke about a Horse 267 Sir John Moore and his Horse at Corunna 268 Neither Horses nor Children can explain their Complaints 269 Horses with Names 270 Rennie the Engineer and the Horse Old Jack 270 Sydney Smith and his Horses 271 Sydney Smith.--He drugs his Domestic Animals 273 Horseback, an Absent Clergyman 273 Judge Story and the Names he gave his Horses 274 Short-tailed and Long-tailed Horses at Livery, difference of Charge 275 ASS AND ZEBRA 276 Coleridge on the Ass 276 Collins and the old Donkey at Odell 276 Gainsborough kept one to Study from 277 Irishman on the Ramsgate Donkeys 278 Douglas Jerrold and the Ass's Foal 278 The Judge and the Barrister 279 Ass that loved Poetry 279 Warren Hastings and the refractory Donkey 279 Northcote, an Angel at an Ass 281 Sydney Smith's Donkey with Jeffrey on his back 281 Sydney Smith on the Sagacity of the Ass 283 Sydney Smith's Deers, how he introduced them into his Grounds to gratify Visitors 284 Asses' Duty Free 284 Thackeray on Egyptian Donkey 285 Zebra, a Frenchman's _double-entendre_ 287 CAMELS 287 Captain William Peel, R.N., on Camel 287 Captain in Royal Navy measures the progress of the Ship of the Desert 289 Lord Metcalfe on a Camel when a Boy 290 RED DEER 291 Earl of Dalhousie and the ferocious Stag 291 The French Count and the Stag 293 FALLOW DEER 294 Venison Fat, Reynolds and the Gourmand 294 Goethe on Stag-trench at Frankfort-on-Maine 294 GIRAFFE 295 "Fancy Two Yards of Sore Throat!" 295 SHEEP AND GOAT 295 How many Legs has a Sheep? 296 Goethe on Roos's Etchings of Sheep 296 Lord Cockburn and the Sheep 298 Erskine's Sheep--an Eye to the Woolsack 298 Sandy Wood and his Pet Sheep and Raven 298 General Carnac and She-goat 299 John Hunter and the Shawl-goat 300 Commodore Keppel _beards_ the Dey of Algiers 303 OX 304 Irish Bulls 304 A great Calf! "The more he sucked the greater Calf he grew!" 304 Veal _ad nauseam!_ too much of a good thing 304 James Boswell should confine himself to the Cow 305 Rev. Adam Clarke and his Bullock Pat 305 Samuel Foote and the Cows pulling the Bell of Worcester College 306 The General's Cow at Plymouth 308 Gilpin's Love of the Picturesque carried out--a reason for keeping three Cows 308 King James on a Cow getting over the Border 309 Duke of Montague and his Hospital for Old Cows and Horses 309 Philip IV. of Spain in the Bull-ring 310 Sydney Smith and his "Universal Scratcher" 311 Rev. Augustus Toplady on the Future State of Animals--the Rev. William Bull 312 Windham on the Feelings of a Baited Bull 313 WHALE 315 A Porpoise not at Home 315 Whalebone 315 "What's to become o' the puir Whales?" 316 Very like a Whale! 316 Christopher North on the Whale 316 FOOTNOTES: [1] There are many anecdotes in this book not included in this list, which gives however, the principal. HEADS AND TALES. MAN. In this collection, like Linnæus, we begin with man as undoubtedly an animal, as opposed to a vegetable or mineral. Like Professor Owen, we are inclined to fancy he is well entitled to separate rank from even the Linnæan order, _Primates_, and to have more systematic honour conferred on him than what Cuvier allowed him. That great French naturalist placed man in a section separate from his four-handed order, _Quadrumana_, and, from his two hands and some other qualities, enrolled our race in an order, _Bimana_. Surely the ancients surpassed many modern naturalists of the Lamarckian school, who would derive him from an ourang, a chimpanzee, or a gorilla. One of them has nobly said-- "Os homini sublime dedit, coelumque tueri." Our own Sir William Hamilton, in a few powerful words has condensed what will ever be, we are thankful to suppose, the general idea of most men, be they naturalists or not, that mind and soul have much to distinguish us from every other animal:-- "What man holds of matter does not make up his personality. Man is not an organism. He is an intelligence served by organs. _They are_ HIS, _not_ HE." As a mere specimen, we subjoin two or three anecdotes, although the species, _Homo sapiens_, has supplied, and might supply, many volumes of anecdotes touching on his whims and peculiarities. As a good example of the Scottish variety, who is there that does not know Dean Ramsay's "Reminiscences?" Surely each nation requires a similar judicious selection. Mr Punch, especially when aided by his late admirable artist, John Leech, shows seemingly that John Bull and his family are as distinct from the French, as the French are from the Yankees. THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH THE ARTIST, AND THE TAILOR. Gainsborough, the painter, was very ready-witted. His biographer[2] records the following anecdote of him as very likely to be authentic. The great artist occasionally made sketches from an honest old tailor, of the name of Fowler, who had a picturesque countenance and silver-gray locks. On the chimney-piece of his painting-room, among other curiosities, was a beautiful preparation of an infant _cranium_, presented to the painter by his old friend, Surgeon Cruickshanks. Fowler, without moving his position, continually peered at it askance with inquisitive eye. "Ah! Master Fowler," said the painter, "that is a mighty curiosity." "What might it be, sir, if I may be so bold?" "A _whale's eye_," replied Gainsborough. "Oh! not so; never say so, Muster Gainsborough. Laws! sir, it is a little child's skull!" "You have hit upon it," said the wag. "Why, Fowler, you are a witch! But what will you think when I tell you that it is the skull of _Julius Cæsar_ when he was a little boy?" "Do you say so!" exclaimed Fowler, "what a phenomenon!" This reminds us of a similar story told of a countryman, who was shown the so-called skull of Oliver Cromwell at the museum in Oxford, and expressed his delight by saying how gratifying it was to see skulls of great men at different ages, for he had just seen at Bath the skull of the Protector when a youth! SIR DAVID WILKIE AND THE BABY. A very popular novelist and author of the present day tells the following anecdote of the simplicity of Sir David Wilkie, with regard to his knowledge of _infant_ human nature:-- On the birth of his first son, at the beginning of 1824, William Collins,[3] the great artist, requested Sir David Wilkie to become one of the sponsors for his child.[4] The painter's first criticism on his future godson is worth recording from its simplicity. Sir David, whose studies of human nature extended to everything but _infant_ human nature, had evidently been refreshing his faculties for the occasion, by taxing his boyish recollections of puppies and kittens; for, after looking intently into the child's eyes as it was held up for his inspection, he exclaimed to the father, with serious astonishment and satisfaction, "He _sees_!" MAN DEFINED SOMEWHAT IN THE LINNÆAN MANNER. One who is partial to the Linnæan mode of characterising objects of natural history has amused himself with drawing up the following definition of man:--"_Simia sine cauda; pedibus posticis ambulans; gregarius, omnivorus, inquietus, mendax, furax, rapax, salax, pugnax, artium variarum capax, animalium reliquorum hostis, sui ipsius inimicus acerrimus._" Montgomery translated the description thus:-- "Man is an animal unfledged, A monkey with his tail abridged; A thing that walks on spindle legs, With bones as brittle, sir, as eggs; His body, flexible and limber, And headed with a knob of timber; A being frantic and unquiet, And very fond of beef and riot; Rapacious, lustful, rough, and martial, To lies and lying scoundrels partial! By nature form'd with splendid parts To rise in science--shine in arts; Yet so confounded cross and vicious, A mortal foe to all his species! His own best _friend_, and you must know, His own worst _enemy_ by being so!"[5] ADDISON AND STEELE ON SOME OF THE PECULIARITIES OF THE NATURAL HISTORY COLLECTORS OF THE DAY. In one of the early volumes of _Chambers's Edinburgh Journal_, there was a very curious paper entitled "Nat Phin." Although considerably exaggerated, no one who had the happiness of knowing the learned, amiable, and excellent Dr Patrick Neill, could fail to recognise, in the transposed title, an amusing description of his love of natural history pets, zoological and botanical. The fun of the paper is that "Nat" gets married, and, coming home one day from his office, finds that his young wife has caused the gardener to clear out his ponds of tadpoles and zoophytes. Addison or Sir Richard Steele, or both of them, in the following paper of the _Tatler_ (No. 221, Sept. 7, 1710), has given one of those quietly satiric pictures of many a well-known man of the day, some Petiver or Hans Sloane. The widow Gimcrack's letter is peculiarly racy. Although old books, the _Tatler_ and _Spectator_ still furnish rare material to many a popular magazine writer of the day, who sometimes does little more than dilute a paper in these and other rare repertories of the style and wit of a golden age. We meditated offering various extracts from Swift and Daniel Defoe; but our space limits us to one, and the following may for the present suffice. "_From my own Apartment, September 6._ "As I was this morning going out of my house, a little boy in a black coat delivered me the following letter. Upon asking who he was, he told me that he belonged to my Lady Gimcrack. I did not at first recollect the name, but, upon inquiry, I found it to be the widow of Sir Nicholas, whose legacy I lately gave some account of to the world. The letter ran thus:-- "'MR BICKERSTAFF,--I hope you will not be surprised to receive a letter from the widow Gimcrack. You know, sir, that I have lately lost a very whimsical husband, who, I find, by one of your last week's papers, was not altogether a stranger to you. When I married this gentleman, he had a very handsome estate; but, upon buying a set of microscopes, he was chosen a _Fellow of the Royal Society; from which time I do not remember ever to have heard him speak as other people did_, or talk in a manner that any of his family could understand him. He used, however, to pass away his time very innocently in conversation with several members of that learned body: for which reason I never advised him against their company for several years, until at last I found his brain quite turned with their discourses. The first symptoms which he discovered of his being a _virtuoso_, as you call him, poor man! was about fifteen years ago; when he gave me positive orders to turn off an old weeding woman, that had been employed in the family for some years. He told me, at the same time, that there was no such thing in nature as a weed, and that it was his design to let his garden produce what it pleased; so that, you may be sure, it makes a very pleasant show as it now lies. About the same time he took a humour to ramble up and down the country, and would often bring home with him his pockets full of moss and pebbles. This, you may be sure, gave me a heavy heart; though, at the same time, I must needs say, he had the character of a very honest man, notwithstanding he was reckoned a little weak, until he began to sell his estate, and buy those strange baubles that you have taken notice of. Upon midsummerday last, as he was walking with me in the fields, he saw a very odd-coloured butterfly just before us. I observed that he immediately changed colour, like a man that is surprised with a piece of good luck; and telling me that it was what he had looked for above these twelve years, he threw off his coat, and followed it. I lost sight of them both in less than a quarter of an hour; but my husband continued the chase over hedge and ditch until about sunset; at which time, as I was afterwards told, he caught the butterfly as she rested herself upon a cabbage, near five miles from the place where he first put her up. He was here lifted from the ground by some passengers in a very fainting condition, and brought home to me about midnight. His violent exercise threw him into a fever, which grew upon him by degrees, and at last carried him off. In one of the intervals of his distemper he called to me, and, after having excused himself for running out his estate, he told me that he had always been more industrious to improve his mind than his fortune, and that his family must rather value themselves upon his memory as he was a wise man than a rich one. He then told me that it was a custom among the Romans for a man to give his slaves their liberty when he lay upon his death-bed. I could not imagine what this meant, until, after having a little composed himself, he ordered me to bring him a flea which he had kept for several months in a chain, with a design, as he said, to give it its manumission. This was done accordingly. He then made the will, which I have since seen printed in your works word for word. Only I must take notice that you have omitted the codicil, in which he left a large _concha veneris_, as it is there called, to a _Member of the Royal Society_, who was often with him in his sickness, and _assisted him in his will_. And now, sir, I come to the chief business of my letter, which is to desire your friendship and assistance in the disposal of those many rarities and curiosities which lie upon my hands. If you know any one that has an occasion for a parcel of dried spiders, I will sell them a pennyworth. I could likewise let any one have a bargain of cockle-shells. I would also desire your advice whether I had best sell my beetles in a lump or by retail. The gentleman above mentioned, who was my husband's friend, would have me make an auction of all his goods, and is now drawing up a catalogue of every particular for that purpose, with the two following words in great letters over the head of them, Auctio Gimcrackiana. But, upon talking with him, I begin to suspect he is as mad as poor Sir Nicholas was. Your advice in all these particulars will be a great piece of charity to, Sir, your most humble servant, "'ELIZABETH GIMCRACK.' "I shall answer the foregoing letter, and give the widow my best advice, as soon as I can find out chapmen for the wares which she has to put off." FOOTNOTES: [2] Life of Thomas Gainsborough, R.A. By the late George Williams Fulcher. Edited by his Son. P. 157. [3] Memoir of the Life of William Collins, R.A. By W. Wilkie Collins. I., p. 235. [4] The future author of "The Woman in White" and "The Dead Secret," and many other works of celebrity. [5] Memoirs of James Montgomery. By Holland and Everett. I., p. 283. MONKEYS. THE GORILLA AND ITS STORY. In the British Museum, in handsome glass cases, and on the floors of the three first rooms at the top of the stairs, may be seen the largest collection of the skins and skeletons of quadrupeds ever brought together. In the third, or principal room, will be found a nearly complete series of the QUADRUMANA or four-handed Mammalia. Monkeys are _quadrumanous mammalia_. The resemblance of these animals to men is most conspicuous, in the largest of them, such as the gorilla, orang-utan, chimpanzee, and the long-armed or gibbous apes. Such resemblance is most distant in the ferocious dog-faced baboons of Africa, the _Cynocephali_ of the ancients. It is softened off, but not effaced, in the pretty little countenances of those dwarf pets from South America, the ouistities or marmosets, and other species of new-world monkeys, some of which are not larger than a squirrel. They are well called MONKEYS, Monnikies, Mannikies--little men, "_Simiæ quasi bestiæ hominibus similes_," "monkeys, as if beasts resembling man," or "mon," as the word man is pronounced in pure _Doric_ Saxon, whether in York or Peebles. "Monkey! you very degraded little brute, how much you resemble us!" said old Ennius, without ever fancying that the day would come when some men would regard their own race as little better than highly-advanced monkeys. Let us never for a moment rest in such fallacious theories, or accept the belief of Darwin and Huxley, with a few active agitating disciples, that animals, and even plants, may pass into each other. "I think we are not wholly brain, Magnetic mockeries; ... Not only cunning casts in clay; Let science prove we are, and then What matters science unto men, At least to me! I would not stay: Let him, the wiser man who springs Hereafter, up from childhood shape His action, like the greater ape, But I was born to other things." --_In Memoriam_, cxix. Darwin and Huxley cannot change nature. They may change their minds and opinions, as their fathers did before them. It is, we suspect, only the old heathen materialism cropping out,-- "Our little systems have their day-- They have their day and cease to be. They are but broken lights of Thee, And Thou, O Lord! art more than they." --_In Memoriam._ No artists or authors have ever pictured or described monkeys like Sir Edwin Landseer and his brother Thomas. Surely a new edition of the _Monkeyana_ is wanted for the rising generation. Oliver Goldsmith, that great writer, who was most feeble in knowledge of natural history from almost total ignorance of the subject, over which he threw the graces of his charming style, noticed, as remarkable, that in countries "where the men are barbarous and stupid, the brutes are the most active and sagacious." He continues, that it is in the torrid tracts, inhabited by barbarians, that animals are found with instinct so nearly approaching reason. Both in Africa and America, accordingly, he tells us, "the savages suppose monkeys to be men; idle, slothful, rational beings, capable of speech and conversation, but obstinately dumb, for fear of being compelled to labour." For the present, I shall suppose that the gorilla, largest of all the apes, can not only speak, but write; and is speaking and writing to an orang-utan of Borneo. Even a Lamarckian will allow this to be within the range of possibility. Were it possible to get Gay or Cowper to write a new set of fables, animals, in the days of postoffices and letters, would become, like the age, epistolary. But a word on the imaginary correspondent. The orang, as the reader knows, is the great red-haired "Man of the Woods," as the name may be rendered in English. My old friend, Mr Alfred Wallace, lately in New Guinea, and the adjoining parts, collecting natural history subjects, and making all kinds of valuable observations and surveys, sent to Europe most of the magnificent specimens of this "ugly beast" now in the museum. He has detailed its habits and history in an able account, published some years ago in "The Annals and Magazine of Natural History." Its home seems to be the fine forests which cover many parts of the coast of Borneo. The home of the gorilla and chimpanzee are in the tropical forests of the coasts of Western Africa. There would seem to be but three or four well established _species_ of these apes, though there are, as in man and most created beings, some marked or decided varieties. These apes are altogether _quadrupeds_, adapted for a life among trees. The late Charles Waterton, of Walton Hall, whom I deem it an honour to have known for many years, personally and in his writings, has well shown this in his "Essays on Natural History." Professor Owen, with his osteologies, and old Tyson, with his anatomies, have each demonstrated that--draw what inferences the followers of Mr Darwin may choose--monkeys are not men, but quadrupeds. The structure of chimpanzee, orang, and gorilla considerably resembles that of man, but so more distantly does a frog's, so does Scheuchzer's fossil amphibian in the museum, so does a squirrel's, so does a parrot's. Yet, because parrots, squirrels, frogs, and asses have skulls, a pelvis, and fore-arms, they are _not_ men any more than fish are. Linnæus has given the _real_ specific, the _real_ class, order, and generic character of man, unique as a species, as a genus, as an order, or as a class, as even the greatest comparative anatomist of England regards him; "Nosce teipsum:" "[Greek: Gnôthi seauton]"--KNOW THYSELF. Man alone expects a hereafter. He is immortal, and anticipates, hopes for, or dreads a resurrection. Melancholy it is that he alone, as an American writer curiously remarks, collects bodies of men of _one_ blood to fight with each other. He alone can become a _drunkard_. The reader must leave rhapsody, and may now be reminded, in explanation of allusions in the following letter, that the arm of Dr Livingstone, the African traveller, was crushed and crunched by the bite and "chaw" of a lion. He will also please to notice, that the skeleton of the gorilla in the museum has the left arm broken by some dreadful accident. This injury may _possibly_ have been caused by a fall when young, or more probably by the empoisoned bite of a larger gorilla, or of a tree-climbing Leopard. So much may be premised before giving a letter, supposed to be intercepted on its way between the Gaboon and London, and London and Borneo, opened at St Martin's-le-Grand, and detained as unpaid. "I was born in a large baobab tree, on the west coast of Africa, not very far from Calabar. We gorillas are good time-keepers, rise early and go to bed early, guided infallibly by the sun. But though our family has been in existence at least six thousand years, we have no chronology, and care not a straw about our grandfathers. I suppose I had a grandmother, but I never took _any_ interest in any but very close relationships. "We never toiled for our daily food, and are not idle like these lazy black fellows who hold their palavers near us, and whom I, for my part, heartily despise. They cannot climb a tree, as we do, although they can talk to each other, and make one another slaves. At least they so treat their countrymen far off where the fine sweet plantains grow, and some other juicy tit-bits, the memory of which makes my mouth water. These fellows have ugly wives, not nearly so big-mouthed as ours, without our noble bony ridge, small ears, and exalted presence. They are actually forced to walk erect, and their fore-legs seldom touch the ground, except in the case of piccanninies. These little creatures crawl on the ground, are much paler when born, and are then perfectly helpless; and have no hair except on their heads, whereas our beautiful young are fine and hairy, and can swing among the branches, shortly after birth, nearly as well as their parents. When I was very young, I could soon help myself to fruits which abound on our trees. "Have you dates, plantains, and soursops--so sweet--at Sarawak, Master Redhair? We have, and all kinds of them. I should like, for a variety, to taste yours. Mind you send me some of the _durian_.[6] Make haste and send it, for Wallace's description makes my mouth water. "I have told you our little ones soon learn to help themselves, whereas I have seen the piccaninnies of the blacks nursed by their mothers till many rainy seasons had come and gone. I really think nothing of the talking blacks who live near us. They put on bits of coloured rags, not nearly so bright, so regular, nor so _contrasting_ as the feathers of our birds. "Beautifully coloured are the green touraco and the purple plantain-eater, a rascally bird! who eats some of our finest plantains, and has bitten holes in many a one I thought to get entirely to myself. Why, our parrots beat these West-African negroes to sticks! Even our common gray parrot, so prettily scaled with gray, and with the red feathers under his tail, is more natural than these blacks, with their dirty-white, yellow, blue, green, and red rags. "Besides, that gray parrot beats them hollow both in its voice and in the way it imitates. Do you know that when I have been giving my quick short bark, to tell that I am not well pleased, I have heard one of these fellows near me actually make me startle--its bark was so like to that of one of our kind! I cannot bear the blacks! I have had a grudge against them since some little urchins shot at me when I was young, and made my hand bleed. How it bled! My mother, with whom I had been, kept out of the way of these blackguards, but I was playing with another little gorilla, and forgot to keep a look-out. I have kept a good look-out ever since I got _that_ wound, I assure you. I licked it often, and so did my mother with her delicious mouth. It soon left off bleeding and healed. We gorillas have no brandy, no whisky, no wine, not even small beer, to inflame our blood. We sleep, too, among the trees, clear off the ground, where there are dangerous vapours, so that we are free from all miasmata. West Africa is my lovely home, and I am big and beautifully pot-bellied. It is the home of the large-eared chimpanzee, a near relative of ours, though we never marry. He is an active fellow, with rather large vulgar-looking ears; while mine, though I ought not to say so, are beautifully small, and denote my more exalted birth. Master Chimpanzee needs all his ears, for he is not so strong as I, and as you will hear, we anthropoids have enemies in our trees, just as you perhaps have, Master Redhair. We are both cautious of getting on the ground, and when there, I assure you I keep a sharp look-out. "I have told you of one adventure I had in my youth, and now listen to another which I have not forgotten to this day. My left arm aches now as I think of it. "As I was one day gambolling with another playfellow in a large tree, with great branches standing out from the trunk, and at a good height from the ground, my companion, another young gorilla, but with smaller mouth, larger nose, and other features uglier than mine, suddenly shrieked, and looked frightened and angry. No sooner had I noticed him than my whole frame was shaken. I was seized by two paws in the small of my back--a very painful part to be dug into--by ten hooked claws, nearly as long as tenpenny nails, but horribly sharp and hooked.--Oh my arm! "I tried to turn round, and there was a most ferocious leopard growling at me. I tried to bite, and to scratch his eyes out, but the pain in the small of my back made me quite giddy. The spotted scoundrel seized my left arm--how it aches!--and gave me a _crunch_ or two. I hear, I feel the teeth against my bones as I write. My whole body is full of pain. "My mother came and released me. She was large, handsome, and well-to-do, with _such_ long and strong arms, and with a magnificent bulging and pouting mouth. In those days of my infancy I used to fancy I should like to try to take as large a bite of a plantain as she could. I tried twice or thrice, but could only squash a tenth of the juice of the fruit into my mouth. She had glorious white teeth. Her grin clearly frightened the leopard, as well as a pinch she gave him in the 'scruff' of the neck with one of her hands, while with the other she caught hold of his tail and made him yell. How he roared! He fell off the branch on to another; but soon, like all the cats, recovered his hold and jumped down to the ground, when he skulked away with his tail behind him. "I must really leave off, warned both by my paper and your impatience. Well, I grew stronger and bigger every day, and swung by one arm almost as well as the rest did with their two. I got, in fact, so strong on my hind feet, that my toes were actually in time thicker than those of any of my race. It is well, my dear Orang, to use what you have left you, and to try as soon as possible to forget what has been taken from you. "... Look at my portrait, I am as strong, and as bony, and as bonnie, as any gorilla. But I begin to boast, so I will leave off." * * * * * No doubt that gorilla's injured arm affected its habits and its activity every day of its life. The broken arm, never set by some gorilla surgeon of celebrity, formed a highly important feature in its biography. Reader! when next thou visitest the noble Museum in Bloomsbury, look at the skeleton of that gorilla, whose probable story Arachnophilus hath tried to give thee, and remember that both skin and skeleton were exhibited there before Du Chaillu became "a lion." The gorilla is a native of West Africa. It is closely allied to the chimpanzee, but grows to a larger size, and has many striking anatomical characters and external marks to distinguish it. It is certainly much dreaded by the natives on the banks of the Gaboon, and, doubtless, dreads them equally. Dr Gray procured a large specimen in a tub from that district. It was skinned and set up by Mr Bartlett. I have seen photographs in the hands of my excellent old friend--that admirable natural history and anatomical draughtsman--Mr George Ford of Hatton Garden. These photographs were taken from its truly ugly face as it was pulled out of the stinking brine. Life in death, or death in life, it was most repulsive. Professor Owen read a most elaborate paper on the gorilla before the Zoological Society. The great comparative anatomist and zoologist shows that it _may_ have been the very species whose skins were brought by Hanno to Carthage, in times before the Christian era, as the skins of _hairy wild men_. The historian refers to them as "gorullai" ([Greek: Gôryllai].) The natives of West Africa name it "N'Geena." * * * * * The stuffed specimen at the Museum is a young male. Its preparation does great credit to Mr Bartlett's care and knowledge, for the hair over nearly all the body was in patches among the spirit--thoroughly corrupted in its alcoholic strength by animal matter. The peculiarly anthropoid and morbidly-disagreeable look that even the face of the young gorilla had was, of course, perfect in the photograph. In the _Leisure Hour_, a tolerably good cut of it was given, but the artist did not copy the label accurately, for on the photograph from which that cut was derived, _another name_ was rendered by _that_ sun, who pays no compliments and tells no lies. Professor Owen, the greatest of comparative anatomists, has made the subject of anthropoid apes his own, by the perfection of his researches, continued and continuous. He would have liked, at least I may venture, I believe, to say so (if the matter gave him more than a moment's thought), that the name of Dr Gray had been on that label. _Letter from C. Waterton, Esq., mentioning a young gorilla._ WALTON HALL, _Feb_. 4, 1856. "DEAR SIR,--As your favour of the 28th did not seem to require an immediate answer I put it aside for a while, having a multiplicity of business then on hand, and being obliged to be from home for a couple of days. "I beg to enclose you the letter to which you allude. "Pray do not suppose that for one single moment I should be illiberal enough to undervalue a 'closet naturalist.' 'Non cuivis homini contingit adire corinthum.' It does not fall to every one's lot to range through the forests of Guiana, still, a gentleman given to natural history may do wonders for it in his own apartments on his native soil; and had Audubon, Swainson, Jameson, &c., not attacked me in all the pride of pompous self-conceit, I should have been the last man in the world to expose their gross ignorance. "You ask me 'If we are to have another volume of essays?' I beg to answer, no. Last year, Mrs Loudon (to whom I made a present of the essays) wrote to me, and asked for a few papers to be inserted in a forthcoming edition. I answered, that as I had had some strange and awful adventures since the 'Autobiography' made its appearance, I would tack them on to it. But from that time to this, I have never had a line, either from Mrs Loudon or from her publishers. But some months ago, having made a present of a superb case of preserved specimens in natural history to the Jesuits' College in Lancashire, I gave directions to my stationer at Wakefield to procure me from London the fourth or last edition of the essays; and I made references to it accordingly. But, lo and behold, when I had opened this supposed fourth edition, I saw printed on the title page 'a new edition.' Better had they printed a _fifth edition_. This threw all my references wrong. Should you be passing by Messrs Longman, perhaps you will have the goodness to ask when this 'new edition' was printed. "I am sorry you did not show me your drawing of the chimpanzee before it was engraved. The artist has not done justice to it. He has made the ears far too large.[7] The little brown chimpanzee has very small ears; fully as small in proportion as those of a genuine negro. I am half inclined to give to the world a little treatise on the monkey tribe. I am prepared to show that Linnæus, Buffon, and all our hosts of naturalists who have copied the remarks of these celebrated naturalists, are perfectly in the dark with regard to the true character of _all_ the monkey tribe. Yesterday, I sent up to the _Gardener's Chronicle_ a few notes on the woodpecker.--Believe me, dear sir, very truly yours, CHARLES WATERTON. "P.S.--Many thanks for your nice little treatise on the chimpanzee." Mr Waterton enclosed me a copy of the following letter, which he published in a Yorkshire newspaper:-- _To Mrs Wombwell._ "MADAM,--I am truly sorry that the inclemency of the weather has prevented the inhabitants of this renowned watering-place from visiting your wonderful gorilla, or brown orang-outang. "I have passed two hours in its company, and I have been gratified beyond expression. "Would that all lovers of natural history could get a sight of it, as, possibly, they may never see another of the same species in this country. "It differs widely in one respect from all other orang-outangs which have been exhibited in England--namely, that, when on the ground, it never walks on the soles of its fore-feet, but on the knuckles of the toes of those feet; and those toes are doubled up like the closed fist of a man. This must be a painful position; and, to relieve itself, the animal catches hold of visitors, and clings caressingly to Miss Bright, who exhibits it. Here then, it is at rest, with the toes of the fore-feet performing their natural functions, which they never do when the animal is on the ground. "Hence I draw the conclusion that this singular quadruped, like the sloth, is not a walker on the ground of its own free-will, but by accident only. "No doubt whatever it is born, and lives, and dies aloft, amongst the trees in the forests of Africa. "Put it on a tree, and then it will immediately have the full use of the toes of its fore-feet. Place it on the ground, and then you will see that the toes of the fore-feet become useless, as I have already described. "That it may retain its health, and thus remunerate you for the large sum which you have expended in the purchase of it, is, madam, the sincere hope of your obedient servant and well-wisher, CHARLES WATERTON." Scarborough Cliff, No. 1, _Nov. 1, 1855_. "_P.S._--You are quite at liberty to make what use you choose of this letter. I have written it for your own benefit, and for the good of natural history."[8] MR MITCHELL ON A YOUNG CHIMPANZEE. The writer of a most readable article on the acclimatisation of animals in the _Edinburgh Review_,[9] gives an amusing recital of the arrival of a chimpanzee at the Zoological Gardens. It was related to him by the late Mr Mitchell, who was long the active secretary of the society, and who did much to improve the Gardens. "One damp November evening, just before dusk, there arrived a French traveller from Senegal, with a companion closely muffled up in a burnoose at his side. On going, at his earnest request, to speak to him at the gate, he communicated to me the interesting fact that the stranger in the burnoose was a young chim, who had resided in his family in Senegal for some twelve months, and who had accompanied him to England. The animal was in perfect health; but from the state of the atmosphere required good lodging, and more tender care than could be found in a hotel. He proposed to sell his friend. I was hard; did not like pulmonic property[10] at that period of the year, having already two of the race in moderate health, but could not refrain from an offer of hospitality during Chim's residence in London. Chim was to go to Paris if I did not buy him. So we carried him, burnoose and all, into the house where the lady chims were, and liberated him in the doorway. They had taken tea, and were beginning to think of their early couch. When the Senegal Adonis caught sight of them, he assumed a jaunty air and advanced with politeness, as if to offer them the last news from Africa. A yell of surprise burst from each chimpanzella as they successively recognised the unexpected arrival. One would have supposed that all the Billingsgate of Chimpanzeedom rolled from the voluble tongues of these unsophisticated and hitherto unimpressible young ladies; but probably their gesticulations, their shrill exclamations, their shrinkings, their threats, were but well-mannered expressions of welcome to a countryman thus abruptly revealed in the foreign land of their captivity. Sir Chim advanced undaunted, and with the composure of a high-caste pongo; if he had had a hat he would have doffed it incontinently, as it was, he only slid out of his burnoose and ascended into the apartment which adjoined his countrywomen with agile grace, and then, through the transparent separation, he took a closer view. Juliana yelled afresh. Paquita crossed her hands, and sat silently with face about three quarters averted. Sir Chim uttered what may have been a tranquillising phrase, expressive of the great happiness he felt on thus being suddenly restored to the presence of kinswomen in the moment of his deepest bereavement. Juliana calmed. Paquita diminished her angle of aversion, and then Sir Chim, advancing quite close to the division, began what appeared to be a recollection of a minuet. He executed marvellous gestures with a precision and aplomb which were quite enchanting, and when at last he broke out into a quick movement with loud smacking stamps, the ladies were completely carried away, and gave him all attention. Friendship was established, refreshments were served, notwithstanding the previous tea, and everybody was apparently satisfied, especially the stranger. Upon asking the Senegal proprietor what the dance meant, he told me that the animal had voluntarily taken to that imitation of his slaves, who used to dance every evening in the courtyard." So far Mr Mitchell's narrative; the reviewer relates how a chimpanzee, placed for a short time in the society of the children of his owner in this country, not only throve in an extraordinary manner, was perfectly docile and good-tempered, but learnt to imitate them. When the eldest little boy wished to tease his playfellow, he used, childlike, to make faces at him. Chim soon outdid him, and one of the funniest things imaginable was to see him blown at and blowing in return; his protrusible lips converted themselves into a trumpet-shaped instrument, which reminded one immediately of some of the devils of Albert Dürer, or those incredible forms which the old painters used to delight in piling together in their temptations of Saint Anthony. LADY ANNE BARNARD PLEADS FOR THE BABOONS. Lady Anne Barnard, whose name as the writer of "Auld Robin Gray" is familiar to every one who knows that most pathetic ballad, spent five years with her husband at the Cape (1797-1802). Her journal letters to her sisters are most amusing, and full of interesting observations.[11] After describing "Musquito-hunting" with her husband, she writes:--"In return, I endeavoured to effect a treaty of peace for the baboons, who are apt to come down from the mountain in little troops to pillage our garden of the fruit with which the trees are loaded. I told him he would be worse than Don Carlos if he refused the children of the sun and the soil the use of what had descended from ouran-outang to ouran-outang; but, alas! I could not succeed. He had pledged himself to the gardener,[12] to the slaves, and all the dogs, not to baulk them of their sport; so he shot a superb man-of-the-mountain one morning, who was marauding, and electrified himself the same moment, so shocked was he at the groan given by the poor creature as he limped off the ground. I do not think I shall hear of another falling a sacrifice to Barnard's gun; they come too near the human race" (p. 408). In another letter she says (p. 391), "The best way to get rid of them is to catch one, whip him, and turn him loose; he skips off chattering to his comrades, and is extremely angry, but none of them return the season this is done. I have given orders, however, that there may be no whipping." S. BISSET AND HIS TRAINED MONKEYS. We have elsewhere referred to S. Bisset as a trainer of animals. Among the earliest of his trials, this Scotchman took two monkeys as pupils. One of these he taught to dance and tumble on the rope, whilst the other held a candle with one paw for his companion, and with the other played a barrel organ. These animals he also instructed to play several fanciful tricks, such as drinking to the company, riding and tumbling upon a horse's back, and going through several regular dances with a dog. The horse and dog referred to, were the first animals on which this ingenious person tried his skill. Although Bisset lived in the last century, few persons seem to have surpassed him in his power of teaching the lower animals. We have seen a man in Charlotte Square, in 1865, make a new-world monkey go through a series of tricks, ringing a bell, firing a pea-gun, and such like. Poor Jacko was to be pitied. His want of heart in his labours was very evident. Poor fellow, no time for reflection was allowed him. Like some of the masters in the Old High School,--such cruelty dates back more than thirty years,--a ferule, or a pair of tawse kept Jacko to his work. It was play to the onlookers, but no sport to master Cebus. Had he possessed memory and reflection, how his thoughts must have wandered from Edinburgh to the forests of the Amazon! LORD BYRON'S PETS. Beside horses and dogs, the poet Byron, like his own Don Juan, had a kind of inclination, or weakness, for what most people deem mere vermin, _live animals_. Captain Medwin records, in one of his conversations, that the poet remarked that it was troublesome to travel about with so much live and dead stock as he did, and adds--"I don't like to leave behind me any of my pets, that have been accumulating since I came on the Continent. One cannot trust to strangers to take care of them. You will see at the farmer's some of my pea-fowls _en pension_. Fletcher tells me that they are almost as bad fellow-travellers as the monkey, which I will show you." Here he led the way to a room where he played with and caressed the creature for some time. He afterwards bought another monkey in Pisa, because he saw it ill-used.[13] Lord Byron's travelling equipage to Pisa in the autumn of 1821, consisted, _inter cætera_, of nine horses, a monkey, a bull-dog, and a mastiff, two cats, three pea-fowls, and some hens.[14] THE ETTRICK SHEPHERD'S MONKEY. (_From the "Noctes Ambrosianæ," Dec. 1825._[15]) _Shepherd._ I wish that you but saw my monkey, Mr North. He would make you hop the twig in a guffaw. I ha'e got a pole erected for him, o' about some 150 feet high, on a knowe ahint Mount Benger; and the way the cretur rins up to the knob, looking ower the shouther o' him, and twisting his tail roun' the pole for fear o' playin' thud on the grun', is comical past a' endurance. _North._ Think you, James, that he is a link? _Shepherd._ A link in creation? Not he, indeed. He is merely a monkey. Only to see him on his observatory, beholding the sunrise! or weeping, like a Laker, at the beauty o' the moon and stars! _North._ Is he a bit of a poet? _Shepherd._ Gin he could but speak and write, there can be nae manner o' doubt that he would be a gran' poet. Safe us! what een in the head o' him! Wee, clear, red, fiery, watery, malignant-lookin een, fu' o' inspiration. _Tickler._ You should have him stuffed. _Shepherd._ Stuffed, man! say, rather, embalmed. But he's no likely to dee for years to come--indeed, the cretur's engaged to be married; although he's no in the secret himsel yet. The bawns are published. _Tickler._ Why really, James, marriage I think ought to be simply a civil contract. _Shepherd._ A civil contract! I wuss it was. But, oh! Mr Tickler, to see the cretur sittin wi' a pen in 's hand, and pipe in 's mouth, jotting down a sonnet, or odd, or lyrical ballad! Sometimes I put that black velvet cap ye gied me on his head, and ane o' the bairns's auld big-coats on his back; and then, sure aneugh, when he takes his stroll in the avenue, he is a heathenish Christian. _North._ Why, James, by this time he must be quite like one of the family? _Shepherd._ He's a capital flee-fisher. I never saw a monkey throw a lighter line in my life.... Then, for rowing a boat! _Tickler._ Why don't you bring him to Ambrose's? _Shepherd._ He's sae bashfu'. He never shines in company; and the least thing in the world will make him blush. THE FINDHORN FISHERMAN AND THE MONKEY. Sir Thomas Dick Lauder[16] records the adventures of a monkey in Morayshire, whose wanderings sadly alarmed the inhabitants who saw him, all unused as they were to the sight of such an exotic stranger. "We knew a large monkey, which escaped from his chain, and was abroad in Morayshire for some eight or ten days. Wherever he appeared he spread terror among the peasantry. A poor fisherman on the banks of the Findhorn was sitting with his wife and family at their frugal meal, when a hairy little man, as they in their ignorance conceived him to be, appeared on the window sill and grinned, and chattered through the casement what seemed to them to be the most horrible incantations. Horror-struck, the poor people crowded together on their knees on the floor, and began to exorcise him with prayers most vehemently, until some external cause of alarm made their persecutor vanish. The neighbours found the family half dead with fear, and could with difficulty extract from them the cause. 'Oh! worthy neebours!' at last exclaimed the goodman with a groan, 'we ha'e seen the _Enemy_ glowrin' at us through that vera wundow there. Lord keep us a'!!' He next alarmed a little hamlet near the hills; appearing and disappearing to various individuals in a most mysterious manner; till at last a clown, with a few grains of more courage than the rest, loaded his gun and put a sixpence into it, with the intention of stealing upon him as he sat most mysteriously chattering on the top of a cairn of stones, and then shooting him with silver, which is known never to fail in finishing the imps of the Evil One. And lucky indeed was it for pug that he chanced, through whim, to abscond from that quarter; for if he had not so disappeared, he might have died by the lead, if not by the silver. As it was, the bold peasant laid claim to the full glory of compelling this dreaded goblin to flee." Sir Thomas Lauder kept several pets in his beautiful seat at the Grange, long occupied by the Messrs Dalgleish of Dreghorn Castle as a genteel boarding-school, and now by the Misses Mouatt as one for young ladies. We have often seen the tombstones to his dogs, which were buried to the south of that mansion, in which Principal Robertson the historian died, and where Lord Brougham, his relation, used to go when a boy at the High School. THE FRENCH MARQUIS AND HIS MONKEY. Dr John Moore, the father of General Moore, who fell at Corunna, in one of the graphic sketches of a Frenchman which he gives in his work on Italy, records a visit he paid to the Marquis de F---- at Besançon. After many questions, he says, "Before I could make any answer, I chanced to turn my eyes upon a person whom I had not before observed, who sat very gravely upon a chair in a corner of the room, with a large periwig in full dress upon his head. The marquis, seeing my surprise at the sight of this unknown person, after a very hearty fit of laughter, begged pardon for not having introduced me sooner to that gentleman (who was no other than a large monkey), and then told me, he had the honour of being attended by a physician, who had the reputation of possessing the greatest skill, and who _certainly_ wore the largest periwigs of any doctor in the province. That one morning, while he was writing a prescription at his bedside, this same monkey had catched hold of his periwig by one of the knots, and instantly made the best of his way out at the window to the roof of a neighbouring house, from which post he could not be dislodged, till the doctor, having lost patience, had sent home for another wig, and never after could be prevailed on to accept of this, which had been so much disgraced. That, _enfin_, his valet, to whom the monkey belonged, had, ever since that adventure, obliged the culprit by way of punishment to sit quietly, for an hour every morning, with the periwig on his head.--Et pendant ces moments de tranquillité je suis honoré de la société du venerable personage. Then, addressing himself to the monkey, "Adieu, mon ami, pour aujourdhui--au plaisir de vous revoir;" and the servant immediately carried Monsieur le Médicin out of the room.[17] This is a most characteristic bit, which could scarcely have occurred out of France, where monkeys and dogs are petted as we never saw them petted elsewhere. These things were so when we knew Paris under Louis-Philippe. Frenchmen, surely, have not much changed under Louis Napoleon. THE MANDRILL AND GEORGE THE FOURTH. One of the attractive sights of Mr Cross's menagerie, some forty years or so ago, was a full-grown baboon, to which had been given the name of "Happy Jerry." He was conspicuous from the finely-coloured rib-like ridges on each side of his cheeks, the clear blue and scarlet hue of which, on such a hideous long face and muzzle, with its small, deeply-sunk malicious eyes, and projecting brow and cheeks, seemed almost as if beauty and bestiality were here combined. But Jerry had a habit which would have made Father Matthew loathe him and those who encouraged him. He had been taught to sit in an armchair and to drink porter out of a pot, like a thirsty brickmaker; and, as an addition to his accomplishments, he could also smoke a pipe, like a trained pupil of Sir Walter Raleigh. This rib-nosed baboon, or mandrill, as he is often called, obtained great renown; and among other distinguished personages who wished to see him was his late majesty King George the Fourth. As that king seldom during his reign frequented places of public resort, Mr Cross was invited to bring Jerry to Windsor or Brighton, to display the talents of his redoubtable baboon. I have heard Mr Cross say, that the king placed his hands on the arm of one of the ladies of the Court, at which Jerry began to show such unmistakable signs of ferocity, that the mild, kind menagerist was glad to get Jerry removed, or at least the king and his courtiers to withdraw. He showed his great teeth and grinned and growled, as a baboon in a rage is apt to do. Jerry was a powerful beast, especially in his fore-legs or arms. When he died, Mr Cross presented his skin to the British Museum, where it has been long preserved. The mandrill is a native of West Africa, where he is much dreaded by the negroes. In Cross's menagerie at Walworth, nearly twenty years ago, there was generally a fine mandrill. We remember the sulky ferocity of that restless eye. How angry the mild menagerist used to be at the ladies in the monkey-room with their parasols! These appendages were the feelers with which some of the softer sex used to touch Cross's monkeys, and, as the old gentleman used to insist, helped to kill them. Parasols were freely used to touch the boas and other snakes feeding in the same warm room. No doubt a boa-constrictor could not live comfortably if his soft, muscular sides got fifty pokes a day from as many sticks or parasols. Edward Cross, mild, gentle, gentlemanly, Prince of show-keepers, used to be very indignant at the inquisitorial desire possessed, especially by some of the fairer sex, to try the relative hardness and softness of serpents and monkeys, and other mammals and creatures. This story of the mandrill may excuse this pendant of an episode. THE YOUNG LADY'S PET MONKEY AND HER PARROT. Horace Walpole tells an anecdote of a fine young French lady, a Madame de Choiseul. She longed for a parrot that should be a miracle of eloquence. A parrot was soon found for her in Paris. She also became enamoured of General Jacko, a celebrated monkey, at Astley's. But the possessor was so exorbitant in his demand for Jacko, that the General did not change proprietors. Another monkey was soon heard of, who had been brought up by a cook in a kitchen, where he had learned to pluck fowls with inimitable dexterity. This accomplished pet was bought and presented to Madame, who accepted him. The first time she went out, the two animals were locked up in her bed-chamber. When the lady returned, the monkey was alone to be seen. Search, was made for Pretty Poll, and to her horror she was found at last under bed, shivering and cowering, and without a feather. It seems that the two pets had been presented by rival lovers of Madame. Poll's presenter concluded that his rival had given the monkey with that very view, challenged him; they fought, and both were wounded: and a heroic adventure it was![18] MONKEYS POOR RELATIONS. One of Luttrell's sayings, recorded by Sydney Smith, was,-- "I hate the sight of monkeys, they remind me so of poor relations." Here follows a fine passage of Sydney Smith, which he might have written after hearing the lectures of Professor Huxley.[19] "I confess I feel myself so much at my ease about the superiority of mankind,--I have such a marked and decided contempt for the understanding of every baboon I have yet seen,--I feel so sure that the blue ape without a tail will never rival us in poetry, painting, and music,--that I see no reason whatever why justice may not be done to the few fragments of soul, and tatters of understanding, which they may really possess. I have sometimes, perhaps, felt a little uneasy at Exeter 'Change, from contrasting the monkeys with the 'prentice boys who are teasing them; but a few pages of Locke, or a few lines of Milton, have always restored my tranquillity, and convinced me that the superiority of man had nothing to fear."[20] MRS COLIN MACKENZIE OBSERVES APES AT SIMLA.[21] The monkey she alludes to seems to be the _Semnopithecus Entellus_, a black-faced, light-haired monkey, with long legs and tail, much venerated by the Hindoos. "Mrs L. and I were very much amused, early this morning (July 5), by watching numbers of huge apes, the size of human beings, with white hair all round their faces, and down their backs and chests, who were disporting themselves and feeding on the green leaves, on the sides of the precipice close to the house. Many of them had one or two little ones--the most amusing, indefatigable little creatures imaginable--who were incessantly running up small trees, jumping down again, and performing all sorts of antics, till one felt quite wearied with their perpetual activity. When the mother wished to fly, she clutched the little one under her arm, where, clinging round her body with all its arms, it remained in safety, while she made leaps of from thirty to forty feet, and ran at a most astonishing rate down the khad, catching at any tree or twig that offered itself to any one of her four arms. There were two old grave apes of enormous size sitting together on the branch of a tree, and deliberately catching the fleas in each other's shaggy coats. The patient sat perfectly still, while his brother ape divided and thoroughly searched his beard and hair, lifted up one arm and then the other, and turned him round as he thought fit; and then the patient undertook to perform the same office for his friend." THE AYE-AYE (_Chiromys Madagascariensis_). Zoologists used to know a very curious animal from Madagascar, by name, or by an indifferent specimen preserved in the Paris Museum. Sonnerat, the naturalist, obtained it from that great island so well known to geographical boys in former days by its being, so they were told, the largest island in the world. This strange quadruped was named by a word which meant "handed-mouse," for such is the signification of _chiromys_, or _cheiromys_, as it used to be spelled. This creature, when its history was better known, was believed to be not far removed in the system from the lemurs and loris. Its soft fur, long tail, large eyes, and other features and habits connected it with these quadrumana, while its rodent dentition seemed to refer it to the group containing our squirrels, hares, and mice. It has been the subject of a profound memoir by Professor Owen, our greatest comparative anatomist; and I remember, with pleasure, the last time I saw him at the Museum he was engaged in its dissection. I may here refer to one of the Professor's lighter productions--a lecture at Exeter Hall on some instances of the "power of God as manifested in His animal creation"--for a very nice notice of this curious quadruped. In one of the French journals, there was an excellent account given of the peculiar habits of the little nocturnal creature. In those tropical countries the trees are tenanted by countless varieties of created things. Their wood affords rich feeding to the large, fat, pulpy grubs of beetles of the families _Buprestidæ_, _Dynastidæ_, _Passalidæ_, and, above all, that glorious group the _Longicornia_. These beetles worm their way into the wood, making often long tunnels, feeding as they work, and leaving their _ejecta_ in the shape of agglomerated sawdust. It is into the long holes drilled by these beetles that the Aye-Aye searches with his long fingers, one of which, on the fore-hand, is specially thin, slender, and skeleton-like. It looks like the tool of some lock-picker. Our large-eyed little friend, like the burglar, comes out at night and finds these holes on the trees where he slept during the day. His sensitive thin ears, made to hear every scratch, can detect the rasping of the retired grub, feasting in apparent security below. Naturalists sometimes hear at night, so Samouelle once told me, the grubs of moths munching the dewy leaves. Our aye-aye is no collector, but he has eyes, ears, and fingers too, that see, hear, and get larvæ that, when grown and changed into beetles, are the valued prizes of entomologists. Into that tunnelled hole he inserts his long finger, and squash it goes into a large, pulpy, fat, sweet grub. It takes but a moment to draw it out; and if it be a pupa near the bark, so much the better for the aye-aye, so much the worse for the beetle or cossus. I might dilate on this subject, but prefer referring the reader to Professor Owen's memoir, and to his lecture.[22] The aye-aye, in every point of its structure, like every created thing, is full of design. Its curious fingers, especially the skeleton-like chopstick of a digit referred to, attract especial notice, from their evident adaptation to the condition of its situation and existence, as one of the works of an omnipotent and beneficent Creator. FOOTNOTES: [6] The Durian, a peculiarly favourite fruit in several of the Eastern Islands. [7] Mr Wolf's drawing was taken from a chimpanzee. Mr Waterton's young chimpanzee was in reality a small-eared gorilla. The ears of the chimpanzee are large. [8] Written in 1861. Skins and skeletons of the gorilla are to be found now in many museums. [9] For Jan. 1860, vol. iii., p. 177. [10] Monkeys are very liable to lung diseases in this climate, and all menagerie keepers are aware of the bad effects of the winter on these denizens of a warm climate. [11] See "Lives of the Lindsays," by Lord Lindsay, vol. iii., pp. 371-476. [12] At Paradise. She describes some plants, one, evidently a Stapelia, is a fine large star-plant, yellow and spotted like the skin of a leopard, over which there grows a crop of glossy brown hair, at once handsome and horrible; it crawls flat on the ground, and its leaves are thick and fat (p. 407). [13] "Conversations of Lord Byron" (p. 9). [14] _Loc. cit._ (p. 1). [15] "Works of Professor Wilson," vol. i., p. 73. [16] Gilpin's "Forest Scenery," edited by Sir T. D. Lauder, vol. i., p. 354. [17] "View of Society and Manners in Italy," vol. ii., p. 475. [18] Extracted from the late Mr Cunningham's complete edition; we neglected to quote the page, and have altered and shortened the words. [19] "Memoirs of Rev. Sydney Smith," i., p. 377. [20] "Wit and Wisdom of Rev. Sydney Smith" (it is from a lecture at the Royal Institution), p. 259. [21] "Life in the Mission, the Camp, and the Zenánà; or, Six Years in India," by Mrs Colin Mackenzie, vol. ii., p. 126. [22] Published by James Nisbet & Co., in 1863, 1864. BATS. A highly curious, if not the strangest, order of the class are these flying creatures called bats. It is evident from Noel Paton's fairy pictures that he has closely studied their often fantastic faces. The writer could commend to his attention an African bat, lately figured by his friend Mr Murray.[23] Its enormous head, or rather muzzle, compared with its other parts, gives it an outrageously hideous look. In the late excellent Dr Horsfield's work on the animals of Java, there are some engravings of bats by Mr Taylor, who acquired among engravers the title of "Bat Taylor," so wonderfully has he rendered the exquisite pileage or fur of these creatures. It is wonderful how numerous the researches of naturalists, such as Mr Tomes, of Welford, near Stratford, have shown the order _Cheiroptera_ to be in genera and species. Their profiles and full faces, even in outline, are often most bizarre and strange. Their interfemoral membranes, we may add, are actual "unreticulated" nets, with which they catch and detain flies as they skim through the air. They pick these out of this bag with their mouths, and "make no bones" of any prey, so sharp and pointed are their pretty insectivorous teeth. Their flying membranes, stretched on the elongated finger-bones of their fore-legs, are wonderful adaptations of Divine wisdom, a capital subject for the natural theologian to select. Our poet-laureate must be a close observer of natural history. In his "In Memoriam," xciv., he distinctly alludes to some very curious West African bats first described by the late amiable Edward T. Bennett, long the much-valued secretary of the Zoological Society. These bats are closely related to the fox bats, and form a genus which is named, from their shoulder and breast appendages, _Epomophorus_:-- "Bats went round in fragrant skies, And wheel'd or lit the filmy shapes That haunt the dusk, with ermine capes, And woolly breasts and beaded eyes." The species Mr Bennett named _E. Whitei_, after the good Rev. Gilbert White, that well-known worthy who wrote "The Natural History of Selborne," wherein are many notices of bats. CAPTAIN COOK'S SAILOR AND HIS DESCRIPTION OF A FOX-BAT. It is curious, now that Australia is almost as civilised, and in parts nearly as populous, as much of Europe, to read "Lieutenant Cook's Voyage Round the World," in vol. iii. of Hawkesworth's quartos, detailing the discoveries of June, July, and August 1770--that is close upon a century ago. What progress has the world made since that period! We do not require long periods of ages to alter, to adapt, to develop the customs and knowledge of man. At p. 156 we get an account of a large bat. On the 23d June 1770 Cook says:--"This day almost everybody had seen the animal which the pigeon-shooters had brought an account of the day before; and one of the seamen, who had been rambling in the woods, told us, at his return, that he verily believed he had seen the devil. We naturally inquired in what form he had appeared, and his answer was in so singular a style that I shall set down his own words. 'He was,' says John, 'as large as a one-gallon keg, and very like it; he had horns and wings, yet he crept so slowly through the grass, that if I had not been _afeared_ I might have touched him.' This formidable apparition we afterwards discovered to have been a bat, and the bats here must be acknowledged to have a frightful appearance, for they are nearly black, and full as large as a partridge; they have indeed no horns, but the fancy of a man who thought he saw the devil might easily supply that defect." * * * * * Having seen some of the very curious fox-bats alive, and given some condensed information about them in Dr Hamilton's series of volumes called "Excelsior," the writer may extract the account, with some slight additions, especially as the article is illustrated with a truly admirable figure of a fox-bat, from a living specimen by Mr Wolf. In Sir Emerson Tennent's "Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon," p. 14, Mr Wolf has represented a whole colony of the "flying-foxes," as they are called. [Illustration: Flying Fox. (Pteropus ruficollis.)] FOX-BATS (_Pteropus_). In this country that bat is deemed a large one whose wings, when measured from tip to tip, exceed twelve inches, or whose body is above that of a small mouse in bulk. In some parts of the world, however, there are members of this well-marked family, the wings of which, when stretched and measured from one extremity to the other, are five feet and upwards in extent, and their bodies large in proportion. These are the fox-bats, a pair of which were lately procured for the Zoological Gardens. It is from one of this pair that the very characteristic figure of Mr Wolf has been derived.[24] There is something very odd in the appearance of such an animal, suspended as it is during the day head downwards, in a position the very sight of which suggests to the looker-on ideas of nightmare and apoplexy. As the head peers out from the membrane, contracted about the body and investing it as in a bag, and the strange creature chews a piece of apple presented by its keeper, the least curious observer must be struck with the peculiarity of the position, and cannot fail to admire the velvety softness and great elasticity of the membrane which forms its wings. It must have been from an exaggerated account of the fox-bats of the Eastern Islands that the ancients derived their ideas of the dreaded Harpies, those fabulous winged monsters sent out by the relentless Juno, and whose names are synonymous with rapine and cruelty. Some of these bats, before they were thoroughly known, frightened British sailors not a little when they met with them. We have given an anecdote, illustrative of this, in a preceding page. Dr Forster, who accompanied Captain Cook on the voyage round the world from 1772 to 1775, observed fox-bats at the Friendly Islands, where they were seen in large groups of hundreds. Our traveller even notices that some of them flew about the whole day, doubtless from being disturbed by the wandering crews of the British discovery ships. He saw a Casuarina tree of large size, the branches of which were festooned with at least five hundred of these pendent Cheiroptera in various attitudes of ease, according to the habits and notions of the bat tribes, who can hang either by the hind or by the fore-feet. He noticed that they skimmed over the water with wonderful facility, and he saw one in the act of swimming, though he cannot say that it did so with either ease or expertness; they are known, however, to frequent the water in order to wash themselves from any impurities on their fur and wings, as well as to get rid of the vermin which may be infesting them. Captain Lort Stokes found the red-necked species to be very abundant, during his survey of the north coast of Australia in H.M.S. _Beagle_. As the boats were engaged in the survey, flights of these bats kept hovering over them, uttering a disagreeable screeching noise and filling the air with a faint mildewy odour, far from agreeable to the smell. The sailors gave these bats the name of "monkey-birds," without being aware that naturalists in their system consider them as following closely the order which contains these four-handed lovers of trees. Captain Stokes observes that the leathern wings have a singular heavy flap, and that a flight of bats would suddenly alight on a bamboo and bend it to the ground with their weight. Each individual struggles on alighting to settle on the same spot, and like rooks or men in similar circumstances, they do not succeed in fixing themselves without making a great deal of noise. When first they clung to the bamboo, they did so by means of the claw on the outer edge of the flying membrane, and then they gradually settled. Among the wild and varied scenery of those groups of islands called the Friendly Islands, the Feejees, and the Navigators, species of fox-bat form one of the characteristics of the place to the observant eye; while, if the traveller should happen to be blind, their presence among the otherwise fragrant forests would be readily perceived from the strong odour which taints the atmosphere, and which, says the Naturalist of the United States Exploring Expedition, "will always be remembered by persons who have visited the regions inhabited by these animals." Mr Titian Peale mentions that a specimen of the fox-bat was kept in Philadelphia for several years; and like most creatures, winged as well as wingless, was amiable to those persons who were constantly near it, while it showed clearly and unmistakably its dislike to strangers. On its voyage, this strange passenger was fed on boiled rice, sweetened with sugar; while at the Museum, it was solaced and fed during its captivity chiefly on fruit, and now and then appeared to enjoy the picking from the bones of a boiled fowl. The fox-bat is but seldom brought alive to this country. The late Mr Cross of the Surrey Zoological Gardens kept one for a short time, and deemed it one of his greatest rarities; and, till the arrival lately of the pair alluded to at the Gardens in the Regent's Park, we have not heard of other specimens having been exhibited in this country. They are difficult to keep, and seem to feel very sensibly the changes of our climate, while it is a hard thing to get for them the food on which they live when in a state of liberty. Mr Macgillivray discovered a new species of fox-bat on Fitzroy Island, off the coast of Australia, when he was naturalist of H.M.S. _Rattlesnake_.[25] He fell in with this large fruit-eating bat (_Pteropus conspicillatus_) on the wooded slope of a hill. They were in prodigious numbers, and presented the appearance, as they flew along in the bright sunshine, of a large flock of rooks. As they were approached, a strong musky odour became apparent, and a loud incessant chattering was heard. He describes the branches of some of the trees as bending beneath the loads of bats which clung to them. Some of these were in a state of inactivity, sleeping or composing themselves to sleep, while many specimens scrambled along among the boughs and took to flight on being disturbed. He shot several specimens, three or four at a time, as they hung in clusters. Unless they were killed outright, they continued suspended for some time; when wounded they are difficult to handle, as they bite severely, and at such times their cry resembles somewhat the squalling of a child. The flesh of these bats is described to be excellent, and no wonder, when they feed on the sweetest fruits; the natives regard it as nutritious food, and travellers in Australia, like the adventurous Leichhardt on his journey to Port Essington, sometimes are furnished with a welcome meal from the fruit-eating fox-bats which fall in their way. Even the polished French, in the Isle of Bourbon, as they used to call the Mauritius, sometimes stewed a Pteropus, in their _bouillon_ or broth to give it a relish. Travellers observe that in a state of nature the fox-bats only eat the ripest and the best fruit, and in their search for it they climb with great facility along the under side of the branches. In Java, as Dr Horsfield observes, these creatures, from their numbers and fruit-eating propensities, occasion incalculable mischief, as they attack every kind that grows there, from the cocoa-nut to the rarer and more delicate productions, which are cultivated with care in the gardens of princes and persons of rank. The doctor observes, that "delicate fruits, as they approach to maturity, are ingeniously secured by means of a loose net or basket, skilfully constructed of split bamboo. Without this precaution little valuable fruit would escape the ravages of the kalong." We have mentioned that the fox-bats are occasionally eaten in Australia. Colonel Sykes alludes to the native Portuguese in Western India eating the flesh of another species of Pteropus; and it would seem that but for prejudice, their flesh, like that of the young of the South American monkeys, is extremely delicate; the colonel says, writing of the _Pteropus medius_, a species found in India, "I can personally testify that their flesh is delicate and without disagreeable flavour." The Javanese fox-bat occasionally affords amusement to the colonists as well as natives, who chase it, according to Dr Horsfield, "during the moonlight nights, which, in the latitude of Java, are uncommonly serene. He is watched in his descent to the fruit-trees, and a discharge of small shot readily brings him to the ground. By this means I frequently obtained four or five individuals in the course of an hour." The natives of New Caledonia, according to Dr Forster, use the hair of these great bats in ropes, and in the tassels to their clubs, while they interweave the hair among the threads of the _Cyperus squarrosus_, a grassy-looking plant which they employ for that purpose. William Dampier,[26] in 1687, observed the habits of a fox-bat on one of the Philippine Islands, though he has exaggerated its size when he judged "that the wings stretched out in length, could not be less asunder than seven or eight foot from tip to tip." He records that "in the evening, as soon as the sun was set, these creatures would begin to take their flight from this island in swarms like bees, directing their flight over to the main island. Thus we should see them rising up from the island till night hindered our sight; and in the morning, as soon as it was light, we should see them returning again like a cloud to the small island till sunrising. This course they kept constantly while we lay here, affording us every morning and evening an hour's diversion in gazing at them and talking about them." Dr Horsfield describes the species, which is abundant in the lower parts of Java, as having the same habit. During the day it retreats to the branches of a tree of the genus _Ficus_, where it passes the greater portion of the day in sleep, "hanging motionless, ranged in succession, and often in close contact, they have little resemblance to living beings, and by a person not accustomed to their economy, are readily mistaken for a part of the tree, or for a fruit of uncommon size suspended from its branches." The doctor describes their society as being generally silent during the day, except when a contention arises among them to get out of the influence of the sun, when they utter a sharp piercing shriek. Their claws are so sharp, and their attachment is consequently so strong, that they cannot readily leave their hold without the assistance of their wings, and if shot when in this position, they remain suspended. DR MAYERNE AND HIS BALSAM OF BATS. Dr Mayerne, a learned English physician, who died, aged eighty-two, in 1655, showed by his prescriptions that his enlightenment was not more than that of the prevailing ignorance of the period. The chief ingredient in his gout-powder was "raspings of a human skull unburied;" "but," writes Mr Jeaffreson,[27] "his sweetest compound was his 'balsam of bats,' strongly recommended as an unguent for hypochondriacal persons, into which entered adders, bats, sucking whelps, earth-worms, hogs' grease, the marrow of a stag, and the thigh-bone of an ox." No doubt the doctor imagined that a combination of the virulence, flightiness, swiftness, strength, and other qualities of all these animals would in some mysterious way be communicated to his melancholy patient; and, indeed, by acting on the imagination of such persons a favourable direction is given to their thoughts, and in this way their severe malady may at times have been removed. FOOTNOTES: [23] Illustrated Proceedings of Zoological Society. [24] This was written some years ago; but I was glad to see when last in the Zoological Gardens, June 1866, another live specimen of a species of fox bat. [25] "Narrative of the Voyage," i., p. 96 (1852). [26] "New Voyage round the World" (1698), p. 381. [27] "A Book about Doctors," by J. Cordy Jeaffreson, i., p. 23. HEDGEHOG. This well-armed genus of insect-eating quadruped has sometimes given to describing zoologists, at least so it is said, an opportunity of paying a sly compliment, concealing an allusion to the _touchy_ or supposed irritable disposition of the party after whom the species has been named. When Southey wrote the following paragraph, he happily expressed what is too commonly the meaning and wish of critics and criticised. If my readers look into any system of mammalia of recent date, under the article _Erinaceus_, he will see one or more instances of concealed allusions to touchiness of disposition in the persons of the naturalists, _honoured_ by the seeming compliment. The hedgehog is itself a very useful and very harmless quadruped. It is of great use in a garden, and also in a kitchen frequented by crickets or black-beetles. Its food is chiefly grubs, insects, worms, and such like. The creature is easily tamed, and becomes a lovable and not a touchy pet. It is eminently nocturnal. SOUTHEY AND HIS CRITICS. Robert Southey ("Common-Place Book," 4th series, p.44) writes:-- "I intend to be a hedgehog, and roll myself up in my own prickles: all I regret is that I am not a porcupine, and endowed with the property of shooting them to annoy the beasts who come near enough to annoy me." MOLE. This is perhaps the most remarkable of all our quadrupeds. Its subterranean haunts and curious aptitudes for a life below the surface of the ground are peculiarly worthy of study. The little hillocks it turns up in its excavations are noticed by every one. Its pursuit of worms and grubs, its nest, its soft plush-like fur, the pointed nose, the strong digging fore-feet, the small all but hidden eyes, and hundreds of other properties, render it a noticeable creature. The following passage from Lord Macaulay's latest writings, although rather long, may interest some in the story of this curious creature:-- THE MOLE AND KING WILLIAM. "A fly, if it had God's message, could choke a king."[28] I never knew till the 9th January 1862, when reading vol. v. of Macaulay's England, that a horse, stumbling on a mole-hill, was the immediate cause of the death of the great William III. Lady Trevelyan, the sister of Macaulay, published vol. v. of her brother's work, and added an account of the death of the illustrious Dutchman, who did so much for our religious and civil liberties. The historian was very partial to William, and the account of that monarch's last days is Macaulay's last finished piece: it is here quoted in full from the history:[29]-- "Meanwhile reports about the state of the king's health were constantly becoming more and more alarming. His medical advisers, both English and Dutch, were at the end of their resources. He had consulted by letter all the most eminent physicians of Europe; and, as he was apprehensive that they might return flattering answers if they knew who he was, he had written under feigned names. To Fagon he had described himself as a parish priest. Fagon replied, somewhat bluntly, that such symptoms could have only one meaning, and that the only advice which he had to give to the sick man was to prepare himself for death. Having obtained this plain answer, William consulted Fagon again without disguise, and obtained some prescriptions which were thought to have a little retarded the approach of the inevitable hour. But the great king's days were numbered. Headaches and shivering fits returned on him almost daily. He still rode, and even hunted; but he had no longer that firm seat, or that perfect command of the bridle, for which he had once been renowned. Still all his care was for the future. The filial respect and tenderness of Albemarle had been almost a necessary of life to him. But it was of importance that Heinsius should be fully informed both as to the whole plan of the next campaign, and as to the state of the preparations. Albemarle was in full possession of the king's views on these subjects. He was therefore sent to the Hague. Heinsius was at that time suffering from indisposition, which was indeed a trifle when compared with the maladies under which William was sinking. But in the nature of William there was none of that selfishness which is the too common vice of invalids. On the 20th of February he sent to Heinsius a letter, in which he did not even allude to his own sufferings and infirmities. 'I am,' he said, 'infinitely concerned to learn that your health is not yet quite re-established. May God be pleased to grant you a speedy recovery. I am unalterably your good friend, WILLIAM.' These were the last lines of that long correspondence. "On the 20th of February, William was ambling on a favourite horse named Sorrel through the park of Hampton Court. He urged his horse to strike into a gallop just at the spot where a mole had been at work. Sorrel stumbled on the mole-hill, and went down on his knees. The king fell off, and broke his collar-bone. The bone was set, and he returned to Kensington in his coach. The jolting of the rough roads of that time made it necessary to reduce the fracture again. To a young and vigorous man such an accident would have been a trifle; but the frame of William was not in a condition to bear even the slightest shock. He felt that his time was short, and grieved, with a grief such as only noble spirits feel, to think that he must leave his work but half finished. It was possible that he might still live until one of his plans should be carried into execution. He had long known that the relation in which England and Scotland stood to each other was at best precarious, and often unfriendly, and that it might be doubted whether, in an estimate of the British power, the resources of the smaller country ought not to be deducted from those of the larger. Recent events had proved that without doubt the two kingdoms could not possibly continue for another year to be on the terms on which they had been during the preceding century, and that there must be between them either absolute union or deadly enmity. Their enmity would bring frightful calamities, not on themselves alone, but on all the civilised world. Their union would be the best security for the prosperity of both, for the internal tranquillity of the island, for the just balance of power among European states, and for the immunities of all Protestant countries. On the 28th of February, the Commons listened, with uncovered heads, to the last message that bore William's sign-manual. An unhappy accident, he told them, had forced him to make to them in writing a communication which he would gladly have made from the throne. He had, in the first year of his reign, expressed his desire to see a union accomplished between England and Scotland. He was convinced that nothing could more conduce to the safety and happiness of both. He should think it his peculiar felicity if, before the close of his reign, some happy expedient could be devised for making the two kingdoms one; and he, in the most earnest manner, recommended the question to the consideration of the Houses. It was resolved that the message should be taken into consideration on Saturday the 7th of March. "But, on the 1st of March, humours of menacing appearance showed themselves in the king's knee. On the 4th of March he was attacked by fever; on the 5th, his strength failed greatly; and on the 6th he was scarcely kept alive by cordials. The Abjuration Bill and a money bill were awaiting his assent. That assent he felt that he should not be able to give in person. He therefore ordered a commission to be prepared for his signature. His hand was now too weak to form the letters of his name, and it was suggested that a stamp should be prepared. On the 7th of March the stamp was ready. The Lord Keeper and the Clerks of the Parliament came, according to usage, to witness the signing of the commission. But they were detained some hours in the ante-chamber while he was in one of the paroxysms of his malady. Meanwhile the Houses were sitting. It was Saturday the 7th, the day on which the Commons had resolved to take into consideration the question of the union with Scotland. But that subject was not mentioned. It was known that the king had but a few hours to live; and the members asked each other anxiously whether it was likely that the Abjuration and money bills would be passed before he died. After sitting long in the expectation of a message, the Commons adjourned till six in the afternoon. By that time William had recovered himself sufficiently to put the stamp on the parchment which authorised his commissioners to act for him. In the evening, when the Houses had assembled, Black Rod knocked. The Commons were summoned to the bar of the Lords; the commission was read, the Abjuration Bill and the Malt Bill became law, and both Houses adjourned till nine o'clock in the morning of the following day. The following day was Sunday. But there was little chance that William would live through the night. It was of the highest importance that, within the shortest possible time after his decease, the successor designated by the Bill of Rights and the Act of Succession should receive the homage of the Estates of the Realm, and be publicly proclaimed in the Council: and the most rigid Pharisee in the Society for the Reformation of Manners could hardly deny that it was lawful to save the state, even on the Sabbath. "The king meanwhile was sinking fast. Albemarle had arrived at Kensington from the Hague, exhausted by rapid travelling. His master kindly bade him go to rest for some hours, and then summoned him to make his report. That report was in all respects satisfactory. The States General were in the best temper; the troops, the provisions, and the magazines were in the best order. Everything was in readiness for an early campaign. William received the intelligence with the calmness of a man whose work was done. He was under no illusion as to his danger. 'I am fast drawing,' he said, 'to my end.' His end was worthy of his life. His intellect was not for a moment clouded. His fortitude was the more admirable because he was not willing to die. He had very lately said to one of those whom he most loved, 'You know that I never feared death; there have been times when I should have wished it, but, now that this great new prospect is opening before me, I do wish to stay here a little longer.' Yet no weakness, no querulousness disgraced the noble close of that noble career. To the physicians the king returned his thanks graciously and gently. 'I know that you have done all that skill and learning could do for me, but the case is beyond your art; and I submit.' From the words which escaped him he seemed to be frequently engaged in mental prayer. Burnet and Tenison remained many hours in the sick-room. He professed to them his firm belief in the truth of the Christian religion, and received the sacrament from their hands with great seriousness. The antechambers were crowded all night with lords and privy-councillors. He ordered several of them to be called in, and exerted himself to take leave of them with a few kind and cheerful words. Among the English who were admitted to his bedside were Devonshire and Ormond. But there were in the crowd those who felt as no Englishman could feel, friends of his youth, who had been true to him, and to whom he had been true, through all vicissitudes of fortune; who had served him with unalterable fidelity when his Secretaries of State, his Treasury, and his Admiralty had betrayed him; who had never on any field of battle, or in an atmosphere tainted with loathsome and deadly disease, shrunk from placing their own lives in jeopardy to save his, and whose truth he had at the cost of his own popularity rewarded with bounteous munificence. He strained his feeble voice to thank Auverquerque for the affectionate and loyal services of thirty years. To Albemarle he gave the keys of his closet and of his private drawers. 'You know,' he said, 'what to do with them.' By this time he could scarcely respire. 'Can this,' he said to the physicians, 'last long?' He was told that the end was approaching. He swallowed a cordial, and asked for Bentinck. Those were his last articulate words. Bentinck instantly came to the bedside, bent down, and placed his ear close to the king's mouth. The lips of the dying man moved, but nothing could be heard. The king took the hand of his earliest friend, and pressed it tenderly to his heart. In that moment, no doubt, all that had cast a slight passing cloud over their long and pure friendship was forgotten. It was now between seven and eight in the morning. He closed his eyes, and gasped for breath. The bishops knelt down and read the commendatory prayer. When it ended William was no more!" It was assuredly the stumbling of his horse against a mole-hill that led more immediately to the death of this great monarch. It is but one link in the chain of many providences affecting his life. We all remember the schoolboy ditty-- "For want of a nail the shoe was lost; For want of a shoe the rider was lost; For want of the rider the battle was lost; For want of the battle the kingdom was lost." How much the death of King William retarded progress in Great Britain can never be judged or determined. His appointed hour had come. It was no bullet with its billet on the banks of the Boyne that laid the Dutchman low, but the cast-up earth of a specimen of a little insectivorous quadruped called the mole, which laid him on that bed from which he never arose. FOOTNOTES: [28] Jeremy Taylor, if I remember aright. [29] Vol. V., pp. 305-310. BEARS. A most comfortably clad set of plantigrade creatures, as fond, most of them, of fruits as they are of flesh. No creatures are more amusing in zoological gardens to children, who wonder at their climbing powers. Who is so heartless as not to have pitied the roving polar bear, caged, on a sultry July day, in a small paddock with a puddle, and wandering about restlessly in his few feet of ground, as the well-dressed mob lounged to hear the military band performing in the Regent's Park Zoological Gardens? Even young bears have an _adult_ kind of look about them. The writer remembers the manner of one, disappointed at its bread sap, most of the milk of which had been absorbed. A little girl standing by, not two years old, perfectly understood what the little creature was searching for, and, looking up, said "milka," or something closely resembling it. We recently saw a little brown bear, on board a Russian ship at Leith. He acted as a capital guard. The little creature had a grown-up face, more easily observed than described. Bear hams, we speak from rare experience, are truly excellent. Bears, in our early London days, were kept by many hairdressers and perfumers. The anecdote or passage from Dickens's "Humphrey's Clock" is very characteristic. In one of Wilkie's pictures the brown bear is figured on its way with its owners to the parish beadle's "house of detention." We remember the very bear and its owners. A fine chapter might be written on the animals that used to be led about the country by wandering foreigners. Our first sight of guinea-pigs, our first view of the black-bellied hamster, our first sight of the camel and dromedary, with a monkey on his neck, and our first bear, were seen in this way. Boys and girls in those days seldom saw menageries. A muzzled bear on its hind legs in Nicolson Street, or at the Sciennes, was an exotic sight seldom witnessed, and not easily forgotten. The last we saw was in Bernard Street, Leith, in 1869. That very day, the police were hunting for Bruin and its leaders all over Edinburgh. Bears are now debarred from parading our streets. AN AUSTRIAN GENERAL AND A BEAR.[30] Mr Paget was told an excellent story of a bear hunt, which took place in the mountains of Transylvania, and in the presence of the gentleman who told him the story. "General V----, the Austrian commander of the forces in this district, had come to Cronstadt to inspect the troops, and had been invited by our friend, in compliment to his rank, to join him in a bear hunt. Now, the general, though more accustomed to drilling than hunting, accepted the invitation, and appeared in due time in a cocked hat and long gray greatcoat, the uniform of an Austrian general. When they had taken up their places, the general, with half a dozen rifles arrayed before him, paid such devoted attention to a bottle of spirits he had brought with him, that he quite forgot the object of his coming. At last, however, a huge bear burst suddenly from the cover of the pine forest, directly in front of him. At that moment the bottle was raised so high that it quite obscured the general's vision, and he did not perceive the intruder till he was close upon him. Down went the bottle, up jumped the astonished soldier, and, forgetful of his guns, off he started, with the bear clutching at the tails of his greatcoat as he ran away. What strange confusion of ideas was muddling the general's intellect at the moment it is difficult to say, but I suspect he had some notion that the attack was an act of insubordination on the part of Bruin, for he called out most lustily, as he ran along, 'Back, rascal! back! I am a general!' Luckily, a poor Wallack peasant had more respect for the epaulettes than the bear, and, throwing himself in the way, with nothing but a spear for his defence, he kept the enemy at bay till our friend and the jägers came up, and finished the contest with their rifles." BYRON'S BEAR AT CAMBRIDGE. When at Trinity College, Cambridge, Lord Byron had a strange pet. He "brought up a bear for a degree." He said to Captain Medwyn,[31] "I had a great hatred of college rules, and contempt for academical honours. How many of their wranglers have ever distinguished themselves in the world? There was, by the by, rather a witty satire founded on my bear. A friend of Shelley's made an ourang-outang (Oran Hanton, Esq.) the hero of a novel ('Melincourt'), had him created a baronet, and returned for the borough of One Vote." CHARLES DICKENS ON BEARS' GREASE AND ITS PRODUCERS. Any one who has been long resident in London, or who has passed through Fenchurch Street, or Everett Street, Russell Square, must have been struck with the way in which "bears' grease" is or used to be advertised in these localities. Dickens makes Mr Samuel Weller tell of an enthusiastic tradesman of this description.[32] "His whole delight was in his trade. He spent all his money in bears, and run in debt for 'em besides, and there they wos a growling away in the front cellar all day long and ineffectually gnashing their teeth, vile the grease o' their relations and friends wos being retailed in gallipots in the shop above, and the first floor winder wos ornamented with their heads; not to speak o' the dreadful aggrawation it must have been to 'em to see a man always a walkin' up and down the pavement outside, with the portrait of a bear in his last agonies, and underneath, in large letters, 'Another fine animal was slaughtered yesterday at Jenkinson's!' Hous'ever, there they wos, and there Jenkinson wos, till he was took very ill with some inward disorder, lost the use of his legs, and wos confined to his bed, vere he laid a wery long time; but sich wos his pride in his profession even then, that wenever he wos worse than usual the doctor used to go down-stairs, and say, 'Jenkinson's wery low this mornin', we must give the bears a stir;' and as sure as ever they stirred 'em up a bit, and made 'em roar, Jenkinson opens his eyes, if he wos ever so bad, calls out, 'There's the bears!' and rewives agin." The author of a most amusing article in the seventy-seventh volume of the _Edinburgh Review_, on the modern system of advertising, records that, in his puff, the first vendor of bears' grease cautioned his customers to wash their hands in warm water after using it, to prevent them from assuming the hairy appearance of a paw. A BEARABLE PUN. An illiterate vendor of beer wrote over his door at Harrowgate, "_Bear_ sold here." "He spells the word quite correctly," said Theodore Hook, "if he means to apprise us that the article is his own _Bruin_."[33] [Illustration: Polar Bear. (Thalassarctos maritimus.)] SHAVED BEAR. Robert Southey ("Common-Place Book," 4th ser., p. 359) says:--"At Bristol I saw a shaved monkey shown for a fairy; and a shaved bear, in a check waistcoat and trousers, sitting in a great chair as an Ethiopian savage. This was the most cruel fraud I ever saw. The unnatural position of the beast, and the damnable brutality of the woman-keeper, who sat upon his knee, put her arm round his neck, called him husband and sweetheart, and kissed him, made it the most disgusting spectacle I ever witnessed. Cottle was with me." He also tells of a fellow exhibiting a dragon-fly under a magnifier at a country fair, and calling it the great High German "Heiter-Keiter." THE POLAR BEAR. (_Thalassarctos maritimus._[34]) Notwithstanding ice and snow, and the darkness of a nine months' winter, the Arctic regions are tenanted by several mammalia. Some of these are constant residents, the rest are migratory visitors. Of the former division, one of the most conspicuous, as it is certainly the most formidable, is the polar bear,--a creature between eight and nine feet in length, which, shuffling along the snow at a very quick pace, and being an excellent swimmer besides, cannot fail to inspire dread. The large wide head and fearfully armed jaws are united by a strong neck to powerful shoulders, from which spring the thick and muscular fore-legs. The paws, both of the fore and of the hind feet, are broad and admirably adapted, with their long hairy covering, to keep the polar bear from sinking in the snow. Although the creature has an appearance of clumsiness, it is the reverse of inactive. Every one who knows the boundless spaces it has to traverse, when in a state of liberty and the "monarch of all it surveys," cannot but pity it as a prisoner in the Regent's Park, where a tolerably capacious den, supplied with a bath of water of very limited dimension, affords the restless creature less liberty than a squirrel has in its round-about, or a poor lark in its cage. Voyagers to the Arctic regions describe it as wandering over the fields of ice, mounting the hummocks,[35] and looking around for prey. With outstretched head, its little but keen eye directed to the various points of a wide horizon, the polar bear looks out for seals; or scents with its quick nostrils the luscious smell of some stinking whale-blubber or half-putrid whale-flesh. Dr Scoresby relates[36] that a piece of the _kreng_ of a whale thrown into the fire drew a bear to a ship from the distance of miles. Captain Beechey mentions, that his party in 1818, as they were off the coast of Spitzbergen, by setting on fire some fat of the walrus, soon attracted a bear to their close vicinity. This polar Bruin was evidently unaccustomed to the sight of masts, and, when approaching, occasionally hesitated, and seemed half inclined to turn round and be off. So agreeable a smell as burning walrus fat dispelled all distrust, and brought him within musket-shot. On receiving the first ball, he sprang round, growled terrifically, and half raised himself on his hind-legs, as if expecting to seize the object which had caused so much pain; woe to any one who had at that moment been within reach of his merciless paws! Although a second and third ball laid him writhing on the ice, he was not mastered; and on the butt end of a musket directed at his head breaking short off, the bear quickly seized the thigh of his assailant, and, but for the immediate assistance of two or three of his shipmates, the man would have been seriously injured. In these very seas--nearly fifty years before--the hero of Trafalgar encountered this Arctic tyrant, and, when missed from his ship, was discovered with a comrade attacking a large specimen, separated from them by a chasm in the ice. On being reprimanded by his captain for his foolhardiness, "Sir," said the young middy, pouting his lips, as he used to do when excited, "I wished to kill the bear that I might carry the skin to my father."[37] Barentz, in his celebrated voyage in 1595, had two of his men killed by "a great leane white beare." In these early days, so unused were polar bears to man, that though thirty of their comrades attempted a rescue, the prey was not abandoned. The purser, "stepping somewhat farther forward, and seeing the beare to be within the length of a shot, presently levelled his peece, and discharging it at the beare, shot her into the head, betweene both the eyes, and yet shee held the man still fast by the necke, and lifted up her head with the man in her mouth, but shee beganne somewhat to stagger; wherewith the purser and a Scottishman drew out their courtlaxes (cutlasses), and stroke at her so hard, that their courtlaxes burst, and yet shee would not leave the man. At last Wm. Geysen went to them, and with all his might stroke the beare upon the snowt with his peece, at which time the beare fell to the ground, making a great noyse, and Wm. Geysen leaping upon her cut her throat. The 7th of September wee buried the dead bodies of our men in the States Island, and having fleaed the beare, carryed her skinne to Amsterdam." This is about the earliest record of an encounter with this formidable creature; sailors now find that they can be attacked with most advantage in the water. When in this element, they try to escape by swimming to the ice, and when the ice is in the form of loose and detached small floes, Dr Sutherland has seen them dive underneath, and appear on the opposite side. Scoresby records, that when shot at a distance, and able to escape, the bear has been observed to retire to the shelter of a hummock, and, as if aware of the styptical effect of cold, apply snow to the wound. In common with nearly every animal, this huge despot of the North is strongly attached to its young. Captain Inglefield, on his return home from Baffin's Bay in 1852, pursued three bears, as he was anxious to get a supply of fresh meat for his Esquimaux dogs. The trio were evidently a mother and twins. The captain was anxious to secure the cubs alive as trophies, and was cautious in shooting at the mother. All three fell, and were brought on board the _Isabel_. He records that it was quite heartrending to see the affection that existed between them. When the cubs saw their mother was wounded, they commenced licking her wounds, regardless of their own sufferings. At length the mother began to eat the snow, a sure sign that she was mortally wounded. "Even then her care for the cubs did not cease, as she kept continually turning her head from one to the other, and, though roaring with pain, she seemed to warn them to escape if possible. Their attachment was as great as hers, and I was thus obliged to destroy them all. It went much against my feelings, but the memory of my starving dogs reconciled me to the necessity." The female bear when pursued carries or pushes her cubs forwards, and the little creatures are described as placing themselves across her path to be shoved forwards. Scoresby mentions an instance where, when projected some yards in advance, the cubs ran on until she overtook them, when they alternately adjusted themselves for a second throw. It is chiefly on the seal that this bear feeds, and it displays great cunning in catching them as they sleep on the ice, or come to the holes in the ice to breathe, when it destroys them with one blow of its formidable and heavy paw. For its mode of getting the walrus we refer the reader to "Excelsior," vol. i. p. 37. Notwithstanding his strength and ferocity, the Esquimaux frequently kill the polar bear, as they esteem its flesh and fat, and highly prize its skin. The flesh is not so prized by Saxons, whether they be European or American. Dr Kane's opinion would differ but little from that of Arctic voyagers on our side of the Atlantic. The surgeon to the "Grinnell Expedition" in search of Sir John Franklin thus characterises its flesh: "Bear is strong, very strong, and withal most capricious meat; you cannot tell where to find him. One day he is quite beefy and bearable; another, hircine, hippuric, and detestable." It is but fair to say that Captain Parry[38] regards the flesh of the polar bear to be as wholesome as any other, though not quite so palatable. His men suffered from indigestion after eating it; but this he attributes to the quantity, and not to the quality, of the meat they had eaten. There seems to be little doubt that the liver is highly deleterious. Some of the sailors of Barentz, who made a meal of it, were very sick, "and we verily thought we should have lost them, for all their skins came off from the foot to the head." The skin of the bear is covered with long yellowish white hair, which, is very close, and forms a wonderful defence against the cold, and against the tusk of the animals on which it feeds. We heard of another use of this hair from an officer on one of the late Arctic searching expeditions. A bear was seen to come down a tolerably high and steep declivity by sliding down on its hinder quarters, in an attitude known, in more than one part of the British Islands, by the expressive name of "katy-hunkers;" the shaggy hair with which it was covered serving like a thick mat to protect the creature from injury. The Esquimaux prepare the skin sometimes without ripping it up, and turning the hairy side inward a warm sack-like bed is formed, into which they creep, and lie very comfortably. Otho Fabricius, in his "Fauna Grænlandica" (p. 24), informs us that the tendons are converted into sewing threads. The female bear has one or two, and sometimes three, cubs at a time. They are born in the winter, and the mother generally digs for them and for herself a snug nestling-place in the snow. The males in the winter time leave the coast, and go out on the ice-fields, to the edge of the open water after seals.--_Adam White, in "Excelsior" (with additions)._ NELSON AND THE POLAR BEAR. In 1773, Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, sailed on a voyage of discovery towards the North Pole. In this expedition sailed two Norfolk young men, one in his twenty-third year, the other a mere lad in his fifteenth year. The former sailed from a spirit of curiosity, and being sorely distressed by sea-sickness was landed in Norway. He afterwards became famous in the British Parliament, and the speeches of the Right Hon. William Windham, Secretary at War, are often referred to even now. The younger man was Horatio Nelson, cockswain under Captain Lutwidge, who was killed at the battle of Trafalgar, thirty-two years after his Polar expedition, and left a name which is synonymous with the glory of the British navy. Southey, in his admirable life,[39] records an instance of his hardihood on this expedition:--"One night, during the mid-watch, he stole from the ship with one of his comrades, taking advantage of a rising fog, and set off over the ice in pursuit of a bear. It was not long before they were missed. The fog thickened, and Captain Lutwidge and his officers became exceedingly alarmed for their safety. Between three and four in the morning the weather cleared, and the two adventurers were seen at a considerable distance from the ship attacking a huge bear. The signal for them to return was immediately made; Nelsons' comrade called upon him to obey it, but in vain; his musket had flashed in the pan; their ammunition was expended; and a chasm in the ice, which divided him from the bear, probably preserved his life. 'Never mind,' he cried; 'do but let me get a blow at this devil with the butt-end of my musket, and we shall have him.' Captain Lutwidge, however, seeing his danger, fired a gun, which had the desired effect of frightening the beast; and the boy then returned, somewhat afraid of the consequences of his trespass. The captain reprimanded him sternly for conduct so unworthy of the office which he filled, and desired to know what motive he could have for hunting a bear. 'Sir,' said he, pouting his lip, as he was wont to do when agitated, 'I wished to kill the bear, that I might carry the skin to my father.'" A CLEVER POLAR BEAR. Mr Markham,[40] when the ship _Assistance_ was in the Wellington Channel, observed several bears prowling about in search of seals. "On one occasion," he writes, "I saw a bear swimming across a lane of water, and pushing a large piece of ice before him. Landing on the floe, he advanced stealthily towards a couple of seals, which were basking in the sun at some little distance, still holding the ice in front to hide his black muzzle; but this most sagacious of bears was for once outwitted, for the seals dived into a pool of water before he could get within reach. On another occasion, a female Bruin having been shot from the deck of the _Intrepid_, her affectionate cub, an animal about the size of a large Newfoundland dog, remained resolutely by the side of its mother, and on the approach of the commander of the _Intrepid_ with part of his crew, a sort of tournament ensued, in which the youthful bear, although belaboured most savagely, showed a gallant resistance, and at length rushing between the legs of the corporal of marines, laid him prostrate on the ice, floored another man, who had seized hold of his tail, and effected his escape." CAPTAIN OMMANEY AND THE POLAR BEAR. Captain Ommaney,[41] who led one of the travelling parties in 1851 sent out from the ships under Austin in search of Franklin on the 12th of June, the day before he arrived at the ships, met with a laughable accident, although it might have had a serious termination. They had all of them but just got into their blanket bags, when a peculiar noise, as if something was rubbing up the snow, was heard outside. The gallant captain instantly divined its cause, seized, loaded, and cocked his gun, and ordered the tent door to be opened, upon which a huge bear was seen outside. Captain Ommaney fired at the animal, but, whether from the benumbed state of his limbs, or the dim glimmering light, he unfortunately missed him, and shot away the rope that supported the tent instead. The enraged monster then poked his head against the poles, and the tent fell upon its terrified inmates, and embraced them in its folds. Their confusion and dismay can more easily be imagined than described, but at length one man, with more self-possession than the rest, slipped out of his bag, scrambled from under the prostrate tent, and ran to the sledge for another gun; and it was well that he did so, for no sooner had he vacated his sleeping sack than Bruin seized it between his teeth, and shook it violently, with the evident intention of wreaking his vengeance on its inmate. He was, however, speedily despatched by a well-aimed shot from the man, the tent was repitched, and tranquillity restored. FOOTNOTES: [30] "Hungary and Transylvania," &c., by John Paget, Esq., vol. ii. p. 445. [31] "Conversations of Lord Byron," p. 72. [32] "Master Humphrey's Clock." [33] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 331 [34] [Greek: Thalassa], sea; [Greek: arktos], bear. [35] Those "Arctic hedge-rows," as Mr David Walker calls them, when, on the 30th November 1857, he was on board the Arctic yacht _Fox_, wintering in the floe-ice of Baffin's Bay. "The scene apparent on going on deck after breakfast was splendid, and unlike anything I ever saw before. The subdued light of the moon thrown over such a vast expanse of ice, in the distance the loom of a berg, or the shadow of the hummocks (the Arctic hedge-rows), the only thing to break the even surface, a few stars peeping out, as if gazing in wonder at the spectacle,--all united to render the prospect striking, and lead one to contemplate the goodness and power of the Creator." On the 2d November, they had killed a bear, which had been bayed and surrounded by their Esquimaux dogs. Captain M'Clintock shot him. He was 7 feet 3 inches long. Only one of the dogs was injured by his paws. Much did the hungry beasts enjoy their feast, for they "were regaled with the entrails, which they polished off in a very short time."--_Mr Walker, in_ _"Belfast News Letter," quoted in "Dublin Natural History Review," 1858_, p. 180. [36] "Account of Arctic Regions," i. 517. [37] The anecdote is given with more detail at p. 67. [38] "Attempt to Reach the North Pole," p. 115. [39] "Life of Nelson," by Robert Southey, Esq., LL.D., Poet Laureate, p. 11. [40] "Franklin's Footsteps," by Clement R. Markham, p. 65. [41] "Franklin's Footsteps," by Clement Robert Markham, late of H.M.S. _Assistance_, p. 93. RACCOON. A strikingly pretty, well-clad, and pleasingly coloured North American quadruped, of which many zoological anecdotes might be given. Linnæus named it _Ursu lotor_, or the Washer, from its curious habit of putting any food offered to it, at least when in confinement, into water, before attempting to eat it. "A GONE COON." An American phrase for "the last extremity," or, "it's all up." They say that a Major, or Colonel, or General Scott "down South" was notorious as a dead shot. Once on a time, when out with his gun, he espied a raccoon on a lofty tree. The poor raccoon, noticing the gun pointed at him, cried to the dead shot, "Air _you_ General Scott?"--"I air."--"Then wait, I air a comin' down, for I air _a gone coon_." BADGER. The badger, or brock, as it is called in Scotland, is yearly becoming more and more rare. In a few years, this curious and powerful member of the _feræ_, will figure, like the bear and beaver, as among the extinct quadrupeds of these islands. Naturalists will be recording that in the days of Robert Burns it must have been not at all uncommon, and not rare in those of Hugh Miller, since low dram-shops kept them for the entertainment of their guests. The Ayrshire bard makes the Newfoundland dog, Cæsar, say to his comrade Luath, the collie, when, speaking of most of the gentry of his day-- "They gang as saucy by poor folk As I wad by a stinking brock."[42] The author of "Old Red Sandstone" and "My Schools and Schoolmasters," has recorded in the latter work the history of his employment as a hewer of great stones under the branching foliage of the elm and chestnut trees of Niddry Park, near Edinburgh, and how, in the course of a strike among the masons, he marched into town with several of them to a meeting on the Links, where, conspicuous from the deep red hue of their clothes and aprons, they were cheered as a reinforcement from a distance. On adjourning, Hugh Miller, in his racy style, gives the following account of a badger-baiting more than forty years ago:-- HUGH MILLER AND THE BADGER-BAITING IN THE CANONGATE. "My comrades proposed that we should pass the time until the hour of meeting in a public-house, and, desirous of securing a glimpse of the sort of enjoyment for which they sacrificed so much, I accompanied them. Passing not a few more inviting-looking places, we entered a low tavern in the upper part of the Canongate, kept in an old half-ruinous building, which has since disappeared. We passed on through a narrow passage to a low-roofed room in the centre of the erection, into which the light of day never penetrated, and in which the gas was burning dimly in a close, sluggish atmosphere, rendered still more stifling by tobacco-smoke, and a strong smell of ardent spirits. In the middle of the crazy floor there was a trap-door, which lay open at the time; and a wild combination of sounds, in which the yelping of a dog, and a few gruff voices that seemed cheering him on, were most noticeable, rose from the apartment below. It was customary at this time for dram-shops to keep badgers housed in long narrow boxes, and for working men to keep dogs; and it was part of the ordinary sport of such places to set the dogs to unhouse the badgers. The wild sport which Scott describes in his 'Guy Mannering,' as pursued by Dandy Dinmont and his associates among the Cheviots, was extensively practised twenty-nine years ago amid the dingier haunts of the High Street and Canongate. Our party, like most others, had its dog,--a repulsive-looking brute, with an earth-directed eye; as if he carried about with him an evil conscience; and my companions were desirous of getting his earthing ability tested upon the badger of the establishment; but on summoning the tavern-keeper, we were told that the party below had got the start of us. Their dog was, as we might hear, 'just drawing the badger; and before our dog could be permitted to draw him, the poor brute would require to get an hour's rest.' I need scarce say, that the hour was spent in hard drinking in that stagnant atmosphere; and we then all descended through the trap-door, by means of a ladder, into a bare-walled dungeon, dark and damp, and where the pestiferous air smelt like that of a burial vault. The scene which followed was exceedingly repulsive and brutal,--nearly as much so as some of the scenes furnished by those otter-hunts in which the aristocracy of the country delight occasionally to indulge. Amid shouts and yells the badger, with the blood of his recent conflict still fresh upon him, was again drawn to the box-mouth; and the party returning satisfied to the apartment above, again betook themselves to hard drinking. In a short time the liquor began to tell, not first, as might be supposed, on our younger men, who were mostly tall, vigorous fellows, in the first flush of their full strength, but on a few of the middle-aged workmen, whose constitutions seemed undermined by a previous course of dissipation and debauchery. The conversation became very loud, very involved, and though highly seasoned with emphatic oaths, very insipid; and leaving with Cha--who seemed somewhat uneasy that my eye should be upon their meeting in its hour of weakness--money enough to clear off my share of the reckoning, I stole out to the King's Park, and passed an hour to better purpose among the trap rocks than I could possibly have spent it beside the trap-door of that tavern party. I am not aware that a single individual, save the writer, is now living; its very dog did not live out half his days. His owner was alarmed one morning, shortly after this time, by the intelligence that a dozen of sheep had been worried during the night on a neighbouring farm, and that a dog very like his had been seen prowling about the fold; but in order to determine the point, he would be visited, it was added, in the course of the day, by the shepherd and a law-officer. The dog meanwhile, however, conscious of guilt,--for dogs do seem to have consciences in such matters,--was nowhere to be found, though, after the lapse of nearly a week, he again appeared at the work; and his master, slipping a rope round his neck, brought him to a deserted coal-pit half-filled with water, that opened in an adjacent field, and flinging him in, left the authorities no clue by which to establish his identity with the robber and assassin of the fold."[43] THE LAIRD OF BALNAMOON AND THE BROCK. The laird, so Dean Ramsay had the story sent him, once riding past a high steep bank, stopped opposite a hole in it, and said, "John, I saw a brock gang in there."--"Did ye?" said John; "wull ye haud my horse, sir?"--"Certainly," said the laird, and away rushed John for a spade. After digging for half an hour, he came back, nigh speechless to the laird, who had regarded him musingly. "I canna find him, sir," said John.--"'Deed," said the laird, very coolly, "I wad ha' wondered if ye had, for it's ten years sin' I saw him gang in there."[44] FOOTNOTES: [42] Poems, chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, 1787, p. 14, "The Twa Dogs." FERRET. A truly blood-thirsty member of that slim-bodied but active race, the weasel tribe. He is certainly an inhabitant of a warmer climate than this, being very sensitive to cold. He is used in killing rats and _ferreting out_ rabbits, a verb indeed derived from his name. He has been known to attack sleeping infants. COLLINS AND THE RAT-CATCHERS _grip_ OF HIS FERRETS. That delightful painter of cottage life, says his son,[45] often found cottagers who gloried in being painted, and who sat like professional models, under an erroneous impression that it was for their personal beauties and perfections that their likenesses were portrayed. The remarks of these and other good people, who sat to the painter in perfect ignorance of the use or object of his labours, were often exquisitely original. He used to quote the criticism of a celebrated country rat-catcher, on the study he had made from him, with hearty triumph and delight. When asked whether he thought his portrait like, the rat-catcher, who--perhaps in virtue of his calling--was a gruff and unhesitating man, immediately declared that the face was "not a morsel like," but vowed with a great oath, that nothing could ever be equal to the correctness of the _dirt shine on his old leather breeches_, and the _grip_ that he had of _the necks of his ferrets_! FOOTNOTES: [43] "My Schools and Schoolmasters; or, The Story of my Education," by Hugh Miller, fifth edition, 1856, pp. 321-323. [44] "Reminiscences of Scottish Life and Character," tenth edition, 1864, p. 183. POLE-CAT. An equally blood-thirsty member of the weasel family, with the subject of the preceding paragraph. FOX AND THE POLE-CAT.--(POLL-CAT.[46]) Francis Grose relates the following as having happened during one of the famous Westminster elections:--"During the poll, a dead cat being thrown on the hustings, one of Sir Cecil Wray's party observed it stunk worse than a fox, to which Mr Fox replied, there was nothing extraordinary in that, considering it was a poll-cat." FOOTNOTES: [45] "Memoirs of the Life of William Collins, R.A," by his son, W. Wilkie Collins, i. p. 222. DOGS. One who seems to love the race of dogs, and who has written a most readable book on them,[47] remarks, that the dog "even now is rarely the companion of a Jew, or the inmate of his house." He quotes various terms of reproach still common among us, and which seem to have originated from a similar feeling to that of the Jew. For instance, we say of a very cheap article, that it is "dog cheap." To call a person "a dog," or "a cur," or "a hound," means something the very opposite of complimentary. A surly person is said to have "a dogged disposition." Any one very much fatigued is said to be "dog weary." A wretched room or house is often called "a dog hole," or said to be only fit for "a dog." Very poor verse is "doggerel." It is told of Lady Mary Wortley Montague, that when a young nobleman refused to translate some inscription over an alcove, because it was in "dog-latin," she observed, "How strange a puppy shouldn't understand his mother tongue." What, too, can be more expressive of a man being on the verge of ruin, than the common phrase, that "such a one is going to the dogs." Of modern describers of the very life and feelings of dogs, who can surpass Dr John Brown of Edinburgh? His "Rab," and his "Our Dogs," are worthy of the brush of Sir Edwin Landseer. Who has not heard the answer _said_ to have been given by Sydney Smith to the great painter, when he wanted to make a portrait of the witty canon, "_Is thy servant a dog, that he should do this thing?_" There is great diversity of standard in matters of taste. In China, a well-roasted pup, of any variety of the very variable _Canis familiaris_, is a dainty dish. In London the greatest exquisite delights in the taste of a half-cooked woodcock, but would scruple to eat a lady's lap-dog, even though descended, by indubitable pedigree, from a genuine "liver-and-tan" spaniel, that followed King Charles II. in his strolls through St James's Park; and which was given to her ladyship's ancestress on a day recorded, perhaps, in the diary of Mr Samuel Pepys. Again, in the country of the Esquimaux, who has not read in the intensely interesting narratives of the Moravian missionaries, how the dogs of the "Innuit"--of "the men," as they call themselves--are, in winter, indispensable to their very existence? Parry, Lyon, Franklin, Richardson, Ross, Rae, Penny, Sutherland, Inglefield, and Kane, have told us what excellent "carriage"-pullers these hardy children of the snow become from early infancy; and how the more they work, like the wives of savages in Australia, the more they are kicked. Passing over the dogs of the Indian tribes of North America and the gaunt race in Patagonia, the reader may remember that the Roman youth, like the young Briton, had, in the days of Horace, his outer marks--one was, that he loved to have a dog, or a whole pack beside him--"_gaudet canibus_." This attachment to the dog is given us "from above," and is one of the many "good gifts" which proceed from Him, who made man and dog "familiar," as the apt specific name of Linnæus denominates the latter. One of our greatly-gifted poets, in a cynical mood, could write an epitaph on a favourite Newfoundlander, and end it with the dismal lines on his views of "earthly friends"-- "He never knew but one,--and here he lies." Our genial and home-loving Cowper has made his dog Beau classical. We must beg our readers to refresh their memories, by looking into the Olney bard's exquisite story, "My spaniel, prettiest of his race, And high in pedigree," and they will find that _that_ story of "The Dog and the Water-lily" was "no fable," and that Beau really understood his master's wish when he fetched him a water-lily out of "Ouse's silent tide." How graceful are the last two stanzas of that sweet little poem-- "Charm'd with the sight, 'The world,' I cried, 'Shall hear of this thy deed; My dog shall mortify the pride Of man's superior breed. 'But chief myself I will enjoin, Awake at duty's call, To show a love as prompt as thine To Him who gives me all.'"[48] [Illustration: BEAU.] That the world might know the very "mark and figure" of this spaniel, the late able illustrator of so many topographical works (Mr James Storer) published in his "Rural Walks of Cowper"[49] a figure of Beau, from the stuffed skin in the possession of Cowper's kinsman, the Rev. Dr Johnson. Mr Montague, in a letter to the son and biographer of Sir James Mackintosh,[50] gives many reminiscences of that eminent man, who was much attached to the memory of Cowper. He says, "We reached Dereham about mid-day (it was in 1801), and wrote to Mr Johnson, the clergyman, who had protected Cowper in the last years of his life, and in whose house he died. He instantly called upon us, and we accompanied him to his house. In the hall, we were introduced to a little red and white spaniel, in a glass case--the little dog Beau, who, seeing the water-lily which Cowper could not reach, 'plunging, left the shore.'" "I saw him with that lily cropp'd, Impatient swim to meet My quick approach, and soon he dropp'd The treasure at my feet." We saw the room where Cowper died, and the bell which he last touched. We went to his grave, and to Mrs Unwin's, who is buried at some distance. I lamented this, "Do not live in the visible, but the invisible," said your father,--"his attainments, his tenderness, his affections, his sufferings, and his hardships, will live long after both their graves are no more." We could linger over a prized octavo volume, published in Edinburgh in 1787; the first poem of this, "The Twa Dogs, a Tale," occupies some thirteen pages, written with that "rare felicity" so common to _the_ Bard of Scotland. We mention it, because of the peculiar happiness with which the collie, or Scottish shepherd-dog, is described in lines that Sir Edwin Landseer alone has equalled on canvas, or his brother Thomas with the graver-- "He was a gash an' faithfu' tyke As ever lap a sheugh or dyke. His honest, sonsie, bawsn't[51] face, Aye gat him friends in ilka place. His breast was white, his touzie back Weel clad wi' coat of glossy black; His gaucie tail, wi' upward curl, Hung owre his hurdies wi' a swirl." _That's_ the shepherd-dog, as we have heard him described from a specimen, which was the friend and follower of a valued one, who, when a boy ('tis many years ago), frisked with the dog, over _one_ of the many ferny haughs that margin the lovely Tweed above and below Peebles. It is _the_ collie we have seen, on one of the sheep-farms of Lanarkshire, obey its young master by a word or two, as unintelligible to us as Japanese. But to the Culter "Luath," to hear was to obey; and in a quarter of an hour a flock of sheep, which had been feeding on a hillSide half a mile off, were brought back, driven by this faithful "bit doggie." We wonder not that shepherds love their dogs. Why, even the New Smithfield cattle-drovers, who drive sheep along the streets of London on a Monday or Friday, never even require to urge their faithful partners. Well may the gifted authoress of "The Dream" address "the faithful guardian"-- "Oh, tried and trusted! thou whose love Ne'er changes nor forsakes, Thou proof, how perfect God hath stamp'd The meanest thing He makes; Thou, whom no snare entraps to serve, No art is used to tame (Train'd, like ourselves, thy path to know, By words of love and blame); Friend! who beside the cottage door, Or in the rich man's hall, With steadfast faith still answerest The one familiar call; Well by poor hearth and lordly home Thy couchant form may rest, And Prince and Peasant trust thee still, To guard what they love best." _Hon. Mrs Norton, "The Dream," &c._, p. 192. No ordinary-sized volume, much less a short article, could give a tithe of the true anecdotes of members of the dog race. Mere references to their biography would take up a volume of Bibliography itself, just as their forms, and character, and "pose," give endless subject to the painter. Of modern authors, no one loved dogs more truly than Sir Walter Scott, as the reader of his writings and of his biography is well aware;[52] but it may not be generally known that, on the only occasion when the great novelist met the Ayrshire peasant,-- "Virgilium tantum vidi,"-- the poem, which had made Burns a wonder to the boy then "unknown," was that of "The Twa Dogs;" so that, even then, Scott had commenced to show his attachment to these faithful followers. It was in the house of Sir Adam Ferguson, when Scott was a mere lad; and the scene was described most vividly to the writer by the late Scottish knight, after whose battle in South Italy the author of "Marmion" named his pet staghound Maida, or, as Scott pronounced it, "Myda." It was as the author of "The Twa Dogs" that young Ferguson and Scott regarded Burns on his entrance into the room with such wistful attention. The story is told in Lockhart, and we will not quote it further; but, leaving dogs of our own days and lands to Mr Jesse, who has given an interesting volume on them, we will close with a few paragraphs on the dog of the East--a very differently treated animal to that generally prized and esteemed "friend" of man in these lands of the West. The Holy Scriptures show us that dogs were generally despised. We select three, out of many instances. "Is thy servant a _dog_ that he should do this thing?" was the question with which Hazael, ignorant of the deceitfulness of his own heart, indignantly replied to Elisha, when the prophet told him of the evil that he would yet do unto the children of Israel (2 Kings viii. 13). He, "who spake as never man spake," knowing the faith of the Syrophoenician woman, and giving her an opportunity of manifesting it "for our example," said, in the Syriac fashion of thought, "It is not meet to take the children's bread, and to cast it to _the dogs_" (Mark vii. 27). And the apostle John, in that wondrous close of the prophetical writings, says, "For without," _i.e._, outside of the New Jerusalem, "are _dogs_" (Rev. xxii. 5). In the East up to the present day, with but few exceptions, dogs are treated with great dislike. We might quote passages in proof from almost every Eastern traveller, and may venture to extract one from the graphic page of the Rev. W. Graham, who lived five years in Syria, and who has given some noble word-pictures of men, and streets, and scenes in Damascus and other Turkish towns. Writing of Damascus,[53] he remarks, "The dogs are considered unclean, and are never domesticated in the East. They are thin, lean, fox-like animals, and always at the starving point. They live, breed, and die in the streets. They are useful as scavengers. They are neither fondled nor persecuted, but simply tolerated; and no dog has an owner, or ever follows and accompanies a man as the sheep do. I once went out in the evening at Beyrout, with my teacher to enjoy the fresh air and talk Arabic. My little English dog, the gift of a friend, followed us. We passed through a garden, where a venerable Moslem was sitting on a stone, silently and solemnly engaged in smoking his pipe. He observed the dog _following_ us, and was astonished at it, as something new and extraordinary; and rising, and making out of the way, he cried out, 'May his father be accursed! Is that a dog or a fox?'" Again, in Damascus, should a worn-out horse, donkey, or camel die in the streets, in a few hours the dogs have devoured it; and the powerful rays of the sun dry up all corrupt matter. Mr Graham tells us that the dogs of Damascus are brown, blackish, or of an ash colour, and that he saw no white or spotted specimens. He never saw a case of hydrophobia, nor did he hear a _bark_. The dogs "howl, and make noise enough," he continues, "but the fine, well-defined _bow-wow_ is entirely wanting." With a quiet humour, he hints at the bark being a mark of the civilised, domesticated dog, and as denoting, apparently, "the refinement of canine education." We have been struck with the attempts of Penny's Esquimaux dogs, deposited by the gallant Arctic mariner in the Zoological Gardens, to _get up_ a bark somewhat like the "well-bred" dogs in the cages near them. Mr Graham tells us of the Damascus dogs having established a kind of police among themselves, and, like the rooks, driving all intruders far from their district. Dogs were not always disregarded in the East. Herodotus informs us,[54] during the Persian occupation the number of Indian dogs kept in the province of Babylon for the use of the governor was so great, that four cities were exempted from taxes for maintaining them. In the mountain parts of India, travellers describe the great dogs of Thibet and Cashmere as being much prized. "The domestic dog of Ladak," says Major Cunningham,[55] "is the well-known shepherd's dog, or Thibetan mastiff. They have shaggy coats, generally quite black, or black and tan; but I have seen some of a light brown colour. They are usually ill-tempered to strangers; but I have never found one that would face a stick, although they can fight well when attacked. The only peculiarity that I have noticed about them is, that the tail is nearly always curled upward on to the back, where the hair is displaced by the constant rubbing of the tail." And that the same massive variety was also prized in ancient times we know, by a singularly fine, small bas-relief in baked clay, found in 1849 in the Birs-i-Nimrud, Babylon, by Sir Henry Rawlinson, which is preserved in the British Museum, to which it was presented by the late Prince Albert, and an outline of which, reduced one-half, will convey a good idea to the reader of its form. We may add that this bas-relief was first noticed and figured, in 1851, in the third edition of a truly learned and excellent work on "Nineveh and Persepolis," by Mr Vaux of the British Museum (p. 183). These dogs, then, were nothing else than big, "low jowled" Thibetan mastiffs, such as we occasionally see brought over by some Indian officer; and the use for which they were employed by the ancient kings and their attendants is strikingly exhibited on some slabs from a chamber in the north palace of Koujunjik, a part of the great Nineveh. On some of these slabs, dogs are seen engaged in pulling down wild asses, deer, and other animals; and they were evidently kept also to assist in securing nobler game--"the king of beasts;"--the sport of which animals shows how truly the Assyrian king was named "Nimrod, the mighty hunter before the Lord."--_Adam White, in "Excelsior" (with additions)._ [Illustration] BISHOP BLOMFIELD BITTEN BY A DOG. His natural temperament was quick, and he was fond of authority. "A saying of Sydney Smith's has been preserved, humorously illustrative of the view which he took of Bishop Blomfield's character. The bishop had been bitten by a dog in the calf of the leg, and fearing possible hydrophobia in consequence, he went, with characteristic promptitude, to have the injured piece of flesh cut out by a surgeon before he returned home. Two or three on whom he called were not at home; but, at last, the operation was effected by the eminent surgeon, Mr Keate. The same evening the bishop was to have dined with a party where Sydney Smith was a guest. Just before dinner, a note arrived, saying that he was unable to keep his engagement, a dog having rushed out from the crowd and bitten him in the leg. When this note was read aloud to the company, Sydney Smith's comment was, '_I should like to hear the dog's account of the story_.' "When this accident occurred to him, Bishop Blomfield happened to be walking with Dr D'Oyly, the rector of Lambeth. A lady of strong Protestant principles, mistaking Dr D'Oyly for Dr Doyle, said that she considered it was a judgment upon the bishop for keeping such company."[56] "PUPPIES NEVER SEE TILL THEY ARE NINE DAYS OLD." It is related, that when a former Bishop of Bristol held the office of Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, he one day met a couple of under-graduates, who neglected to pay the accustomed compliment of _capping_. The bishop inquired the reason of the neglect. The two men begged his lordship's pardon, observing they were _freshmen_, and did not know him. "How long have you been in Cambridge?" asked his lordship. "Only _eight_ days," was the reply. "Very good," said the bishop; "_puppies_ never see till they are _nine_ days old."[57] MRS ELIZABETH BARRETT BROWNING'S DOG FLUSH. Few have written so lovingly on the dog as this gifted poetess. Her dog Flush is described so well that Landseer could paint the creature almost to a hair. She has entered into the very feeling created in us by this favoured pet of our race. The beautiful stanzas[58] I have copied give also many little touches of her autobiography. This gifted lady was long an invalid. She could enter with rare sympathy into Cowper's attachments to animals. Her experience of the friendship of Flush is well told in the following lines, so different from Lord Byron's misanthropic verses on his dog:-- TO FLUSH, MY DOG. Loving friend, the gift of one Who her own true faith has run Through her lower nature, Be my benediction said With my hand upon thy head, Gentle fellow-creature! Like a lady's ringlets brown Flow thy silken ears adown Either side demurely Of thy silver-suited breast, Shining out from all the rest Of thy body purely. Darkly brown thy body is, Till the sunshine, striking this, Alchemise its dulness, When the sleek curls manifold Flash all over into gold With a burnish'd fulness. Underneath my stroking hand, Startled eyes of hazel bland Kindling, growing larger, Up thou leapest with a spring, Full of prank and curveting Leaping like a charger. Leap! thy broad tail waves a light; Leap! thy slender feet are bright, Canopied in fringes; Leap! those tassell'd ears of thine Flicker strangely, fair and fine, Down their golden inches. Yet, my pretty, sporting friend, Little is 't to such an end That I praise thy rareness; Other dogs may be thy peers Haply in these drooping ears And this glossy fairness. But of _thee_ it shall be said, This dog watch'd beside a bed Day and night unweary-- Watch'd within a curtain'd room, Where no sunbeam brake the gloom, Round the sick and dreary. Roses gather'd for a vase In that chamber died apace, Beam and breeze resigning; This dog only waited on, Knowing that, when light is gone, Love remains for shining. Other dogs in thymy dew Track'd the hares, and follow'd through Sunny moor or meadow; This dog only crept and crept Next a languid cheek that slept, Sharing in the shadow. Other dogs of loyal cheer Bounded at the whistle clear, Up the woodside hieing; This dog only watch'd in reach Of a faintly-utter'd speech, Or a louder sighing. And if one or two quick tears Dropp'd upon his glossy ears, Or a sigh came double, Up he sprang in eager haste, Fawning, fondling, breathing fast In a tender trouble And this dog was satisfied If a pale, thin hand would glide Down his dewlaps sloping, Which he push'd his nose within, After--platforming his chin On the palm left open. This dog, if a friendly voice Call him now to blither choice Than such chamber-keeping, "Come out!" praying from the door, Presseth backward as before, Up against me leaping. Therefore to this dog will I, Tenderly, not scornfully, Render praise and favour: With my hand upon his head Is my benediction said, Therefore, and for ever. And because he loved me so, Better than his kind will do, Often man or woman, Give I back more love again Than dogs often take of men, Leaning from my Human. Blessings on thee, dog of mine, Pretty collars make thee fine, Sugar'd milk make fat thee! Pleasures wag on in thy tail, Hands of gentle motion fail Nevermore to pat thee! Downy pillow take thy head, Silken coverlet bestead, Sunshine help thy sleeping! No fly's buzzing wake thee up, No man break thy purple cup Set for drinking deep in. Whisker'd cats arointed flee, Sturdy stoppers keep from thee Cologne distillations; Nuts lie in thy path for stones, And thy feast-day macaroons Turn to daily rations! Mock I thee in wishing weal? Tears are in my eyes to feel Thou art made so straightly; Blessing needs must straighten too; Little canst thou joy or do, Thou who lovest _greatly_. Yet be blessèd to the height Of all good and all delight Pervious to thy nature; Only _loved_ beyond that line, With a love that answers thine, Loving fellow-creature! SIR THOMAS FOWELL BUXTON, BART., AND HIS DOG "SPEAKER." Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton was very fond of dogs; his son[59] tells an anecdote of the singular manner in which one of his pets came into his possession. "He was standing at the door of the House of Commons talking to a friend, when a beautiful black and tan terrier rushed between them, and immediately began barking furiously at Mr Joseph Pease, who was speaking. All the members jumped up, shouting and laughing, while the officers of the house chased the dog round and round, till at last he took refuge with Mr Buxton, who, as he could find no traces of an owner, carried him home. He proved to be quite an original. One of his whims was, that he would never go into the kitchen nor yet into a poor man's cottage; but he formed a habit of visiting by himself at the country houses in the neighbourhood of Cromer, and his refined manners and intelligence made 'Speaker' a welcome guest wherever he pleased to go." LORD BYRON AND HIS DOG BOATSWAIN. In November 1808 Lord Byron lost his favourite dog Boatswain; the poor animal having been seized with a fit of madness, at the commencement of which so little aware was Byron of the nature of the malady, that he more than once, with his bare hand, wiped away the slaver from the dog's lips during the paroxysms. In a letter to his friend Mr Hodson, he thus announces this event:--"Boatswain is dead! he expired in a state of madness on the 18th, after suffering much, yet retaining all the gentleness of his nature to the last, never attempting to do the least injury to any one near him. I have now lost everything except old Murray." The monument raised by him to this dog--the most memorable tribute of the kind since the dog's grave, of old, at Salamis--is still a conspicuous ornament of the gardens of Newstead. The misanthropic verses engraved upon it may be found among his poems, and the following is the inscription by which they are introduced:-- "Near this spot Are deposited the remains of one Who possessed beauty without vanity, Strength without insolence, Courage without ferocity, And all the virtues of man without his vices. This praise, which would be unmeaning flattery If inscribed over human ashes, Is but a just tribute to the memory of BOATSWAIN, a dog, Who was born at Newfoundland, May 1803, And died at Newstead Abbey, November 18, 1805." The poet Pope, when about the same age as the writer of this inscription, passed a similar eulogy on his dog, at the expense of human nature; adding that "histories are more full of examples of the fidelity of dogs than of friends." In a still sadder and bitterer spirit, Lord Byron writes of his favourite:-- "To mark a friend's remains these stones arise; I never knew but _one_, and _here_ he lies."[60] Moore relates a story of this dog, indicative, not only of intelligence, but of a generosity of spirit, which might well win for him the affections of such a master as Byron. A fox-terrier of his mother's, called Gilpin, was an object of dislike to Boatswain, who worried him nearly to the death. Gilpin was sent off and Boatswain was missed for a day. To the surprise of the servants, towards evening Gilpin and Boatswain were in company, the former led by the latter, who led him to the kitchen fire, licked him and lavished on him every possible demonstration of joy. He had been away to fetch him, and ever after caressed him, and defended him from the attacks of other dogs. (P. 44.) "PERCHANCE"--A LADY'S _reason_ FOR SO NAMING HER DOG. A lady had a favourite lap-dog, which she called Perchance. "A singular name," said somebody, "for a beautiful pet, madam; where did you find it?"--"Oh," drawled she, "it was named from Byron's dog. You remember where he says, '_Perchance_ my dog will howl.'"[61] COLLINS THE ARTIST AND HIS DOG "PRINNY"--A MODEL OF "_a model_." William Wilkie Collins, after a most graphic account of the companions of his artist-father's home,[62] notices "one who was ever as ready to offer his small aid and humble obedience as were any of his superiors, to confer the benefit of their penetrating advice." I refer to Mr Collins's dog "Prinny" (Prince). This docile and affectionate animal had been trained by his master to sit in any attitude, which the introduction of a dog in his picture (a frequent occurrence) might happen to demand. So strict was "Prinny's" sense of duty, that he never ventured to move from his set position until his master's signal gave him permission to approach his chair, when he was generally rewarded with a lump of sugar, placed, not between his teeth, but on his nose, where he continued to balance it, until he was desired to throw it into the air and catch it in his mouth, a feat which he very seldom failed to perform. On one occasion his extraordinary integrity in the performance of his duties was thus pleasantly exemplified:--"My father had placed him on the backs of two chairs, his fore-legs on the rails of one, and his hind-legs on the rails of the other; and in this rather arduous position had painted from him for a considerable time, when a friend was announced as waiting for him in another apartment. Particularly desirous of seeing this visitor immediately, the painter hurried from the room, entirely forgetting to tell 'Prinny' to get down, and remained in conversation with his friend for full half an hour. On returning to his study the first object that greeted him was poor 'Prinny,' standing on his 'bad eminence' exactly in the position in which he had been left, trembling with fatigue, and occasionally vending his anguish and distress in a low piteous moan, but not moving a limb, or venturing even to turn his head. Not having received the usual signal he had never once attempted to get down, but had remained disconsolate in his position 'sitting' hard, with nobody to paint him, during the long half hour that had delayed his master's return." THE SOLDIER AND THE MASTIFF. A soldier passing through a meadow, a large mastiff ran at him, and he stabbed the dog with a bayonet. The master of the dog asked him why he had not rather struck the dog with the butt-end of his weapon? "So I should," said the soldier, "if he had run at me with his tail!"[63] BARK AND BITE. Lord Clare, who was much opposed to Curran, one day brought a Newfoundland dog upon the bench, and during Curran's speech turned himself aside and caressed the animal. Curran stopped. "Go on, go on, Mr Curran," said Lord Clare.--"Oh, I beg a thousand pardons," was the rejoinder. "I really thought your lordship was employed in _consultation_."[64] MRS DREW AND THE TWO DOGS. (A CURIOUSLY NEAR APPROACH TO MORAL PERCEPTION.) In the biography of Samuel Drew, A.M., a great name among the metaphysical writers of this country, we read a very interesting anecdote of two dogs. His father, a farmer and mail-carrier in Cornwall, had procured a Newfoundland dog for protection on his journeys, having been attacked by highwaymen. There was a smaller dog which had been bred in the house. The son was living at Poplea, in Cornwall, when the following circumstance occurred, and he witnessed it:[65]-- "Our dairy was under a room which was used occasionally as a barn and apple-chamber, into which the fowls sometimes found their way; and, in scratching among the chaff, scattered the dust on the pans of milk below, to the great annoyance of my mother-in-law. In this a favourite cock of hers was the chief transgressor. One day in harvest she went into the dairy, followed by the little dog, and finding dust again on her milk-pans, she exclaimed, 'I wish that cock were dead!' Not long after, she being with us in the harvest field, we observed the little dog dragging along the cock, just killed, which, with an air of triumph, he laid at my mother-in-law's feet. Highly exasperated at the literal fulfilment of her hastily-uttered wish, she snatched a stick from the hedge, and attempted to give the dog a beating. The luckless animal, seeing the reception he was likely to meet with, where he expected marks of approbation, left the bird and ran off, she brandishing her stick, and saying, in a loud angry tone, 'I'll pay thee for this by and by.' In the evening, when about to put her threat into execution, she found the little dog established in a corner of the room, and the large one standing before it. Endeavouring to fulfil her intention by first driving off the large dog, he gave her plainly to understand that he was not at all disposed to relinquish his post. She then sought to get at the small dog behind the other, but the threatening gesture, and fiercer growl of the large one, sufficiently indicated that the attempt would be not a little perilous. The result was that she was obliged to abandon her design. In killing the cock I can scarcely think that the dog understood the precise import of my stepmother's wish, as his immediate execution of it would seem to imply. The cock was a more recent favourite, and had received some attentions which had previously been bestowed upon himself. This, I think, had led him to entertain a feeling of hostility to the bird, which he did not presume to indulge, until my mother's tone and manner indicated that the cock was no longer under her protection. In the power of communicating with each other, which these dogs evidently possess, and which, in some instances, has been displayed by other species of animals, a faculty seems to be developed of which we know very little. On the whole, I never remember to have met with a case in which to human appearance there was a nearer approach to moral perception than in that of my father's two dogs." THE DIFFERENCE OF EXCHANGE.--"DOG-CHEAP." Dining at a nobleman's table, where the company were praising the claret, his lordship told them that he had received that hogshead of wine in return for a couple of hounds, which he sometime before presented to Count Lauragais. "Why, then, my lord," cried Foote, "I not only think your wine excellent, but _dog-cheap_."[66] GAINSBOROUGH AND HIS WIFE AND THEIR DOGS. Thomas Gainsborough, the rival of Sir Joshua in portraiture, wanted that evenness of temper which the President of the Royal Academy so abundantly possessed. He was easily angered, but as soon appeased, and says his biographer,[67] "If he was the first to offend, he was the first to atone. Whenever he spoke crossly to his wife, a remarkably sweet-tempered woman, he would write a note of repentance, sign it with the name of his favourite dog 'Fox,' and address it to his Margaret's pet spaniel, 'Tristram.' Fox would take the note in his mouth, and duly deliver it to Tristram. Margaret would then answer--'My own dear Fox, you are always loving and good, and I am a naughty little female ever to worry you, as I too often do, so we will kiss and say no more about it; your own affectionate Tris.'" The writers of such a correspondence could not have led what is called "a cat and dog life." Husbands and wives might derive a hint from this anecdote; for we know, from the old ballad, that they will be sulky and quarrel at times even about getting "Up to bar the door, O!" SIR WILLIAM GELL'S DOG. The reviewer[68] of Sir Thomas Browne's works says--"We ourselves have witnessed an example of the curious and credulous exaggeration which has construed certain articulations in animals into rational speech. Some time since, in travelling through Italy, we heard, in grave earnest, from several Italians, of the prodigy of a Pomeranian dog that had been taught to speak most intelligibly by Sir William Gell. Afterwards, in visiting that accomplished and lamented gentleman at Naples, we requested to hear an animal possessed of so unusual a gift. And, as the friends of the urban scholar can bear witness, the dog undoubtedly could utter a howl, which, assisted by the hand of the master in closing the jaw at certain inflections, might be intelligibly construed into two words not to be repeated. Such a dog, with such an anathema in his vocabulary, would have hanged any witch in England three centuries ago." ELIZABETH, THE LAST DUCHESS OF GORDON, AND THE WOLF-DOG KAISER. The Rev. A. Moody Stuart, in his "Life of the last Duchess of Gordon,"[69] that truly Christian lady, refers to some old pets of the duke's and her own, which, on her becoming a widow, she took with her from Gordon Castle to Huntly Lodge, a bullfinch, an immense Talbot mastiff named Sall, and others. He adds--"To a stranger, the most remarkable of the duke's old favourites was Kaiser, an Hungarian wolf-dog, with a snow-white fleece, and most sheep-like aspect in the distance, but at whose appearance out of doors, man, woman, and child fled as from a wolf. The duchess called him 'The wolf in sheep's clothing.' Her husband's tastes having brought her much into contact with all sorts of dogs, she had learned to pat them confidently at their first introduction, when a large space between their eyes betokened a kindly temper. This open breadth of forehead was strongly marked in Sall, a fine old mastiff that used at this time to walk round the dining-room after breakfast, with her noble head reaching the level of the table. But the duke had chosen Kaiser for other qualities. Two of those wolf-dogs had been brought to him for sale when travelling on the Continent; the other was the larger and handsomer animal; but Kaiser's eyes, sunk deep in the head, and all but meeting under his shaggy hair, at once fixed his choice on him as 'likest his work.' That work was to defend the sheep from the wolves, and one mode of defence was by laying a strange trap for the enemy. The dog was remarkably like a sheep, his hair white without a dark speck, and he carried a great load of it, long and fleecy like wool. In the Hungarian steppes four or five of those dogs would lay themselves down on the grass in the evening, sleeping there like so many harmless lambs, with their faces inward for the heat of each other's breath. The keen eye of the wolf was soon attracted by the white fleeces, with no shepherd near to guard them. Eager for blood, he careered swiftly over the plain, and sprang unsuspecting into the midst of the flock, only to find himself clenched in the relentless jaws of Kaiser and his comrades, wolves more terrible than himself under the clothing of timid sheep. A conversation once took place at the Lodge on the character ascribed to dogs in Scripture. It slightly vexed the good duchess that they were so often mentioned in the Bible, but only as emblems of what is foul and fierce, except in a single instance, and that not of commendation, but neutrality. This exception, she said, occurred in the Book of Proverbs, where the greyhound is named, along with the lion and the goat, as 'comely in going,' yet merely in praise of his external beauty. But her difficulty was relieved by the reply, that in Isaiah lvi. 10, the "dog" is really used in a good sense as applied to the spiritual watchmen of the Lord's flock. For the unfaithful shepherds, being there likened to dumb dogs that cannot bark, were not censured under the simple image of watch-dogs, but because, as such, they were faithless and useless; implying that the good watch-dog is an honourable emblem of the true pastor, watching for the souls committed to his care, and solemnly warning them of approaching danger." FREDERICK THE GREAT AND HIS ITALIAN GREYHOUNDS. Dr John Moore, when travelling with the Duke of Hamilton, saw and heard a good deal of Frederick the Great, and has given in his second volume of "A View of Society and Manners in France," &c., many interesting particulars of his private and public life. Among these, he alludes to his using "a very large gold snuff-box, the lid ornamented with diamonds," and his taking "an immoderate quantity of Spanish snuff, the marks of which very often appear on his waistcoat and breeches. These are also liable to be soiled by the paws of two or three Italian greyhounds, which he often caresses" (vol. ii. p. 236). THE DOG AND THE FRENCH MURDERERS. (AN OCCURRENCE IN THE SPRING OF 1837.) Thomas Raikes,[70] in his Journal 8th March 1837, records:--"Eight years ago, a labouring man in the department of the Loire was found murdered in a wood near his house, and his dog sitting near the body. No clue could be gained to the perpetrators of the crime, and his widow continued to live in the same cottage, accompanied always by the faithful animal. Last week two men, apparently travellers, stopped at the house, requesting shelter from the storm, which was granted; but no sooner had the dog perceived them, than he flew at them with fury, and could not be pacified. As they were quitting the house, one of them said to the other, 'That rascally dog has not forgotten us.' This raised the suspicion of the widow, who overheard it, and applying to the gendarmes in the neighbourhood, they followed and arrested them. The result has been that, after a long examination, one of them has confessed the crime, and impeached his associate." * * * * * Hannah More wrote an ode addressed to Garrick's famous house-dog Dragon. A copy of this she gave to Sir Joshua Reynolds in 1777, while still unprinted, under an oath neither to take nor give a copy of it, which oath Sir Joshua had observed (she says) like a true knight, only reading it to his visitors till some of them learned it by heart. The "charming bagatelle" was afterwards printed, that posterity might be enabled to wonder what a small expenditure of wit in metre sufficed to purchase a large modicum of fame among the blues of that day.[71] ROBERT HALL AND THE DOG. The eloquent Robert Hall and Dr Leifchild were often in each other's company when at Bristol, travelling and preaching together at anniversaries and ordinations. The son and biographer of the latter says:[72]--"I rode with them from Bristol to Wells, and can now, in imagination, see Mr Hall smoking and reclining on one seat of the carriage, while my father sat on the other. I can see Mr Hall descending at a blacksmith's shop to re-light his pipe, making his way directly to the forge, and jumping aside with unwonted agility, when a huge dog growled at him. I can recall his look, when rallied on his agility, after his return to the carriage. 'You seemed afraid of the dog, sir,' said my father. 'Apostolic advice, sir--Beware of dogs,' rejoined Mr Hall." Dr Leifchild, in another part of the memoir (p. 360), relates that some housekeeper would exclaim to him, as he was about to enter the house of friend or stranger, "Don't be afraid of the dog, sir, he never bites."--"Are you quite sure he never bites?" was his prompt question.--"Quite sure, sir," rejoined the servant.--"Then," rejoined the good-humoured doctor, "if he never _bites_, how does he live?" A QUEEN AND HER LAP-DOG. Henrietta Maria, Queen of Charles I., on her return to Burlington Bay with assistance for her husband, was attacked in the house where she slept by the cannonade of five ships of war belonging to the Parliament. She left the house amid the whistling of balls, one of which killed one of her servants. When on her way to the shelter of a ditch, she remembered that an aged lap-dog, called "Mitte," was left behind. She was much attached to this old favourite, and returned to the house she had left. Rushing up-stairs into her chamber, she caught up her old pet, which was reposing on her bed, and carried her off in safety. Having done this, the queen and her ladies gained the ditch, and crouched down in it, while the cannon played furiously over their heads.[73] THE CLEVER DOG THAT BELONGED TO THE HUNTERS OF POLMOOD. The estate of Polmood, in Peeblesshire, was the subject of extraordinary litigation, and a volume of considerable bulk is devoted to its history. This work contains much curious evidence from aged country folks in the western parts of the country. Mr Chambers[74] tells us that in the history "reminiscences concerning a wonderfully clever dog are put forward as links in the line of propinquity." The deponent has heard his father say that Robert Hunter had a remarkable dog called "Algiers;" and that, when Robert lived at Woodend, he used to tie a napkin round the dog's neck with money in it, and send him for snuff to Lammington, which is about three miles from Woodend, and that the dog executed his message faithfully, and prevented everybody from laying hold of or stopping him. Another venerable deponent, aged eighty-nine, had heard his mother tell many stories about a dog belonging to Uncle Robert, which went by the name of "Algiers;" that they used to cut a fleece off him every year sufficient to make a pair of stockings; and that Uncle Robert used to tie a purse round his neck, with money in it, and the dog then swam the Tweed, and brought back tobacco from the Crook! And a third declares that "Algiers" could be sent to Edinburgh with a letter, and bring back a letter to his master. THE IRISH CLERGYMAN AND THE DOGS. Mr Fitzpatrick, in his anecdotal memoirs of Archbishop Whately, tells a story of an eccentric Irish parson. This person, when preaching, was interrupted in his homily by two dogs, which began to fight in church. He descended the pulpit, and endeavoured to separate them. On returning to his place, the clergyman, who was rather an absent man, asked the clerk, "Where was I a while ago?"--"Wasn't yer Riverence appaising the dogs?" responded the other.[75] WASHINGTON IRVING AND THE DOG. Patrick Fraser Tytler, author of "The History of Scotland," in a letter to his wife in 1830, says--"At Lady Morton's, one evening, I met with Washington Irving. I had heard him described as a very silent man, who was always observing others, but seldom opened his lips. Instead of which, his tongue never lay still; and he gets out more wee wordies in a minute than any ordinary converser does in five. But I found him a very intelligent and agreeable man. I put him in mind of his travelling with our dear Tommy. He had at first no recollection; but I brought it back to his memory by the incident of the little black dog, who always went before the horses in pulling up hill, and pretended to assist them. I put him in mind of his own wit, 'that he wondered if the doggie mistook himself for a horse;' at which he laughed, and added, 'Yes, and thought it very hard that he was not rubbed down at the end of the journey.'"[76] DOUGLAS JERROLD AND HIS DOG. Jerrold had a favourite dog that followed him everywhere. One day in the country, a lady, who was passing, turned round and said audibly, "What an ugly little brute!" Whereupon Jerrold, addressing the lady, replied, "Oh, madam! I wonder what he thinks _about us_ at this moment."[77] SHERIDAN AND THE DOG. After witnessing the first representation of a dog-piece by Reynolds, called the "Caravan," Sheridan suddenly came into the green-room, on purpose, it was imagined, to wish the author joy. "Where is he?" was the first question; "where is my guardian angel?"--"Here I am," answered Reynolds.--"Pooh!" replied Sheridan, "I don't mean _you_, I mean _the dog_."[78] CHARLES LAMB AND HIS DOG. Thomas Hood had a dog called "Dash." This dog he gave to Charles Lamb. The ready-witted Elia often took the creature out with him when walking at Enfield. On one occasion, the dog dashed off to chase some young sheep. The owner of the muttons came out quite indignant at the owner, to expostulate with him on the assault of Lamb's dog on his sheep. Elia, with his quiet ready wit, replied, "Hunt _Lambs_, sir?--why, he never hunted _me_."[79] FRENCH DOGS, TIME OF LOUIS XI.--HISTORY OF HIS DOG "RELAIS" BY LOUIS XII. Horace Walpole, in one of his gossiping letters to the Countess of Ossory in 1781, writes, "You must not be surprised if I should send you a collection of Tonton's _bons-mots_. I have found a precedent for such a work. A grave author wrote a book on the 'Hunt of the Grand Senechal of Normandy,' and of _les DITS du bon chien Souillard, qui fut au Roi Loy de France onzieme du nom_. Louis XII., the reverse of the predecessor of the same name, did not leave to his historian to celebrate his dog "Relais," but did him the honour of being his biographer himself; and for a reason that was becoming so excellent a king. It was _pour animer les descendans d'un si brave chien à se rendre aussi bons que lui, et encore meilleurs_. It was great pity the Cardinal d'Amboise had no bastard puppies, or, to be sure, his Majesty would have written his Prime Minister's life too, for a model to his successors."[80] MARTIN LUTHER OBSERVES A DOG AT LINTZ. In the "Table Talk" of Martin Luther, it is recorded:--"I saw a dog at Lintz, in Austria, that was taught to go with a hand-basket to the butchers' shambles for meat. When other dogs came about him, and sought to take the meat out of the basket, he set it down and fought lustily with them; but when he saw they were too strong for him, he himself would snatch out the first piece of meat, lest he should lose all. Even so does now our Emperor Charles; who, after having long protected spiritual benefices, seeing that every prince takes possession of monasteries, himself takes possession of bishoprics, as just now he has seized upon those of Utrecht and Liège."[81] THE POOR DOG AT THE GROTTA DEL CANE. Henry Matthews,[82] like other visitors of Naples, went to the celebrated _Grotta del Cane_, or Dog Grotto, on the borders of Lake Agnano, so called from the vapour in the cave, destructive to animal life, being shown by means of a dog. In his diary, of March 3, 1818, he records:--"Travellers have made a great display of sensibility in their strictures upon the spectacle exhibited here; but to all appearance the dog did not care much about it. It may be said, with truth of him, that he is _used_ to it; for he dies many times a day, and he went to the place of execution wagging his tail. He became insensible in two minutes; but upon being laid on the grass, he revived from his trance in a few seconds, without the process of immersion in the lake, which is generally mentioned as necessary to his recovery. From the voracity with which he bolted down a loaf of bread which I bought for him, the vapour does not seem to injure the animal functions. Addison seems to have been very particular in his experiments upon the vapour of this cavern. He found that a pistol would not take fire in it; but upon laying a train of gunpowder, and igniting it beyond the sphere of the vapour, he found that it could not intercept the train of fire when it had once begun flashing, nor hinder it from running to the very end. He subjected a dog to a second trial in order to ascertain whether he was longer in expiring the first than the second time; and he found there was no sensible difference. A viper bore it _nine minutes_ the first time he put it in, and _ten minutes_ the second; and he attributes the prolonged duration of the second trial to the large provision of air that the viper laid in after his first death, upon which stock he supposes it to have existed a minute longer the second time." DOG, A POSTMAN AND CARRIER. Robert Southey says, that "near Moffat a dog used for many years to meet the mail and receive the letters for a little post-town near."[83] How often may you see a dog carrying a basket or a parcel. No enticement, even of a dog-friend or of a great bone, will induce this faithful servant to abandon his charge. Every one must have observed this. DOG-MATIC. In the great dispute between South and Sherlock, the latter, who was a great courtier, said--"His adversary reasoned well, but he barked like a cur." To which the other replied, "That _fawning_ was the property of a cur as well as barking."[84] GENERAL MOREAU AND HIS GREYHOUND. "The day after the battle of Dresden (27th Aug. 1812), a greyhound was brought to the King of Saxony, the ally of Napoleon. The dog was moaning piteously. On the collar were engraved the words, 'I belong to the General Moreau.' Where was the dog's master? By the side of the Emperor Alexander. Moreau had been mortally wounded. The dog had remained with his master until his death. While Moreau was conversing with the Emperor Alexander a cannon-shot nearly carried off both his legs. It is said that throughout the five days during which he lingered he uttered not a murmur of pain."[85] * * * * * At the battle of Solferino, where rifled cannon were first brought to bear in warfare, a dog excited great attention by its attachment to the body of its slain master. It became the chief object in a painting of the circumstance, from which an engraving was executed. A DUKE OF NORFOLK AND HIS SPANIELS. In Southey's "Common-place Book," 4th ser. p. 479, he writes--"Our Marlborough and King James's spaniels are unrivalled in beauty. The latter breed (black and tan, with hair almost approaching to silk in fineness, such as Vandyke loved to introduce into his portraits) were solely in the possession of the late Duke of Norfolk. He never travelled without two of his favourites in the carriage. When at Worksop he used to feed his eagles with the pups; and a stranger to his exclusive pride in the race, seeing him one day employed in thus destroying a whole litter, told his grace how much he should be delighted to possess one of them. The duke's reply was a characteristic one. 'Pray, sir, which of my estates should you like to have?'" There are shepherds who possess collies, such _proud_, useful servants and friends, that no bribe would induce them to part with them. But what old favourite dog or even bird is there that any one would part with? Man, be he scavenger or duke, is very similar in this species of attachment. LORD NORTH AND THE DOG. In several of the caricatures published about the year 1783, when Fox and Burke had joined Lord North, and helped to form what is called the Coalition Ministry, a dog is represented. This, says Mr Wright,[86] is said to be an allusion to an occurrence in the House of Commons. During the last defensive declamation of Lord North, on the eve of his resignation, a dog, which had concealed itself under the benches, came out and set up a hideous howling in the midst of his harangue. The house was thrown into a roar of laughter, which continued until the intruder was turned out; and then Lord North coolly observed, "As the new member has ended his argument, I beg to be allowed to continue mine." PERTHES DERIVES HINTS FROM HIS DOG. In a letter, written when he first came to Gotha, Perthes, the publisher, says--"Do not laugh if I tell you that my dog has given me many a hint upon human nature. I never before had a dog constantly with me, and I now ask myself whether the poodle be not a man, and men poodles. I am not led to this thought by the animal propensities which we have in common, such as eating, drinking, &c., but by those of a more refined character. He too is cheerful and dejected, excited and supine, playful and morose, gentle and bold, caressing and snappish, patient and refractory; just like us men in all things, even in his dreams! This likeness is not to me at all discouraging; on the contrary, it suggests a pleasing hope that this flesh and blood which plagues and fetters us, is not the real man, but merely the earthly clothing which will be cast off when he no longer belongs to earth, provided he has not sinfully chosen to identify himself with the merely material. The devil's chief seat is not in matter but in the mind, where he fosters pride, selfishness, and hatred, and by their means destroys not what is transitory but what is eternal in man."[87] PETER THE GREAT AND HIS FAVOURITE DOG LISETTE. Mr Stoehlin[88] relates the following anecdote of the Czar Peter, on the authority of Miss Anne Cramer, the chambermaid to the empress. In the cabinet of natural history of the academy at St Petersburg, is preserved, among a number of uncommon animals, Lisette, the favourite dog of the Russian monarch. She was a small, dun-coloured Italian greyhound, and very fond of her master, whom she never quitted but when he went out, and then she laid herself down on his couch. At his return she showed her fondness by a thousand caresses, followed him wherever he went, and during his afternoon nap lay always at his feet. A person belonging to the court, having excited the anger of the czar--I do not know by what means--was confined in the fort, and there was reason to suppose that he would receive the punishment of the knout on the first market-day. The whole court, and the empress herself, thought him innocent, and considered the anger of the czar as excessive and unjust. Every means was tried to save him, and the first opportunity taken to intercede in his favour. But, so far from succeeding, it served only to irritate the emperor the more, who forbade all persons, even the empress, to speak for the prisoner, and, above all, to present any petition on the subject, under the pain of incurring his highest displeasure. It was supposed that no resource remained to save the culprit. However, those who in concert with the czarina interested themselves in his favour, devised the means of urging their suit without incurring the penalty of the prohibition. They composed a short but pathetic petition, in the name of Lisette. After having set forth her uncommon fidelity to her master, she adduced the strongest proofs of innocence of the prisoner, entreated the czar to take the matter into consideration, and to be propitious to her prayer, by granting him his liberty. This petition was tied to her collar, in such a manner as to be easily visible. On the czar's return from the Admiralty and Senate, Lisette, as usual, came leaping about him; and he perceived the paper, folded in the form of a petition. He took, and read it--"What!" said he; "Lisette, do you also present me petitions? Well, as it is the first time, I grant your prayer." He immediately sent a denthtchick[89] to the fort, with orders to set the prisoner at liberty. THE LIGHT COMPANY'S POODLE AND SIR F. PONSONBY. Captain Gronow, in his gossiping book,[90] says--"Every regiment has a pet of some sort or another. One distinguished Highland regiment possesses a deer; the Welsh Fusiliers a goat, which is the object of their peculiar affection, and which generally marches with the band. The light company of my battalion of the 1st Guards in 1813 rejoiced in a very handsome poodle, which, if I mistake not, had been made prisoner at Vittoria. At the commencement of the battle of the 9th of December 1813, near the mayor's house, not far from Bidart, we observed the gallant Frederick Ponsonby well in front with the skirmishers, and by the side of his horse the soldiers' poodle. The colonel was encouraging our men to advance, and the poodle, in great glee, was jumping and barking at the bullets, as they flew round him like hail. On a sudden we observed Ponsonby struggling with a French mounted officer, whom he had already disarmed, and was endeavouring to lead off to our lines; when the French skirmishers, whose numbers had increased, fired several shots, and wounded Ponsonby, forcing him to relinquish his prisoner, and to retire. At the same time, a bullet broke one of the poor dog's legs. For his gallant conduct in this affair, the poodle became, if possible, a still greater favourite than he was before; and his friends, the men of the light company, took him to England, where I saw my three-legged friend for several years afterwards, the most prosperous of poodles, and the happiest of the canine race." ADMIRAL RODNEY AND HIS DOG LOUP. Earl Stanhope, in his History,[91] remarks--"To those who love to trace the lesser lights and shades of human character, I shall owe no apology if I venture to record of the conqueror of De Grasse, that even in his busiest hours he could turn some kindly thoughts not only to his family and friends, but to his dog in England. That dog, named Loup, was of the French fox-breed, and so attached to his master, that when the admiral left home to take the command of his fleet, the faithful animal remained for three days in his chamber, watching his coat, and refusing food. The affection was warmly returned. On many more than one occasion we find Rodney wrote much as follows to his wife--'Remember me to my dear girls and my faithful friend Loup; I know you will kiss him for me.'"[92] RUDDIMAN AND HIS DOG RASCAL. George Chalmers, in his Life of the learned Thomas Ruddiman,[93] tells us that "young Ruddiman was initiated in grammar at the parish-school of Boyndie, in Banffshire, which was distant a mile from his father's dwelling; and which was then taught by George Morison, whom his pupil always praised for his attention and his skill. To this school the boy walked every morning, carrying his daily provisions with him. He is said to have been daily accompanied by a dog, which, when he had proceeded to the top of Tooting-hillock, the halfway resting-place, always returned home after partaking of his victuals. This story is still (1794) remembered, as if there were in it something supernatural. We may suppose, however, that the excursion was equally agreeable to both parties; and when it was once known that the dog was to eat at a particular place at a stated hour, an appropriate allowance was constantly made for him. Whether Ruddiman had a natural fondness for dogs, or whether a particular attachment began, when impressions are easily made, which are long remembered, cannot now be ascertained. He certainly, throughout a long life, had a succession of dogs, which were invariably called _Rascal_; and which, being springing spaniels, ever accompanied him in all his walks. He used, with affectionate recollection, to entertain his friends with stories of dogs, which all tended to show the fidelity of that useful animal to man." * * * * * Mrs Schimmelpenninck, authoress of "Select Memoirs of Port Royal," died in 1856. Her interesting Autobiography and Life were published in 1858 by her relation, Christiana C. Hankin. In p. 467 it is remarked that "her love of animals formed quite a feature in her daily habits. Like St Francis, she delighted to attract the little birds, by tempting them with dainty food upon her verandah; and it was a positive pleasure to her to watch their feast. She had a bag made, which was always filled with oats, to regale any stray horse or ass; and she has been seen surrounded by four goats, each standing on its hind legs, with its uplifted front feet resting on her, and all eagerly claiming the salt she had prepared for them. But her great delight was in dogs. She never forgot those sad hours in childhood, when, unable to mix in the sports of children from illness (perhaps, too, from her want of sympathy in the usual pleasures of that age), the beautiful dogs at Barr were her companions and friends. "It is no figure of speech to say that she had a large acquaintance amongst the dogs at Clifton. She always carried a pocketful of biscuit to feed them; and she had a canine friend who for years was in the daily habit of waiting at her door to accompany her morning walk, after which he received his little portion of biscuit, and returned to his home. Timid as Mrs Schimmelpenninck was by nature and by habit, she had no idea of personal fear of animals, and especially of dogs. I have seen her go up without hesitation to some splendid specimen of the race, of which everybody else was afraid, to stroke him, or offer food; when the noble creature, with that fine perception often so remarkably manifested by dogs and children, would look up in her face, and then return her caress, and crouch down at her feet in love and confidence. Her own two beautiful little spaniels were her constant companions in her walks; their happy gambols were always a source of pleasure."[94] * * * * * Sir Walter Scott loved dogs dearly. In his novels and poetical works his knowledge of them and his regard often appear. He loved them, from the stately deerhound to the wiry terrier. He was quite up to the ways of their education. Dandie Dinmont, in "Guy Mannering," speaking of his terriers, says, "I had them a' regularly entered, first wi' rottens, then wi' stots and weasels, and then wi' the tods and brocks, and now they fear naething that ever comes wi' a hairy skin on't." Then, again, read Washington Irving's description of his visit to Abbotsford, and how, on Scott taking him out for a walk, a host of his dogs attended, evidently as a matter of course. He often spoke to them during the walk. The American author was struck with the stately gravity of the noble staghound Maida, while the younger dogs gambolled about him, and tried to get him to gambol. Maida would occasionally turn round suddenly, and give one of the playful creatures a tumble, and look at Scott and Irving, as much as to say, "You see, gentlemen, I cannot help giving way to this nonsense;" when on he would go as grave as ever. "I make no doubt," said Scott to his companion, "when Maida is alone with these young dogs, he throws gravity aside, and plays the boy as much as any of them; but he is ashamed to do so in our company, and seems to say, "Ha' done with your nonsense, youngsters; what will the laird and that other gentleman think of me if I give way to such foolery?" A little volume might almost be made on Sir Walter Scott and his dogs. Wilkie, Allan, and especially Sir Edwin Landseer, have handed down to us the portraits of many of them. His works, and biography by Lockhart, and the writings of his many visitors, would afford many an interesting extract. SHERIDAN ON THE DOG-TAX. In 1796, a tax, which caused great discontent and ridicule, was laid for the first time upon dogs. Mr Wright, in his "England under the House of Hanover," says--"The debates on this tax in the House of Commons appear to have been extremely amusing. In opposing the motion to go into committee, Sheridan objected that the bill was most curiously worded, as it was, in the first instance, entitled, 'A bill for the protection of his Majesty's subjects against dogs.' 'From these words,' he said, 'one would imagine that dogs had been guilty of burglary, though he believed they were a better protection to their masters' property than watchmen.' After having entertained the House with some stories about mad dogs, and giving a discourse upon dogs in general, he asked, 'Since there was an exception in favour of puppies, at what age they were to be taxed, and how the exact age was to be ascertained?' The Secretary at War, who spoke against the bill, said, 'It would be wrong to destroy in the poor that _virtuous feeling_ which they had for their dog.' In committee, Mr Lechmere called the attention of the House to ladies' 'lap-dogs.' He knew a lady who had _sixteen_ lap-dogs, and who allowed them a roast shoulder of veal every day for dinner, while many poor persons were starving; was it not, therefore, right to tax lap-dogs very high? He knew another lady who kept one favourite dog, when well, on Savoy biscuits soaked in Burgundy, and when ailing (by the advice of a doctor) on minced chicken and sweetbread! Among the caricatures on this subject, one by Gillray (of which there were imitations) represented Fox and his friends, hanged upon a gallows, as 'dogs not worth a tax;' while the supporters of Government, among whom is Burke, with 'G. R.' on his collar, are ranged as well-fed dogs 'paid for.'"[95] SYDNEY SMITH DISLIKES DOGS. AN INGENIOUS WAY OF GETTING RID OF THEM. Lady Holland tells us[96] that her father, the witty canon of St Paul's, disliked dogs. "During one of his visits to London, at a dinner at Spencer House, the conversation turned upon dogs. 'Oh,' said my father, 'one of the greatest difficulties I have had with my parishioners has been on the subject of dogs.'--'How so?' said Lord Spencer.--'Why, when I first went down into Yorkshire, there had not been a resident clergyman in my parish for a hundred and fifty years. Each farmer kept a huge mastiff dog ranging at large, and ready to make his morning meal on clergy or laity, as best suited his particular taste. I never could approach a cottage in pursuit of my calling but I rushed into the jaws of one of these shaggy monsters. I scolded, preached, and prayed without avail; so I determined to try what fear for their pockets might do. Forthwith appeared in the county papers a minute account of the trial of a farmer, at the Northampton Sessions, for keeping dogs unconfined; where said farmer was not only fined five pounds and reprimanded by the magistrates, but sentenced to three months' imprisonment. The effect was wonderful, and the reign of Cerberus ceased in the land.'--'That accounts,' said Lord Spencer, 'for what has puzzled me and Althorp for many years. We never failed to attend the sessions at Northampton, and we never could find out how we had missed this remarkable dog case.'" SYDNEY SMITH ON DOGS.[97] "No, I don't like dogs; I always expect them to go mad. A lady asked me once for a motto for her dog Spot. I proposed, 'Out, damned Spot!' But she did not think it sentimental enough. You remember the story of the French marquise, who, when her pet lap-dog bit a piece out of her footman's leg, exclaimed, 'Ah, poor little beast! I hope it won't make him sick.' I called one day on Mrs ----, and her lap-dog flew at my leg and bit it. After pitying her dog, like the French marquise, she did all she could to comfort me by assuring me the dog was a Dissenter, and hated the Church, and was brought up in a Tory family. But whether the bite came from madness or Dissent, I knew myself too well to neglect it, and went on the instant to a surgeon, and had it cut out, making a mem. on the way to enter that house no more." SYDNEY SMITH'S "NEWFOUNDLAND DOG THAT BREAKFASTED ON PARISH BOYS." The Rev. Sydney Smith used to be much amused when he observed the utter want of perception of a joke in some minds. One instance we may cite from his "Memoirs:"[98] "Miss ----, the other day, walking round the grounds at Combe Florey, exclaimed, 'Oh, why do you chain up that fine Newfoundland dog, Mr Smith?'--'Because it has a passion for breakfasting on parish boys.'--'Parish boys!' she exclaimed; 'does he really eat boys, Mr Smith?'--'Yes, he devours them, buttons and all.' Her face of horror made me die of laughing." SOUTHEY ON DOGS. Southey was likewise not a little attached to the memory at least of dogs, as may be inferred by the following passage in a letter to Mr Bedford, Jan. 27, 1823. Snivel was a dog belonging to Mr B. in early days. "We had an adventure this morning, which, if poor Snivel had been living, would have set up her bristles in great style. A foumart was caught in the back kitchen; you may perhaps know it better by the name of polecat. It is the first I ever saw or smelt; and certainly it was in high odour. Poor Snivel! I still have the hairs which we cut from her tail thirty years ago; and if it were the fashion for men to wear lockets, in a locket they should be worn, for I never had a greater respect for any creature upon four legs than for poor Sni. See how naturally men fall into relic worship; when I have preserved the memorials of that momentary whim so many years, and through so many removals."[99] DOG, A GOOD JUDGE OF ELOCUTION. When Dr Leifchild, of Craven Chapel, London, was a student at Hoxton Academy, there was a good lecturer on elocution there of the name of True. In the Memoir, published in 1863, are some pleasing reminiscences by Dr Leifchild of this excellent teacher, who seems to have taken great pains with the students, and to have awakened in their breasts a desire to become proficients in the art of speaking. The doctor himself was an admirable example of the proficiency thus attained under good Mr True. He records[100] a ludicrous circumstance which occurred one day. "In reciting Satan's address to the evil spirits from 'Paradise Lost,' a stout student was enjoined to pronounce the three words, 'Princes, potentates, warriors,' in successively louder tones, and to speak out boldly. He hardly needed this advice, for the first word came out like distant thunder, the second like approaching thunder, and the third like a terribly near and loud clap. At this last the large housedog, Pompey, who had been asleep under the teacher's chair, started up and jumped out of the window into the garden. 'The dog is a good judge, sir,' mildly remarked Mr True." COWPER'S DOG BEAU AND THE WATER-LILY. ILLUSTRATED BY THE STORY OF AS INTELLIGENT A DOG. In _Blackwood's Magazine_ for 1818 there is an address, in blank verse, by Mr Patrick Fraser Tytler, "To my Dog." Mr Tytler's brother-in-law, Mr Hog,[101] recorded the fact on which this address was founded in his diary at the time. "Peter tells a delightful anecdote of Cossack, an Isle of Skye terrier, which belonged originally to his brother at Aldourie. It was amazingly fond of his children, one of which, having fallen on the gravel and hurt itself, began to cry out. Cossack tried in vain to comfort it by leaping upon it and licking its face. Finding all his efforts to pacify the child fruitless, he ran off to a mountain-ash tree, and leaping up, pulled a branch of red _rowan_ berries and carried it in his mouth to the child." HORACE WALPOLE'S PET DOG ROSETTE. Horace Walpole, writing to Lord Nuneham in November 1773,[102] says:--"The rest of my time has been employed in nursing Rosette--alas! to no purpose. After suffering dreadfully for a fortnight from the time she was seized at Nuneham, she has only languished till about ten days ago. As I have nothing to fill my letter, I will send you her epitaph; it has no merit, for it is an imitation, but in coming from the heart if ever epitaph did, and therefore your dogmanity will not dislike it-- 'Sweetest roses of the year, Strew around my Rose's bier, Calmly may the dust repose Of my pretty, faithful Rose! And if yon cloud-topp'd hill[103] behind This frame dissolved, this breath resign'd, Some happier isle, some humbler heaven, Be to my trembling wishes given; Admitted to that equal sky, May sweet Rose bear me company!'" ARRIVAL OF TONTON, A PET DOG, TO WALPOLE.--TONTON DOES NOT UNDERSTAND ENGLISH. Horace Walpole, in May 1781,[104] had announced Tonton's arrival to his correspondent, the Hon. H. S. Conway. He says:--"I brought him this morning to take possession of his new villa, but his inauguration has not been at all pacific. As he has already found out that he may be as despotic as at St Joseph's, he began with exiling my beautiful little cat, upon which, however, we shall not quite agree. He then flew at one of my dogs, who returned it by biting his foot till it bled, but was severely beaten for it. I immediately rung for Margaret (his housekeeper) to dress his foot; but in the midst of my tribulation could not keep my countenance, for she cried, 'Poor little thing; he does not understand my language!' I hope she will not recollect, too, that he is a Papist!" In a postscript he tells the general that Tonton "is a cavalier, and a little of the _mousquetaire_ still; but if I do not correct his vivacities, at least I shall not encourage them, like my dear old friend." In a letter of about the same date to Mason the poet, he again alludes to his fondness of Tonton, but adds--"I have no occasion to brag of my dogmanity."[105] Horace Walpole, in 1774, thus refers to Margaret, in a letter to Lady Ossory:--"Who is to have the care of the dear mouse in your absence? I wish I could spare Margaret, who loves all creatures so well that she would have been happy in the ark, and sorry when the deluge ceased; unless people had come to see Noah's old house, which she would have liked still better than cramming his menagerie."[106] A sly allusion to the numerous fees Margaret got from visitors. Horace, in another of his letters, alludes to this, and, in a joke, proposes to marry Margaret to enrich himself. HORACE WALPOLE.--DEATH OF HIS DOG TONTON. Horace Walpole, writing to the Countess of Ossory, Feb. 24, 1789,[107] says:--"I delayed telling you that Tonton is dead, and that I comfort myself. He was grown stone deaf, and very nearly equally blind, and so weak that the two last days he could not walk up-stairs. Happily he had not suffered, and died close by my side without a pang or a groan. I have had the satisfaction, for my dear old friend's sake and his own, of having nursed him up, by constant attention, to the age of sixteen, yet always afraid of his surviving me, as it was scarcely possible he could meet a third person who would study his happiness equally. I sent him to Strawberry, and went thither on Sunday to see him buried behind the chapel near Rosette. I shall miss him greatly, and must not have another dog; I am too old, and should only breed it up to be unhappy when I am gone. My resource is in two marble kittens that Mrs Damer has given me, of her own work, and which are so much alive that I talk to them, as I did to poor Tonton! If this is being superannuated, no matter; when dotage can amuse itself it ceases to be an evil. I fear my marble playfellows are better adapted to me, than I am to being your ladyship's correspondent." Poor Tonton was left to Walpole by "poor dear Madame de Deffand." In a letter to the Rev. Mr Cole, in 1781, he announces its arrival, and how "she made me promise to take care of it the last time I saw her. That I will most religiously, and make it as happy as is possible."[108] ARCHBISHOP WHATELY AND HIS DOGS. "In these rambles he was generally attended by three uncompromising-looking dogs, the heads of which, if it were possible to draw them together in shamrock form, would forcibly suggest Cerberus. Richard Whately found, or thought he found, in the society of these dogs far brighter intelligence, and infinitely more fidelity, than in many of the Oxford men, who had been fulsomely praised for both. "In devotion to his dogs, Dr Whately continued true to the end of his life, and during the winter season might be daily seen in St Stephen's Green, Dublin, playing at 'tig' or 'hide and seek' with his canine attendants. Sometimes the old archbishop might be seen clambering up a tree, secreting his handkerchief or pocket-knife in some cunning nook, then resuming his walk, and, after a while, suddenly affecting to have lost these articles, which the dogs never failed immediately to regain. "That he was a close observer of the habits of dogs and other quadrupeds we have evidence in his able lecture on 'Animal Instinct.' Dr Whately, when referring to another subject, once said not irrelevantly, 'The power of duly appreciating _little_ things belongs to a great mind: a narrow-minded man has it not, for to him they are _great_ things.' Dr Whately was of opinion that some brutes were as capable of exercising reason as instinct. In his 'Lectures and Reviews' (p. 64) he tells of a dog which, being left on the bank of a river by his master, who had gone up the river in a boat, attempted to join him. He plunged into the water, but not making allowance for the strength of the stream, which carried him considerably below the boat, he could not beat up against it. He landed, and made allowance for the current of the river by leaping in at a place higher up. The combined action of the stream and his swimming carried him in an oblique direction, and he thus reached the boat. Dr Whately adopts the following conclusion--'It appears, then, that we can neither deny reason universally and altogether to brutes, nor instinct to man; but that each possesses a share of both, though in very different proportions.'"[109] SIR DAVID WILKIE COULD NOT SEE A PUN.--"A DOG-ROSE." The son and biographer of William Collins, the Royal Academician,[110] quotes from a manuscript collection of anecdotes, written by that charming painter of country life and landscape, the following on Sir David Wilkie:--"Wilkie was not quick in perceiving a joke, although he was always anxious to do so, and to recollect humorous stories, of which he was exceedingly fond. As instances, I recollect once when we were staying at Mr Wells's, at Redleaf, one morning at breakfast a very small puppy was running about under the table. 'Dear me,' said a lady, 'how this creature teases me!' I took it up and put it into my breast-pocket. Mr Wells said, 'That is a pretty nosegay.'--'Yes,' said I, 'it is a dog-rose.' Wilkie's attention, sitting opposite, was called to his friend's pun, but all in vain. He could not be persuaded to see anything in it. I recollect trying once to explain to him, with the same want of success, Hogarth's joke in putting the sign of the woman without a head ('The Good Woman') under the window from which the quarrelsome wife is throwing the dinner into the street." ULYSSES AND HIS DOG. Richard Payne Knight, in his "Inquiry into the Principles of Taste,"[111] when treating of the "sublime and pathetic," quotes the story of Ulysses and his dog, as follows:--"No Dutch painter ever exhibited an image less imposing, or less calculated to inspire awe and terror, or any other of Burke's symptoms or sources of the sublime (unless, indeed, it be a stink), than the celebrated dog of Ulysses lying upon a dunghill, covered with vermin and in the agonies of death; yet, when in such circumstances, on hearing the voice of his old master, who had been absent twenty years, he pricks his ears, wags his tail, and expires, what heart is not at once melted, elevated, and expanded with all those glowing feelings which Longinus has so well described as the genuine effects of the true sublime? That master, too--the patient, crafty, and obdurate Ulysses, who encounters every danger and bears every calamity with a constancy unshaken, a spirit undepressed, and a temper unruffled--when he sees this faithful old servant perishing in want, misery, and neglect, yet still remembering his long-lost benefactor, and collecting the last effort of expiring nature to give a sign of joy and gratulation at his return, hides his face and wipes away the tear! This is true sublimity of character, which is always mixed with tenderness--mere sanguinary ferocity being terrible and odious, but never sublime. [Greek: Agathoi polydakrytoi andres]--_Men prone to tears are brave_, says the proverbial Greek hemistich; for courage, which does not arise from mere coarseness of organisation, but from that sense of dignity and honour which constitutes the generous pride of a high mind, is founded in sensibility." FOOTNOTES: [46] "The Olio," by the late Francis Grose, Esq., F.A.S., p. 203. [47] "Dogs and their Ways;" illustrated by numerous anecdotes, compiled from authentic sources, by the Rev. Charles Williams. 1863. [48] It may interest the reader, who does not dive deep into literary curiosities, to refer to the original edition of Hayley's "Cowper" (4to, 1803, vol. i. p. 314), where the poet, in a letter to Samuel Rose, Esq., written at Weston, August 18, 1788, alludes to his having "composed a _spick_ and _span_ new piece called 'The Dog and the Water-lily;'" and in his next letter, September 11, he sent this piece to his excellent friend, the London barrister. Visitors to Olney and Weston, who have gone over the poet's walks, cannot but have their love for the gentle and afflicted Cowper most deeply _intensified_.--_See_ Miller's "First Impressions." [49] This book, like Storer's other illustrations of the scenes of the poems of Burns and Bloomfield, drawn immediately after the death of these poets, will become year by year more valuable. [50] "Memoirs of the Life of the Right Honourable Sir James Mackintosh," edited by his son, Robert James Mackintosh, Esq., vol. i. p. 164. [51] "Bawsn't," having a white stripe down the face.--_Glossary to Burns's Poems._ [52] See an extract farther on, in proof of this. [53] "The Jordan and the Rhine" (1854), p. 46, and pp. 91-93. [54] _See_ Layard's "Nineveh and its Remains," vol. ii. (1849), p. 425. [55] "Ladak, Physical, Statistical, and Historical," p. 218. [56] "Memoir of Bishop Blomfield," by his son, i. 220. [57] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 177. [58] A selection from the poetry of Elizabeth Barrett Browning. London, 1866, pp. 134-138. [59] "Memoirs of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, Bart.," edited by his son, Charles Buxton, Esq., B.A., third edition, p. 139. [60] Moore's "Life of Byron," chap. vii. p. 74. [61] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 279. [62] "Memoirs of the Life of Wm. Collins, R.A.," by his Son, i. 105. [63] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 203. [64] _Loc. cit._ p. 213. [65] "The Life, Character, and Literary Labours of Samuel Drew, A.M.," by his eldest son, p. 66. [66] "Memoirs of Samuel Foote, Esq.," &c., by W. Cooke, Esq., vol. ii. p. 36. [67] "Life of Thomas Gainsborough, R.A.," by the late George William Fulcher, p. 155. [68] _Edinburgh Review_, 1836, vol. lxiv. p. 17. [69] "Life and Letters of Elizabeth, last Duchess of Gordon," by the Rev. A. Moody Stuart, 1865, pp. 198-200. [70] Portion of the Journal kept by Thomas Raikes, Esq., from 1831 to 1837, vol. iii. p. 134. [71] "Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds," by C. R. Leslie, R.A. and Tom Taylor, M.A., vol. ii. p. 191. [72] "John Leifchild, D.D. His Public Ministry, &c.," by J. R. Leifchild, A.M., p. 143. [73] Agnes Strickland, "Lives of the Queens of England," vol. v. p. 293 (ed. 1851). [74] "A History of Peeblesshire," by William Chambers of Glenormiston, p. 428. [75] Vol. i. p. 156. [76] Memoir by his friend, the Rev. John W. Burgon, p. 204. [77] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 44. [78] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 43. [79] "Charles Lamb: his Friends, his Haunts, and his Books," by Percy Fitzgerald, M.A., 1866, p. 161. [80] Cunningham's Edition of Correspondence, viii. p. 331. [81] "The Table Talk; or, Familiar Discourse of Martin Luther," p. 66. [82] "The Diary of an Invalid; being the Journal of a Tour in Pursuit of Health in Portugal, Italy, Switzerland, and France in 1817-1819," p. 144. [83] "Common-Place Book," 4th ser. p. 423. [84] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 24. [85] "Memoir of Baron Larrey, Surgeon-in-chief of the Grande Armée." London. 1861. P. 191. [86] "England under the House of Hanover," by Thomas Wright, Esq., M.A., vol. ii. p. 57. [87] "Memoir of Perthes," vol. ii. pp. 153-4. [88] "Original Anecdotes of Peter the Great, collected from the conversation of several persons of distinction at St Petersburg and Moscow," by Mr Stoehlin, Member of the Imp. Acad., St Peters., p. 306. [89] A denthtchick is a soldier appointed to wait on an officer. [90] "Recollections and Anecdotes," 2d ser., by Capt. R. H. Gronow, p. 194 (1863). [91] "History of England, from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles," by Lord Mahon, vii. p. 261. [92] See Mundy's "Life of Lord Rodney," vol. i. 258. "Remember me to my dear girls and poor Loup. Kiss them for me. I hope they were pleased with my letter." Vol. ii. p. 28. [93] "Life of Thomas Ruddiman, A.M., the Keeper for almost fifty years of the Library belonging to the Faculty of Advocates, Edinburgh," p. 4. [94] See her "Autobiography," p. 85, for an anecdote of her saving a little dog, tied in a basket of stones, from the water. She called it "Moses." [95] Vol. ii. pp. 264, 265. [96] "Memoir of the Rev. Sydney Smith," by his daughter, Lady Holland, &c., vol. i. p. 200. [97] "Life of the Rev. Sydney Smith," by his daughter, Lady Holland, &c., vol. i. p. 379. [98] Vol. i. p. 267. [99] "Life and Correspondence," vol. v. p. 133. [100] "John Leifchild, D.D., his Public Ministry, Private Usefulness, and Personal Characteristics," founded upon an autobiography, by J. R. Leifchild, A.M., p. 34. [101] See Burgon's "Memoir of Patrick F. Tytler," p. 140. [102] Letter first published in Cunningham's Chronological Edition, vol. vi. p. 4. [103] Richmond Hill. The dog died at Strawberry Hill. [104] Correspondence, chronologically arranged by Peter Cunningham, viii. p. 39. [105] _Loc. cit._, p. 44. [106] Vol. vi. p. 117. [107] "The Letters of Horace Walpole, Earl of Orford," edited by Peter Cunningham, now first chronologically arranged, ix. p. 173. [108] _Loc. cit._, viii. p. 35. [109] Fitzpatrick, "Memoirs of Richard Whately, Archbishop of Dublin," vol. i. pp. 21, 22 (1864). [110] "Memoirs of the Life of William Collins, R.A.," by his son, W. Wilkie Collins, i. 193. [111] Third edition, 1806, p. 385. WOLF. Surely the man should get a monument who is proved to have killed the last she-wolf in these islands. How closely allied the wolf is to the dog may be clearly read in the accounts of Polar winterings. Some of the larger butchers' dogs are singularly wolf-like, and it seems to be _that_ variety which occasionally, as it were, resumes its wolfish habits of prowling at night and killing numbers of sheep in certain districts, as we sometimes read in the country papers of the day. In Strathearn, we lately heard of a very recent instance of this wolf-like ferocity breaking out. The dog was traced with great difficulty, and at last shot. He proved to be of the kind alluded to. POLSON AND THE LAST SCOTTISH WOLF. Mr Scrope[112] describes, from traditions still existing on the east coast of Sutherland, the destruction of what is supposed to have been the last Scottish wolf and her cubs. This was between 1690 and 1700. This wolf had committed many depredations on their flocks, and the inhabitants had been unsuccessful in their attempts to hunt it down. A man named Polson, attended by two herd boys, went in search of it. Polson was an old hunter, and had much experience in tracing and destroying wolves and other predatory animals. Forming his own conjectures, he proceeded at once to the wild and rugged ground that surrounds the rocky mountain-gulley which forms the channel of the burn of Sledale. Here, after a minute investigation, he discovered a narrow fissure in the midst of a confused mass of large fragments of rock, which, upon examination, he had reason to think might lead to a larger opening or cavern below, which the wolf might use as his den. Stones were now thrown down, and other means resorted to, to rouse any animal that might be lurking within. Nothing formidable appearing, the two lads contrived to squeeze themselves through the fissure, that they might examine the interior, while Polson kept guard on the outside. The boys descended through the narrow passage into a small cavern, which was evidently a wolf's den, for the ground was covered with bones and horns of animals, feathers, and egg-shells; and the dark space was somewhat enlivened by five or six active wolf cubs. Not a little dubious of the event, the voices of the poor boys came up hollow and anxious from below, communicating this intelligence. Polson at once desired them to do their best, and to destroy the cubs. Soon after, he heard the feeble howling of the whelps as they were attacked below, and saw almost at the same time, to his great horror, a full-grown wolf, evidently the dam, raging furiously at the cries of her young, and now close upon the mouth of the cavern, which she had approached unobserved, among the rocky irregularities of the place. She attempted to leap down at one bound from the spot where she was first seen. In this emergency, Polson instinctively threw himself forward on the wolf, and succeeded in catching a firm hold of the animal's long and bushy tail, just as the forepart of the body was within the narrow entrance of the cavern. He had unluckily placed his gun against a rock, when aiding the boys in their descent, and could not now reach it. Without apprising the lads below of their imminent peril, the stout hunter kept firm grip of the wolf's tail, which he wound round his left arm; and although the maddened brute scrambled, and twisted, and strove with all her might to force herself down to the rescue of her cubs, Polson was just able, with the exertion of all his strength, to keep her from going forward. In the midst of this singular struggle, which passed in silence--for the wolf was mute, and the hunter, either from the engrossing nature of his exertions, or from his unwillingness to alarm the boys, spoke not a word at the commencement of the conflict--his son within the cave, finding the light excluded from above, asked in Gaelic, and in an abrupt tone, "Father, what is keeping the light from us?"--"If the root of the tail break," replied he, "you will soon know that." Before long, however, the man contrived to get hold of his hunting-knife, and stabbed the wolf in the most vital parts he could reach. The enraged animal now attempted to turn and face her foe, but the hole was too narrow to allow of this; and when Polson saw his danger, he squeezed her forward, keeping her jammed in, whilst he repeated his stabs as rapidly as he could, until the animal, being mortally wounded, was easily dragged back and finished. * * * * * A similar story has been given, with the wilds of Canada for the scene. The young Highlander was said to be dirking pigs, while the father was keeping guard. "Phat's keeping out the licht, fayther?" shouts the son.--"If ta tail preaks, tou 'lt fine tat," were the question and answer. FOOTNOTES: [112] "The Art of Deer-Stalking," &c., by William Scrope, Esq., F.L.S., p. 371. FOX. The sharp-faced fox is a very epitome of cunning, and his name is a by-word for slyness. Farmers know well that no fox, nestling close to their houses, ever meddles with their poultry. Reynard rambles a good way from home before he begins to plunder. How admirable is Professor Wilson's description of fox-hunting, quoted here from the "Noctes." Sir Walter Scott, in one of his topographical essays, has given a curious account of the way in which a fox, acquainted with the "ins and outs" of a certain old castle, outwitted a whole pack of dogs, who had to jump up singly to get through a small window to which Reynard led them. His large tail, so bushy and so free, is of great use to Reynard. He often brushes the eyes of his pursuers with it when sprinkled with water anything but sweet, and which, by its pungency, for a time blinds them. The pursuit of the fox is most exciting, and turns out the lord "of high degree," and the country squire and farmer. It is the most characteristic sport of the "better classes" in this country. AN ENTHUSIASTIC FOX-HUNTING SURGEON.[113] A medical gentleman, named Hansted, residing near Newbury, who was very fond of fox-hunting, ordered his gardener to set a trap for some vermin that infested his garden. As ill luck would have it, a fox was found in the morning with his leg broken, instead of a plant-eating rabbit. The gardener took Reynard to the doctor, when he exclaimed, "Why did you not call me up in the night, that I might have set the leg?" Better late than never: the surgeon set the leg; the fox recovered, and was killed in due form, after a capital run. FOX-HUNTING. (_From the "Noctes Ambrosianæ," April 1826._[114]) _North._ It seems fox-hunting, too, is cruel. _Shepherd._ To wham? Is't cruel to dowgs, to feed fifty or sixty o' them on crackers and ither sorts o' food, in a kennel like a Christian house, wi' a clear burn flowin' through 't, and to gie them, twice a-week or aftener, during the season, a brattlin rin o' thretty miles after a fox? Is that cruelty to dowgs? _North._ But the fox, James? _Shepherd._ We'll come to the fox by and by. Is't cruel to horses, to buy a hundred o' them for ae hunt, rarely for less than a hundred pounds each, and aften for five hundred--to feed them on five or sax feeds o' corn _per diem_--and to gie them skins as sleek as satin--and to gar them nicher (_neigh_) wi' fu'ness o' bluid, sae that every vein in their bodies starts like sinnies (_sinews_)--and to gallop them like deevils in a hurricane, up hill and doun brae, and loup or soom canals and rivers, and flee ower hedges, and dikes, and palings, like birds, and drive crashin' through woods, like elephants or rhinoceroses--a' the while every coorser flingin' fire-flaughts (_flakes_) frae his een, and whitening the sweat o' speed wi' the foam o' fury--I say, ca' you that cruelty to horses, when the hunt charge with all their chivalry, and plain, mountain, or forest are shook by the quadrupedal thunder? _North._ But the fox, James? _Shepherd._ We'll come to the fox by and by. Is 't cruel to men to inspirit wi' a rampagin happiness fivescore o' the flower o' England or Scotland's youth, a' wi' caps and red coats, and whups in their hauns--a troop o' lauchin, tearin', tallyhoin' "wild and wayward humorists," as the doctor ca'd them the tither Sunday? _North._ I like the expression, James. _Shepherd._ So do I, or I would not have quoted it. But it's just as applicable to a set o' outrageous ministers, eatin' and drinkin', and guffawin' at a Presbytery denner. _North._ But the fox, James? _Shepherd._ We'll come to the fox by and by. Is't cruel to the lambs, and leverets, and geese, and turkeys, and dyucks, and patricks, and wee birds, and ither animal eatables, to kill the fox that devoors them, and keeps them in perpetual het water? _North._ But the fox, James? _Shepherd._ Deevil take baith you and the fox; I said that we would come to the fox by and by. Weel, then, wha kens that the fox isna away snorin' happy afore the houn's? I hae nae doubt he is, for a fox is no sae complete a coward as to think huntin' cruel; and his haill nature is then on the alert, which in itsel' is happiness. Huntin' him fa'in into languor and ennui, and growin' ower fat on how-towdies (_barn-door fowls_). He's no killed every time he's hunted. _North._ Why, James, you might write for the "Annals of Sporting." _Shepherd._ So I do sometimes--and mair o' ye than me, I jalouse; but I was gaun to ask ye if ye could imagine the delicht o' a fox gettin' into an undiggable earth, just when the leadin' houn' was at his hainches?--ae sic moment is aneuch to repay half an hour's draggle through the dirt; and he can lick himsel' clean at his leisure, far ben in the cranny o' the rock, and come out a' tosh and tidy by the first dawn o' licht, to snuff the mornin' air, and visit the distant farm-house before Partlet has left her perch, or Count Crow lifted his head from beneath his oxter on his shed-seraglio. _North._ Was ye ever in at a death? Is not that cruel? _Shepherd._ Do you mean in at the death o' ae fox, or the death o' a hundred thousand men and sixty thousand horses?--the takin' o' a Brush, or a Borodino? _North._ My dear James, thank ye for your argument. As one Chalmers is worth a thousand Martins, so is one Hogg worth a thousand Chalmerses. _Shepherd._ Ane may weel lose patience, to think o' fules being sorry for the death o' a fox. When the jowlers tear him to pieces, he shows fecht, and gangs aff in a snarl. Hoo could he dee mair easier?--and for a' the gude he has ever dune, or was likely to do, he surely had leeved lang eneuch. ARCTIC FOX (_Vulpes lagopus_). This inoffensive and pretty little creature is found in all parts of the Arctic lands. Its fur is peculiarly fine and thick; and as in winter this is closer and more mixed with wool than it is in summer, the intense cold of these regions is easily resisted. When sleeping rolled up into a ball, with the black muzzle buried in the long hairs of the tail, there is not a portion of the body but what is protected from the cold, the shaggy hairs of the brush acting as a respirator or boa for the mouth and a muff for the paws. Our Arctic travellers have remarked, that it is a peculiarly cleanly animal, and its vigilance is extreme. It is almost impossible to come on it unawares, for even when appearing to be soundly asleep, it opens its eyes on the slightest noise being made. During the day it appears to be listless, but no sooner has the night set in than it is in motion, and it continues very active until morning. The young migrate to the southward in the autumn, and sometimes collect in great numbers on the shores of Hudson's Bay. Mr Graham noticed that they came there in November and left in April. [Illustration: Arctic Fox. (Canis Lagopus.)] Sir James Ross found a fox's burrow on the sandy margin of a lake in the month of July. It had several passages, each opening into a common cell, beyond which was an inner nest, in which the young, six in number, were found. These had the dusky, lead-coloured livery worn by the parents in summer; and though four of them were kept alive till the following winter, they never acquired the pure white coats of the old fox, but retained the dusky colour on the face and sides of the body. The parents had kept a good larder for their progeny, as the outer cell and the several passages leading to it contained many lemmings and ermines, and the bones of fish, ducks, and hares, in great quantities. Sir John Richardson[115] observed them to live in villages, twenty or thirty burrows being constructed close to each other. A pair were kept by Sir James Ross for the express purpose of watching the changes which take place in the colour of their fur. He noticed that they threw off their winter dress during the first week in June, and that this change took place a few days earlier in the female than in the male. About the end of September the brown fur of the summer gradually became of an ash colour, and by the middle of October it was perfectly white. It continued to increase in thickness until the end of November.[116] A variety of a blackish-brown colour is occasionally met with, but this is rare: such specimens, Ross remarks, must have extreme difficulty in surprising their prey in a country whose surface is of an unvaried white, and must also be much more exposed to the persecutions of their enemies. The food of this fox is various, but seems to consist principally of lemmings and of birds and their eggs. He eats, too, the berries of the _Empetrum nigrum_, a plant common on our own hills, and goes to the shore for mussels and other shell-fish. Otho Fabricius[117] says he catches the Arctic salmon as that fish approaches the shore to spawn, and that he seizes too the haddock, having enticed it near by beating the water. Crantz, in his "History of Greenland," evidently alludes to this cunning habit when he observes, "They plash with their feet in the water, to excite the curiosity of some kinds of fishes to come and see what is going forward, and then they snap them up; and _the Greenland women have learnt this piece of art from them_." Captain Lyon noticed a fox prowling on a hill-side, and heard him for some hours afterwards in the neighbourhood imitating the cry of the brent-goose. In another part of his Journal he mentions that the bark is so modulated as to give an idea that it proceeds from a distance, though at the time the fox lies at your feet. It struck him that the creature was gifted "with this kind of ventriloquism in order to deceive its prey as to the distance it is from them." It sometimes catches the ptarmigan; and though it cannot swim, it manages occasionally to get hold of oceanic birds; in fact, nothing alive which it can master seems to come amiss, and failing to make a meal from something it has caught and killed, the Arctic fox is glad, like foxes in more favoured lands, to feed on carrion. Captain M'Clintock, who commanded the yacht _Fox_ on the Franklin Arctic search in 1857 and 1858, wintered in the ice pack of Baffin's Bay. One of the party shot an Arctic fox when they were 140 miles from the land. He records in a letter to his brother,[118] that this wanderer from the shore "was very fat, living upon such few dovekies as were silly enough to spend their winter in the pack." Martens, in his "Spitzbergen," says, that some of the ship's crew informed him, that the fox when he is hungry "lies down as if he was dead, until the birds fly to him to eat him, which by that trick he catches and eats." Our author believed it a fable, but it may nevertheless be one of the many expedients used by a species of a group whose name is proverbial for craftiness and cunning. The flesh of the fox is occasionally eaten by the Esquimaux: Captain Lyon, in his "Private Journal," says that at first all of his party were horrified at the idea of eating foxes--"But very many soon got the better of their fastidiousness and found them good eating; not being myself very nice, I soon made the experiment, and found the flesh much resembling that of kid, and afterwards frequently had a supper of it." Sir James Clarke Ross, during his five years' imprisonment in Boothia Felix and the adjoining seas, had ample means of judging of its flavour; he tells us that some of his party, who were the first to taste them, named them "lambs," from their resemblance in flavour to very young lamb. He adds, that the flesh of the old fox is by no means so palatable. During that disastrous expedition the flesh of this fox formed one of the principal luxuries of their table, and it was always "reserved for holidays and great occasions. We ate them boiled, or, more frequently after being parboiled, _roasted_, in a pitch kettle." When the Arctic Expedition in search of Franklin wintered in Leopold Harbour in 1848-49, the commander, Sir J. C. Ross, made use of the Arctic fox as a messenger. Having caught some of these animals in traps, a collar with information for the missing parties was put round the neck of each before liberation, as the fox is known to travel great distances in search of food. On Captain Austin's subsequent expedition in 1850-51 the same plan was carried out, but it was found to be equally without result. Commander Osborn thus facetiously describes the circumstance.[119] "Several animals thus intrusted with despatches or records were liberated by different ships; but, as the truth must be told, I fear in many cases the next night saw the poor 'postman,' as Jack termed him, in another trap, out of which he would be taken, killed, the skin taken off, and packed away to ornament at some future day the neck of some fair Dulcinea. As a 'sub,' I was admitted into this secret mystery, or, otherwise, I with others might have accounted for the disappearance of the collared foxes by believing them busy on their honourable mission. In order that the crime of killing 'the postmen' may be recognised in its true light, it is but fair that I should say, that the brutes, having partaken once of the good cheer on board or around the ships, seldom seemed satisfied with the mere empty honours of a copper collar, and returned to be caught over and over again. Strict laws were laid down for their safety, such as that no fox taken alive in a trap was to be killed: of course no fox was after this taken alive; they were all unaccountably dead, unless it was some fortunate wight whose brush and coat were worthless; in such case he lived either to drag about a quantity of information in a copper collar for the rest of his days, or else to die a slow death, as being intended for Lord Derby's menagerie. The departure of 'a postman' was a scene of no small merriment; all hands, from the captain to the cook, were out to chase the fox, who, half frightened out of its wits, seemed to doubt which way to run, whilst loud shouts and roars of laughter, breaking the cold, frosty air, were heard from ship to ship, as the foxhunters, swelled in numbers from all sides, and those that could not run mounted some neighbouring hummock of ice and gave a loud halloo, which said far more for robust health than for tuneful melody." The Arctic fox as a captive has often amused our Arctic voyagers, and accounts of it are to be met with in most of their narratives. Captain Lyon made a pet of one he captured, and confined it on deck in a small kennel with a piece of chain. The little creature astonished the party very much by his extraordinary sagacity, for, on the very first day, having been repeatedly drawn out by his chain, he at length drew his chain in after him whenever he retreated to his hut, and took it in with his mouth so completely, that no one who valued his fingers would venture afterwards to take hold of the end attached to the staple. Sir J. C. Ross observed in Boothia Felix a good deal of difference in the disposition of specimens, some being easily tamed, whilst others would remain savage and untractable even with the kindest treatment. He found the females much more vicious than the males. A dog-fox which his party captured lived several months with them, and became so tame in a short time that he regularly attended the dinner-table like a dog, and was always allowed to go at large about the cabin. When newly caught their rage is quite ungovernable, and yet when two are put together they very seldom quarrel. They soon get reconciled to confinement. Captain Lyon[120] notices that their first impulse on getting food is to hide it as soon as possible, and this, he observed, they did, even when hungry and by themselves; when there was snow on the ground they piled it over their stores, and pressed it down forcibly with their nose. When no snow was to be obtained, he noticed his pet fox gather the chain into his mouth, and then carefully coil it so as to cover the meat. Having gone through this process, and drawn away his chain after him on moving away, he has sometimes repeated his useless labours five or six times, until disgusted, apparently, at the inability of making the morsel a greater luxury by previous concealment, he has been forced to eat it. These creatures use snow as a substitute for water, and it is pleasing to see them break a large lump with their feet, and roll on the pieces with evident delight. When the snow lay lightly scattered on the decks, they did not lick it up as dogs do, but by pressing it repeatedly with their nose, collected a small lump which they drew into their mouth. It may be added that the specific name _lagopus_, or "hare-foot," was given to this fox from the soles of its feet being densely covered with woolly hair, which gives them some resemblance to the feet of a hare. Cuvier remarks that other foxes acquire this hair on the soles when taken to northern lands. The specimens, figured so admirably by Mr Wolf, were drawn from some brought alive to the Zoological Gardens by one of the late Arctic expeditions.--_A. White, in "Excelsior" (with additions)._ FOOTNOTES: [113] _Edinburgh Review_, 1841, vol. lxxiv. p. 77. [114] "Noctes Ambrosianæ." Works of Professor Wilson, vol. i. pp. 136-138. [115] "Fauna Boreali-Americana." Mammalia, p. 87. [116] Appendix to "Second Voyage," p. xii. [117] "Fauna Groenlandica," p. 20. [118] _Dublin Nat. Hist. Review, 1858_, p. 166. [119] "Stray Leaves from an Arctic Journal," p. 176. [120] "Private Journal," p. 105. JACKAL. The boy who used to read, long ago, "The Three Hundred Animals," was ever familiar with "_the Lion's Provider_," as the menagerie showmen, even now, somewhat pompously style this hungry howler of the desert. The jackal is a social kind of dog, and a pack of hungry or excited jackals can howl in notes fit to pierce the ears of the deafest. He is a mean, starved-looking creature in ordinary circumstances, seeming as if his social life prevented his getting what is called _a lion's_ share on any occasion. JACKAL AND TIGER. As Burke was declaiming with great animation against Hastings, he was interrupted by little Major Scott. "Am I," said he, indignantly, "to be teased by the barking of this _jackal_, while I am attacking the royal _tiger_ of Bengal?"[121] CATS. Another fertile subject for anecdote. Who has not some faithful black Topsy, Tortoise-shell, or Tabby, or rather succession of them, whose biographies would afford many a curious story? Professor Bell[122] has well defended the general character of poor pussy from the oft-repeated calumnies spread about it. Cats certainly get much attached to individuals, as well as to houses and articles in them. They want the lovableness and demonstrativeness of dogs; but their habits are very different, and they are strictly organised to adapt them to watch and to pounce on their prey. As we have elsewhere remarked, and the remark was founded on observation of our eldest daughter when a very young child, "Your little baby loves the pussy, and pussy sheathes her claws most carefully, but should baby draw back her arm suddenly, and pussy accidentally scratch that tender skin, how the little girl cries! It is, perhaps, her first lesson that sweets and bitters, pleasures and pains, meekness and ferocity, are mingled in this world."[123] JEREMY BENTHAM AND HIS PET CAT "SIR JOHN LANGBORN." Dr, afterwards Sir John, Bowring, in the life of that diligent eccentric "codificator," Jeremy Bentham,[124] thus alludes to some of his pets:--"Bentham was very fond of animals, particularly '_pussies_,' as he called them, 'when they had domestic virtues;' but he had no particular affection for the common race of _cats_. He had one, however, of which he used to boast that he had 'made a man of him,' and whom he was wont to invite to eat maccaroni at his own table. This puss got knighted, and rejoiced in the name of Sir John Langborn. In his early days, he was a frisky, inconsiderate, and, to say the truth, somewhat profligate gentleman; and had, according to the report of his patron, the habit of seducing light and giddy young ladies of his own race into the garden of Queen's Square Place; but tired at last, like Solomon, of pleasures and vanities, he became sedate and thoughtful--took to the church, laid down his knightly title, and was installed as the Reverend John Langborn. He gradually obtained a great reputation for sanctity and learning, and a doctor's degree was conferred upon him. When I knew him, in his declining days, he bore no other name than the Reverend Doctor John Langborn; and he was alike conspicuous for his gravity and philosophy. Great respect was invariably shown his reverence; and it was supposed he was not far off from a mitre, when old age interfered with his hopes and honours. He departed amidst the regrets of his many friends, and was gathered to his fathers, and to eternal rest, in a cemetery in Milton's Garden.[125] "'I had a cat,' he said, 'at Hendon, which used to follow me about even in the street. George Wilson was very fond of animals too. I remember a cat following him as far as Staines. There was a beautiful pig at Hendon, which I used to rub with my stick. He loved to come and lie down to be rubbed, and took to following me like a dog. I had a remarkably intellectual cat, who never failed to attend one of us when we went round the garden. He grew quite a tyrant, insisting on being fed and on being noticed. He interrupted my labours. Once he came with a most hideous yell, insisting on the door being opened. He tormented Jack (Colls) so much, that Jack threw him out of the window. He was so clamorous that it could not be borne, and means were found to send him to another world. His moral qualities were most despotic--his intellectual extraordinary; but he was a universal nuisance." "'From my youth I was fond of cats, as I am still. I was once playing with one in my grandmother's room. I had heard the story of cats having nine lives, and being sure of falling on their legs; and I threw the cat out of the window on the grass-plot. When it fell it turned towards me, looked in my face and mewed. "Poor thing!" I said, "thou art reproaching me with my unkindness." I have a distinct recollection of all these things. Cowper's story of his hares had the highest interest for me when young; for I always enjoyed the society of tame animals. Wilson had the same taste--so had Romilly, who kept a noble puss, before he came into great business. I never failed to pay it my respects. I remember accusing Romilly of violating the commandment in the matter of cats. My fondness for animals exposed me to many jokes.'" BISSET AND HIS MUSICAL CATS. S. Bisset, to whom we referred before, was a Scotchman, born at Perth. He went to London as a shoemaker; but afterwards turned a broker. About 1739 he turned his attention to the teaching of animals. He was very successful, and among the subjects of his experiments were three young cats. Wilson, in his "Eccentric Mirror,"[126] has recorded that "he taught these domestic tigers to strike their paws in such directions on the dulcimer, as to produce several tunes, having music-books before them, and squalling at the same time in different keys or tones, first, second, and third, by way of concert. In such a city as London these feats could not fail of making some noise. His house was every day crowded, and great interruption given to his business. Among the rest, he was visited by an exhibitor of wonders. Pinchbeck advised him to a public exhibition of his animals at the Haymarket, and even promised, on receiving a moiety, to be concerned in the exhibition. Bisset agreed, but the day before the performance, Pinchbeck declined, and the other was left to act for himself. The well-known _Cats' Opera_ was advertised in the Haymarket; the horse, the dog, the monkeys, and the cats went through their several parts with uncommon applause, to crowded houses, and in a few days Bisset found himself possessed of nearly a thousand pounds to reward his ingenuity." CONSTANT, CHATEAUBRIAND, AND THE CAT. "Benjamin Constant was accustomed to write in a closet on the third story. Beside him sat his estimable wife, and on his knee his favourite cat; this feline affection he entertained in common with Count de Chateaubriand."[127] LISTON THE SURGEON AND HIS CAT. Robert Liston, the great surgeon, was, it seems, very fond of a cat. Dr Forbes Winslow asks, "Who has not seen Liston's favourite cat Tom? This animal is considered to be a unique specimen of the feline tribe; and so one would think, to see the passionate fondness which he manifests for it. This cat is always perched on Liston's shoulder, at breakfast, dinner, and tea, in his carriage, and out of his carriage. It is quite ludicrous to witness the devotion which the great operator exhibits towards his favourite."[128] Liston was a curious man. He often called on his friends as early as six o'clock in the morning. In most cases, such calls must have been visits of formality or quiet jokes at the lazy manners of most men of the present age. We know one person whom he called on usually at this early hour. It would be more healthy for the young, if they would imitate this talented surgeon. We may here say that he used to allow one particular nail to grow long. It was a nail he used to guide his knife when operating. When at college in 1833 or 1834, we heard a student, who knew this clever operator well, happily apply the _double-entendre_, "_homo ad unguem factus_," a phrase, Dr Carson, our noble rector at the High School, taught us to translate "_an accomplished man_." THE BANKER MITCHELL'S ANTIPATHY TO KITTENS. Mr J. T. Smith, once Keeper of the Prints in the British Museum, author of the "Life and Times of Nollekens, the Royal Academician,"[129] tells a story of Mr Matthew Mitchell, a banker, who collected prints. "Mr Mitchell had a most serious antipathy to a kitten. He could sit in a room without experiencing the least emotion from a cat; but directly he perceived a kitten, his flesh shook on his bones, like a snail in vinegar. I once relieved him from one of these paroxysms by taking a kitten out of the room; on my return he thanked me, and declared his feelings to be insupportable upon such an occasion. Long subsequently, I asked him whether he could in any way account for this agitation. He said he could not, adding that he experienced no such sensations upon seeing a full-grown cat; but that a kitten, after he had looked at it for a minute or two, in his imagination grew to the size of an overpowering elephant." JAMES MONTGOMERY AND HIS CATS.[130] The poet Montgomery was very fond of cats. His biographers say--"We never recollect the time when some familiar 'Tabby' or audacious 'Tom' did not claim to share the poet's attention during our familiar interviews with him in his own parlour. We well recollect one fine brindled fellow, called 'Nero,' who, during his kittenhood, 'purred' the following epistle to a little girl who had been his playmate:-- "HARTSHEAD, NEAR THE HOLE-IN-THE-WALL, "_July 23, 1825_. "_Harrrrrrr_, "_Mew, wew, auw, mauw, hee, wee, miaw, waw, wurr, whirr, ghurr, wew, mew, whew, isssss, tz, tz, tz, purrurrurrur._" DONE INTO ENGLISH. "HARRIET, "This comes to tell you that I am very well, and I hope you are so too. I am growing a great cat; pray how do you come on? I wish you were here to carry me about as you used to do, and I would scratch you to some purpose, for I can do this much better than I could while you were here. I have not run away yet, but I believe I shall soon, for I find my feet are too many for my head, and often carry me into mischief. Love to Sheffelina, though I was always fit to pull her cap when I saw you petting her. My cross old mother sends her love to you--she shows me very little now-a-days, I assure you, so I do not care what she does with the rest. She has brought me a mouse or two, and I caught one myself last night; but it was in my dream, and I awoke as hungry as a hunter, and fell to biting at my tail, which I believe I should have eaten up; but it would not let me catch it. So no more at present from TINY. "_P.S._--They call me Tiny yet, you see; but I intend to take the name of Nero, after the lion fight at Warwick next week, if the lion conquers, not else. "_2d P.S._--I forgot to tell you that I can beg, but I like better to steal,--it's more natural, you know. "HARRIET, at Ockbrook." SIR WALTER SCOTT'S VISIT TO THE BLACK DWARF.--DAVID RITCHIE'S CAT. David Ritchie, the prototype of the "Black Dwarf," inhabited a small cottage on the farm of Woodhouse, parish of Manor, Peeblesshire. In the year 1797, Walter Scott, then a young advocate, was taken by the Fergusons to see "Bowed Davie," as the poor misanthropic man was generally called. Mr William Chambers,[131] the historian of his native county, describes the visit at greater length than Scott has done in the introduction to his novel. He says--"At the first sight of Scott, the misanthrope seemed oppressed with a sentiment of extraordinary interest, which was either owing to the lameness of the stranger--a circumstance throwing a narrower gulf between this person and himself than what existed between him and most other men--or to some perception of an extraordinary mental character in this limping youth, which was then hid from other eyes. After grinning upon him for a moment with a smile less bitter than his wont, the dwarf passed to the door, double-locked it, and then coming up to the stranger, seized him by the wrist with one of his iron hands, and said, 'Man, hae ye ony poo'er?' By this he meant magical power, to which he had himself some vague pretensions, or which, at least, he had studied and reflected upon till it had become with him a kind of monomania. Scott disavowed the possession of any gifts of that kind, evidently to the great disappointment of the inquirer, who then turned round and gave a signal to a huge black cat, hitherto unobserved, which immediately jumped up to a shelf, where it perched itself, and seemed to the excited senses of the visitors as if it had really been the familiar spirit of the mansion. 'He has poo'er,' said the dwarf in a voice which made the flesh of the hearers thrill, and Scott, in particular, looked as if he conceived himself to have actually got into the den of one of those magicians with whom his studies had rendered him familiar. 'Ay, _he_ has poo'er,' repeated the recluse; and then, going to his usual seat, he sat for some minutes grinning horribly, as if enjoying the impression he had made, while not a word escaped from any of the party. Mr Ferguson at length plucked up his spirits, and called to David to open the door, as they must now be going. The dwarf slowly obeyed, and when they had got out, Mr Ferguson observed that his friend was as pale as ashes, while his person was agitated in every limb. Under such striking circumstances was this extraordinary being first presented to the _real_ magician, who was afterwards to give him such a deathless celebrity." Mr Chambers doubtless received the particulars of this visit from Sir Adam Ferguson, Scott's friend and companion. * * * * * Robert Southey, like Jeremy Bentham, with whom the Quarterly Reviewer would have grudged to have been classified, loved cats. His son, in his "Life and Correspondence," vol. vi. p. 210, says--"My father's fondness for cats has been occasionally shown by allusion in his letters,[132] and in 'The Doctor' is inserted an amusing memorial of the various cats which at different times were inmates of Greta Hall. He rejoiced in bestowing upon them the strangest appellations, and it was not a little amusing to see a kitten answer to the name of some Italian singer or Indian chief, or hero of a German fairy tale, and often names and titles were heaped one upon another, till the possessor, unconscious of the honour conveyed, used to 'set up his eyes and look' in wonderment. Mr Bedford had an equal liking for the feline race, and occasional notices of their favourites therefore passed between them, of which the following records the death of one of the greatest:-- "'_To Grosvenor C. Bedford, Esq._ "'KESWICK, _May 18, 1833_. "'My Dear G---- ... --Alas! Grosvenor, this day poor old Rumpel was found dead, after as long and happy a life as cat could wish for, if cats form wishes on that subject. His full titles were:--"The Most Noble the Archduke Rumpelstiltzchen, Marquis M'Bum, Earl Tomlemagne, Baron Raticide, Waowhler, and Skaratch." There should be a court mourning in Catland, and if the Dragon[133] wear a black ribbon round his neck, or a band of crape _à la militaire_ round one of the fore paws, it will be but a becoming mark of respect. "'As we have no catacombs here, he is to be decently interred in the orchard, and cat-mint planted on his grave. Poor creature, it is well that he has thus come to his end after he had become an object of pity, I believe we are, each and all, servants included, more sorry for his loss, or rather more affected by it, than any one of us would like to confess. "'I should not have written to you at present, had it not been to notify this event. R. S.'" In a letter from Leyden to his son Cuthbert, then in his seventh year, he says--"I hope Rumpelstiltzchen has recovered his health, and that Miss Cat is well; and I should like to know whether Miss Fitzrumpel has been given away, and if there is another kitten. The Dutch cats do not speak exactly the same language as the English ones. I will tell you how they talk when I come home."[134] ARCHBISHOP WHATELY'S ANECDOTE OF THE CAT THAT USED TO RING THE BELL. Archbishop Whately[135] records a case of an act done by a cat, which, if done by a man, would be called reason. He says--"This cat lived many years in my mother's family, and its feats of sagacity were witnessed by her, my sisters, and myself. It was known, not merely once or twice, but habitually, to ring the parlour bell whenever it wished the door to be opened. Some alarm was excited on the first occasion that it turned bell-ringer. The family had retired to rest, and in the middle of the night the parlour-bell was rung violently; the sleepers were startled from their repose, and proceeded down-stairs, with pokers and tongs, to interrupt, as they thought, the predatory movement of some burglar; but they were agreeably surprised to discover that the bell had been rung by pussy; who frequently repeated the act whenever she wanted to get out of the parlour." * * * * * A friend (D. D., Esq., Edinburgh) tells me of a cat his family had in the country, that used regularly to "_tirl at the pin_" of the back door when it wished to get in to the house. FOOTNOTES: [121] Mark Lemon, "Jest-Book," p. 280. [122] "British Quadrupeds." The professor has long retired to his favourite Selborne. He occupies the house of Gilbert White; and a new illustrated edition of the "Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne" has been long looked for from him. [123] "The Instructive Picture Book; or, A Few Attractive Lessons from the Natural History of Animals," by Adam White, p. 15 (fifth edition, 1862). [124] "The Works of Jeremy Bentham," now first collected under the superintendence of his executor, John Bowring, vol. xi. pp. 80, 81. [125] Jeremy Bentham's house in Queen's Square was that which had been occupied by the great poet. [126] Vol. i. No. 3. p. 27. [127] _Times_, 18 Dec. 1830, quoted by Southey, "Common-Place Book," iv. p. 489. [128] "Physic and Physicians," a medical sketch-book, vol. ii. p. 363 (1839). [129] "A Book for a Rainy Day," p. 103. Old Smith was a regular hunter after legacies, and like all such was often disappointed. His "Nollekens" is a fine example. [130] "Memoirs of James Montgomery," by Holland and Everett, iv. pp. 114, 115. [131] "A History of Peeblesshire," by William Chambers of Glenormiston, p. 403 (1864). [132] See vol. v. p. 145. [133] A cat of Mr Bedford's. [134] "Life and Correspondence," v. p. 223. [135] On Instinct, a Lecture delivered before the Dublin Natural History Society, 11th November 1842. Dublin, 1847. P. 10. TIGER AND LION. These most ferocious of the Carnivora have afforded interesting subjects to many a traveller. An extensive volume of truly sensational adventure might be compiled about them, adding a chapter for the jaguar and the leopard, two extremely dangerous spotted cats, that can do what neither tigers nor lions are able to do--namely, climb trees. Having once asked a friend, who was at the death of many a wild beast, which was the most savage animal he had ever seen, he replied, "A wounded leopard." It was to such an animal that Jacob referred when he saw Joseph's clothes, and said--"Some evil beast hath devoured him." Colonel Campbell's work, from which the first paragraph is derived, contains much about the pursuit of the tiger. Dr Livingstone's travels and Gordon Cumming's books on South Africa, neither of which we have quoted, have thrilling pages about the lordly presence of "the king of beasts." Mr Joseph Wolf and Mr Lewis are perhaps the best draughtsmen of the lion among recent artists. The public admire much Sir Edwin Landseer's striking bronze lions on the pedestal of the Nelson Monument. That artist excels in his pictures of the lion. On the Assyrian monuments in the British Museum are many wonderfully executed lion hunts, as perfectly preserved as if they had been chiselled in our day. Parts of these bas-reliefs were certainly designed from actual sketches made from the lions and dogs, which took the chief part in the amusements of some "Nimrod, a mighty hunter before the Lord." Even our Scottish kings kept a lion or lions as ornaments of their court. At Stirling Castle and Palace, a room which we saw in 1865, still bears the name of the "Lion's Den." The British lion is an old emblem of both Scotland and England, and it is not twenty-five years ago since we, in common with every visitor to the Tower, were glad to see "the Royal Lion." Dr Livingstone's experience, we have not the slightest wish to prove its accuracy, shows that the lion has a soothing, or rather paralysing power over his prey, when he has knocked it down or bitten it. BUSSAPA, THE TIGER-SLAYER, AND THE TIGER. The following striking anecdote recounts the extraordinary presence of mind and determined courage of a celebrated Mahratta hunter named Bussapa. This man acquired the name of the "Tiger-slayer," and wore on his breast several silver medals granted by the Indian Government for feats of courage in destroying tigers. Colonel Campbell met him, and in "My Indian Journal" (pp. 142, 143), published in 1864, has recorded from his brother's diary the following anecdote:--"Bussapa, a hunter of 'Lingyat' caste, with whom I am well acquainted, was sent for by the headman of a village, to destroy a tiger which had carried off a number of cattle. He came, and having ascertained the brute's usual haunts, fastened a bullock near the edge of a ravine which he frequented, and quietly seated himself beside it, protected only by a small bush. Soon after sunset the tiger appeared, killed the bullock, and was glutting himself with blood, when Bussapa, thrusting his long matchlock through the bush, fired, and wounded him severely. The tiger half rose, but being unable to see his assailant on account of the intervening bush, dropped again on his prey with a sudden growl. Bussapa was kneeling within three paces of him, completely defenceless; he did not even dare to reload, for he well knew that the slightest movement on his part would be the signal for his immediate destruction; his bare knees were pressed upon gravel, but he dared not venture to shift his uneasy position. Ever and anon, the tiger, as he lay with his glaring eyes fixed upon the bush, uttered his hoarse growl of anger; his hot breath absolutely blew upon the cheek of the wretched man, yet still he moved not. The pain of his cramped position increased every moment--suspense became almost intolerable; but the motion of a limb, the rustling of a leaf, would have been death. Thus they remained, the man and the tiger, watching each other's motions; but even in this fearful situation, his presence of mind never for a moment forsook the noble fellow. He heard the gong of the village strike each hour of that fearful night, that seemed to him 'eternity,' and yet he lived; the tormenting mosquitoes swarmed round his face, but he dared not brush them off. That fiend-like eye met his whenever he ventured a glance towards the horrid spell that bound him; and a hoarse growl grated on the stillness of the night, as a passing breeze stirred the leaves that sheltered him. Hours rolled on, and his powers of endurance were well-nigh exhausted, when, at length, the welcome streaks of light shot up from the eastern horizon. On the approach of day, the tiger rose, and stalked away with a sulky pace, to a thicket at some distance, and then the stiff and wearied Bussapa felt that he was safe. "One would have thought that, after such a night of suffering, he would have been too thankful for his escape, to venture on any further risk. But the valiant Bussapa was not so easily diverted from his purpose; as soon as he had stretched his cramped limbs, and restored the checked circulation, he reloaded his matchlock, and coolly proceeded to finish his work. With his match lighted, he advanced close to the tiger, lying ready to receive him, and shot him dead by a ball in the forehead, while in the act of charging." Colonel Campbell relates, that most of Bussapa's family have fallen victims to tigers. But the firm belief of the "tiger-slayer" in predestination, makes him blind to all danger. JOHN HUNTER AND THE DEAD TIGER. The greatest comparative anatomist our country has produced, John Hunter, obtained the refusal of all animals which happened to die in the Tower or in the travelling menageries. In this way he often obtained rare subjects for his researches. Dr Forbes Winslow[136] alludes to a well-known fact, that all the money Hunter could spare, was devoted to procuring curiosities of this sort, and Sir Everard Home used to state, that as soon as he had accumulated fees to the amount of ten guineas, he always purchased some addition to his collection. Indeed, he was not unfrequently obliged to borrow of his friends, when his own funds were at a low ebb, and the temptation was strong. "Pray, George," said he one day to Mr G. Nicol, the bookseller to the king, with whom he was very intimate, "have you got any money in your pocket?" Mr N. replied in the affirmative. "Have you got five guineas? Because, if you have, and will lend it me, you shall go halves."--"Halves in what?" inquired his friend.--"Why, halves in a magnificent tiger, which is now dying in Castle Street." Mr Nicol lent the money, and Hunter purchased the tiger. TIGERS. Mrs Colin Mackenzie[137] records the death of a man from the wounds of a tiger. "The tiger," she says, "was brought in on the second day. He died from the wound he had received. I gave the body to the Dhers in our service, who ate it. The claws and whiskers are greatly prized by the natives as charms. The latter are supposed to give the possessor a certain malignant power over his enemies, for which reason I always take possession of them to prevent our people getting them. The tiger is very commonly worshipped all over India. The women often prostrate themselves before a dead tiger, when sportsmen are bringing it home in triumph; and in a village, near Nagpur, Mr Hislop found a number of rude images, almost like four-legged stools, which, on inquiry, proved to be meant for tigers, who were worshipped as the tutelary deities of the place. I believe a fresh image is added for every tiger that is slain." LION AND TIGER. A jolly jack-tar, having strayed into Atkin's show at Bartholomew Fair, to have a look at the wild beasts, was much struck with the sight of a lion and a tiger in the same den. "Why, Jack," said he to a messmate, who was chewing a quid in silent amazement, "I shouldn't wonder if next year they were to carry about _a sailor and a marine living peaceably together_!"--"Ay," said his married companion, "_or a man and wife_."[138] We may add that we have long regarded it as a vile calumny to two animals to say of a man and wife who quarrel, that they live "a cat and dog life." No two animals are better agreed when kept together. Each knows his own place and keeps it. Hence they live at peace--speaking "generally," as "Mr Artemus Ward" would say of "such an observation." ANDROCLES AND THE LION. Addison,[139] in the 139th _Guardian_, has given us the story of Androcles and the Lion. He prefaces it by saying that he has no regard "to what Æsop has said upon the subject, whom," says he, "I look upon to have been a republican, by the unworthy treatment which he often gives to the king of beasts, and whom, if I had time, I could convict of falsehood and forgery in almost every matter of fact which he has related of this generous animal." Better observation of it, however, from the time of Burchell to that of Livingstone, shows that Æsop's account is on the whole to be relied on, and that the lion is a thorough cat, treacherous, cruel, and, for the most part, with a good deal of the coward in him. The story of Androcles was related by Aulus Gellius, who extracted it from Dion Cassius. Although likely to be embellished, there is every likelihood of the foundation of the story being true. Addison relates this, "for the sake of my learned reader, who needs go no further in it, if he has read it already:--Androcles was the slave of a noble Roman who was proconsul of Afric. He had been guilty of a fault, for which his master would have put him to death, had not he found an opportunity to escape out of his hands, and fled into the deserts of Numidia. As he was wandering among the barren sands, and almost dead with heat and hunger, he saw a cave in the side of a rock. He went into it, and finding at the farther end of it a place to sit down upon, rested there for some time. At length, to his great surprise, a huge overgrown lion entered at the mouth of the cave, and seeing a man at the upper end of it, immediately made towards him. Androcles gave himself up for gone;[140] but the lion, instead of treating him as he expected, laid his paw upon his lap, and with a complaining kind of voice, fell a licking his hand. Androcles, after having recovered himself a little from the fright he was in, observed the lion's paw to be exceedingly swelled by a large thorn that stuck in it. He immediately pulled it out, and by squeezing the paw very gently made a great deal of corrupt matter run out of it, which, probably freed the lion from the great anguish he had felt some time before. The lion left him upon receiving this good office from him, and soon after returned with a fawn which he had just killed. This he laid down at the feet of his benefactor, and went off again in pursuit of his prey. Androcles, after having sodden the flesh of it by the sun, subsisted upon it until the lion had supplied him with another. He lived many days in this frightful solitude, the lion catering for him with great assiduity. Being tired at length with this savage society, he was resolved to deliver himself up into his master's hands, and suffer the worst effects of his displeasure, rather than be thus driven out from mankind. His master, as was customary for the proconsuls of Africa, was at that time getting together a present of all the largest lions that could be found in the country, in order to send them to Rome, that they might furnish out a show to the Roman people. Upon his poor slave surrendering himself into his hands, he ordered him to be carried away to Rome as soon as the lions were in readiness to be sent, and that for his crime he should be exposed to fight with one of the lions in the amphitheatre, as usual, for the diversion of the people. This was all performed accordingly. Androcles, after such a strange run of fortune, was now in the area of the theatre, amidst thousands of spectators, expecting every moment when his antagonist would come out upon him. At length a huge monstrous lion leaped out from the place where he had been kept hungry for the show. He advanced with great rage towards the man, but on a sudden, after having regarded him a little wistfully, fell to the ground, and crept towards his feet with all the signs of blandishment and caress. Androcles, after a short pause, discovered that it was his old Numidian friend, and immediately renewed his acquaintance with him. Their mutual congratulations were very surprising to the beholders, who, upon hearing an account of the whole matter from Androcles, ordered him to be pardoned, and the lion to be given up into his possession. Androcles returned at Rome the civilities which he had received from him in the deserts of Afric. Dion Cassius says, that he himself saw the man leading the lion about the streets of Rome, the people everywhere gathering about them, and repeating to one another, '_Hic est leo hospes hominis; hic est homo medicus leonis_.' 'This is the lion who was the man's host; this is the man who was the lion's physician.'" We are glad to repeat this anecdote, although some may call it "stale and old." The last time we were at the Zoological Gardens, in the Regents Park, London, we saw a lion very kindly come and rub itself against the rails of its den, on seeing a turbaned visitor come up, who addressed it. The man had been kind to it on its passage home. It was by no means a tame lion, nor one that its keeper would have ventured to touch. SIR GEORGE DAVIS AND THE LION Steele, in the 146th _Guardian_,[141] has followed up a paper by Addison, on the subject of lions, and gives an anecdote sent him, he says, by "a worthy merchant and a friend of mine," who had it in the year 1700 from the gentleman to whom it happened. "About sixty years ago, when the plague raged at Naples, Sir George Davis, consul there for the English nation, retired to Florence. It happened one day he went out of curiosity to see the great duke's lions. At the farther end, in one of the dens, lay a lion, which the keepers in three years' time could not tame, with all the art and gentle usage imaginable. Sir George no sooner appeared at the grates of the den, but the lion ran to him with all the marks of joy and transport he was capable of expressing. He reared himself up, and licked his hand, which this gentleman put in through the grates. The keeper affrighted, took him by the arm and pulled him away, begging him not to hazard his life by going so near the fiercest creature of that kind that ever entered those dens. However, nothing would satisfy Sir George, notwithstanding all that could be said to dissuade him, but he must go into the den to him. The very instant he entered, the lion threw his paws upon his shoulders, and licked his face, and ran to and fro in the den, fawning and full of joy, like a dog at the sight of his master. After several embraces and salutations exchanged on both sides, they parted very good friends. The rumour of this interview between the lion and the stranger rung immediately through the whole city, and Sir George was very near passing for a saint among the people. The great duke, when he heard of it, sent for Sir George, who waited upon his highness, to the den, and to satisfy his curiosity, gave him the following account of what seemed so strange to the duke and his followers:-- "'A captain of a ship from Barbary gave me this lion when he was a young whelp. I brought him up tame, but when I thought him too large to be suffered to run about the house, I built a den for him in my courtyard; from that time he was never permitted to go loose, except when I brought him within doors to show him to my friends. When he was five years old, in his gamesome tricks, he did some mischief by pawing and playing with people. Having griped a man one day a little too hard, I ordered him to be shot, for fear of incurring the guilt of what might happen; upon this a friend who was then at dinner with me begged him: how he came here I know not.' Here Sir George Davis ended, and thereupon the Duke of Tuscany assured him that he had the lion from that very friend of his." CANOVA'S LIONS AND THE CHILD. The mausoleum of Pope Clement XII., whose name was Rezzonico, is one of the greatest works of Antonio Canova, the celebrated Italian sculptor. It is in St Peter's, at Rome, and was erected in 1792. It is only mentioned here on account of two lions, which were faithfully studied from nature. His biographer, Mr Memes,[142] tells us that these lions were formed "after long and repeated observation on the habits and forms of the living animals. Wherever they were to be seen Canova constantly visited them, at all hours, and under every variety of circumstances, that he might mark their natural expression in different states of action and of repose, of ferocity or gentleness. One of the keepers was even paid to bring information, lest any favourable opportunity should pass unimproved." One of these lions is sleeping, while the other, which is under the figure of the personification of religion, couches--but is awake, in attitude of guarding inviolate the approach to the sepulchre, and ready with a tremendous roar to spring upon the intruder. Canova himself was much pleased with these lions. Mr Memes illustrates their wonderful force and truth by a little anecdote. "One day, while the author (a frequent employment) stood at some distance admiring from different points of view the tomb of Rezzonico, a woman with a child in her arms advanced to the lion, which appears to be watching. The terrified infant began to scream violently, clinging to the nurse's bosom, and exclaiming, '_Mordera, mamma, mordera!_' (It will bite, mamma; it will bite.) The mother turned to the opposite one, which seems asleep; her charge was instantly pacified; and smiling through tears, extended its little arm to stroke the shaggy head, whispering in subdued accents, as if afraid to awake the monster, '_O come placido! non mordero quello, mamma._' (How gentle! this one will not bite, mother.") ADMIRAL NAPIER AND THE LION IN THE TOWER. Admiral Sir Charles Napier, K.C.B., when a boy in his fourteenth year, visited London on his way to join his first ship at Spithead, the _Renown_. His biographer tells us he was staying at the house of a relative, who, "after showing the youngster all the London sights, took him to see the lions at the Tower. Amongst them was one which the keeper represented as being so very tame that, said he, 'you might put your hand into his mouth.' Taking him at his word, the young middy, to the horror of the spectators, thrust his hand into the jaws of the animal, who, no doubt, was taken as much by surprise as the lookers-on. It was a daring feat; but providentially he did not suffer for his temerity."[143] This reminds the biographer of Nelson's feat with the polar bear, and of Charles Napier's (the soldier) bold adventure with an eagle in his boyhood, as related by Sir William Napier in the history of his gallant brother's life. OLD LADY AND THE BEASTS ON THE MOUND. When the houses were cleared from the head of the Mound in Edinburgh, a travelling menagerie had set up its caravans on that great earthen bridge, just at the time when George Ferguson, the celebrated Scotch advocate, better known by his justiciary title of Lord Hermand, came up, full of Pittite triumph that the ministry of "all the talents" had fallen. "They are out! they are all out! every mother's son of them!" he shouted. A lady, who heard the words, and perceived his excited condition, imagined that he referred to the wild beasts; and seizing the judge by his arm, exclaimed, "Gude heaven! we shall a' be devoored!"[144] FOOTNOTES: [136] "Physics and Physicians: a Medical Sketch-Book," vol. i. p. 174. It was published anonymously in 1839. [137] "Life in the Mission, the Camp, and the Zenánà; or, Six Years in India," vol. ii. p. 382. [138] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 237. [139] August 20, 1713. Chalmers's edition of "British Essayists," vol. xviii. p. 85. [140] Up for lost. [141] August 28, 1713. Chalmers's edition of "British Essayists," vol. xviii p. 116. [142] "Memoirs of Antonio Canova," by J. S. Memes, A.M. 1825. Pp. 332, 334, 346. [143] "The Life of Admiral Sir Charles Napier, K.C.B," by Major-General Elers Napier, vol. i. p. 8. SEALS. A most intelligent group of creatures, some of which the compiler has watched in Yell Sound, close to Mossbank. He has even seen them once or twice in the Forth, close to the end of the pier. In the Zoological Gardens a specimen of the common seal proved for months a great source of attraction by its mild nature, and its singular form and activity. It soon died, and, had a coroner's jury returned a verdict, it would have been "Death from the hooks swallowed with the fish" daily provided. We have heard seal-fishers describe the great rapidity of the growth of seals in the Arctic seas. They seem in about a fortnight after their birth to attain nearly the size of their mothers. The same has been recorded of the whale order. Both seals and whales have powers of assimilating food and making fat that are unparalleled even by pigs. The intelligence of seals is marvellous. Many who visited the Zoological Gardens in the Regent's Park in May and June 1866 witnessed instances of this in a seal from the South Seas, recently exhibited in London. Persons on the sea-side might readily domesticate these interesting and truly affectionate creatures. Hooker's sea-bear, the species exhibited in London, was at first, so the kind Frenchman told us, very fierce, but soon got reconciled to him, and, when I saw it, great was the mutual attachment. It was a strangely interesting sight to see the great creature walk on its fin-like legs, and clamber up and kiss the genial-bearded French sailor. DR ADAM CLARKE ON SHETLAND SEALS. In Shetland, Dr Adam Clarke tells us the popular belief is that the seals, or, as they call them, _selkies_, are fallen spirits, and that it is dangerous to kill any of them, as evil will assuredly happen to him who does. They think that when the blood of a seal touches the water, the sea begins to rise and swell. Those who shoot them notice that gulls appear to watch carefully over them; and Mr Edmonston assured him that he has known a gull scratch, a seal to warn it of his approach. Dr Clarke, in the second of his voyages to Shetland, had a seal on board, which was caught on the Island of Papa. He says:--"It refuses all nourishment; it is very young, and about three feet long; it roars nearly like a calf, but not so loud, and continually crawls about the deck, seeking to get again to sea. As I cannot bear its cries, I intend to return it to the giver. Several of them have been tamed by the Shetlanders, and these will attend their owners to the place where the cows are milked, in order to get a drink. This was the case with one Mr Henry of Burrastow brought up. When it thought proper it would go to sea and forage there, but was sure to return to land, and to its owner. They tell me that it is a creature of considerable sagacity. The young seal mentioned above made his escape over the gangway, and got to sea. I am glad of it; for its plaintive lowing was painful to me. We saw it afterwards making its way to the ocean."[145] DR EDMONSTON ON SHETLAND SEALS. Every one familiar with seals is struck with their plaintive, intelligent faces, and any one who has seen the seals from time to time living in the Zoological Gardens must have been pleased with the marks of attention paid by them to their keepers. Dr Edmonston of Balta Sound has published in the "Memoirs of the Wernerian Society"[146] a graphic and valuable paper on the distinctions, history, and hunting of seals in the Shetland Isles. As that gentleman is a native of Unst, and had, when he wrote the Memoir, been for more than twenty years actively engaged in their pursuit, both as an amusement and as a study, we may extract two or three interesting passages. He remarks (p. 29) on the singular circumstance that so few additions have been made to the list of domestic animals bequeathed to us from remote antiquity, and mentions the practicability of an attempt being made to tame seals; and also says that it is yet to be learned whether they would breed in captivity and remain reclaimed from the wild state. The few instances recorded in books of natural history of tame seals refer to the species called _Phoca vitulina_, but of the processes of rearing and education we have no details. "The trials," continues Dr Edmonston, "I have made on these points have been equally numerous on the great as on the common seal. By far the most interesting one I ever had was a young male of the _barbata_ species: he was taken by myself from a cave when only a few hours old, and in a day or two became as attached as a dog to me. The varied movements and sounds by which he expressed delight at my presence and regret at my absence were most affecting; these sounds were as like as possible to the inarticulate tones of the human voice. I know no animal capable of displaying more affection than he did, and his temper was the gentlest imaginable. I kept him for four or five weeks, feeding him entirely on warm milk from the cow; in my temporary absence butter-milk was given to him, and he died soon after. "Another was a female, also of the great seal species, which we captured in a cave when about six weeks old, in October 1830. This individual would never allow herself to be handled but by the person who chiefly had the charge of her, yet even she soon became comparatively familiar. "It was amusing to see how readily she ascended the stairs, which she often did, intent, as it seemed, on examining every room in the house; on showing towards her signs of displeasure and correction, she descended more rapidly and safely than her awkwardness seemed to promise. "She was fed from the first on fresh fish alone, and grew and fattened considerably. We had her carried down daily in a hand-barrow to the sea-side, where an old excavation admitting the salt water was abundantly roomy and deep for her recreation and our observation. After sporting and diving for some time she would come ashore, and seemed perfectly to understand the use of the barrow. Often she tried to waddle from the house to the water, or from the latter to her apartment, but finding this fatiguing, and seeing preparations by her chairman, she would of her own accord mount her palanquin, and thus be carried as composedly as any Hindoo princess. By degrees we ventured to let her go fairly into the sea, and she regularly returned after a short interval; but one day during a thick fall of snow she was imprudently let off as usual, and, being decoyed some distance out of sight of the shore by some wild ones which happened to be in the bay at the time, she either could not find her way back or voluntarily decamped. "She was, we understood, killed very shortly after in a neighbouring inlet. We had kept her about six months, and every moment she was becoming more familiar; we had dubbed her Finna, and she seemed to know her name. Every one that saw her was struck with her appearance. "The smooth face without external ears--the nose slightly aquiline--the large, dark, and beautiful eye which stood the sternest human gaze, gave to the expression of her countenance such dignity and variety that we all agreed that it really was _super_-animal. The Scandinavian Scald, with such a mermaid before him, would find in her eye a metaphor so emphatic that he would have no reason to borrow the favourite oriental image of the gazelles from his Caucasian ancestors. "This remarkable expressiveness and dignity of aspect of the _Haff-fish_, so superior to all other animals with which the fishermen of Shetland were acquainted, and the human character of his voice, may have procured for him that peculiar respect with which he was regarded by those who lived nearest his domains, and were admitted to most frequent intercourse with him. He was the favourite animal of superstition, and a few tales of him are still current. These, however, are not of much interest or variety, the leading ideas in them being these: That the great seal is a human soul, or a fallen angel in metempsychosis, and that to him who is remarkable for hostility to the phocal race some fatal retribution will ensue. I can easily conceive the feeling of awe with which a fisherman would be impressed when, in the sombre magnificence of some rocky solitude, a great seal suddenly presented himself, for an interview of this kind once occurred to myself. "I was lying one calm summer day on a rock a little elevated above the water, watching the approach of seals, in a small creek formed by frowning precipices several hundred feet high, near the north point of the Shetland Islands. "I had patiently waited for two hours, and the scene and the sunshine had thrown me into a kind of reverie, when my companion, who was more awake, arrested my attention. A full-sized female haff-fish was swimming slowly past, within eight yards of my feet, her head askance, and her eyes fixed upon me; the gun, charged with two balls, was immediately pointed. I followed her with the aim for some distance, when she dived without my firing. "I resolved that this omission should not recur, if she afforded me another opportunity of a shot, which I hardly hoped for, but which actually in a few moments took place. Still I did not fire, until, when at a considerable distance, she was on the eve of diving, and she eluded the shot by springing to a side. Here was really a species of fascination. The wild scene, the near presence and commanding aspect of the splendid animal before me, produced a spellbound impression which, in my sporting experience, I never felt before. "On reflection, I was delighted that she escaped. "The younger seals are the more easy to tame, but the more difficult to rear; under a month old they must be fed, and, especially the _barbata_, almost entirely on milk, and that of the cow seems hardly to agree with them. "Perhaps their being suckled by a cow fed chiefly on fish, the giving them occasionally a little salt water, and then by degrees inducing them to eat fish, might be the best mode until they attained the age of being sustained on fish alone. In the _barbata_, to insure rapid taming, it appears to be necessary to capture them before the period of casting the foetal hair, analogous to what I have observed in the case of the young of water-birds before getting up their first feathers, and when they are entirely covered with the egg down. "These changes seem connected with a great development of the wild habits, and attachment to, and knowledge of, the localities where they have first seen the light. As the _barbata_ is until this period in reality a land animal, the chief difficulty we have to surmount with it is in the quality of the milk to be given it. The _vitulina_ is essentially an inhabitant of the water from its birth, yet the care of the mother is perhaps for weeks necessary to judge how long and how often it should be on land, and this we can hardly expect to imitate. In the young of this species a few days old, which we have tried to rear, a want of knowledge of this kind of management may have led to failure. I have not attempted to rear them at a greater age. "The Greenland seal is, I have been informed, occasionally kept for a month or two on board the whalers, and thrives sufficiently well on the flesh of sea-birds. This species appears to bring forth in January, and therefore it is subjected to captivity. "I know but comparatively little of its capability of being easily tamed; but this quality, of itself, is no evidence of superior intelligence. "Might it not be easy to induce Greenland shipmasters to bring some of these animals to England, where they would be accessible to the observation of zoologists. "One mode of attempting to tame them might be to take half-grown animals in a net, or surprise them on land, and then keep them in salt-water ponds in a semi-domestic state: if any of them were pregnant when caught, or could be got to breed, the main difficulty would be overcome." Long as these extracts are, they possess great interest as being derived from observations on living animals made by one who was a friend of the Duke of Wellington, and was always welcomed by him. His northern Island of Unst is a fine field for studying marine animals. The sweeping currents of the Arctic oceans bring creatures to the quiet voes and sounds. Shetland in spring, summer, and autumn is a favoured locality for the naturalist and painter. THE WALRUS. There was some likelihood, a few years ago, that a most attractive animal would be added to the collection of the Zoological Society. But, unfortunately for the public gratification, as well as the remuneration of the spirited captain who brought the creature, it reached the gardens in a dying state, and only survived a few days. But it is not the first of its family which has travelled so far to the southward. Nearly 250 years ago a specimen was brought alive by some of the Arctic adventurers, and excited no little surprise, as old Purchas tells us. It was in the year 1608, when "the king and many honourable personages beheld it with admiration, for the strangeness of the same, the like whereof had never before beene seene alive in England. Not long after it fell sicke and died. As the beast in shape is very strange, so is it of strange docilitie, and apt to be taught, as by good experience we often proved." The figure which accompanies this paper was drawn from our late lamented visitor by Mr Wolf, who sketched it before its removal to the Zoological Gardens. Captain Henry caught it during a whaling expedition, and sent it to London. Though quite young, it was nearly four feet in length; and when the person who used to feed it came into the room, it would give him an affectionate greeting, in a voice somewhat resembling the cry of a calf, but considerably louder. It walked about, but, owing to its weakness, soon grew tired, and lay down. Unlike the seals, to which it is closely allied, the walrus has considerable power with its limbs when out of the water, and can support its bulky body quite clear of the ground. Its mode of progression, however, is awkward when compared with ordinary quadrupeds; its hind-limbs shuffling along, as if inclosed in a sack. In some future season, when a lively specimen reaches the Gardens, and is accommodated with an extensive tank of water, there is no reason why the walrus should not thrive as well as the seal, or his close, though not kind, neighbour of the North, the Polar bear. [Illustration: The Walrus.] The walrus, _morse_, or _sea-horse_ (_Trichechus rosmarus_, Linn.[147]), is one of the most characteristic inhabitants of the Arctic regions. There it is widely distributed, and thence it seldom wanders. One or two specimens were killed on the shores of the northern Scottish islands in 1817 and 1825; but these instances seem hardly to admit of its introduction into our _fauna_, any more than West Indian beans, brought by the currents, are admissible into our _flora_. It is mentioned by some old Scottish writers[148] among our native animals, and at one time may have been carried to our coasts on some of the bergs, which are occasionally seen in the German Ocean after the periodical disruptions of the Arctic ice. Like the Polar bear, however, the walrus has evidently been formed by its Creator for a life among icy seas, and there it is now found often in large herds. Captain Beechey and other voyagers to the seas around Spitzbergen, describe them as being particularly abundant on the western coast of that inclement island. The captain says that in fine weather they resort to large pieces of ice at the edge of the main body, where herds of them may be seen of sometimes more than a hundred individuals each. "In these situations they appear greatly to enjoy themselves, rolling and sporting about, and frequently making the air resound with their bellowing, which bears some resemblance to that of a bull. These diversions generally end in sleep, during which these wary animals appear always to take the precaution of having a sentinel to warn them of any danger." The only warning, however, which the sentinel gives, is by seeking his own safety; in effecting which, as the herd lie huddled on one another like swine, the motion of one is speedily communicated to the whole, and they instantly tumble, one over the other, into the sea, head-foremost, if possible; but failing that, anyhow. Scoresby remarks that the front part of the head of the young walrus, without tusks, when seen at a distance, is not unlike the human face. It has the habit of raising its head above the water to look at ships and other passing objects; and when seen in such a position, it may have given rise to some of the stories of mermaids. There is still a considerable uncertainty as to the food of the walrus. Cook found no traces of aliment in the stomachs of those shot by his party. Crantz says that in Greenland shell-fish and sea-weeds seem to be its only subsistence. Scoresby found shrimps, a kind of craw-fish, and the remains of young seals, in the stomachs of those which he examined. Becchey mentions, that in the inside of several specimens he found numerous granite pebbles larger than walnuts. These may be taken for the same purpose that some birds, especially of the gallinaceous order, swallow bits of gravel. Dr Von Baer concludes, from an analysis of all the published accounts, that the walrus is omnivorous.[149] A specimen that died at St Petersburg was fed on oatmeal mixed with turnips or other vegetables; and the little fellow, who lately died in the Regent's Park, seems to have been fed by the sailors on oatmeal porridge. One of the chief characteristics of the walrus is the presence of two elongated tusks (the canine teeth) in the upper jaw. According to Crantz, it uses these to scrape mussels and other shell-fish from the rocks and out of the sand, and also to grapple and get along with, for they enable it to raise itself on the ice. They are also powerful weapons of defence against the Polar bear and its other enemies. The walrus attains a great size. Twelve feet is the length of a fine specimen in the British Museum. Beechey's party found some of them fourteen feet in length and nine feet in girth, and of such prodigious weight that they could scarcely turn them over. Gratifying accounts are given of the attachment of the female to its young, and the male occasionally assists in their defence when exposed to danger, or at least in revenging the attack. Lord Nelson, when a lad, was coxwain to one of the ships of Phipps's expedition to the Arctic seas, and commanded a boat, which was the means of saving a party belonging to the other ship from imminent danger. "Some of the officers had fired at and wounded a walrus. As no other animal," says Southey, "has so human-like an expression in its countenance, so also is there none that seems to possess more of the passions of humanity. The wounded animal dived immediately, and brought up a number of its companions; and they all joined in an attack upon the boat. They wrested an oar from one of the men; and it was with the utmost difficulty that the crew could prevent them from staving or upsetting her, till the _Carcass's_ boat (commanded by young Horatio Nelson) came up: and the walruses, finding their enemies thus reinforced, dispersed." And Captain Beechey gives the following pleasing picture of maternal affection which he witnessed in the seas around Spitzbergen: "We were greatly amused by the singular and affectionate conduct of a walrus towards its young. In the vast sheet of ice which surrounded the ships, there were occasionally many pools; and when the weather was clear and warm, animals of various kinds would frequently rise and sport about in them, or crawl from thence upon the ice to bask in the warmth of the sun. A walrus rose in one of these pools close to the ship, and, finding everything quiet, dived down and brought up its young, which it held to its breast by pressing it with its flipper. In this manner it moved about the pool, keeping in an erect posture, and always directing the face of the young towards the vessel. On the slightest movement on board, the mother released her flipper, and pushed the young one under water; but, when everything was again quiet, brought it up as before, and for a length of time continued to play about in the pool, to the great amusement of the seamen, who gave her credit for abilities in tuition, which, though possessed of considerable sagacity, she hardly merited." The walrus has two great enemies in its icy home--the Polar bear and the Esquimaux. Captain Beechey thus graphically describes the manoeuvres of that king of the Bruin race, which must often be attended with success. The bears, when hungry, are always on the watch for animals sleeping upon the ice, and try to come on them unawares, as their prey darts through holes in the ice. "One sunshiny day a walrus, of nine or ten feet length, rose in a pool of water not very far from us; and after looking around, drew his greasy carcase upon the ice, where he rolled about for a time, and at length laid himself down to sleep. A bear, which had probably been observing his movements, crawled carefully upon the ice on the opposite side of the pool, and began to roll about also, but apparently more with design than amusement, as he progressively lessened the distance that intervened between him and his prey. The walrus, suspicious of his advances, drew himself up preparatory to a precipitate retreat into the water in case of a nearer acquaintance with his playful but treacherous visitor; on which the bear was instantly motionless, as if in the act of sleep; but after a time began to lick his paws, and clean himself, occasionally encroaching a little more upon his intended prey. But even this artifice did not succeed; the wary walrus was far too cunning to allow himself to be entrapped, and suddenly plunged into the pool; which the bear no sooner observed than he threw off all disguise, rushed towards the spot, and followed him in an instant into the water, where, I fear, he was as much disappointed in his meal, as we were of the pleasure of witnessing a very interesting encounter." The meat of the walrus is not despised by Europeans, and its heart is reckoned a delicacy. To the Esquimaux there is no greater treat than a kettle well filled with walrus-blubber; and to the natives along Behring's Straits this quadruped is as valuable as is the palm to the sons of the desert. Their canoes are covered with its skin; their weapons and sledge-runners, and many useful articles, are formed from its tusks; their lamps are filled with its oil; and they themselves are fed with its fat and its fibre. So thick is the skin, that a bayonet is almost the only weapon which can pierce it. Cut into shreds, it makes excellent cordage, being especially adapted for wheel-ropes. The tusks bear a high commercial value, and are extensively employed by dentists in the manufacture of artificial teeth. The fat of a good-sized specimen yields thirty gallons of oil.--_A. White, from "Excelsior."_ FOOTNOTES: [144] "A Tour in Tartan-Land," by Cuthbert Bede. [145] "Life," vol. iii. p. 188. [146] Vol. viii. pp. 1-16. [147] _Trichechus_, from the Greek [Greek: trichas echôn], "having hairs:" _walrus_, the German _wallross_, "whale-horse." [148] See Fleming's "British Animals," p. 19. [149] Mém. Acad. Imp. Sc. St. Pétersb., 1838, p. 232. Professor Owen has communicated to the Zoological Society the anatomy of the young walrus; and much valuable information will be found in Dr Gray's "Catalogue of Mammalia in the British Museum." KANGAROOS. What dissertation on the strange outward form, or stranger mode of reproduction to which this famed member of the _Marsupialia_ belongs, could contain as much in little space as Charles Lamb's happy description in his letter to Baron Field, his "distant correspondent" in New South Wales? When that was written, and for long after, it may be necessary to tell some, Australia was chiefly known as the land of the convict. "Tell me," writes Elia, "what your Sidneyites do? Are they th-v-ng all day long? Merciful heaven! what property can stand against such a depredation? The kangaroos--your aborigines--do they keep their primitive simplicity un-Europe-tainted, with those little short forepuds, looking like a lesson framed by nature to the pickpocket! Marry, for diving into fobs they are rather lamely provided _a priori_; but if the hue and cry were once up, they would show as fair a pair of hind-shifters as the expertest locomotor in the colony."[150] In one of his letters to another of his favoured correspondents he alludes to his friend Field having gone to a country where there are so many thieves that even the kangaroos have to wear their pockets in front, lest they be picked! KANGAROO COOKE. Major-General Henry Frederick Cooke, C.B. and K.C.H., commonly called Kang-Cooke, was a captain in the Coldstream Guards, and aide-de-camp to the Duke of York. He was called the kangaroo by his intimate associates. It is said that this arose from his once having let loose a cageful of these animals at Pidcock's Menagerie, or from his answer to the Duke of York, who, inquiring how he fared in the Peninsula, replied that he "could get nothing to eat but kangaroo."[151] Moore, in his Diary,[152] December 13, 1820, records that he dined with him and others at Lord Granard's. Cooke told of Admiral Cotton once (at Lisbon, I think) saying during dinner, "Make signals for the _Kangaroo_ to get under way;" and Cooke, who had just been expressing his anxiety to leave Lisbon, thought the speech alluded to his nickname, and considered it an extraordinary liberty for one who knew so little of him as Admiral Cotton to take. He found out afterwards, however, that his namesake was a sloop-of-war. FOOTNOTES: [150] "Distant Correspondents," in the Essays of Elia, first series ed. 1841, p. 67. [151] Jesse's "Life of Beau Brummell," vol. i. p. 288. [152] "Memoirs, Correspondence," &c., edited by Lord John Russell, vol. iii. p. 179. THE TIGER-WOLF. (_Thylacinus cynocephalus._) The great order, or rather division, of mammalia, the _Marsupialia_,[153] is furnished with a pouch, into which the young are received and nourished at a very early period of their existence. The first species of the group, known to voyagers and naturalists, was the celebrated opossum of North America, whose instinctive care to defend itself from danger causes it to feign the appearance of death. As the great continent of Australia became known, it was found that the great mass of its mammalia, from the gigantic kangaroo to the pigmy, mouse-like potoroo, belonged to this singular order. The order contains a most anomalous set of animals, some being exclusively carnivorous, some chiefly subsisting on insects, while others browse on grass; and many live on fruits and leaves, which they climb trees to procure; a smaller portion subsisting on roots, for which they burrow in the ground. The gentle and deer-faced kangaroo belongs to this order; the curious bandicoots, the tree-frequenting phalangers and petauri, the savage "native devil,"[154] and the voracious subject of this notice. The "tiger-wolf" is a native of Van Diemen's Land, and is strictly confined to that island. It was first described in the ninth volume of the "Linnean Transactions," under the name of _Didelphis cynocephalus_, or "dog-headed opossum," the English name being an exact translation of its Latin one. Its non-prehensile tail, peculiar feet, and different arrangement of teeth, pointed out to naturalists that it entered into a genus distinct from the American opossums; and to this genus the name of _Thylacinus_[155] has been applied; its specific name _cynocephalus_ being still retained in conformity with zoological nomenclature, although M. Temminck, the founder of the genus, honoured the species with the name of its first describer, and called it _Thylacinus Harrisii_. Mr Gould has given a short account of this quadruped in his great work, "The Mammals of Australia," accompanied with two plates, one showing the head of the male, of the natural size, in such a point of view as to exhibit the applicability of one of the names applied to it by the colonists, that of "zebra-wolf." He justly remarks that it must be regarded as by far the most formidable of all the marsupial animals, as it certainly is the most savage indigenous quadruped belonging to the Australian continent. Although it is too feeble to make a successful attack on man, it commits great havoc among the smaller quadrupeds of the country; and to the settler it is a great object of dread, as his poultry and other domestic animals are never safe from its attacks. His sheep are, especially, an object of the colonist's anxious care, as he can house his poultry, and thus secure them from the prowler; but his flocks, wandering about over the country, are liable to be attacked at night by the tiger-wolf, whose habits are strictly nocturnal. Mr Gunn has seen some so large and powerful that a number of dogs would not face one of them. It has become an object with the settler to destroy every specimen he can fall in with, so that it is much rarer than it was at the time Mr Harris, its first describer, wrote its history, at least in the cultivated districts. Much, however, of Van Diemen's Land is still in a state of nature, and as large tracts of forest-land remain yet uncleared, there is abundance of covert for it still in the more remote parts of the colony, and it is even now often seen at Woolnoth and among the Hampshire hills. In such places it feeds on the smaller species of kangaroos and other marsupials,--bandicoots, and kangaroo-rats, while even the prickle-covered echidna--a much more formidable mouthful than any hedgehog--supplies the tiger-wolf with a portion of its sustenance. The specimen described by Mr Harris was caught in a trap baited with the flesh of the kangaroo. When opened, the remains of a half-digested echidna[156] were found in its stomach. The tiger-wolf has a certain amount of daintiness in its appetite when in a state of nature. From the observations of Mr Gunn it would seem that nothing will induce it to prey on the wombat,[157] a fat, sluggish, marsupial quadruped, abundant in the districts which it frequents, and whose flesh would seem to be very edible, seeing that it lives on fruits and roots. No sooner, however, was the sheep introduced than the tiger-wolf began to attack the flocks, and has ever since shown a most unmistakable appetite for mutton, preferring the flesh of that most useful and easily-mastered quadruped to that of any kangaroo however venison-like, or bandicoot however savoury. The colonists of Van Diemen's land have applied various names to this animal, according as its resemblance to other ferocious quadrupeds of different climates struck their fancy. The names of "tiger," "hyena," and "zebra-wolf," are partly acquired from its ferocity, somewhat corresponding with that of these well-known carnivorous denizens of other lands, and partly from the black bands which commence behind the shoulders, and which extend in length on the haunches, and resemble in some faint measure those on the barred tyrant of the Indian jungles, and the other somewhat similarly ornamented mammalia implied in the names. These bars are well relieved by the general grayish-brown colour of the fur, which is somewhat woolly in its texture, from each of the hairs of which it is composed being waved. The specimens in the Zoological Gardens are very shy and restless; when alarmed they dash and leap about their dens and utter a short guttural cry somewhat resembling a bark. This shyness is partly to be attributed to their imperfect vision by day, and partly to their resemblance in character to the wolf, whose treachery and suspicious manners in confinement must have struck every one who has gazed on this "gaunt savage" in his den in the Regent's Park. The specimens exhibited are the first living members of the species first brought to Europe. The male was taken in November 1849, and the female at an earlier period in the same year, on the upper part of St Patrick's River, about thirty miles north-east of Launceston. After being gradually accustomed to confinement by Mr Gunn, they were shipped for this country, and reached the Gardens in the spring of 1850. It is very seldom, indeed, that they are caught alive; and when so caught they are generally at once killed, so that it was with some difficulty and by offering a considerable pecuniary inducement to the shepherds, that they were at last secured for the Zoological Society.[158] In their den they show great activity, and can bound upwards nearly to the roof of the place where they are confined.--_A. White, from "Excelsior."_ FOOTNOTES: [153] So called from the Latin word _marsupium_, a pouch. [154] _Diabolus ursinus_, the ursine opossum of Van Diemen's Land, a great destroyer of young lambs. [155] From the Greek words for a pouch and a dog, [Greek: thylakos] and [Greek: kuôn]. Dr Gray had previously named it _Peracyon_, from [Greek: pêra], a bag, and [Greek: kuôn], a dog. [156] _Echidna aculeata_, or _E. hystrix_, the porcupine ant-eater, a curious edentate, spine-covered quadruped, closely allied to the still stranger _Ornithorhynchus_, the duck-bill. [157] _Phascolomys Vombatus,_ a curious, broad-backed, and large-headed marsupial, two specimens of which are in the Zoological Gardens. It is a burrower, and in the teeth it resembles the rodent animals; hence its name, from [Greek: phaskôlon], a pouch, and [Greek: mus], a mouse. SQUIRREL: ARCTIC LEMMING. The one with its long plume-like tail, organised for a life among trees, the other with its home in the arctic regions, belong to an order not generally distinguished for intelligence, although, the beaver, once reputed a miracle of mind, belongs to it. The glirine or rodent animals are generally of small or moderate size, though some, like the water-loving capybara, are of considerable dimensions. The squirrel is a fine subject for a painter. There is a picture by Sir Edwin Landseer, of a squirrel and bullfinch. On an engraving of it, published in 1865, is inscribed "a pair of nut-crackers,"--a happy title, and very apposite. Jekyll saw in Colman's chambers a squirrel in the usual round cage. "Ah! poor devil," said Jekyll, "he's going the _home circuit_."[159] If you come upon a squirrel on the ground, he is not long in getting to the topmost branch of the highest tree, so perfectly is he adapted for "rising" at a "bar"! PETS OF SOME OF THE REVOLUTIONARY BUTCHERS. A SQUIRREL. Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, Bart., in his novel, "Zanoni,"[160] pictures Citizen Couthon fondling a little spaniel "that he invariably carried in his bosom, even to the Convention, as a vent for the exuberant sensibilities which overflowed his affectionate heart." In a note the novelist remarks-- "This tenderness for some pet animal was by no means peculiar to Couthon; it seems rather a common fashion with the gentle butchers of the Revolution. M. George Duval informs us ('Souvenirs de la Terreur,' iii. p. 183), that Chaumette had an aviary, to which he devoted his harmless leisure; the murderous Fournier carried, on his shoulders, a pretty little squirrel attached by a silver chain; Panis bestowed the superfluity of his affections upon two gold pheasants; and Marat, who would not abate one of the three hundred thousand heads he demanded, _reared doves_! Apropos of the spaniel of Couthon, Duval gives us a characteristic anecdote of Sergent, not one of the least relentless agents of the massacre of September. A lady came to implore his protection for one of her relations confined in the Abbaye. He scarcely deigned to speak to her. As she retired in despair, she trod by accident on the paw of his favourite spaniel. Sergent, turning round, enraged and furious, exclaimed, '_Madam, have you no humanity?_'" ARCTIC VOYAGER AND THE LEMMING. Captain Back, on his arctic land expedition, when returning in September 1835, encountered a severe gale, which forced them to land their boat, and as the water rose they had three times to haul it higher on the bank. He introduces an affecting little incident: "So completely cold and drenched was everything outside, that a poor little lemming, unable to contend with the floods, which had driven it successively from all its retreats, crept silently under the tent, and snuggled away in precarious security within a few paces of a sleeping terrier. Unconscious of its danger, it licked its fur coat, and darted its bright eyes from object to object, as if pleased and surprised with its new quarters; but soon the pricked ears of the awakened dog announced its fate, and in another instant the poor little stranger was quivering in his jaws!"[161] * * * * * Mr McDougall?][162] records several amusing anecdotes of the little arctic lemming, named _Arctomys Spermophilus Parryi_, after the great arctic voyager. He says,--"My own experience of those industrious little warriors tended to prove that they possessed a strange combination of sociality and combativeness. Industrious they most certainly are, as is shown by the complicated excavation of their subterranean cities; besides which, every feather and hair of bird and animal found in the vicinity of their dwellings, is made to contribute its iota of warmth and comfort to the interior of their winter quarters. "I had," continues the master of the _Resolute_, "many opportunities of watching their movements during my detention at Winter Harbour. My tent happened to be pitched immediately over one of their large towns, causing its inhabitants to issue forth from its thousand gates to catch a view of the strangers. Frequently on waking we have found the little animals, rolled up in a ball, snugly ensconced within the folds of our blanket-bags; nor would they be expelled from such a warm and desirable position without showing fight. On several occasions I observed Naps, the dog, fast asleep with one or two lemmings huddled away between its legs, like so many pups." He says that Lieutenant Mecham noticed an Esquimaux dog, named Buffer, trudging along, nose to the ground, quite unconscious of danger, when a lemming, suddenly starting from its cavern, seized poor Buffer by the nose, inflicting a severe wound. The dog, astounded at such an unsuspected assault, gave a dismal howl, and at length shook the enemy off, after which he became the attacking party, and in less than a minute the presumptuous assailant disappeared between the jaws of the Tartar he had attempted to catch. FOOTNOTES: [158] Mitchell's "Popular Guide to the Zoological Gardens," p. 9. (1852.) [159] Mark Lemon's "Jest Book," p. 180. [160] Ed. 1845, p. 339. [161] P. 441. Sir John Richardson told me that the species was _Spermophilus Parryi_. [162] The Eventful Voyage of H.M. Discovery Ship _Resolute_ to the Arctic Regions, in Search of Sir John Franklin, in 1852-3-4, pp. 314, 315. RATS AND MICE. Why should we not, like Grainger, begin this section as the writer of "The Sugar-Cane" does one of his paragraphs-- "Come muse! let's sing of rats." The "restless rottens" and mice need little introduction. They are a most fertile race, and some species of them seem only to be in human habitations. They are terrible nuisances, and yet rat-skins are said to be manufactured in Paris into gloves. Sydney Smith's comparison of some one dying like a poisoned rat in a ditch is a powerful one. The same writer, in hunting down an unworthy man, with his cutting criticism, says, that he did it not on account of his power, but to put down what might prove noisome if not settled, much as a Dutch burgomaster might hunt a rat, not for its value, but because by its boring it might cause the water to break through his dikes, and thus flood his native land. Robert Browning, in one of his poems, "The Pied Piper of Hamelin," has powerfully described an incursion of rats. A few lines may be quoted:-- "Almost five hundred years ago, To see the townsfolk suffer so From vermin, was a pity. "Rats! They fought the dogs and killed the cats, And bit the babies in their cradles, And ate the cheeses out of the vats, And licked the soup from the cook's own ladles, Split open the kegs of salted sprats, Made nests inside men's Sunday hats, And even spoiled the women's chats, By drowning their speaking With shrieking and squeaking In fifty different sharps and flats. * * * * * "And ere three shrill notes the pipes had uttered, You heard as if an army muttered; And the muttering grew to a grumbling; And the grumbling grew to a mighty rumbling; And out of the houses the rats came tumbling-- Great rats, small rats, lean rats, brawny rats, Brown rats, black rats, grey rats, tawny rats; Grave old plodders, gay young friskers, Fathers, mothers, uncles, cousins, Cocking tails, and pricking whiskers, Families by tens and dozens, Brothers, sisters, husbands, wives-- Followed the Piper for their lives. From street to street he piped, advancing, And step for step they followed dancing, Until they came to the river Weser Wherein all plunged and perished, Save one." THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON AND THE MUSK-RAT. Mr Taylor, in his notes to the artist Haydon's Autobiography, tells us that a favourite expression of the Duke of Wellington, when people tried to coax him to do what he had resolved not to do, was, "The rat has got into the bottle." This not very intelligible expression may refer to an anecdote I have heard of the Duke's once telling, in his later days, how the musk-rats in India got into bottles, which ever after retained the odour of musk. "Either the rats must be very small," said a lady who heard him, "or the bottles very large." "On the contrary, madam," was the Duke's reply, "very small bottles and very large rats." "That is the style of logic we have to deal with at the Horse Guards," whispered Lord ----. LADY EGLINTOUN AND THE RATS. Mr Robert Chambers, in his "Traditions of Edinburgh" (p. 191), gives an interesting account of the elegant Susanna, Countess of Eglintoun, who was in her eighty-fifth year when Johnson and Boswell visited her. She died in 1780, at the age of ninety-one, having preserved to the last her stately mien and fine complexion. She is said to have washed her face periodically with sow's milk. "This venerable woman amused herself latterly in taming and patronising rats. She kept a vast number of these animals in her pay at Auchans, and they succeeded in her affections the poets and artists she had loved in early life. It does not reflect much credit upon the latter, that her ladyship used to complain of never having met with true gratitude except from four-footed animals. She had a panel in the oak wainscot of her dining-room, which she tapped upon and opened at meal times, when ten or twelve jolly rats came tripping forth, and joined her at table. At the word of command or a signal from her ladyship, they retired again to their native obscurity--a trait of good sense in the character and habits of the animals which, it is hardly necessary to remark, patrons do not always find in two-legged _protégés_." GENERAL DOUGLAS AND THE RATS. The biographer of this highly-distinguished military engineer-officer relates an anecdote of him when a lieutenant at Tynemouth. The future author of well-known works on Gunnery and Military Bridges, early began to show ability in mechanics. "Lieutenant Douglas occupied a room barely habitable, and had to contest the tenancy with rats, which asserted their claim with such tenacity, that he went to sleep at the risk of being devoured. Their incursions compelled him to furnish himself with loaded pistols and a tinder-box, and he kept watch one night, remaining quiet till there was an irruption, when he started up and struck a light. But his vigilance proved of no avail, for the clink of the flint and steel caused a stampede, and not a rat remained by the time he had kindled the tinder. Their flight suggested to him another device. He looked out all the holes, and covered them with slides, connected with each other by wires, and these he fastened to a string, which enabled him to draw them all with one pull, and thus close the outlets. The contrivance claims to be mentioned as his first success in mechanics, foreshadowing his future expertness. It came into use the same night: he pulled the string without rising from bed, then struck a light, while the rats flew off to the holes to find them blocked, and he shot them at leisure. Two or three such massacres cleared off the intruders, and left him undisturbed in his quarters."[163] HANOVER RATS. How amusingly does Mr Waterton show his attachment to the extinct Stuarts in his essays. Go where he may, "a Hanover rat" pops up before him. In his charming autobiography appended to the three series of his graphic essays, whether he be in Rome or Cologne, in York or London, at a farm-house, or on board a steamer on the Rhine, "a Hanover rat" is sure to be encountered. We could cite many amusing illustrations. Earl Stanhope[164] speaks of the Jacobites after the death of Anne reviling all adherents of the court as "a parcel of Roundheads and Hanover rats." This is the phrase used by Squire Western in Fielding's novel of "Tom Jones." He tells us that the former of these titles was the by-word first applied to the Calvinistic preachers in the civil wars, from the close cropped hair which they affected as distinguished from the flowing curls of the cavaliers. The second phrase was of far more recent origin. It so chanced that not long after the accession of the House of Hanover, some of the brown, that is, the German or Norway rats, were first brought over to this country in some timber, as is said; and being much stronger than the black, or till then, the common rats, they in many places quite extirpated the latter. The word, both the noun and the verb "to rat," was first levelled at the converts to the government of George the First, but has by degrees obtained a wider meaning, and come to be applied to any sudden and mercenary change in politics. The ravages of rats might form the subject of a curious volume. They are not at all literary in their tastes, though they are known to eat through bales of books, should they be placed in the way of their runs. The booksellers in the Row always leave room between the wall and the books in their cellars, to allow room for this predacious vermin. Mr Cole, when examined before the Committee of the House on the condition of the depositories of the Records some time ago, stated that "six or seven perfect skeletons of rats were found imbedded (in the Rolls); bones of these vermin were generally distributed throughout the mass, and a dog was employed in hunting the live ones." IRISHMAN EMPLOYED SHOOTING RATS. Luttrell visited Sydney Smith at his parsonage in Somersetshire. The London wit told some amusing Irish stories, and his manner of telling them was so good. "One: 'Is your master at home, Paddy?' '_No_, your honour.' 'Why, I saw him go in five minutes ago.' 'Faith, your honour, he's not exactly at home; he's only there in the back yard a-shooting rats with cannon, your honour, for his _devarsion_.'"[165] JAMES WATT AND THE RAT'S WHISKERS. Mrs Schimmelpenninck in her youth lived at Birmingham, where she often met James Watt. In her autobiography (p. 34), she says, "Everybody practically knew the infinite variety of his talents and stores of knowledge. When Mr Watt entered a room, men of letters, men of science, nay, military men, artists, ladies, even little children thronged round him. I remember a celebrated Swedish artist having been instructed by him that rats' whiskers made the most pliant and elastic painting-brush; ladies would appeal to him on the best means of devising grates, curing smoky chimneys, warming their houses, and obtaining fast colours. I can speak from experience of his teaching me how to make a dulcimer, and improve a Jew's harp." THE POET GRAY COMPARES THE POET-LAUREATE TO A RAT-CATCHER. The poet Gray very much despised such offices as that of the poet-laureate, or that held by Elkanah Settle, the last of the city poets whose name is held up to ridicule by Pope in the "Dunciad." In a letter to the Rev. Wm. Mason,[166] he puts this very strikingly:-- "Though I very well know the bland emolient saponaceous qualities both of sack and silver, yet if any great man would say to me, 'I make you rat-catcher to his Majesty, with a salary of £300 a year, and two butts of the best Malaga; and though it has been usual to catch a mouse or two, for form's sake, in public once a year, yet to you, sir, we shall not stand upon these things,' I cannot say I should jump at it; nay, if they would drop the very name of the office, and call me Sinecure to the King's Majesty, I should still feel a little awkward, and think everybody I saw smelt a rat about me: but I do not pretend to blame any one else that has not the same sensations. For my part, I would rather be serjeant-trumpeter or pinmaker to the palace." JEREMY BENTHAM AND THE MICE. The biographer of Jeremy Bentham[167] tells us that among the animals he was fond of were mice. They were encouraged "to play" about in his workshop. I remember, when one got among his papers, that he exclaimed, "Ho! ho! here's a mouse at work; why won't he come into my lap?--but then I ought to be writing legislation, and that would not do." One day, while we were at dinner, mice had got, as they frequently did, into the drawers of the dinner-table, and were making no small noise. "O you rascals," exclaimed Bentham, "there's an uproar among you. I'll tell puss of you;" and then added, "I became once very intimate with a colony of mice. They used to run up my legs, and eat crumbs from my lap. I love everything that has four legs; so did George Wilson. We were fond of mice, and fond of cats; but it was difficult to reconcile the two affections." Jeremy Bentham records: "George Wilson had a disorder which kept him two months to his couch. The _mouses_ used to run up his back and eat the powder and pomatum from his hair. They used also to run up my knees when I went to see him. I remember they did so to Lord Glenbervie, who thought it odd."[168] BURNS AND THE FIELD MOUSE. The history of the origin of this well-known piece of the Scottish poet is thus given by Mr Chambers in that edition of the Life and Works of Robert Burns,[169] which will ever be regarded, by Scotchmen at least, as the most complete and carefully-edited of the numerous editions of that most popular poet. "We have the testimony of Gilbert Burns that this beautiful poem was composed while the author was following the plough. Burns ploughed with four horses, being twice the amount of power now required on most of the soils of Scotland. He required an assistant, called a _gaudsman_, to drive the horses, his own duty being to hold and guide the plough. John Blane, who had acted as gaudsman to Burns, and who lived sixty years afterwards, had a distinct recollection of the turning-up of the mouse. Like a thoughtless youth as he was, he ran after the creature to kill it, but was checked and recalled by his master, who, he observed, became thereafter thoughtful and abstracted. Burns, who treated his servants with the familiarity of fellow-labourers, soon after read the poem to Blane. TO A MOUSE, ON TURNING UP HER NEST WITH THE PLOUGH, NOVEMBER 1785. "Wee, sleekit, cow'rin, tim'rous beastie, Oh, what a panic's in thy breastie! Thou needna start awa sae hasty Wi' bickering brattle! I wad be laith to rin and chase thee Wi' murd'ring pattle.[170] "I'm truly sorry man's dominion Has broken nature's social union, And justifies that ill opinion, Which makes thee startle At me, thy poor earth-born companion, And fellow-mortal! "I doubt na whyles, but thou may thieve; What then? poor beastie, thou maun live! A daimen icker in a thrave[171] 'S a sma' request: I'll get a blessin' wi' the laive, And never miss't. "Thy wee bit housie, too, in ruin! Its silly wa's the win's are strewin"! And naething now to big a new ane O, foggage green, And bleak December's winds ensuin' Baith snell and keen! "Thou saw the fields laid bare and waste, And weary winter coming fast, And cozie here, beneath the blast, Thou thought to dwell, Till crash! the cruel coulter passed Out through thy cell. "That wee bit heap o' leaves and stibble, Has cost thee mony a weary nibble! Now thou's turned out for a' thy trouble, But house or hald, To thole the winter's sleety dribble, And cranreuch cauld! "But, mousie, thou art no thy lane; Improving foresight may be vain; The best-laid schemes o' mice and men Gang aft a-gley, And lea'e us nought but grief and pain For promised joy. "Still thou art blest, compared wi' me! The present only toucheth thee; But, och! I backward cast my e'e, On prospects drear! And forward, though I canna see, I guess and fear." It was on the farm of Mossgiel, in the parish of Mauchline, where he resided nearly nine years, that the occurrence took place so pathetically recorded and gloriously commented on in this piece. DESTRUCTIVE FIELD MICE. Thomas Fuller, in "The Farewell" to his description of the "Worthies of Essex," says, "I wish the sad casualties may never return which lately have happened in this county; the one, 1581, in the Hundred of Dengy, the other, 1648, in the Hundred of Rochford and Isle of Foulness (rented in part by two of my credible parishioners, who attested it, having paid dear for the truth thereof); when an army of mice, nesting in ant-hills, as conies in burrows, shaved off the grass at the bare roots, which, withering to dung, was infectious to cattle. The March following, numberless flocks of owls from all parts flew thither, and destroyed them, which otherwise had ruined the country, if continuing another year. Thus, though great the distance betwixt a man and a mouse, the meanest may become formidable to the mightiest creature by their multitudes; and this may render the punishment of the Philistines more clearly to our apprehensions, at the same time pestered with mice in their barns and pained with emerods in their bodies."[172] THE BARON VON TRENCK AND THE TAME MOUSE IN PRISON. The unfortunate Baron Von Trenck was a Prussian officer, whose adventures, imprisonments, and escape form the subject of memoirs which he wrote in Hungary. He at last settled in France, and there, in 1794, perished by the guillotine. Before he obtained his liberty, he lost a companion which had for two years helped to beguile the solitude of his captivity. This was a mouse, which he had tamed so perfectly, that the little creature was continually playing with him, and would eat out of his mouth. "One night it skipped about so much that the sentinels heard a noise and reported it to the officer of the guard. As the garrison had been changed at the peace (between Austria and Prussia), and as Trenck had not been able to form at once so close a connexion with the officers of the regular troops as he had done with those of the militia, one of the former, after ascertaining the truth of the report with his own ears, sent to inform the commandant that something extraordinary was going on in the prison. The town-major arrived in consequence early in the morning, accompanied by locksmiths and masons. The floor, the walls, the baron's chains, his body, everything in short, were strictly examined. Finding all in order, they asked the cause of the last evening's bustle. Trenck had heard the mouse, and told them frankly by what it had been occasioned. They desired him to call his little favourite; he whistled, and the mouse immediately leaped upon his shoulder. He solicited that its life might be spared; but the officer of the guard took it into his possession, promising, however, on his word of honour, to give it to a lady who would take great care of it. Turning it afterwards loose in his chamber, the mouse, who knew nobody but Trenck, soon disappeared, and hid himself in a hole. At the usual hour of visiting his prison, when the officers were just going away, the poor little animal darted in, climbed up his legs, seated itself on his shoulder, and played a thousand tricks to express the joy it felt on seeing him again. Every one was astonished, and wished to have it. The major, to terminate the dispute, carried it away, gave it to his wife, who had a light cage made for it; but the mouse refused to eat, and a few days after was found dead."[173] ALEXANDER WILSON AND THE MOUSE. About the time when Alexander Wilson formed the design of drawing the American birds, and writing those descriptions which, when published, gave him that name which has clung to him, "_the American Ornithologist_" he had a school within a few miles of Philadelphia. He was then a keen student of the animal life around him. In 1802 he wrote to his friend Bertram, and tells him of his having had "live crows, hawks, and owls; opossums, squirrels, snakes, lizards," &c. He tells him that his room sometimes reminded him of Noah's ark, and comically adds, "but Noah had a wife in one corner of it, and in this particular our parallel does not altogether tally. I receive every subject of natural history that is brought to me; and, though they do not march into my ark from all quarters, as they did into that of our great ancestor, yet I find means, by the distribution of a few fivepenny _bits_, to make them find the way fast enough. A boy, not long ago, brought me a large basketful of crows. I expect his next load will be bull-frogs, if I don't soon issue orders to the contrary. One of my boys caught a mouse in school a few days ago, and directly marched up to me with his prisoner. I set about drawing it the same evening, and all the while the pantings of its little heart showed it to be in the most extreme agonies of fear. I had intended to kill it, in order to fix it in the claws of a stuffed owl; but, happening to spill a few drops of water near where it was tied, it lapped it up with such eagerness, and looked in my face with such an eye of supplicating terror, as perfectly overcame me. I immediately restored it to life and liberty. The agonies of a prisoner at the stake, while the fire and instruments of torture are preparing, could not be more severe than the sufferings of that poor mouse; and, insignificant as the object was, I felt at that moment the sweet sensation that mercy leaves in the mind when she triumphs over cruelty."[174] FOOTNOTES: [163] "The Life of General Sir Howard Douglas, Bart., G.C.B., F.R.S., D.C.L., from his Notes, Conversations, and Correspondence," by S. W. Fullom. 1863. P. 28. [164] "History of England, from the Peace of Utrecht," by Lord Mahon, vol. vii. p. 465. [165] Life of Sydney Smith, by his daughter, Lady Holland, vol. i. 374. [166] "Correspondence of Thomas Gray and Mason, edited from the originals," by the Rev. John Mitford, p. 112. [167] Dr Bowring's "Life of Jeremy Bentham," Works, vol. xi. p. 80, 81. [168] "Bowring's Life," vol. x., Works, p. 186. [169] By Robert Chambers, Edinburgh, 1851, 4 vols., vol. i., p. 146. [170] The stick used for clearing away the clods from the plough. [171] An occasional ear of corn in a thrave,--that is, twenty-four sheaves. [172] "Worthies of England," vol. i. p. 545. [173] "Wilson's Life," p. 28. HARES, RABBITS, GUINEA-PIG. All gnawing creatures, belonging to the Glirine or Rodentia order. Charles Lamb has written on the hare, in one view of that finely-flavoured beast, as only Elia could write. But the poet Cowper has made the hare's history peculiarly pleasing and familiar. How often in his letters he alludes to his hares! Mrs E. B. Browning, in her exquisitely delicate and pathetic poem, "Cowper's Grave," thus alludes to Cowper's pets-- "Wild, timid hares were drawn from woods to share his home caresses, Uplooking to his human eyes with sylvan tendernesses; The very world, by God's constraint, from falsehood's ways removing, Its women and its men became, beside him, true and loving." Not many years ago the compiler saw traces of the holes the poet had cut in the skirting-boards of the room for their ingress and egress, that they might have ampler room for wandering. His epitaphs on two of them are often quoted. Rabbits are peculiarly the pets of boys, and though, when wild, often great vermin, from their destructive habits and their mining operations, are yet said to contribute much to the revenue of one European monarch. How Mr Malthus ought to have hated guinea-pigs, those fertile little lumps of blotched fur! Few creatures can be more productive. WILLIAM COWPER ON HIS HARES. What a model description of the habits of an animal we have in the gentle Cowper's account of his hares! Would that he had made pets of other animals, and written descriptions of them, like that which follows, and which is here copied from the original place to which he contributed it.[175] "_May_ 28. "MR URBAN,--Convinced that you despise no communications that may gratify curiosity, amuse rationally, or add, though but a little, to the stock of public knowledge, I send you a circumstantial account of an animal, which, though its general properties are pretty well known, is for the most part such a stranger to man, that we are but little aware of its peculiarities. We know indeed that the hare is good to hunt and good to eat; but in all other respects poor Puss is a neglected subject. In the year 1774, being much indisposed, both in mind and body, incapable of diverting myself either with company or books, and yet in a condition that made some diversion necessary, I was glad of anything that would engage my attention without fatiguing it. The children of a neighbour of mine had a leveret given them for a plaything; it was at that time about three months old. Understanding better how to tease the poor creature than to feed it, and soon becoming weary of their charge, they readily consented that their father, who saw it pining and growing leaner every day, should offer it to my acceptance. I was willing enough to take the prisoner under my protection, perceiving that in the management of such an animal, and in the attempt to tame it, I should find just that sort of employment which my case required. It was soon known among the neighbours that I was pleased with the present; and the consequence was, that in a short time, I had as many leverets offered to me as would have stocked a paddock. I undertook the care of three, which it is necessary that I should here distinguish by the names I gave them--Puss, Tiney, and Bess. Notwithstanding the two feminine appellatives, I must inform you that they were all males. Immediately commencing carpenter, I built them houses to sleep in. Each had a separate apartment, so contrived that their ordure would pass through the bottom of it; an earthen pan placed under each received whatsoever fell, which being duly emptied and washed, they were thus kept perfectly sweet and clean. In the daytime they had the range of a hall, and at night retired each to his own bed, never intruding into that of another. "Puss grew presently familiar, would leap into my lap, raise himself upon his hinder feet, and bite the hair from my temples. He would suffer me to take him up, and to carry him about in my arms, and has more than once fallen fast asleep upon my knee. He was ill three days, during which time I nursed him, kept him apart from his fellows that they might not molest him (for, like many other wild animals, they persecute one of their own species that is sick), and by constant care, and trying him with a variety of herbs, restored him to perfect health. No creature could be more grateful than my patient after his recovery,--a sentiment which he most significantly expressed by licking my hand, first the back of it, then the palm, then every finger separately; then between all the fingers, as if anxious to leave no part of it unsaluted,--a ceremony which he never performed but once again upon a similar occasion. Finding him extremely tractable, I made it my custom to carry him always after breakfast into the garden, where he hid himself generally under the leaves of a cucumber vine, sleeping or chewing the cud till evening; in the leaves also of that vine he found a favourite repast. I had not long habituated him to this taste of liberty, before he began to be impatient for the return of the time when he might enjoy it. He would invite me to the garden by drumming upon my knee, and by a look of such expression as it was not possible to misinterpret. If this rhetoric did not immediately succeed, he would take the skirt of my coat between his teeth, and pull at it with all his force. Thus Puss might be said to be perfectly tamed; the shyness of his nature was done away, and on the whole it was visible, by many symptoms which I have not room to enumerate, that he was happier in human society than when shut up with his natural companions. "Not so Tiney. Upon him the kindest treatment had not the least effect. He, too, was sick, and in his sickness, had an equal share of my attention; but if, after his recovery, I took the liberty to stroke him, he would grunt, strike with his fore-feet, spring forward, and bite. He was, however, very entertaining in his way, even his surliness was matter of mirth, and in his play he preserved such an air of gravity, and performed his feats with such a solemnity of manner, that in him, too, I had an agreeable companion. "Bess, who died soon after he was full grown, and whose death was occasioned by his being turned into his box, which had been washed, while it was yet damp, was a hare of great humour and drollery. Puss was tamed by gentle usage; Tiney was not to be tamed at all; and Bess had a courage and confidence that made him tame from the beginning. I always admitted them into the parlour after supper, where the carpet affording their feet a firm hold, they would frisk, and bound, and play a thousand gambols, in which Bess, being remarkably strong and fearless, was always superior to the rest, and proved himself the Vestris of the party. One evening, the cat, being in the room, had the hardiness to pat Bess upon the cheek, an indignity which he resented by drumming upon her back with such violence, that the cat was happy to escape from under his paws and hide herself. "You observe, sir, that I describe these animals as having each a character of his own. Such they were in fact, and their countenances were so expressive of that character, that, when I looked only on the face of either, I immediately knew which it was. It is said that a shepherd, however numerous his flock, soon becomes so familiar with their features, that he can by that indication only distinguish each from all the rest, and yet to a common observer the difference is hardly perceptible. I doubt not that the same discrimination in the cast of countenances would be discoverable in hares, and am persuaded that among a thousand of them no two could be found exactly similar; a circumstance little suspected by those who have not had opportunity to observe it. These creatures have a singular sagacity in discovering the minutest alteration that is made in the place to which they are accustomed, and instantly apply their nose to the examination of a new object. A small hole being burnt in the carpet, it was mended with a patch, and that patch in a moment underwent the strictest scrutiny. They seem, too, to be very much directed by the smell in the choice of their favourites; to some persons, though they saw them daily, they could never be reconciled, and would even scream when they attempted to touch them; but a miller coming in, engaged their affections at once--his powdered coat had charms that were irresistible. You will not wonder, sir, that my intimate acquaintance with these specimens of the kind has taught me to hold the sportsman's amusement in abhorrence. He little knows what amiable creatures he persecutes, of what gratitude they are capable, how cheerful they are in their spirits, what enjoyment they have of life, and that, impressed as they seem with a peculiar dread of man, it is only because man gives them peculiar cause for it. "That I may not be tedious, I will just give you a short summary of those articles of diet that suit them best, and then retire to make room for some more important correspondent. "I take it to be a general opinion that they graze, but it is an erroneous one, at least grass is not their staple; they seem rather to use it medicinally, soon quitting it for leaves of almost any kind. Sowthistle, dent-de-lion, and lettuce are their favourite vegetables, especially the last. I discovered, by accident, that fine white sand is in great estimation with them, I suppose as a digestive. It happened that I was cleaning a bird cage while the hares were with me; I placed a pot filled with such sand upon the floor, to which being at once directed by a strong instinct, they devoured it voraciously; since that time I have generally taken care to see them well supplied with it. They account green corn a delicacy, both blade and stalk, but the ear they seldom eat; straw of any kind, especially wheat-straw, is another of their dainties; they will feed greedily upon oats, but if furnished with clean straw, never want them; it serves them also for a bed, and, if shaken up daily, will be kept sweet and dry for a considerable time. They do not indeed require aromatic herbs, but will eat a small quantity of them with great relish, and are particularly fond of the plant called musk; they seem to resemble sheep in this, that if their pastures be too succulent, they are very subject to the rot; to prevent which, I always made bread their principal nourishment; and, filling a pan with it cut into small squares, placed it every evening in their chambers, for they feed only at evening and in the night; during the winter, when vegetables are not to be got, I mingled this mess of bread with shreds of carrot, adding to it the rind of apples cut extremely thin; for, though they are fond of the paring, the apple itself disgusts them. These, however, not being a sufficient substitute for the juice of summer herbs, they must at this time be supplied with water; but so placed that they cannot overset it into their beds. I must not omit, that occasionally they are much pleased with twigs of hawthorn and of the common briar, eating even the very wood when it is of considerable thickness. "Bess, I have said, died young; Tiney lived to be nine years old, and died at last, I have reason to think, of some hurt in his loins by a fall. Puss is still living, and has just completed his tenth year, discovering no signs of decay nor even of age, except that he is grown more discreet and less frolicsome than he was. I cannot conclude, sir, without informing you that I have lately introduced a dog to his acquaintance, a spaniel that had never seen a hare, to a hare that had never seen a spaniel. I did it with great caution, but there was no real need of it. Puss discovered no token of fear, nor Marquis the least symptom of hostility. There is, therefore, it should seem, no natural antipathy between dog and hare, but the pursuit of the one occasions the flight of the other, and the dog pursues because he is trained to it; they eat bread at the same time out of the same hand, and are in all respects sociable and friendly.--Yours &c., W. C. "_P.S._--I should not do complete justice to my subject, did I not add, that they have no ill scent belonging to them, that they are indefatigably nice in keeping themselves clean, for which purpose nature has furnished them with a brush under each foot; and that they are never infested by any vermin." Our readers know his fine verses or epitaphs on his hares. We may quote from the biographer to whom Sir Robert Peel and the Duke of Wellington left all their papers and memoirs, a sentence or two on Cowper's hares, and on the other pets of that lovable man. Earl Stanhope[176] says of this poet and "best letter-writer in the English language--"Such, indeed, were his powers of description and felicity of language, that even the most trivial objects drew life and colour from his touch. In his pages, the training of three tame hares, or the building of a frame for cucumbers, excite a warmer interest than many accounts compiled by other writers, of great battles deciding the fate of empires. In his pages, the sluggish waters of the Ouse,--the floating lilies which he stooped to gather from them,--the poplars, in whose shade he sat, and over whose fall he mourned, rise before us as though we had known and loved them too. As Cowper himself declares, 'My descriptions are all from nature, not one of them second-handed; my delineations of the heart are from my own experience, not one of them borrowed from books.'" HAIRS OR HARES! A gentleman on circuit, narrating to Lord Norbury some extravagant feat in sporting, mentioned that he had lately shot thirty-three hares before breakfast. "Thirty-three _hairs_!" exclaimed Lord Norbury; "zounds, sir! then you must have been firing at a _wig_."[177] Sportsmen are very apt to exaggerate. They did so at least in Horace's days. We have heard of a man of rank, who actually made a gamekeeper, who was a first-rate marksman, fire whenever he discharged his piece. The story goes, that _that_ man was regarded as having shot everything that fell. The Duke of L.'s reply, when it was observed to him that the gentlemen bordering on his estates were continually hunting upon them, and that he ought not to suffer it, is worthy of imitation. "I had much rather," said he, "have _friends_ than hares."[178] The time must be coming, when every farmer or peasant will be allowed to shoot hares. It is surely cruel to imprison or fine a man for shooting and shouldering a hare. Having lately traversed a goodly part of the Perthshire Highlands, we were struck with the numbers of Arctic hares that scudded away out of our path. What a fine help one of them would be to a poor family. S. BISSET AND HIS TRAINED HARE AND TURTLE. S. Bisset, whose training of other animals is elsewhere recorded, like the poet Cowper, procured a leveret, and reared it to beat several marches on the drum with its hind legs, until it became a good stout hare. This creature, which is always set down as the most timid, he declared to be as mischievous and bold an animal, to the extent of its power, as any with which he was acquainted. He taught canary-birds, linnets, and sparrows, to spell the name of any person in company, to distinguish the hour and minute of time, and play many other surprising tricks. He trained six turkey-cocks to go through a regular country dance; but in doing this he confessed he adopted the eastern method, by which camels are made to dance, by heating the floor. In the course of six months' teaching, he made a turtle fetch and carry like a dog; and having chalked the floor, and blackened its claws, could direct it to trace out any given name of the company.[179] A FAMILY OF RABBITS ALL BLIND OF ONE EYE. Lady Anne Barnard, in her Cape Journal,[180] referring to Dessin or Rabbit Island at the Cape of Good Hope, says that it is "dreadfully exposed to the south-east winds. A gentleman told me of a natural phenomenon he had met with when shooting there; his dog pointed at a rabbit's hole, where the company within were placed so near the opening that he could see Mynheer, Madame, and the whole rabbit family. Pompey, encouraged, brought out the old coney, his wife, and seven young ones,--all, like the callenders in the 'Arabian Nights' Entertainments,' blind of one eye, and that the same eye. The question was, on which side of the island was the rabbit's hole? With a very little reasoning and comparing, it was found that from its position, the keen blast must have produced this effect. The oddest part of this story is, that it is true, but I do not expect you to believe it." THOMAS FULLER ON NORFOLK RABBITS. "These are an army of natural pioneers whence men have learned _cuniculos agere_, the art of undermining. They thrive best on barren ground, and grow fattest in the hardest frosts. Their flesh is fine and wholesome. If Scottish men tax our language as improper, and smile at our wing of a rabbit, let us laugh at their shoulder of a capon. Their skins were formerly much used, when furs were in fashion; till of late our citizens, of Romans are turned Grecians, have laid down their grave gowns and taken up their light cloaks; men generally disliking all habits, though emblems of honour, if also badges of age. Their rich or silver-hair skins, formerly so dear, are now levelled in prices with other colours; yea, are lower than black in estimation, because their wool is most used in making of hats, commonly (for the more credit) called half-beavers, though many of them hardly amount to the proportion of semi-demi castors."[181] DR CHALMERS AND THE GUINEA-PIG. Mr Aitken alludes in a pleasing manner to an instance of Dr Chalmers's fondness for animals. He had just been appointed the head-master of one of the Glasgow parish schools (St John's). "Early in the week following my appointment, I received my first private call. One circumstance occurred during the visit which I still remember most vividly. One of my children had been presented with a pair of guinea-pigs. These had found their way into the apartment where we were sitting, and ran about in all directions. I could have wished to turn them out, but had not the power to rise from my chair. He soon observed them, followed them with his eye as they now retreated under his chair and again ventured out into his presence--he even changed the position of his feet to give them scope. That same kindly eye, one glance of which we all loved so much to catch in after-life, beamed only the more warmly as the creatures frisked in greater confidence around him. It was to me an omen for good. He who could enjoy thus the innocent gamble of these guinea-pigs could not fail to be accessible for good when occasion required. It was the first flush of that largeness of heart which afterwards appeared in all I ever heard him say or saw him do."[182] FOOTNOTES: [174] "Memoir of Wilson," p. 27, prefixed to his poetical works. Belfast, 1844. [175] _Gentleman's Magazine_, for June 1784, being the sixth number of vol. liv., pp. 412-414, "Unnoticed Properties of that little animal the Hare." [176] "History of England," vol. vi. p. 486. [177] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 59. [178] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 182. [179] Biography of S. Bisset in G. H. Wilson's "Eccentric Mirror," vol. i., No. 3, p. 29. [180] Published by Lord Lindsay in vol. iii. of his "Lives of the Lindsays," p. 387. [181] "Worthies of England," vol. ii. p. 445 (ed. 1840). SLOTH. REVEREND SYDNEY SMITH ON THE SLOTH. Few anecdotes can be published of this curious creature, though Waterton and Burchell, or Dr Buckland, for him and his friend Bates, have recorded much that is interesting of its habits. The following bit is peculiarly happy: "The sloth, in its wild state, spends its life in trees, and never leaves them but from force or accident. The eagle to the sky, the mole to the ground, the sloth to the tree; but what is most extraordinary, he lives not _upon_ the branches, but _under_ them. He moves suspended, rests suspended, sleeps suspended, and passes his life in suspense--like a young clergyman distantly related to a bishop."[183] [Illustration: The Great Ant-Eater. (Myrmecophaga jabata).] FOOTNOTES: [182] Dr Hannah's "Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Thomas Chalmers, D.D., L.L.D.," vol. ii. p. 237. THE GREAT ANT-EATER. (_Myrmecophaga jubata_, L.[184]) A few months ago a handbill was distributed in the neighbourhood of Seven Dials, inviting the public to visit a "wonderful animal fed with ants, and possessing strength to kill the lion, tiger, or any other animal under its claws." We entered the miserable apartment where it was exhibited, and any spectator must at once have been struck with the creature's want of resemblance to any other he had ever seen. Its head so small, so long and slender; the straight, wiry, dry hair with which it was covered, and its singularly large and bushy tail, first attracted notice. A second glance showed its enormously thick fore-legs, and the claws of its feet turned in, so that it walked on the sides of its soles. Oken and St Hilaire would have said that it was "all extremity." A cup, with the contents of one or two eggs, was brought, and it sucked them with great avidity, every now and then darting from its small mouth a very long tongue, which looked like a great, black worm, whisking about in the custard. One of its showmen told us that it had attacked the woman of the house the preceding day, and had scratched her arm. Whether this was true or grossly exaggerated, we know not; but if so, we suspect that the woman herself must have been in fault, and not the inoffensive stranger. On the payment of a handsome consideration to her owners, the poor captive was transferred from her unwholesome lodging in St Giles's, to the Gardens of the Zoological Society in the Regent's Park. And within the last few weeks her solitude has been cheered by the arrival of a companion from her native forests. The new-comer is in beautiful condition, though not nearly so large. He has a head decidedly shorter and stronger, and is probably not yet fully grown. The great ant-eater seems to be scattered over a wide extent of South America--Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay, being its places of abode. It is a stout animal, measuring from the end of the snout to the tip of the long tail six or seven feet, of which the tail takes nearly the half; so that the actual size of its body is much reduced. In Paraguay it is named _Nurumi_ or _Yogui_. The former name is altered from the native word for _small mouth_, and indicates a striking peculiarity in its structure. The Portuguese call it _Tamandua_; the Spaniards, _Osa hormiguero_ (_i.e._, ant-hill bear). In Paraguay it prefers sides of lakes where ants, at least termites or white ants, are abundant; but it also frequents woods. In Guiana, Mr Waterton found it chiefly "in the inmost recesses of the forest," where it "seems partial to the low and swampy parts near creeks, where the troely tree grows."[185] It sleeps a great deal, reclining on its side, as the visitor to the Gardens may frequently see it do, with its head between its fore-legs, joining its fore and hindfeet, and spreading the tail so as to cover the whole body. Huddled up under this thatch, it might almost be taken for a bundle of coarse and badly dried hay. The tail is thickly covered with long hairs, placed vertically, the hairs draggling on the ground. When the creature is irritated, the tail is shaken straight and elevated. The natives of Paraguay, like other persecutors of harmlessness, kill every specimen they meet, so that the ant-eater gets rare, and so rare is it on the Amazon that Mr Wallace, who travelled there from 1848 to 1852, honestly tells us he never saw one. He heard, however, that during rain it turns its bushy tail over its head and stands still. The Indians, knowing this habit, when they meet an ant-eater, make a rustling noise among the leaves. The creature instantly turns up its tail, and is easily killed by the stroke of a stick on its little head.[186] The ant-eater is slow in its movements--never attempting to escape. When hard pressed it stops, and, seated on its hind-legs, waits for the aggressor. Its object is to receive him between its fore-legs; and one has only to look at its arms and claws in order to fancy what a frightful squeeze it would give. Nothing but death, they say, will make the creature relax its grasp. It is asserted that the jaguar--the tiger of South America, and the most formidable beast of the New World--dares not attack it. This Azara, with good reason, doubts. A single bite from a jaguar, or the stroke of his paw, would fracture an ant-eater's skull before it had time to turn round; for the movements of this edentate quadruped are as sluggish as those of the toothed carnivorous tyrant are rapid. As seen in its handsome and roomy cage, the ant-eater gives us an impression of dulness and stupidity; and always smelling and listening and looking at the door where its keeper introduces its food, its mind, when awake, appears to be constantly occupied about "creature comforts." In the course of the day it laps up with its darting tongue, and sucks in through its long taper snout a dozen eggs, and almost the whole of a rabbit, chopped into a fine mince-meat. With such dainty fare, and with the anxious attention which it receives from its sagacious curators, it is scarcely surprising that it thrives; and when the warm weather comes, it will be a fine sight to see these animals enjoying the range of a paddock, which will doubtless be provided for their use, and exercising their brawny forelimbs and powerful claws in pulling down conical mounds, which may remind them of departed joys and balmier climes. Nor will it be the least charm of the spectacle that it will enable us to compare this living species with other _Edentata_ of South America--such as the Megatherium, now only found in the fossil state, but so admirably restored by Mr Hawkins for the Crystal Palace. We need not dwell on the admirable adaptation of the ant-eater to its position and to its few and simple wants. To those who have not studied "the works of the Lord," it may appear uncouth and unattractive. Compared with a dog, it is stupid; and alongside of a lion, it is slow. It has not the symmetry of the horse, nor the beautiful markings of the zebra and leopard. But its Creator has given it the instincts, the form, the muscular powers, and the colours which best answer its purpose. And no one can say that it is plain and ugly, who looks at its legs so prettily variegated with white and black, and its noble black collar. Those of our readers who wish further information will find it in the _Literary Gazette_ for October 8, 1853. In that article it is easy to recognise the Roman hand of the _facile princeps_ among living comparative anatomists. Long may it be before either of our new acquaintances in the Garden afford him a subject for dissection; but when that day arrives, we hope that he will not delay to publish the memoir.[187]--_A. White, in "Excelsior" (with additions)._ FOOTNOTES: [183] Sydney Smith, "Review of Waterton's Wanderings." _Edinburgh Review_, 1826. Works, vol. ii. p. 145. [184] From [Greek: myrmêx], ant; [Greek: phagô], I eat; _jubata_, maned. [185] "Wanderings in South America" (Third Journey), p. 159, (ed. 1839). [186] "A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro," by Alfred R. Wallace, 1853, p. 452. RHINOCEROS AND ELEPHANT. Two genera of the bulkiest among terrestrial beasts. Just imagine the great rhinoceros at the Zoological Gardens taking it into its head, with that little eye, target hide, and bulky bones, and other items about it, to fondle its keeper!--he was nearly crushed to death. How the great thick-skinned creature enjoys a bath! As for the elephant, he is a mountain of matter as well as of animal intelligence. Sir Emerson Tennant in his "Ceylon," but especially in his "Natural History," volumes, has given some truly readable chapters on the Asiatic elephant. We could have extracted many an anecdote, even from recent works, of the intelligent sagacity of the Indian as well as the African elephants. The account of the shooting of Mr Cross's well-known elephant _Chunie_, at Exeter Change, has been very curiously and fully detailed by Hone in his "Every-Day Book." A skull of an elephant in the British Museum, shows how wonderfully an elephant is at times able to defend itself from attack. Many a shot that "rogue elephant" had received, years before the three or four Indian sportsmen, who presented its skull as a trophy, succeeded in planting a shot in its brain, or in its heart. Think of the feelings of Lord Clive's relations, at the prospect of his sending home an elephant for a pet. The good folks, not without some motive, as the great Indian ruler conceived, other than mere love for him, had been sending him presents. Samuel Rogers, who wrote the neatest of hands, records that Clive wrote the worst and certainly the most illegible of scrawls. Instead of "elephant," as they read it, their liberal relative had written "equivalent!" THE LORD KEEPER GUILFORD AND HIS VISIT TO THE RHINOCEROS IN THE CITY OF LONDON.[188] It is strange to read in the life of the Lord Keeper Guilford, that his lordship's court enemies, "hard put to it to find, or invent, something tending to the diminution of his character," took advantage of his going to see a rhinoceros, to circulate a foolish story of him, which much annoyed him. It was in the reign of James II. his biographer thus records it. The rhinoceros, referred to, was the first ever brought to England. Evelyn, in his "Memoirs," says, that it was sold for £2000, a most enormous sum in those days (1685). Roger North relates the story:--"It fell out thus--a merchant of Sir Dudley North's acquaintance had brought over an enormous rhinoceros, to be sold to showmen for profit. It is a noble beast, wonderfully armed by nature for offence, but more for defence, being covered with impenetrable shields, which no weapon would make any impression upon, and a rarity so great that few men, in our country, have in their whole lives the opportunity of seeing so singular an animal. This merchant told Sir Dudley North that if he, with a friend or two, had a mind to see it, they might take the opportunity at his house before it was sold. Hereupon Sir Dudley North proposed to his brother, the Lord Keeper, to go with him upon this exhibition, which he did, and came away exceedingly satisfied with the curiosity he had seen. But whether he was dogged to find out where he and his brother housed in the city, or flying fame carried an account of the voyage to court, I know not; but it is certain that the very next morning a bruit went from thence all over the town, and (as factious reports used to run) in a very short time, viz., that his lordship rode upon the rhinoceros, than which a more infantine exploit could not have been fastened upon him. And most people were struck with amazement at it, and divers ran here and there to find out whether it was true or no. And soon after dinner some lords and others came to his lordship to know the truth from himself, for the setters of the lie affirmed it positively as of their own knowledge. That did not give his lordship much disturbance, for he expected no better from his adversaries. But that his friends, intelligent persons, who must know him to be far from guilty of any childish levity, should believe it, was what roiled him extremely, and much more when they had the face to come to him to know if it were true. I never saw him in such a rage, and to lay about him with affronts (which he keenly bestowed upon the minor courtiers that came on that errand) as then; for he sent them away with fleas in their ear. And he was seriously angry with his own brother, Sir Dudley North, because he did not contradict the lie in sudden and direct terms, but laughed as taking the question put to him for a banter, till, by iteration, he was brought to it. For some lords came, and because they seemed to attribute somewhat to the avowed positiveness of the reporters, he rather chose to send for his brother to attest than to impose his bare denial, and so it passed; and the noble earl (of Sunderland), with Jeffries, and others of that crew, made merry, and never blushed at the lie of their own making, but valued themselves upon it as a very good jest." And so it passed. What a sensation would have been caused by the sudden apparition in that age of a few numbers of _Punch_. What a subject for a cartoon, some John Leech of 1685 would have made of the stately Lord Keeper on the back of a rhinoceros, and the infamous Judge Jeffries leering at him from a window. THE ELEPHANT AND HIS TRUNK. Canning and another gentleman were looking at a picture of the deluge; the ark was seen in the middle distance, while in the fore-sea an elephant was struggling with his fate. "I wonder," said the gentleman, "that the elephant did not secure _an inside_ place!"--"He was too late, my friend," replied Canning; "he was detained _packing up his trunk_."[189] SIR RICHARD PHILLIPS AND JELLY MADE OF IVORY DUST.--A VEGETARIAN TAKEN IN. The biographers of James Montgomery[190] relate an amusing anecdote of Sir Richard Phillips, the eccentric London bookseller and author. He visited Sheffield in October 1828. "He had lived too long amidst the bustle and business of the great world, and was too little conscious of any feeling at all like diffidence, to allow him to hesitate about calling upon any person, whether of rank, genius, or eccentricity, when the success of his project was likely to be thereby promoted. The time selected by the free and easy knight for his unannounced visitation of Montgomery was _Sunday at dinner time_. He was at once asked to sit down and partake of the chickens and bacon which had just been placed on the table, but here was a dilemma; Sir Richard, although neither a Brahmin nor a Jew, avowed himself a staunch Pythagorean--he could eat no flesh! Luckily there was a plentiful supply of carrots and turnips, and--jelly. But was the latter made from calves' feet? Montgomery assured his guest that it was _not_; but, added he, with a conscientious regard for his visitor's scruples, from _ivory dust_. We believe the poet fancied the hypothesis of an animal origin of this viand could not be very obscure; it was, however, swallowed; the clever bibliopole perhaps believing, with some of the Sheffield ivory-cutters, that elephants, instead of being hunted and killed for their tusks, _shed them_ when fully grown, as bucks do their antlers!" J. T. SMITH AND THE ELEPHANT. That gossiping man, J. T. Smith, once Keeper of the Prints in the British Museum, and author of "Nollekens and his Times," relates, that when he and a friend were returning late from a club, and were approaching Temple Bar, "about one o'clock, a most unaccountable appearance claimed our attention,--it was no less than an elephant, whose keepers were coaxing it to pass through the gateway. He had been accompanied with several persons from the Tower wharf with tall poles, but was principally guided by two men with ropes, each walking on either side of the street, to keep him as much as possible in the middle, on his way to the menagerie, Exeter Change, to which destination, after passing St Clement's Church, he steadily trudged on, with strict obedience to the command of his keepers.[191] "I had the honour afterwards of partaking of a pot of Barclay's entire with this same elephant, which high mark of his condescension was bestowed when I accompanied my friend, the late Sir James Wintel Lake, Bart., to view the rare animals in Exeter Change,--that gentleman being assured by the elephant's keeper that, if he would offer the beast a shilling, he would see the noble animal nod his head and drink a pot of porter. The elephant had no sooner taken the shilling, which he did in the mildest manner from the palm of Sir James's hand, than he gave it to the keeper, and eagerly watched his return with the beer. The elephant then, after placing his proboscis to the top of the tankard, drew up nearly the whole of the beverage. The keeper observed, 'You will hardly believe, gentlemen, but the little he has left is quite warm;' upon this we were tempted to taste it, and it really was so. This animal was afterwards disposed of for the sum of one thousand guineas." THE ELEPHANT AND THE TAILOR. This old story has been often told, but never so well as by Sydney Smith in one of his lectures at the Royal Institution. "Every one knows the old story of the tailor and the elephant, which, if it be not true, at least shows the opinion the Orientals, who know the animal well, entertain of his sagacity. An eastern tailor to the Court was making a magnificent doublet for a bashaw of nine tails, and covering it, after the manner of eastern doublets, with gold, silver, and every species of metallic magnificence. As he was busying himself on this momentous occasion, there passed by, to the pools of water, one of the royal elephants, about the size of a broad-wheeled waggon, rich in ivory teeth, and shaking, with its ponderous tread, the tailor's shop to its remotest thimble. As he passed near the window, the elephant happened to look in; the tailor lifted up his eyes, perceived the proboscis of the elephant near him, and, being seized with a fit of facetiousness, pricked the animal with his needle; the mass of matter immediately retired, stalked away to the pool, filled his trunk full of muddy water, and, returning to the shop, overwhelmed the artisan and his doublet with the dirty effects of his vengeance." DR JOHNSON ALLUDED TO AS "AN ELEPHANT." "If an elephant could write a book, perhaps one that had read a great deal would say, that an Arabian horse is a very clumsy, ungraceful animal." This was written by Horace Walpole to Miss Berry, in 1791, in allusion to Dr Johnson's depreciation of Thomas Gray the poet.[192] It is an acute observation, well worth being wrought out. There is a grandeur and even a grace about this bulky beast and its motions well deserving the study of any one who has the opportunity. Elephants in our streets are not now so rare as they used to be. We saw three in one procession in the streets of Edinburgh in 1865. ELEPHANT'S SKIN. "Did any of you ever see an elephant's skin?" asked the master of an infant school in a fast neighbourhood. "I have!" shouted a six-year-old at the foot of the class. "Where?" inquired the master, amused by his earnestness. "_On the elephant!_" was the reply. FOOTNOTES: [187] This memoir has been published, and the subject of it was this very ant-eater. Professor Owen has introduced many striking facts from the history of its structure, in his lecture delivered at Exeter Hall, 1863, and published by the Messrs Nisbet. [188] "The Life of the Right Hon. Francis North, Baron Guilford, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, under King Charles II. and King James II., &c." By the Hon. Roger North. A New Edition, in three vols., 1826, vol. ii. p. 167. [189] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 329. [190] "John Holland and James Everett," vol. iv. p. 283. [191] "A Book for a Rainy Day," p. 92. FOSSIL PACHYDERMATA. CUVIER AND THE FOSSIL. George Cuvier was perhaps the first man who, by his admirable works and researches, gave zoology its true place among the sciences. His discoveries of the structure of molluscous and other animals of the obscurer orders are perhaps eclipsed by his researches in osteology. He has enabled the comparative anatomist to tell from a small portion of bone not only the class, but the order, genus, and even the species to which animal that bone belonged. Mrs Lee,[193] in her Life of the Baron, gives an example of his enthusiasm in his researches. M. Laurillard was afterwards his secretary and the draftsman who executed nearly all the drawings in his "Ossemens fossiles." At the time of this story he had not particularly attracted Cuvier's notice. "One day Cuvier came to his brother Frederic to ask him to disengage a fossil from its surrounding mass, an office he had frequently performed. M. Laurillard was applied to in the absence of F. Cuvier. Little aware of the value of the specimen confided to his care, he cheerfully set to work, and succeeded in getting the bone entire from its position. M. Cuvier, after a short time, returned for his treasure, and when he saw how perfect it was, his ecstasies became incontrollable; he danced, he shook his hands, he uttered expressions of delight, till M. Laurillard, in his ignorance both of the importance of what he had done, and of the ardent character of M. Cuvier, thought he was mad. Taking, however, his fossil foot in one hand, and dragging Laurillard's arm with the other, he led him up-stairs to present him to his wife and sister-in-law, saying, 'I have got my foot, and M. Laurillard found it for me.' It seems that this skilful operation confirmed all M. Cuvier's previous conjecture concerning a foot, the existence and form of which he had already guessed, but for which he had long and vainly sought. So occupied had he been by it, that, when he appeared to be particularly absent, his family were wont to accuse him of seeking his fore-foot. The next morning the able operator and draftsman was engaged as secretary." FOOTNOTES: [192] "Letters of Horace Walpole," edited by Peter Cunningham, ix., 319. [193] "Memoirs of Baron Cuvier," by Mrs R. Lee (formerly Mrs T Ed. Bowdich), 1833, p. 93. SOW. A very gross but useful animal, which can, by feeding, be stuffed into such a state of fatness as only one who has seen a Christmas cattle show in England could believe it possible for beast to acquire. Dean Ramsay, in a happy anecdote, refers to a good quality of the sow as food. He tells, that a Scottish minister had been persuaded to keep a pig, and that the good wife had been duly instructed in the mysteries of black-puddings, pork-chops, pig's-head, and other modes of turning poor piggy to account. The minister remarked to a friend, "Nae doubt there's a hantle o' miscellaneous eating aboot a pig." The author of "A Ramble," published by Edmonstone and Douglas in 1865, has devoted some most amusing pages of his work to an account of "Pig-sticking in Chicago," as witnessed by him during the late American war. The wholesale and scientific off-hand way in which living pigs enter into one part of a machine, and come out prepared pork, could only have been devised by a Yankee. [Illustration: The Wild Boar of Syria and Egypt. (Sus Scrofa.)] The essay of Charles Lamb on Roast Pig, and his history of how the Chinaman discovered it, is a most characteristic bit of the productions of Elia. We have cut from a recent paper, what seems an authentic story, of one of this race having obtained a kind of mausoleum. We hope it is not a hoax, but that it is as genuine as all that is in one of "Murray's Handbooks:"-- MONUMENT TO A PIG.--"Up to the present time," says the _Europe_ of Frankfort, "no monument that we are aware of had ever been erected to the memory of a _pig_. The town of Luneburg, in Hanover, has wished to fill up that blank; and at the Hotel de Ville, in that town, there is to be seen a kind of mausoleum to the memory of a member of the swinish race. In the interior of that commemorative structure is to be seen a glass case, inclosing a ham still in good preservation. A slab of black marble attracts the eye of visitors, who find thereon the following inscription in Latin, engraved in letters of gold--'Passer-by, contemplate here the mortal remains of the pig which acquired for itself imperishable glory by the discovery of the salt springs of Luneburg.'" THE WILD BOAR (_Sus scrofa_). We have a specimen of the family of swine in that well-known and useful animal, with whose portrait Sir Charles Bell furnishes the reader, as an example of a head as remote as possible from the head of him who designed and executed the Elgin marbles. Although the learned anatomist brought forward the profile of this animal as the type of a "non-intellectual" being, yet there are instances enough on record to show that pigs are not devoid of intelligence, and are even, when trained, capable of considerable docility. "Learned pigs," however, such as are exhibited at country fairs, are a rare occurrence, and the family to which they belong is essentially one "gross" in character, and far from gainly in appearance. The most handsome of the race is one from West Africa, recently added to the Zoological Gardens, and described by Dr Gray under the name of _Potamochærus penicillatus_. The wild swine of Africa are, with this bright exception, anything but handsome, either in shape or colour; and the large excrescences on their cheeks and face give the "warthogs" a ferocious look, which corresponds with their habits. In the East there are several species of wild swine. One of the most celebrated is the _Babyrusa_ of the Malay peninsula, distinguished by its long recurved teeth, with which it was once fancied that they suspended themselves from trees, or rather supported themselves when asleep. Mrs M'Dougall[194] refers to the wild hogs of Borneo, which seem to be dainty in their diet, as they think nothing of a swim of four miles from their jungle home to places on the river where they know there are trees laden with ripe fruit. These Borneo swine are active creatures too, as they can leap fences nearly six feet high. In South America the sow family is represented by the Peccaries (_Dicotyles_), of which there are two species, one of which is very abundant in the woods, and forms a most important article in the diet of the poor Indians. They, too, can swim across rivers, and although their legs are short, they can run very fast. It is chiefly in the warmer parts of the world that the species of this family are found. They are all distinguished by the middle toes of each foot being larger than the others, and armed with hoofs,[195] the side toe or toes being shorter, and scarcely reaching the ground. The nose terminates in a truncated, tough, grissly disk, which is singularly well adapted for the purpose of the animals, which all grub in the ground for their food. In some parts of France it is said that they are trained to search for truffles. Having briefly alluded to different species "_de grege porci_," we now limit ourselves to our immediate subject. The wild boar, at no very remote period, was found in the extensive woods which covered great portions of this island. The family of Baird derives its heraldic crest of a wild boar's head from a grant of David I., King of Scotland. This monarch was hunting in Aberdeenshire, and when separated from his attendants, the infuriated pig turned upon him; one of his people came up and killed it, and in memory of his feat received from the grateful king the device still borne by the family. The name of a Scottish parish, and of one of the oldest baronial families in Scotland--Swinton of Swinton, in Berwickshire--is derived also from this animal, the first of the Swintons having cleared that part of the country from the wild swine which then infested it. It is curious to know that some large fields in the neighbourhood of Swinton still carry in their names traces of these early occupants. Dr Baird informed the writer that there are four of these fields so distinguished:--"Sow-causeway," and "Pikerigg," where the wild swine used to feed ("pick their food"); "Stab's Cross," where Sir Alan Swinton with his spear pierced some monarch of the race; and "Alan's Cairn," where a heap of stones was raised as a monument of his hardihood. In the southern part of our island only the nobility and gentry were allowed to hunt this animal; and in the reign of William the Conqueror any one convicted of killing a wild boar in any of the royal demesnes was punished with the loss of his eyes. In many parts of the Continent the wild boar is still far from rare, and affords, to those who are fond of excitement, that peculiar kind of "pleasure" which involves a certain amount of danger. Scenes somewhat similar to those depicted by Snyders may still be witnessed in some parts of Germany; and in the sketches of Mr Wolf, the able artist whose designs illustrate these papers, we have seen animated studies of this truly hazardous sport. The nose of the wild boar is very acute in the sense of smell. A zealous sportsman tells us, "I have often been surprised, when stealing upon one in the woods, to observe how soon he has become aware of my neighbourhood. Lifting his head, he would sniff the air inquiringly, then, uttering a short grunt, make off as fast as he could."[196] The same writer has also sometimes noticed in a family of wild boars one, generally a weakling, who was buffeted and ill-treated by the rest. "Do what he would, nothing was right; sometimes the mother, uttering a disapproving grunt, would give him a nudge to make him move more quickly, and that would be a sign for all the rest of his relations to begin showing their contempt for him too. One would push him, and then another; for, go where he might, he was sure to be in the way." In the extensive woods frequented by this animal in Europe, abundant supplies of food are met with in the roots of various plants which it grubs up, in the beech-mast, acorns, and other tree productions, which, during two or three months of the year, it finds on the ground. Although well able to defend itself, it is a harmless animal, and being shy, retires to those parts of the forests most remote from the presence of man. A site in the neighbourhood of water is preferred to any other. Travellers in the East frequently refer to this animal and to its ravages when it gets into a rice-field or a vineyard; for although its natural food be wild roots and wild fruits, if cultivated grounds be in the neighbourhood, its ravages are very annoying to the husbandmen, who can fully and feelingly understand the words of the Psalmist, "The boar out of the wood doth waste it" (Ps. lxxx. 13). Messrs Irby and Mangles,[197] as they approached the Jordan, saw a herd of nine wild pigs, and they found the trees on the banks of a stream near that river all marked with mud, left by the wild swine in rubbing themselves. A valley which they passed was grubbed up in all directions with furrows made by these animals, so that the soil had all the appearance of having been ploughed up. Burckhardt mentions the occurrence of the wild boar and panther together, or the _ounce_, as he calls it, on the mountain of Rieha, and also in the wooded part of Tabor. He mentions "a common saying and belief among the Turks, that all the animal kingdom was converted by their prophet to the true faith, except the wild boar and buffalo, which remained unbelievers; it is on this account that both these animals are often called Christians. We are not surprised that the boar should be so denominated; but as the flesh of the buffalo, as well as its Leben or sour milk, is much esteemed by the Turks, it is difficult to account for the disgrace into which that animal has fallen among them; the only reason I could learn for it is, that the buffalo, like the hog, has a habit of rolling in the mud, and of plunging into the muddy ponds in the summer time up to the very nose, which alone remains visible above the surface."[198] Wild boars were frequently fallen in with by this traveller during his Syrian travels in the neighbourhood of rush-covered springs, where they could easily return to their "wallowing in the mire;" he also met with them on all the mountains he visited in his tour. In the Ghor they are very abundant, and so injurious to the Arabs of that valley that they are unable to cultivate the common barley on account of the eagerness with which the wild swine feed on it, and are obliged to grow a less esteemed kind, with six rows of grains which the swine will not touch. Messrs Hemprich and Ehrenberg tell us that the wild boar is far from scarce in the marshy districts around Rosetta and Damietta, and that it does not seem to differ from the European species. The head of a wild boar which these travellers saw at Bischerre, a village of Lebanon, closely resembled the European variety, except in being a little longer. The Maronites there, who ate its flesh in their company, called it _chansir_,[199] a name evidently identical with the Hebrew word _chasir_, which occurs in the Bible. The Turks, according to Ehrenberg, keep swine in their stables, from a persuasion that all devils who may enter will be more likely to go into the pigs than the horses, from their alliance to the former unclean animals.--_A. White, in "Excelsior."_ [Illustration: The River Pig.] THE RIVER PIG, OR PAINTED PIG OF THE CAMAROON.[200] The other day we revisited the Zoological Gardens, and found that two old friends had got--the one, a companion, the other, a neighbour. The latter was the bulky hippopotamus, now most bearish, and more and more unmistakably showing the minute accuracy of those master lines in the Book of Job, in which Behemoth's portrait, pose, and character are depicted. The former was the subject of this article--evidently, as far as colour goes, "the chieftain of the _porcine_ race." The poet tells us, however, "Nimium ne crede colori;" and observation, as well as the Scripture, shows us daily that "fair havens" in summer are but foul places to "winter in;" that fair speeches, and a flattering tongue, and the kisses of an enemy, "are deceitful;" and that beneath a fine spotted or barred coat, the jaguar and the tiger, the cobra and the hornet, conceal both the power and the propensity for mischief. So with our old friend Potamochoerus. The pretty creature,--beauty is relative--the Cameroon pig is the prettiest, the gaudiest of the race,--the pretty creature, we repeat, is of a fine bay red, made to look more bright from the circumstance of the face, ears, and front of the legs being black, while the red is relieved, and the black is defined, by the pencilled lines of white which edge the ears, streak over and under the eye, and ornament the long whiskers, another long white line traversing the middle of the back; a very attractive combination of colour--the painting of "Him who made the world"--and one which must make the _Potamochoerus penicellatus_ most conspicuous among the bright green shrubs and dark marshes of the rivers of equinoctial Africa, on whose banks the race has been planted. The present largest specimen was taken, when a "piggie," by a trading captain, as it was swimming across the Cameroon River. He brought it to Liverpool; Dr Gray, of the British Museum, gave an account of it in the "Illustrated Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London for 1852"--an excellent work--where its figure, drawn and coloured by the hand of Wolf, shows the condition of the African sow four years ago. It was then a round, comfortable, kind-looking creature, which one might almost have fondled as a pet. The pig now looks rather a dangerous beast, and its beauty is not increased by its face having grown longer, and by the bump and hollow on each cheek being larger and deeper; nor is its mouth so attractive or innocent, now that its tusks--those ivory daggers and knives of the family of Swine--have grown longer. The creature, partly it may be from familiarity, jumps up against the iron palisade which separates the visitor from its walk, but a poor pannage as a substitute for its African home. We would advise him to read the notice: "Visitors are requested not to tease the animals;" "not to touch" would be a good reprint--for few, we fancy, would try to tease. One, however, especially a lady, likes to know and to feel _texture_; and sadly used the fine, mild Edward Cross, of Exeter Change and the Surrey Zoological Gardens, once the Nestor as well as the King among keepers of wild beasts--a gentle, gentlemanly, white-haired, venerable man,--sadly, we say, used Mr Cross to lament that there _were_ parasols, and that he could not keep them _out_ of his garden. Mr C. told the writer that he lost many a beast and bird from the pokes of that insinuating weapon. We dissuade any lady from touching or going near a zebra's mouth, or the horns of an ibex or an algazel, or the pointed bill of a heron or stork, or from putting her hand near this fine painted pig. Up jumps Potamochoerus--eye rather vindictive, however--and mark, as that big specimen is foreshortened before you, the profile of the little companion pig of the same species, standing within a few feet, but safe from the poke of any umbrella or parasol; look how innocent and inviting--how quiet, and sleek, and polished, and painted, and mild it looks, all but that little suspicious eye, with its wink oblique, and its malicious twinkle. Of the habits of this pig we can find no written record, though in the journals of the Scottish or Wesleyan Missionaries there may be some notices of it. We do not know whence the Society procured the second specimen, but it shows that Africa's wild animals, like its chain of internal Caspian seas, and its mountain-ranges and rivers, are becoming gradually known. Old Bosman, who was chief factor for the Dutch on the Gold Coast 150 years ago, refers to the swine near Fort St George d'Elmina being not nearly so wild as those of Europe, and adds, "I have several times eaten of them here, and found them very delicious and very tender meat, the fat being extraordinarily fine."[201] He evidently refers to some other species. Travellers in South Africa have made us familiar with the habits, and specimens in the Zoological Gardens, in a pannage close to that of the "painted pig," show us the form and ugliness, of the bush pig and flat pig (_Choiropotamus Africanus_) of that southern land, with their long heads, long legs, upturned tails, and horrid tusks. They have a strange habit of kneeling on their fore-legs. In South Africa they abound; and the natives--our excellent friend, the Rev. Henry Methuen, tells us--often bring their jaws for barter. They are of a dingy, dirty gray; the boar is two feet and a half high, and his tusks sometimes measure "eleven inches and a half each from the jawbone," are five inches and a half in circumference at the base, and are thirteen inches apart at their extremities. No animal is more formidably armed; and his rapidity and lightness of movement make him a very marked object to the African Nimrod, who, midst "clumps of bush"--be they Proteacæ, heaths, or Diosmeæ--not unfrequently comes on a herd of wild pigs "headed by a noble boar," with tail erect. We could enter largely on the history of this active species, and quote many a stirring anecdote of travellers' rencontres with this fearless animal. The lion skulks away from him, but the rhinoceros--at least one species--the buffalo, with his formidable front of horn and bone, and the bush pig, with his dreaded tusks, show but little fear; and it is well for the huntsman that he has a sure eye, a steady hand, and a double-barrelled gun, and not a few Caffir followers to help him, should his eye be dim, his hand waver, or his gun "flash in the pan." Dogs avail but little; a deadly gash lays open their ribs, and a side-thrust of a wild boar will cut into the most muscular leg, and for ever destroy its tendons. We have done with pigs, and would only recommend a visit--a frequent visit--to that paradise of animals, the Zoological Gardens, where, a fortnight ago, we saw wild boars from Hesse Darmstadt; wild boars from Egypt; bush pigs from Africa; peccaries from South America; and two painted pigs from West Africa; all "_de grege porci_," and in excellent health: to say nothing of two hippopotamuses; four "seraphic" giraffes; antelopes (we did not number them); brush turkeys from Australia; an apteryx from New Zealand; the curious white sheathbills from the South Seas; the refulgent metallic green and purple-tinted monaul, or Impeyan pheasant, strutting with outspread, light-coloured tail, just as he courts his plain hen-mate on the Indian mountains; a family of the funny pelicans--cleanliness, ugliness, and contentment in one happy combination; a band of flamingoes; eagles and vultures; the harpy--that Picton of the birds--looking defiance as he stands, with upraised crest, flashing eye, and clenched talons, over his food; the wily otter; the amiable seal, which carries us to the seas and rocks of much-loved Shetland, with their long, winding voes, their bird-frequented cliffs, and outlying skerries; the Indian thrush, which reminds one of a "mavis" at home; the parrot-house, with its fine contrasts of colour and its discordant noises; Penny's Esquimaux dog--poor fellow, a prisoner, unlike to what he was when, with our dear friends Dr Sutherland and Captain Stewart, this very dog breasted the blast before a sledge in the Wellington Channel.[202] Look at that wondrous sloth, organised for a life in a Brazilian forest--those two restless Polar bears; and though last, not least, those wonders of the great deep, "the sea-anemones," the exquisite red and white "feathery" tentacles of the long cylindrical-twisted serpulæ, and marvellously-transparent streaked shrimps, all leg, and feeler, and eye, and "nose"--in the salt-water tanks in the Vivarium.--_A. White, in "Excelsior."_ S. BISSET AND HIS LEARNED PIG. S. Bisset, formerly referred to, when at Belfast bought a black sucking pig, and after several experiments succeeded in training a creature, so obstinate and perverse by nature, to become most tractable and docile. In August 1783, he took his learned pig to Dublin for exhibition. "It was not only under full command, but appeared as pliant and good-natured as a spaniel. He had taught it to spell the names of any one in the company, to tell the hour, minute, and second, to make his obeisance to the company, and he occasioned many a laugh by his pointing out the married and the unmarried. Some one in authority forced him to leave Dublin, and he died broken-hearted shortly after at Chester, on his way to London, where forty and more years before he had first been induced to train animals."[203] QUIXOTE BOWLES FOND OF PIGS. Southey records of Quixote Bowles that he "had a great love for pigs; he thought them the happiest of all God's creatures, and would walk twenty miles to see one that was remarkably fat. This love extended to bacon; he was an epicure in it; and whenever he went out to dinner, took a piece of his own curing in his pocket, and requested the cook to dress it."[204] ON JEKYLL NEARLY THROWN DOWN BY A VERY SMALL PIG. "As Jekyll walk'd out in his gown and his wig, He happen'd to tread on a very small pig; 'Pig of science,' he said, 'or else I'm mistaken, For surely thou art an _abridgment of Bacon_.'"[205] GOOD ENOUGH FOR A PIG. An Irish peasant being asked why he permitted his pig to take up its quarters with his family, made an answer abounding with satirical _naïveté_. "Why not? Doesn't the place afford every convenience that _a pig can require_?"[206] Mrs Fry, in 1827, visited Ireland on one of her Christian and philanthropic tours. In a letter to her children from Armagh she says--"Pigs abound; I think they have rather a more elegant appearance than ours, their hair often rather curled. Perhaps naturalists may attribute this to their intimate association with their betters!"[207] THE COUNTRYMAN'S CRITICISM ON THE PIGS IN GAINSBOROUGH'S PICTURE OF THE GIRL AND PIGS. Thomas Gainsborough, the great English painter, exhibited, in 1782, among pictures of noblemen, gentlemen, and ladies, his well-known "Girl and Pigs."[208] Wolcot, better known as "Peter Pindar," in his first "Ode to the Royal Academicians," refers to this picture. "And now, O Muse, with song so big, Turn round to Gainsborough's Girl and Pig, Or Pig and Girl, I rather should have said; The pig in white, I must allow, Is really a well painted sow, I wish to say the same thing of the maid." "The expression and truth of nature in the Girl and Pigs," remarks Northcote, "were never surpassed. Sir Joshua Reynolds was struck with it, though he thought Gainsborough ought to have made her a beauty." Reynolds, indeed, became the purchaser of the painting at one hundred guineas, Gainsborough asking but sixty. During its exhibition, it is said to have attracted the attention of a countryman, who remarked--"They be deadly like pigs, but nobody ever saw pigs feeding together but what one on 'em had a foot in the trough." HOOK AND THE LITTER OF PIGS. Once a gentleman, who had the marvellous gift of shaping a great many things out of orange-peel, was displaying his abilities at a dinner-party before Theodore Hook and Mr Thomas Hill, and succeeded in counterfeiting a pig. Mr Hill tried the same feat; and after destroying and strewing the table with the peel of a dozen oranges, gave it up, with the exclamation, "Hang the pig! I _can't_ make him." "Nay, Hill," exclaimed Hook, glancing at the mess on the table, "you have done more; instead of one pig, you have made a _litter_."[209] Hook, we may add, was an original wit. He did not, like most professed wits, study his sayings before, and arrange with his seeming opponent for an imaginary war of words. He was an _impromptu_ wit. JESTS ABOUT SWINE. Lord Chancellor Hardwicke's bailiff, having been ordered by his lady to procure a sow of a particular description, came one day into the dining-room when full of company, proclaiming with a burst of joy he could not suppress--"I have been at Royston Fair, my lady, and I have got a sow exactly of _your ladyship's_ size."[210] * * * * * John was thought to be very stupid. He was sent to a mill one day, and the miller said--"John, some people say you are a fool! Now, tell me, what you do know, and what you don't know."--"Well," replied John, "I know millers' hogs are fat!"--"Yes, that's well, John; now, what don't you know?"--"I don't know _whose corn_ fats 'em."[211] PIGS AND SILVER SPOON. The Earl of P---- kept a number of swine at his seat in Wiltshire, and crossing the yard one day, he was surprised to see the pigs gathered round one trough, and making a great noise. Curiosity prompted him to see what was the cause, and on looking into the trough he perceived a large silver spoon. A servant-maid came out, and began to abuse the pigs for crying so. "Well they may," said his lordship, "when they have got but one _silver spoon_ among them all." * * * * * We have heard of one nobleman in Strathearn, who, when a young man, used to be thus addressed by his mother--"William! how are the children _and your pigs_?"[212] SYDNEY SMITH ON BEAUTIFUL PIGS. DEFINITION OF BEAUTY BY A UTILITARIAN. "Go to the Duke of Bedford's piggery at Woburn, and you will see a breed of pigs with legs so short, that their stomachs trail upon the ground; a breed of animals entombed in their own fat, overwhelmed with prosperity, success, and farina. No animal could possibly be so disgusting, if it were not useful; but a breeder who has accurately attended to the small quantity of food it requires to swell this pig out to such extraordinary dimensions,--the extraordinary genius it displays for obesity,--and the laudable propensity of the flesh to desert the cheap regions of the body, and to agglomerate on those parts which are worth ninepence a pound,--such an observer of its utility does not scruple to call these otherwise hideous quadrupeds a beautiful race of pigs!"[213] JOSEPH STURGE, WHEN A BOY, AND THE PIGS. When Joseph Sturge, that good Quaker, was in his sixth year, his biographer, Henry Richard,[214] records that he was on a visit to a friend of his mother's at Frenchay, near Bristol. Sauntering about one day, he came near the house of an eccentric man, a Quaker, who was much annoyed by the depredations of his neighbour's pigs. Half in jest, and half in earnest, he told the lad to drive the pigs into a pond close by. Joseph, nothing loath, set to work with a will, delighted with the fun. The woman, to whom the pigs belonged, came out presently, broom in hand, flourishing it over the young sinner's head. The tempter was standing by, and sought to cover his share of the transaction by shaking his head and saying--"Ah, 'Satan finds some mischief still For idle hands to do.' The child looked up at him indignantly, and said, 'Thee bee'st Satan then, for thee told'st me to do it.'" FOOTNOTES: [194] "Letters from Sarawak," p. 104. 1854. [195] "Divides the hoof, and is cloven-footed, yet cheweth not the cud" (Lev. ii. 7). [196] Boner's "Chamois Hunting in the Mountains of Bavaria," p. 97. [197] "Travels" (Home and Colonial Library), p. 147. [198] "Travels in Syria and the Holy Land," p. 9. [199] Symbolæ Physicæ. [200] _Potamochoerus penicellatus._ [Greek: Potamos], a river; [Greek: choiros], a pig; _penicellatus_, pencilled. It is said to be the _Sus porcus_ of Linnæus. [201] "A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea, written originally in Dutch." London, 1705, p. 247. [202] See Dr Sutherland's interesting account in his "Journal of a Voyage in Baffin Bay and Barrow's Straits in the years 1850, 1851;" a truly excellent work on the Arctic regions, by one who is now Surveyor of Natal. [203] See Biography in G. H. Wilson's _Eccentric Mirror_, i., No. 3, p. 30. [204] "Common-Place Book," iv. p. 514. [205] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 107. [206] _Ibid._, p. 337. [207] "Memoir of the Life of Elizabeth Fry," vol. ii. p. 30. 1847. [208] "Life of Thomas Gainsborough, R.A.," by the late George William Fulcher, edited by his Son, p. 122. 1856. [209] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 328. [210] _Ibid._, p. 2. [211] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 31. The latter of these jests is attributed by Dean Ramsay to a half-witted Ayrshire man, who said he "kenned a miller had aye a gey fat sow."--_Reminiscences_, p. 197. [212] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 269. This worthy nobleman was and is much attached to his home-farm. He is well known in Perthshire. [213] "Wit and Wisdom of Rev. Sydney Smith," third edition, p. 253. From a lecture at Royal Institution. [214] "Memoirs of Joseph Sturge," by Henry Richard. HORSE. The noblest animal employed by man, and consequently the subject of many volumes of anecdote,--a study for the painter and sculptor, from the days of the Greek and Assyrian artists to the present day. Charles Darwin and Sir Francis Head have given graphic descriptions of the catching of the wild horse, which swarms on the Pampas of South America. How pathetic to see the led horse following the bier of a soldier! It was, perhaps, the most affecting incident in the long array of the funeral of the great Duke. In the Museum at Brussels, Dr Patrick Neill observed, in 1817, "the stuffed skin of the horse belonging to one of the Alberts, who governed the Low Countries in the time of the Spaniards. It was shot under him in the field, and the holes made in the thorax by the musket bullets are still very evident."[215] Poor Copenhagen, the Duke's charger at Waterloo, was buried. Many would have liked his skin or skeleton. The Duke resisted all attempts to give his old friend up for such a purpose. We hope no resurrectionist succeeded in getting up his bones, years after his burial at Strathfieldsaye. BELL-ROCK HORSE. The Bell-Rock Lighthouse, built on a dangerous range of rocks twelve miles south by east from Arbroath, was begun by Robert Stevenson on the 17th August 1807, and finished in October 1810. Mr Jervise[216] records that "one horse, the property of James Craw, a labourer in Arbroath, is believed to have drawn the entire materials of the building. The animal latterly became a _pensioner_ of the Lighthouse Commissioners, and was sent by them to graze on the Island of Inchkeith, where it died of old age in 1813. Dr John Barclay, the celebrated anatomist, had its bones collected and arranged in his museum, which he bequeathed at his death to the Royal College of Surgeons, and in their museum at Edinburgh the skeleton of the _Bell-Rock horse_ may yet be seen." BURKE AND THE HORSE. An anecdote of the humanity of the great Edmund Burke in the year 1762 has been preserved.[217] "An Irishman, of the name of Johnson, was astonishing the town by his horsemanship. All London crowded to see his feats of agility and his highly-trained steeds. Dr Johnson and Boswell talked of this man's wonderful ability, and the Doctor thought that he fully deserved encouragement on philosophical grounds. He proved what human perseverance could do. One who saw him riding on three horses at once, or dancing upon a wire, might hope, that with the same application in the profession of his choice, he should attain the same success. Burke, always ready to encourage his countrymen, and curious in all the ramifications of ingenuity, went frequently to the circus. The favourite performance of the evening was that of a handsome black horse, which, at the sound of Johnson's whip, would leave the stable, stand with much docility at his side, then gallop about the ring, and on hearing the crack of the lash again return obediently to its master. On one unfortunate occasion, the signal was disregarded. The horse-rider flew into a rage, and by a blow between the ears, struck the noble animal to the earth. The spectators thought the horse was dying, but they had little time to reflect on the sight before they were surprised at seeing a gentleman jump into the ring, rush up to Johnson, and with his eyes flashing, and every muscle in the face quivering with emotion, shout out, 'You scoundrel! I have a mind to knock you down.' And Johnson would certainly have been laid sprawling in the sawdust beside his panting steed, had not the friends of the gentleman interposed, and prevented him inflicting such summary chastisement. This incident was long remembered. When the relater of it, many years afterwards, heard Burke declaiming, on the floor of the House of Commons, against injustice and oppression, his mind naturally reverted to the time when he saw the same hatred of all cruelty displayed by the same individual as he stood over the prostrate body of the poor black horse, prepared to punish the miscreant who had felled it to the ground." DAVID GARRICK AND HIS HORSE. In 1778 Sir Joshua Reynolds visited Dr Warton at Winchester College. Here he was particularly noticed by George III. and his queen, who were then making a tour through the summer encampments. The father of Lord Palmerston, and David Garrick, the great actor, with others, visited Warton at the same time. Mr Northcote[218] relates that a whimsical accident occurred to Garrick at one of the reviews, which Sir Joshua afterwards recounted with great humour. "At one of those field-days in the vicinity, Garrick found it necessary to dismount, when his horse escaped from his hold and ran off; throwing himself immediately into his professional attitude, he cried out, as if on Bosworth field, 'A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!'" This exclamation, and the accompanying attitude, excited great amazement amongst the surrounding spectators, who knew him not; but it could not escape his majesty's quick apprehension, for, it being within his hearing, he immediately said, "Those must be the tones of Garrick! see if he is not on the ground." The theatrical and dismounted monarch was immediately brought to his majesty, who not only condoled with him most good humouredly on his misfortune, but flatteringly added, that his delivery of Shakspeare could never pass undiscovered. This anecdote of Garrick at Winchester is told in the Rev. John Wool's "Life of Warton." Mr Taylor says--"One can't help suspecting Roscius took care to make his speech when he knew the king was within earshot--a little bit of that 'artifice' of his which has left such an impression in the theatre, that the phrase, 'As deep as Garrick,' is still current stage slang."[219] BERNARD GILPIN'S HORSES STOLEN AND RECOVERED.[220] The biographer of the saintly Bernard Gilpin, the apostle of the northern counties of England in the days of Edward VI., and Queens Mary and Elizabeth, relates that, by the carelessness of his servant, his horses were one day stolen. The news was quickly propagated, and every one expressed the highest indignation. The thief was rejoicing over his prize, when, by the report of the country, he found whose horses he had taken. Terrified at what he had done, he instantly came trembling back, confessed the fact, returned the horses, and declared he believed the devil would have seized him directly had he carried them off, knowing them to have been Mr Gilpin's. The biographer gives an instance of his benevolent temper. "One day returning home, he saw in a field several people crowding together; and judging that something more than ordinary had happened, he rode up to them, and found that one of the horses in a team had suddenly dropped down, which they were endeavouring to raise; but in vain, for the horse was dead. The owner of it seeming much dejected with his misfortune, and declaring how grievous a loss it was to him, Mr Gilpin bade him not be disheartened; "I'll let you have, honest man, that horse of mine," and pointed to his servant's. "Ah! master," replied the countryman, "my pocket will not reach such a beast as that." "Come, come," says Mr Gilpin, "take him, take him; and when I demand my money, then thou shalt pay me."[221] No wonder that the horses of the apostolic rector of Houghton-le-Spring were safe, even in those horse-stealing times, and in that Border county. THE HERALD AND GEORGE III.'S HORSE. One day, when Sir Isaac Heard was in company with George III., it was announced that his majesty's horse was ready for hunting. "Sir Isaac," said the king, "are you a judge of horses?"--"In my younger days, please your majesty, I was a great deal among them," was the reply.--"What do you think of this, then?" said the king, who was by this time preparing to mount his favourite; and, without waiting for an answer, added, "We call him _Perfection_."--"A most appropriate name," replied the courtly herald, bowing as his majesty reached the saddle, "for he _bears_ the best of characters."[222] ROWLAND HILL AND HIS HORSE AT DUNBAR. Many stories of the excellent but eccentric Rowland Hill are told, but often with considerable exaggeration. The following may be depended on for its accuracy, as it was told by Robert Haldane.[223] It occurred at Dunbar, in September 1797, during an evangelistic tour Hill and Haldane were making in Scotland. They were sleeping at Mr Cunningham's, when, in the morning, intending to proceed southward, on Mr Hill's carriage being brought to the door, his horse was found to be dead lame. A farrier was sent for, who, after careful examination, reported that the seat of the mischief was in the shoulder, that the disease was incurable, and that they might shoot the poor animal as soon as they pleased. To this proposal Mr Hill was by no means prepared to accede. Indeed, it seemed to Mr Haldane as precipitate as the conduct of an Irish sailor on board the _Monarch_, who, on seeing another knocked down senseless by a splinter, and supposing his companion to be dead, went up to Captain Duncan, on the quarter-deck, in the midst of the action with Languara, off St Vincent, and exclaimed, "Shall we jerk him overboard, sir?" On that occasion the sailor revived in a short time, and was even able to work at his gun. In the present instance the horse, too, recovered, and was able to carry his master on many a future errand of mercy. Meanwhile, however, the travellers availed themselves of Mr Cunningham's hospitality, and remained for two days more at his place, near Dunbar. In the evening Mr Hill conducted family worship, and after the supplications for the family, domestics, and friends, added a fervent prayer for the restoration of the valuable animal which had carried him so many thousands of miles, preaching the everlasting gospel to his fellow-sinners. Mr Cunningham, who was remarkable for the staid and orderly, if not stiff, demeanour, which characterised the anti-burghers, was not only surprised but grieved, and even scandalised, at what he deemed so great an impropriety. He remonstrated with his guest. But Mr Hill stoutly defended his conduct by an appeal to Scripture, and the superintending watchfulness of Him without whom a sparrow falls not to the ground. He persisted in his prayer during the two days he continued at Dunbar, and, although he left the horse, in a hopeless state, to follow in charge of his servant by easy stages, he continued his prayer, night and morning, till one day, at an inn in Yorkshire, while the two travellers were sitting at breakfast, they heard a horse and chaise trot briskly into the yard, and, looking out, saw that Mr Hill's servant had arrived, bringing up the horse perfectly restored. Mr Hill did not fail to return thanks, and begged his fellow-traveller to consider whether the minuteness of his prayers had deserved the censure which had been directed against them. A SAYING OF ROWLAND HILL'S. Rowland Hill rode a great deal, and exercise preserved him in vigorous health. On one occasion, when asked by a medical friend, who was commenting on his invariably good health, what physician and apothecary he employed, he replied, "My physician has always been a _horse_, and my apothecary an _ass_!"[224] HOLCROFT ON THE HORSE. Thomas Holcroft, the novelist and play-writer, when a lad, was a stable boy to a trainer of running horses. In his memoirs he has written a good deal about the habits of the race-horse. He says of them:--"I soon learned that the safehold for sitting steady was to keep the knee and the calf of the leg strongly pressed against the sides of the animal that endeavours to unhorse you; and as little accidents afford frequent occasions to remind the boys of this rule, it becomes so rooted in the memory of the intelligent, that their danger is comparatively trifling. Of the temperaments and habits of blood-horses there are great varieties, and those very strongly contrasted. The majority of them are playful, but their gambols are dangerous to the timid or unskilful. They are all easily and suddenly alarmed, when anything they do not understand forcibly catches their attention, and they are then to be feared by the bad horseman, and carefully guarded against by the good. Very serious accidents have happened to the best. But, besides their general disposition to playfulness, there is a great propensity in them to become what the jockeys call vicious. High bred, hot in blood, exercised, fed and dressed so as to bring that heat to perfection, their tender skins at all times subject to a sharp curry-comb, hard brushing, and when they take sweats, to scraping with wooden instruments, it cannot be but that they are frequently and exceedingly irritated. Intending to make themselves felt and feared, they will watch their opportunity to bite, stamp, or kick; I mean those among them that are vicious. Tom, the brother of Jack Clarke, after sweating a gray horse that belonged to Lord March, with whom he lived, while he was either scraping or dressing him, was seized by the animal by the shoulder, lifted from the ground, and carried two or three hundred yards before the horse loosened his hold. Old Forrester, a horse that belonged to Captain Vernon, all the while that I remained at Newmarket, was obliged to be kept apart, and being foundered, to live at grass, where he was confined to a close paddock. Except Tom Watson, he would suffer no lad to come near him; if in his paddock, he would run furiously at the first person that approached, and if in the stable, would kick and assault every one within his reach. Horses of this kind seem always to select their favourite boy. Tom Watson, indeed, had attained to man's estate, and in his brother's absence, which was rare, acted as superintendent. Horses, commonly speaking, are of a friendly and generous nature; but there are anecdotes of the malignant and savage ferocity of some, that are scarcely to be credited; at least many such are traditional at Newmarket. Of their friendly disposition towards their keepers, there is a trait known to every boy that has the care of any one of them, which ought not to be omitted. The custom is to rise very early, even between two and three in the morning, when the days lengthen. In the course of the day, horses and boys have much to do. About half after eight, perhaps, in the evening, the horse has his last feed of oats, which he generally stands to enjoy in the centre of his smooth, carefully made bed of clean long straw, and by the side of him the weary boy will often lie down; it being held as a maxim, a rule without exception, that were he to lie even till morning, the horse would never lie down himself, but stand still, careful to do his keeper no harm.[225] In one of Thomas Holcroft's novels, "Alwyn; or, The Gentleman Comedian," founded on his own adventures when a travelling actor, he gives the character of an enthusiast who had conceived the idea of establishing a humane asylum for animals, the consequences of which he describes. "I am pestered, plagued, teased, tormented to death. I believe all the cats in Christendom are assembled in Oxfordshire. I am obliged to hire a clerk to pay the people; and the village where I live is become a constant fair. A fellow has set up the sign of the Three Blind Kittens, and has the impudence to tell the neighbours, that if my whims and my money only hold out for one twelvemonth, he shall not care a fig for the king. I thought to prevent this inundation, by buying up all the old cats and secluding them in convents and monasteries of my own, but the value of the breeders is increased to such a degree, that I do not believe my whole fortune is capable of the purchase. Besides I am made an ass of. A rascal, who is a known sharper in these parts, hearing of the aversion I had to cruelty, bought an old one-eyed horse, that was going to the dogs, for five shillings; then taking a hammer in his hand, watched an opportunity of finding me alone, and addressed me in the following manner: 'Look you, master, I know that you don't love to see any dumb creature abused, and so, if you don't give me ten pounds, why, I shall scoop out this old rip's odd eye with the sharp end of this here hammer, now, before your face.' Ay, and the villain would have done it too, if I had not instantly complied; but what was worse, the abominable scoundrel had the audacity to tell me, when I wanted him to deliver the horse first, for fear he should extort a further sum from me, that he had more honour than to break his word. A whelp of a boy had yesterday caught a young hedgehog, and perceiving me, threw it into the water to make it extend its legs; then with the rough side of a knotty stick sawed upon them till the creature cried like a child; and when I ordered him to desist, told me he would not, till I had given him sixpence. There is something worse than all this. The avaricious rascals, when they can find nothing that they think will excite my pity, disable the first animal which is not dignified with the title of Christian, and then bring it to me as an object worthy of commiseration; so that, in fact, instead of protecting, I destroy. The women have entertained a notion that I hate two-legged animals; and one of them called after me the other day, to tell me I was an old rogue, and that I had better give my money to the poor, than keep a parcel of dogs and cats that eat up the village. I perceive it is in vain to attempt carrying on the scheme much longer, and then my poor invalids will be worse off than they were before."[226] A JOKE OF LORD MANSFIELD'S ABOUT A HORSE. Lord Campbell[227] tells an anecdote of George Wood, a celebrated special pleader at the time when Lord Mansfield was Chief-Justice. Though a subtle pleader, George was very ignorant of _horse-flesh_, and had been cruelly cheated in the purchase of a horse on which he had intended to ride the circuit. He brought an action on the warranty that the horse was "a good roadster, and free from vice." At the trial before Lord Mansfield, it appeared that when the plaintiff mounted at the stables in London, with the intention of proceeding to Barnet, nothing could induce the animal to move forward a single step. On hearing this evidence, the Chief-Justice with much gravity exclaimed, "Who would have supposed that Mr Wood's horse would have _demurred_ when he ought to have _gone to the country_." Any attempt, adds Lord Campbell, to explain this excellent joke to _lay gents_ would be vain, and to _lawyers_ would be superfluous. GENERAL SIR JOHN MOORE AND HIS HORSE AT THE BATTLE OF CORUNNA. Charles Napier served in Lord William Bentinck's brigade during the retreat of the truly great and ill-used Moore at the battle of Corunna; he was covered with wounds, and was carried off a prisoner. In his "Biography" General Sir William Napier[228] has published a most interesting description of the part his brother took in that battle, and written in his own words. I extract a few vivid lines in which Moore and his horse are brought before you. A heavy French column was descending rapidly on the British line at the part where Napier was. "Suddenly I heard the gallop of horses, and turning saw Moore. He came at speed, and pulled up so sharp and close he seemed to have alighted from the air; man and horse looking at the approaching foe with an intenseness that seemed to concentrate all feeling in their eyes. The sudden stop of the animal, a cream-coloured one, with black tail and mane, had cast the latter streaming forward, its ears were pushed out like horns, while its eyes flashed fire, and it snorted loudly with expanded nostrils, expressing terror, astonishment, and muscular exertion. My first thought was, it will be away like the wind; but then I looked at the rider, and the horse was forgotten. Thrown on its haunches the animal came, sliding and dashing the dirt up with its fore-feet, thus bending the general forward almost to its neck; but his head was thrown back, and his look more keenly piercing than I ever before saw it. He glanced to the right and left, and then fixed his eyes intently on the enemy's advancing column, at the same time grasping the reins with both his hands, and pressing the horse firmly with his knees; his body thus seemed to deal with the animal, while his mind was intent on the enemy, and his aspect was one of searching intenseness, beyond the power of words to describe; for a while he looked, and then galloped to the left, without uttering a word." NEITHER HORSES NOR CHILDREN CAN EXPLAIN THEIR COMPLAINTS. Dr Mounsey, the Chelsea doctor, an eccentric physician, who was a great friend of David Garrick, related to Taylor that he was once in company with another physician and an eminent farrier. The physician stated that among the difficulties of his profession, was that of discovering the maladies of children, because they could not explain the symptoms of their disorder. "Well," said the farrier, "your difficulties are not greater than mine, for my patients, the horses, are equally unable to explain their complaints."--"Ah!" rejoined the physician, "my brother doctor must conquer me, as he has brought his cavalry against my infantry!"[229] HORSES WITH NAMES. In this country most horses have a name, but in Germany this custom must be unusual. Perthes, when on his way from Hamburg to Frankfort, remarked at Böhmte--"It is a pleasing custom they have here of giving proper names to horses. The horse is a noble and intelligent animal, and quite as deserving of such a distinction as the dog; and when it has a name, it has made some advance towards personality."[230] "OLD JACK" OF WATERLOO BRIDGE. In building Waterloo Bridge, the finest of Rennie's bridges, the whole of the stone required was hewn in some fields on the Surrey side. Nearly the whole of this material was drawn by one horse called "Old Jack," a most sensible animal. Mr Smiles, in his "Life of John Rennie,"[231] thus speaks of this favourite old horse--"His driver was, generally speaking, a steady and trustworthy man; though rather too fond of his dram before breakfast. As the railway along which the stone was drawn passed in front of the public-house door, the horse and truck were usually pulled up, while Tom entered for his 'morning.' On one occasion the driver stayed so long that 'Old Jack,' becoming impatient, poked his head into the open door, and taking his master's coat collar between his teeth, though in a gentle sort of manner, pulled him out from the midst of his companions, and thus forced him to resume the day's work." SYDNEY SMITH AND HIS HORSES. Sydney Smith, when rector of Foston-le-Clay, in Yorkshire, a living which he got from Lord Chancellor Erskine in 1806, was in the habit of riding a good deal. His daughter says that, "either from the badness of his horses, or the badness of his riding, or perhaps from both (in spite of his various ingenious contrivances to keep himself in the saddle), he had several falls, and kept us in continual anxiety."[232] He writes in a letter--"I used to think a fall from a horse dangerous, but much experience has convinced me to the contrary. I have had six falls in two years, and just behaved like the three per cents. when they fall. I got up again, and am not a bit the worse for it any more than the stock in question." In speaking of this he says, "I left off riding for the good of my parish and the peace of my family; for, somehow or other, my horse and I had a habit of parting company. On one occasion I found myself suddenly prostrate in the streets of York, much to the delight of the Dissenters. Another time my horse Calamity flung me over his head into a neighbouring parish, as if I had been a shuttlecock, and I felt grateful it was not into a neighbouring planet; but as no harm came of it, I might have persevered perhaps, if, on a certain day, a Quaker tailor from a neighbouring village to which I had said I was going to ride, had not taken it into his head to call, soon after my departure, and request to see Mrs Sydney. She instantly, conceiving I was thrown, if not killed, rushed down to the man, exclaiming, 'Where is he?--where is your master?--is he hurt?' The astonished and quaking snip stood silent from surprise. Still more agitated by his silence, she exclaimed, 'Is he hurt? I insist upon knowing the worst!'--'Why, please, ma'am, it is only thy little bill, a very small account, I wanted thee to settle,' replied he, in much surprise. "After this, you may suppose, I sold my horse; however, it is some comfort to know that my friend, Sir George, is one fall ahead of me, and is certainly a worse rider. It is a great proof, too, of the liberality of this county, where everybody can ride as soon as they are born, that they tolerate me at all. "The horse 'Calamity,' whose name has been thus introduced, was the first-born of several young horses bred on the farm, who turned out very fine creatures, and gained him great glory, even amongst the knowing farmers of Yorkshire; but this first production was certainly not encouraging. To his dismay a huge, lank, large-boned foal appeared, of chestnut colour, and with four white legs. It grew apace, but its bones became more and more conspicuous; its appetite was unbounded--grass, hay, corn, beans, food moist and dry, were all supplied in vain, and vanished down his throat with incredible rapidity. He stood, a large living skeleton, with famine written in his face, and my father christened him 'Calamity.' As Calamity grew to maturity, he was found to be as sluggish in disposition as his master was impetuous; so my father was driven to invent his patent Tantalus, which consisted of a small sieve of corn, suspended on a semicircular bar of iron, from the ends of the shafts, just beyond the horse's nose. The corn, rattling as the vehicle proceeded, stimulated Calamity to unwonted exertions; and under the hope of overtaking this imaginary feed, he did more work than all the previous provender which had been poured down his throat had been able to obtain from him." He was very fond of his young horses, and they all came running to meet him when he entered the field. He began their education from their birth; he taught them to wear a girth, a bridle, a saddle; to meet flags, music; to bear the firing of a pistol at their heads from their earliest years; and he maintained that no horses were so well broken as his! At p. 388 she records, "At ten we always went down-stairs to prayers in the library. Immediately after, if we were alone, appeared the 'farmer' at the door, lantern in hand. 'David, bring me my coat and stick,' and off he set with him, summer and winter, to visit his horses, and see that they were all well fed, and comfortable in their regions for the night. He kept up this custom all his life!" * * * * * Sydney Smith, when at Foston, used to exercise his skill in medicine on the poor, and often did much good; his daughter gives some instances of his practice as a farrier. "On one occasion, wishing to administer a ball to Peter the Cruel,[233] the groom, by mistake, gave him two boxes of opium pills in his bran mash, which Peter composedly munched, boxes and all. My father, in dismay, when he heard what had happened, went to look, as he thought, for the last time on his beloved Peter; but soon found, to his great relief, that neither boxes nor pills had produced any visible effects on him. Another time he found all his pigs intoxicated; and, as he declared, 'grunting "God save the King" about the stye,' from having eaten some fermented grains which he had ordered for them. Once he administered castor-oil to the red cow, in quantities sufficient to have killed a regiment of Christians; but the red cow laughed alike at his skill and his oil, and went on her way rejoicing."[234] * * * * * Sydney Smith tells a story, or made one, of a clergyman who was rather absent. "I heard of a clergyman who went jogging along the road till he came to a turnpike. 'What is to pay?'--'Pay, sir, for what?' asked the turnpike man.--'Why, for my horse, to be sure.'--'Your horse, sir? what horse? here is no horse, sir.'--'No horse? God bless me!' said he, suddenly, looking down between his legs, 'I thought I was on horseback.'"[235] JUDGE STORY AND THE NAMES HE GAVE HIS HORSES. The son and biographer of the eminent American judge, Joseph Story, relates of him[236]--"To dumb creatures he was kind and considerate, and indignant at any ill usage of them. His sportive nature showed itself in the nicknames which, in parody of the American fondness of titles, he gave to his horses and dogs, as, 'The Right Honourable Mr Mouse,' or 'Colonel Roy.'" WORDSWORTH ON CRUELTY TO HORSES IN IRELAND. The Rev. Cæsar Otway,[237] in a lecture full of interesting anecdotes, records:--"I remember an observation made to me by one of the most gifted of the human race--one of the stars of this generation--the poet of nature and of feeling--the good and the great Mr Wordsworth. Having the honour of a conversation with him, after he had made a tour through Ireland, I, in the course of it, asked what was the thing that most struck his observation here, as making us differ from the English; and he, without hesitation, said it was the ill treatment of our horses; that his soul was often, too often, sick within him at the way in which he saw these creatures of God abused." USE OF TAIL.--SHORT-TAILED AND LONG-TAILED HORSES. In an Irish paper was an advertisement for horses to stand at livery on the following terms:--"Long-tailed horses at 3s. 6d. per week; short-tailed horses at 3s. per week." On inquiry into the cause of the difference, it was answered, that the horses with long tails could brush the flies off their backs while eating, whereas the short-tailed horses were obliged to take their heads _from the manger_, and so ate less.[238] FOOTNOTES: [215] "Journal of Horticultural Tour," p. 306. [216] "Memorials of Angus and the Mearns," by Andrew Jervise (1861), p. 175. [217] "History of the Life and Times of Edmund Burke," by Thomas Macknight, vol. i. p. 160. [218] "Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds," &c., by James Northcote, Esq., R.A. (2d edition), vol. ii. p. 80. [219] "Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds," by C. R. Leslie and Tom Taylor, M.A., vol. ii. p. 219. [220] "Lives of Hugh Latimer, Bishop of Worcester, and of Bernard Gilpin," by William Gilpin, M.A. (3d edition), 1780, p. 275. [221] _Loc. cit._, p. 284. [222] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 39. [223] "The Lives of Robert Haldane of Airthrey, and of his Brother, James Alexander Haldane," by Alex. Haldane, Esq., of the Inner Temple (1852), p. 223. [224] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 318. [225] "Memoirs of Thomas Holcroft" (ed. 1852), pp. 40, 41. [226] "Memoirs of the late Thomas Holcroft," written by himself (ed. London, 1852), p. 112. [227] "Lives of the Chief-Justices of England" (Lord Ellenborough), vol. iii. p. 100. [228] Vol i. pp. 94-115. [229] "Physic and Physicians: a Medical Sketch-Book," vol. i. p. 59. [230] "Memoirs of Frederick Perthes," vol. i. p. 309. [231] "Lives of the Engineers," vol. ii. p. 185. [232] "Memoir of the Rev. Sydney Smith," by his daughter, Lady Holland, vol. i. pp. 172-174. [233] A horse which he called so. [234] "Memoir of the Rev. Sydney Smith," by his daughter, Lady Holland, vol. i. p. 117. [235] Mrs Marcet, in Lady Holland's Memoirs of her Father, the Rev. Sydney Smith, vol. i. p. 364. [236] "Life and Letters of Joseph Story, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and Dane Professor of Law at Harvard University," edited by his son, Wm. W. Story, vol. ii. p. 611. [237] "The Intellectuality of Domestic Animals: a Lecture Delivered before the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland," p. 25. Dublin, 1847. [238] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 263. ASS AND ZEBRA. It is strange that one of the most sagacious of animals should have supplied us with a by-word for "a fool." Coleridge was conscious of this when, in writing his address to a young ass's foal,[239] he exclaimed-- "I hail thee, brother, spite of the fool's scorn." How well has he expressed his love for "the languid patience" of its face. In warmer climes the ass attains a size and condition not seen here, though when cared for in this rougher climate, the donkey assumes somewhat of the size and elegance he has in the East. But who can bear his voice? Surely Coleridge was very fanciful when, in any condition of asshood, he could write-- "Yea, and more musically sweet to me Thy dissonant, harsh bray of joy would be, Than warbled melodies that soothe to rest The aching of pale Fashion's vacant breast." The wild ass, as it roams over the plains of Asia, or is seen in the Zoological gardens along with the gracefully-shaped and prettily-striped zebra, must be admired by every one. COLLINS AND THE OLD DONKEY OF ODELL, COWPER'S MESSENGER AT OLNEY. In July 1823, William Collins, R.A., visited Turvey, in Bedfordshire. His son remarks--"Besides the attractions presented to the pencil by the natural beauties of this neighbourhood, its vicinity to Olney, the favourite residence of the poet Cowper, gave it, to all lovers of poetry, a local and peculiar charm. Conspicuous among its inhabitants at the time when my father visited it was 'old Odell,' frequently mentioned by Cowper as the favourite messenger who carried his letters and parcels. The extreme picturesqueness and genuine rustic dignity of the old man's appearance made him an admirable subject for pictorial study. Portraits of him, in water-colours and oils, were accordingly made by my father, who introduced him into three of his pictures. The donkey on which he had for years ridden to and fro with letters, was as carefully depicted by the painter as his rider. On visiting 'old Odell' a year or two afterwards, Mr Collins observed a strange-looking object hanging against his kitchen wall, and inquired what it was. 'Oh, sir,' replied the old man, sorrowfully, 'that is the skin of my poor donkey. He died of old age, and I did not like to part with him altogether, so I had his skin dried, and hung up there.' Tears came into his eyes as he spoke of the old companion of all his village pilgrimages. The incident might have formed a continuation of Sterne's exquisite episode in the 'Sentimental Journey.'"[240] In his picture of "The Cherry-Seller," painted for Mr Higgins of Turvey House, old Odell and his donkey are chief figures. GAINSBOROUGH KEPT AN ASS. The Rev. William Gilpin, in his "Forest Scenery," refers to the picturesque beauty of the ass in a landscape Berghem often introduced it; "and a late excellent landscape-painter (Mr Gainsborough), I have heard, generally kept this animal by him, that he might have it always at hand to introduce in various attitudes into his pictures. I have heard also that a plaster cast of an ass, modelled by him, is sold in the shops in London."[241] IRISHMAN ON THE RAMSGATE DONKEYS. In former times, when excise officers were not so sharp, there was a good deal of smuggling carried on at Ramsgate. Sir Thomas Dick Lauder[242] tells an anecdote of an Irishman there, who being asked to name the hardest wrought creature in existence, replied, "Och! a Ramsgate donkey, to be sure; for, faith, afthur carrying angels all day, be the powers he is forced to carry speerits all night." ASS'S FOAL. Douglas Jerrold and a company of literary friends were out in the country. In the course of their walk they stopped to notice the gambols of an ass's foal. A very sentimental poet present vowed that he should like to send the little thing as a present to his mother. "Do," replied Jerrold, "and tie a piece of paper round its neck, bearing this motto, 'When this you see, remember me.'"[243] ASS. A judge, joking a young barrister, said--"If you and I were turned into a horse and an ass, which would you prefer to be?"--"The ass, to be sure," replied the barrister. "I've heard of an ass being made a judge, but a horse never."[244] Ammonianus, the grammarian, had an ass which, as it is said, when he attended the lectures upon poetry, often neglected his food when laid before him, though at the same time he was hungry, so much was the ass taken with the love of poetry.[245] WARREN HASTINGS AND THE REFRACTORY DONKEY. The fondness of the first Governor-General of India for horse exercise, and indeed for the horse itself, was quite oriental, as his biographer relates.[246] He was a fine rider, and piqued himself on his abilities in this way. "Nothing pleased him," continues Mr Gleig, "more than to undertake some animal which nobody else could control, and to reduce it, as he invariably did, to a state of perfect docility. The following anecdote, which I have from my friend Mr Impey, himself an actor in the little drama, may suffice to show the extent to which this passion was carried. It happened once upon a time, when Mr Impey was, with some other boys, on a visit at Daylesford, that Mr Hastings, returning from a ride, saw his young friends striving in vain to manage an ass which they had found grazing in the paddock, and which one after another they chose to mount. The ass, it appears, had no objection to receive the candidates for equestrian renown successively on his back, but budge a foot he would not; and there being neither saddle nor bridle, wherewith to restrain his natural movements, he never failed, so soon as a difference of opinion arose, to get the better of his rider. Each in his turn, the boys were repeatedly thrown, till at last Mr Hastings, who watched the proceedings with great interest, approached. "Why, boys," said he, "how is it that none of you can ride?" "Not ride!" cried the little aspirants; "we could ride well enough, if we had a saddle and a bridle; but he's such an obstinate brute, that we don't think even you, sir, could sit him bare-backed." "Let's try," exclaimed the Governor-General. Whereupon he dismounted, and gave his horse to one of the children to hold, and mounted the donkey. The beast began to kick up his heels, and lower his head as heretofore; but this time the trick would not answer. The Governor-General sat firm, and finally prevailed, whether by fair means or foul, I am not instructed, in getting the quadruped to move wheresoever he chose. He himself laughed heartily as he resigned the conquered thistle-eater to his first friends; and the story when told, as told it was, with consummate humour, at the dinner-table, afforded great amusement to a large circle of guests. NORTHCOTE, THE ROYAL ACADEMICIAN, AN ANGEL AT AN ASS. Fuseli, the artist, was a most outspoken man. His biographer[247] says that he never concealed his sentiments with regard to men, even to their faces. "Every one knows," writes Mr Knowles, "who is acquainted with art, the powers which Northcote displays when he paints animals of the brute creation. When his picture of 'Balaam and the Ass' was exhibited at the Macklin Gallery, Northcote asked Fuseli's opinion of its merits, who instantly said, 'My friend, you are an angel at an ass, but an ass at an angel.'" SYDNEY SMITH'S ACCOMPLISHED DONKEY, WITH FRANCIS JEFFREY ON HIS BACK. Lady Holland[248] gives the following picture of her father's pet donkey:-- "Amongst our rural delights at Heslington was the possession of a young donkey which had been given up to our tender mercies from the time of its birth, and in whose education we employed a large portion of our spare time; and a most accomplished donkey it became under our tuition. It would walk up-stairs, pick pockets, follow us in our walks like a huge Newfoundland dog, and at the most distant sight of us in the field, with ears down and tail erect, it set off in full bray to meet us. These demonstrations on Bitty's part were met with not less affection on ours, and Bitty was almost considered a member of the family. "One day, when my elder brother and myself were training our beloved Bitty with a pocket-handkerchief for a bridle, and his head crowned with flowers, to run round our garden, who should arrive in the midst of our sport but Mr Jeffrey. Finding my father out, he, with his usual kindness towards young people, immediately joined in our sport, and to our infinite delight, mounted our donkey. He was proceeding in triumph, amidst our shouts of laughter, when my father and mother, in company, I believe, with Mr Horner and Mr Murray, returned from their walk, and beheld this scene from the garden-door. Though years and years have passed away since, I still remember the joy-inspiring laughter that burst from my father at this unexpected sight, as, advancing towards his old friend, with a face beaming with delight, and with extended hands, he broke forth in the following impromptu: 'Witty as Horatius Flaccus, As great a Jacobin as Gracchus; Short, though not as fat as Bacchus, Riding on a little jackass.' "These lines were afterwards repeated by some one to Mr ---- at Holland House, just before he was introduced for the first time to Mr Jeffrey, and they caught his fancy to such a degree that he could not get them out of his head, but kept repeating them in a low voice all the time Mr Jeffrey was conversing with him. "I must end Bitty's history, as he has been introduced, by saying that he followed us to Foston; and after serving us faithfully for thirteen years, on our leaving Yorkshire, was permitted by our kind friend, Lord Carlisle, to spend the rest of his days in idleness and plenty, in his beautiful park, with an unbounded command of thistles." SYDNEY SMITH ON THE SAGACITY OF THE ASS; A LADY SCARCELY SO WISE AS ONE. The Rev. Sydney Smith[249] writes to Colonel Fox in October 1836:-- "MY DEAR CHARLES,--If you have ever paid any attention to the habits of animals, you will know that donkeys are remarkably cunning in opening gates. The way to stop them is to have two latches instead of one. A human being has two hands, and lifts up both latches at once; a donkey has only one nose, and latch _a_ drops, as he quits it to lift up latch _b_. Bobus and I had the grand luck to see little Aunty engaged intensely with this problem. She was taking a walk, and was arrested by a gate with this formidable difficulty: the donkeys were looking on to await the issue. Aunty lifted up the first latch with the most perfect success, but found herself opposed by a second; flushed with victory, she quitted the first latch, and rushed at the second; her success was equal, till in the meantime the first dropped. She tried this two or three times, and, to her utter astonishment, with the same results; the donkeys brayed, and Aunty was walking away in great dejection, till Bobus and I recalled her with loud laughter, showed her that she had two hands, and roused her to vindicate her superiority over the donkeys. I mention this to you to request that you will make no allusion to this animal, as she is remarkably touchy on this subject, and also that you will not mention it to Lady Mary!" * * * * * Lady Holland relates a practical joke of her father's, which the witty canon carried out at his rectory of Combe Florey. "Opposite was a beautiful bank, with a hanging wood of fine old beech and oak, on the summit of which presented themselves, to our astonished eyes, two donkeys with deers' antlers fastened on their heads, which ever and anon they shook, much wondering at their horned honours; whilst the attendant donkey boy, in Sunday garb, stood grinning and blushing at their side. 'There, Lady ----! you said the only thing this place wanted to make it perfect was deer; what do you say now? I have, you see, ordered my game gamekeeper to drive my deer into the most picturesque point of view. Excuse their long ears, a little peculiarity belonging to parsonic deer. Their voices, too, are singular; but we do our best for you, and you are too true a friend of the Church to mention our defects.' All this, of course, amidst shouts of laughter, whilst his own merry laugh might be heard above us all, ringing through the valley, and making the very echoes laugh in chorus." ASSES' DUTY FREE! During the debate on Sir Robert Peel's tariff, the admission of asses' duty free caused much merriment. Lord T., who had just read "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation," remarked that the House had, he supposed, passed the donkey clause out of respect to its ancestors.--"It is a wise measure," said a popular novelist, "especially as it affects the importation of food; for, should a scarcity come, we should otherwise have to fall back on the food of our forefathers."--"And, pray, what is that?" asked an archæologist.--"Thistles," replied Lord T.[250] THACKERAY AND THE EGYPTIAN DONKEY. When the English author landed at Alexandria, there were many scenes and sounds to dispel all romantic notions; among these "a yelling chorus of donkey boys shrieking, 'Ride, sir!--donkey, sir!--I say, sir!' in excellent English. The placid sphinxes, brooding o'er the Nile, disappeared with that wild shriek of the donkey boys. You might be as well impressed with Wapping as with your first step on Egyptian soil. "The riding of a donkey is, after all, not a dignified occupation. A man resists the offer first, somehow as an indignity. How is that poor little, red-saddled, long-eared creature to carry you? Is there to be one for you and another for your legs? Natives and Europeans, of all sizes, passed by, it is true, mounted upon the same contrivance. I waited until I got into a very private spot, where nobody could see me, and then ascended--why not say descended at once?--on the poor little animal. Instead of being crushed at once, as perhaps the writer expected, it darted forward, quite briskly and cheerfully, at six or seven miles an hour; requiring no spur or admonitive to haste, except the shrieking of the little Egyptian _gamin_, who ran along by asinus's side."[251] BEST TO LET MULES HAVE THEIR OWN WAY. Dr John Moore, in crossing the Alps, found they had nothing but the sagacity of their mules to trust to. "For my own part," he says, "I was very soon convinced that it was much safer on all dubious occasions to depend on theirs than on my own. For as often as I was presented with a choice of difficulties, and the mule and I were of different opinions, if, becoming more obstinate than he, I insisted on his taking my track, I never failed to repent it, and often was obliged to return to the place where the controversy had begun, and follow the path to which he had pointed at first. "It is entertaining to observe the prudence of these animals in making their way down such dangerous rocks. They sometimes put their heads over the edge of the precipice, and examine with anxious circumspection every possible way by which they can descend, and at length are sure to fix on that which, upon the whole, is the best. Having observed this in several instances, I laid the bridle on the neck of my mule, and allowed him to take his own way, without presuming to control him in the smallest degree. This is doubtless the best method, and what I recommend to all my friends in their journey through life, when they have mules for their companions."[252] ZEBRA.--"_Un âne rayée._" A FRENCHMAN'S "DOUBLE-ENTENDRE." When, in 1805, Patrick Lattin, an officer of the Irish Brigade, was residing in Paris, a M. de Montmorency, whose Christian name was Anne, made his appearance, announcing that he was enabled to return to France, in consequence of the First Consul having scratched his name on the list of _émigrés_. "_A present donc_," observed Lattin, "_mon cher Anne, tu es un Zèbre--un âne rayée._"[253] FOOTNOTES: [239] "The Poems of S. T. Coleridge," pp. 26, 27 (1844). [240] "Memoirs of the Life of William Collins, R.A.," by his son, W. Wilkie Collins, vol. i. p. 232. [241] Edition of Sir T. D. Lauder, Bart., vol. ii. p. 273. [242] "Gilpin's Forest Scenery," vol. ii. p. 275. Edited by Sir T. D. Lauder. [243] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 129. [244] Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 307. [245] Photius, quoted by Southey in his "Common-Place Book," first series, p. 588. [246] "Memoirs of the Life of the Right Hon. Warren Hastings, compiled from original papers," by the Rev. G. R. Gleig, M.A., vol. iii. p. 367. [247] "The Life and Writings of Henry Fuseli, Esq., M.A., R.A.," the former written and the latter edited by John Knowles, Esq., F.R.S., vol. i. p. 364. [248] "A Memoir of the Rev. Sydney Smith," by his daughter, Lady Holland, &c., vol. i. p. 152. [249] "Memoirs and Letters of Rev. Sydney Smith," vol. ii. p. 393. [250] "A Century of Anecdote from 1760 to 1860," by John Timbs, F.S.A., vol. i. p. 252 (1864). [251] "Notes of a Journey from Cornhill to Grand Cairo," by Mr M. A. Titmarsh, p. 177 (1846). [252] "View of Society and Manners in France, Switzerland, and Germany," vol. i. pp. 191, 192 (9th edition). CAMEL. Truly the Ship of the Desert, and one that by Lewis and Henry Warren has afforded the subject of many a pleasing picture. The camel has a most patriarchal look about him. CAPTAIN WILLIAM PEEL, R.N. REMARKS ON CAMELS. Captain William Peel, in his "Ride through the Nubian Desert" (p. 89), writes--"We met once at a hollow, where some water still remained from the rains, 2000 camels, all together admirably organised into troops, and attended by only a few Arabs. On another occasion, we passed some camels grazing at such a distance from the Nile, that I asked the Arab attending where they went to drink? He said, he marches them all down together to the Nile, and they drink every eleventh day. It is now the cool season, and the heat is tempered by fresh northerly breezes. The Arab, of course, brings water skins for his own supply. All these camels were breeding stock. They live on thorns and the top shoots of the gum-arabic tree, although it is armed with the most frightful spikes. But very little comes amiss to the camel; he will eat dry wood to keep up digestion, if in want of a substitute. Instinct or experience has taught him to avoid the only two tempting-looking plants that grow in the desert,--the green eusha bush, which is full of milk-coloured juice, and a creeper, that grows in the sand where nothing else will grow, and which has a bitter fruit like a melon. I was surprised to learn that the leopard does not dare to attack the camel, whose tall and narrow flanks would seem to be fatally exposed to such a supple enemy. Nature, however, has given him a means of defence in his iron jaw and long powerful neck, which are a full equivalent for his want of agility. He can also strike heavily with his feet, and his roar would intimidate many foes. I never felt tired of admiring this noble creature, and through the monotony of the desert would watch for hours his ceaseless tread and unerring path. Carrying his head low, forward, and surveying everything with his black brilliant eye, he marches resolutely forward, and quickens his pace at the slightest cheer of the rider. He is too intelligent and docile for a bridle; besides, he lives on the march, and with a sudden sweep of the neck will seize, without stopping, the smallest straw. When the day's march is over, he passes the night in looking for food, with scarcely an hour to repose his limbs, and less than that for sleep. He closes the eye fitfully, the smallest noise will awake him. When lying down for rest, every part of the body is supported; his neck and head lie lightly along the sand, a broad plate of bone under the breast takes the weight off his deep chest, and his long legs lay folded under him, supporting his sides like a ship in a cradle." A CAPTAIN IN THE ROYAL NAVY MEASURES THE PROGRESS OF "THE SHIP OF THE DESERT." The dromedary has long and deservedly been called "the Ship of the Desert." A very gallant captain in the Royal Navy, the late Captain William Peel, son of the Prime Minister, calculated its rate of motion much after the manner in which he might have measured the path of his ship. He writes[254]--"In crossing the Nubian Desert I paid constant attention to the march of the camels, hoping it may be of some service hereafter in determining our position. The number of strides in a minute with the same foot varied very little, only from 37 to 39, and 38 was the average; but the length of the stride was more uncertain, varying from 6 feet 6 to 7 feet 6. As we were always urging the camels, who seemed, like ourselves, to know the necessity of pushing on across that fearful tract, I took 7 feet as the average. These figures give a speed of 2.62 geographical miles per hour, or exactly three English miles, which may be considered as the highest speed that camels lightly loaded can keep up on a journey. In general, it will not be more than two and a half English miles. My dromedary was one of the tallest, and the seat of the saddle was 6 feet 6 above the ground." LORD METCALFE ON A CAMEL WHEN A BOY. Charles Metcalfe, "first and last Lord Metcalfe," to whose care were successively intrusted the three greatest dependencies of the British crown, India, Jamaica, and Canada, and who died in 1846, was sent to Eton when eleven years old. His biographer relates,[255] that "it is on record, and on very sufficient authority, that he was once seen riding on a camel. 'I heard the boys shouting,' said Dr Goodall, many years afterwards, 'and went out and saw young Metcalfe riding on a camel; so you see he was always orientally inclined.'" This anecdote will serve as a comrade to that told by Mr Foss, in his "Lives of the Justices of England," of Chief-Baron Pollock. When a lad, one of his schoolmasters, fretted by the boyish energy and exuberant spirits of his scholar, said petulantly, "You will live to be _hanged_." The old gentleman lived to see his pupil Lord Chief-Baron, and, not a little proud of his great scholar, said, "I always said he would occupy an _elevated_ position." FOOTNOTES: [253] Quoted in Timbs' "Century of Anecdote," vol. i. p. 223 (1864). [254] "A Ride through the Nubian Desert," by Captain W. Peel, R.N., p. 49. STAGS AND GIRAFFE. The deer family is rather numerous, and found in many different parts of the world. Reindeers abound in some parts even of Spitzbergen, and with musk oxen can find their food even under the winter snows of the Parry Islands. The wapiti and heavy large-headed elk or moose, retreat before the advancing civilisation of North America. The Indian mountains and plains have noble races of deer. No species, however, is more celebrated than our red deer. The giraffe is closely allied to the stag family. The Arabs name it the seraph, and indeed, that is the origin of its now best-known English name. Visitors should beware of going too near the male, for we have seen the dent made by one of the giraffe's bony knobs on a pannel close to its stall. We have heard of a young lady, who entered the garden one of those summer days when straw bonnets had great bunches of ripe barley mingled with artificial poppies as an ornament, and, going too near the lofty pallisade, found to her confusion and terror that the long lithe tongue of the giraffe had whisked off her Leghorn, flowers and all, and had begun leisurely to munch it with somewhat of the same gusto with which it would have eaten the branch of a graceful mimosa. EARL OF DALHOUSIE AND THE FEROCIOUS STAG. Mr Scrope relates an instance of unprovoked ferocity in a red deer at Taymouth, in which the present Earl of Dalhousie might have been seriously injured. "In October 1836, the Hon. Mr and Mrs Fox Maule had left Taymouth with the intention of proceeding towards Dalguise; and in driving through that part of the grounds where the red deer were kept, they suddenly at a turn of the road came upon the lord of the demesne standing in the centre of the passage, as if prepared to dispute it against all comers. Mr Maule being aware that it might be dangerous to trifle with him, or to endeavour to drive him away (for it was the rutting season), cautioned the postilion to go slowly, and give the animal an opportunity of moving off. This was done, and the stag retired to a small hollow by the side of the road. On the carriage passing, however, he took offence at its too near approach, and emerged at a slow and stately pace, till he arrived nearly parallel with it. Mr Maule then desired the lad to increase his pace, being apprehensive of a charge in the broadside. "The deer, however, had other intentions; for as soon as the carriage moved quicker, he increased his pace also, and came on the road about twelve yards ahead of it, for the purpose of crossing, as it was thought, to a lower range of the parks; but to the astonishment and no little alarm of the occupants of the carriage, he charged the offside horse, plunging his long brow antler into his chest, and otherwise cutting him. "The horse that was wounded made two violent kicks, and is supposed to have struck the stag, and then the pair instantly ran off the road; and it was owing solely to the admirable presence of mind and sense of the postilion, that the carriage was not precipitated over the neighbouring bank. The horses were not allowed to stop till they reached the gate, although the blood was pouring from the wounded animal in a stream as thick as a man's finger. He was then taken out of the carriage, and only survived two or three hours. The stag was shortly afterwards killed."[256] THE FRENCH COUNT AND THE STAG. Mr Scrope, in his "Deer-Stalking," describes a grand deer-drive to Glen-Tilt, headed by the Duke of Athole. Many an incident of this and subsequent drives was watched by "Lightfoot," who was present, and whose pictures, under his name of Sir Edwin Landseer, have rendered the life of the red deer familiar to us, in mist, amid snow, swimming in the rapid of a Highland current, pursued and at rest, fighting and feeding, alive and dead, in every attitude, and at every age. In this encounter, the Duke killed three first-rate harts, Lightfoot two, and other rifles were all more or less successful. A French count, whose tongue it was difficult to restrain,--and silence is essential to success in the pursuit,--at last fired into a dense herd of deer. Mr Scrope adds,[257] "Everything was propitious--circumstance, situation, and effect; for he was descending the mountain in full view of our whole assemblage of sportsmen. A fine stag in the midst of the herd fell to the crack of his rifle. 'Hallo, hallo!' forward ran the count, and sat upon the prostrate deer triumphing. '_Hé bien, mon ami, vous êtes mort, donc! Moi, je fais toujours des coups sûrs. Ah! pauvre enfant!_' He then patted the sides of the animal in pure wantonness, and looked east, west, north, and south, for applause, the happiest of the happy; finally he extracted a mosaic snuff-box from his pocket, and with an air which nature has denied to all save the French nation, he held a pinch to the deer's nose--'_Prends, mon ami, prends donc!_' This operation had scarcely been performed when the hart, who had only been stunned, or perhaps shot through the loins, sprang up suddenly, overturned the count, ran fairly away, and was never seen again. '_Arrêtes, toi traître! Arrêtes, mon enfant! Ah! c'est un enfant, perdu! Allez donc à tous les diables!_'" VENISON FAT.--REYNOLDS AND THE GOURMAND. Northcote[258] says--"I have heard Sir Joshua Reynolds relate an anecdote of a venison feast, at which were assembled many who much enjoyed the repast. "On this occasion, Reynolds addressed his conversation to one of the company who sat next to him, but to his great surprise could not get a single word in answer, until at length his silent neighbour, turning to him, said, 'Mr Reynolds, whenever you are at a venison feast, I advise you not to speak during dinner-time, as in endeavouring to answer your questions, I have just swallowed a fine piece of the fat, entire, without tasting its flavour.'" STAG-TRENCH AT FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAINE. Goethe was born at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, August 28th, 1749. In his autobiography[259] he says--"The street in which our house was situated passed by the name of the Stag-trench; but as neither stags nor trenches were to be seen, we naturally wished to have the expression explained. They told us that our house stood on a spot that was once outside the town, and that where the street now ran had formerly been a trench in which a number of stags were kept. The stags were preserved and fatted here, because the Senate every year, according to an ancient custom, feasted publicly on a stag which was always at hand in the trench for such a festival, in case princes or knights interfered with the city's right of chase outside, or the walls were encompassed and besieged by an enemy. This pleased us, and we wished that such a lair for tame wild animals could have been seen in our times. Where is there a boy or girl who could not join in the wish of this man, who has been called the first European poet and literary man of the nineteenth century?" GIRAFFE. "Fancy," said Sydney Smith to some ladies, when he was told that one of the giraffes at the Zoological Gardens had caught a cold,--"fancy a giraffe with two yards of sore throat." In one of the numbers of _Punch_, published in 1864, the quiz of an artist has made the giraffes twist their necks into a loose knot by way of a comforter to keep them from catching a cold, or having a sore throat. He has very audaciously caused to be printed under his cut, "A FACT." FOOTNOTES: [255] "Life and Correspondence of Charles Lord Metcalfe," by John William Kaye, vol. i., p. 8. [256] "The Art of Deer-Stalking," p. 33. [257] "Deer-Stalking," p. 229. [258] "Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds," vol. i., p. 124. [259] "Truth and Poetry from my own Life; the Autobiography of Goethe," edited by Parke Godwin, part i., p. 3. SHEEP AND GOATS. These are animals, at least the former, which seem to have been created in a domestic state. They are represented on the most ancient monuments. A head of a Lybian ram of very large size, in the British Museum, has great resemblance to nature, and there is one slab at least among the Assyrian monuments where sheep and goats, as part of the spoil of a city, are rendered with great skill. In the writings of the Ettrick Shepherd, many curious anecdotes of Scottish sheep are given. HOW MANY LEGS HAS A SHEEP? When the Earl of Bradford was brought before the Lord Chancellor to be examined upon application for a statute of lunacy against him, the Chancellor asked him, "How many legs has a sheep?"--"Does your lordship mean," answered Lord Bradford, "a live sheep or a dead sheep?"--"Is it not the same thing?" said the Chancellor.--"No, my lord," said Lord Bradford, "there is much difference: a live sheep may have four legs, a dead sheep has only two; the two fore-legs are shoulders; there are only _two legs of mutton_."[260] GOETHE ON ROOS'S ETCHINGS OF SHEEP. In the "Conversations of Goethe with Eckerman and Soret"[261] in 1824, he handed me some etchings by Roos, the famous painter of animals; they were all of sheep, in every posture and position. The simplicity of their countenances, the ugliness and shagginess of the fleece--all was represented with the utmost fidelity, as if it were nature itself. "I always feel uneasy," said Goethe, "when I look at these beasts. Their state--so limited, dull, gaping, and dreaming--excites in me such sympathy, that I fear I shall become a sheep, and almost think the artist must have been one. At all events, it is most wonderful how Roos has been able to think and feel himself into the very soul of these creatures, so as to make the internal character peer with such force through the outward covering. Here you see what a great talent can do when it keeps steady to subjects which are congenial with its nature." "Has not, then," said I, "this artist also painted dogs, cats, and beasts of prey with similar truth; nay, with this great gift of assuming a mental state foreign to himself, has he not been able to delineate human character with equal fidelity?" "No," said Goethe; "all that lay out of his sphere, but the gentle, grass-eating animals--sheep, goats, cows, and the like--he was never weary of repeating; this was the peculiar province of his talent, which he did not quit during the whole course of his life. And in this he did well. A sympathy with these animals was born with him, a knowledge of their psychological condition was given him, and thus he had so fine an eye for their bodily structure. Other creatures were perhaps not so transparent to him, and therefore he felt neither calling nor impulse to paint them."[262] LORD COCKBURN AND THE SHEEP. Lord Cockburn, the proprietor of Bonaly, that pretty place on the slopes of the Pentlands, was sitting on the hill-side with the shepherd, and, observing the sheep reposing in the coldest situation, he observed to him, "John, if I were a sheep, I would lie on the other side of the hill." The shepherd answered, "Ay, my lord, but if ye had been a _sheep_, ye would hae had mair sense."[263] WOOLSACK. Colman and Banister, dining one day with Lord Erskine, the ex-chancellor, amongst other things, observed that he had then about three thousand head of sheep. "I perceive," interrupted Colman, "your lordship has still an eye to the woolsack."[264] SANDY WOOD AND HIS PETS, A SHEEP AND A RAVEN. Alexander Wood, a kind-hearted surgeon, who died in his native town of Edinburgh in May 1807, aged eighty-two, is alluded to by Sir Walter Scott in a prophecy put into the mouth of Meg Merrilees in "Guy Mannering"--"They shall beset his goat; they shall profane his raven," &c. The editor of "Kaye's Edinburgh Portraits"[265] says that, besides his kindness of disposition to his fellow-creatures, "he was almost equally remarkable for his love of animals. His pets were numerous, and of all kinds. Not to mention dogs and cats, there were two others that _individually_ were better known to the citizens of Edinburgh--a sheep and a raven, the latter of which is alluded to by Scott in 'Guy Mannering.' Willy, the sheep, pastured in the ground adjoining to the Excise Office, now the Royal Bank, and might be daily seen standing at the railings, watching Mr Wood's passing to or from his house in York Place, when Willy used to poke his head into his coat-pocket, which was always filled with supplies for his favourite, and would then trot along after him through the town, and sometimes might be found in the houses of the doctor's patients. The raven was domesticated at an ale and porter shop in North Castle Street, which is still, or very lately was, marked by a tree growing from the area against the wall. It also kept upon the watch for Mr Wood, and would recognise him even as he passed at some distance along George Street, and, taking a low flight towards him, was frequently his companion during some part of his forenoon walks; for Mr Wood never entered his carriage when he could possibly avoid it, declaring that unless a vehicle could be found that would carry him down the closes and up the turnpike stairs, they produced nothing but trouble and inconvenience." GENERAL CARNAC AND HIS SHE-GOAT. It is pleasant to see, and not rare to find in men of warlike habits, a love for animals. The goat or deer that used often to march before a regiment with the band as they proceeded to a review in Bruntsfield Links, when the writer and his friends were boys, about 1826 to 1832, he well remembers. Nor is Edinburgh garrison singular. General Carnac, in 1770, communicated to Dr William Hunter some observations on the keenness of smell and its exquisite sensibility. He says--"I have frequently observed of tame deer, to whom bread is often given, and which they are in general fond of, that if you present them a piece that has been bitten, they will not touch it. I have made the same observation of a remarkably fine she-goat, which accompanied me in most of my campaigns in India, and supplied me with milk, and which, in gratitude for her services, I brought from abroad with me."[266] JOHN HUNTER AND THE SHAWL-GOAT. HUNTER'S METHOD OF INTRODUCING STRANGE ANIMALS PEACEFULLY TO OTHERS IN HIS MENAGERIE. It is pleasant to meet with a notice of the pursuits of the great anatomist, John Hunter, in a rather out-of-the-way book.[267] The ingenious way in which he introduced strange animals into his menagerie is worthy of notice. "The variety of birds and beasts to be met with at Earl's Court (the villa of the celebrated and much-lamented Mr John Hunter) is matter of great entertainment. In the same ground you are surprised to find so many living animals in one herd, from the most opposite parts of the habitable globe. Buffaloes, rams, and sheep from Turkey, and a shawl-goat from the East Indies, are among the most remarkable of those that meet the eye; and as they feed together in the greatest harmony, it is natural to inquire, what means are taken to make them so familiar, and well acquainted with each other. Mr Hunter told me, that when he has a stranger to introduce, he does it by ordering the whole herd to be taken to a strange place, either a field, an empty stable, or any other large out-house, with which they are all alike unaccustomed. The strangeness of the place so totally engages their attention, as to prevent them from running at, and fighting with, the new-comer, as they most probably would do in their own fields (in regard to which they entertain very high notions of their exclusive right of property), and here they are confined for some hours, till they appear reconciled to the stranger, who is then turned out with his new friends, and is generally afterwards well-treated. The shawl-goat was not, however, so easily reconciled to his future companions; he attacked them, instead of waiting to be attacked; fought several battles, and at present appears master of the field. "It is from the _down_ that grows under the coarse hair of this species of goat, that the fine India shawls are manufactured.[268] This beautiful as well as useful animal was brought over only last June from Bombay, in the _Duke of Montrose_ Indiaman, Captain Dorin. The female, unfortunately, died. It was very obligingly presented by the directors to Sir John Sinclair, the President of the British Wool Society. It is proposed, under Mr Hunter's care, to try some experiment with it in England, by crossing it with other breeds of the goat species, before it is sent to the north." As anything that met with Mr Hunter's approval must have been a judicious arrangement, I may quote from the same source the passage about the buildings for his cattle at Earl's Court. "Mr Hunter has built his stables half under ground; also vaults, in which he keeps his cows, buffaloes, and hogs. Such buildings, more especially the arched byres, or cow-houses, retain a more equal temperature at all times, in regard both to heat and cold, and consequently are cooler in summer and warmer in winter; and in situations where ground is so valuable as in the neighbourhood of London, are an excellent contrivance. Mr Hunter has his hay-yard over his buffaloes' stables. The expense of vaulting does not exceed that of building and roofing common cow-houses; and the vaults have this essential advantage or preference, that they require no repairs." He then gives an account of some buffaloes which Mr Hunter had trained to work in a cart, and which became so steady and tractable, that they were often driven through London streets in the loaded cart, much, no doubt, to the astonishment of passers-by. With a glimpse of a very beautiful little cow at Earl's Court, from a buffalo and an Alderney, which was always plump and fat, and gave very good milk, we must take leave of John Hunter's menagerie. COMMODORE KEPPEL "BEARDS" THE DEY OF ALGIERS.--A GOAT. Sir Joshua Reynolds, when twenty-five, sailed to the Mediterranean in 1749 with the Hon. Augustus Keppel, then a captain in the navy, and afterwards Viscount Keppel. In 1750, Commodore Keppel returned to Algiers to remonstrate with the dey on the renewed depredations of the Corsairs. The dey, surprised at his boldness, for he anchored close to the palace, and attended by his captain and a barge's crew, went boldly into the presence of the Algerine monarch to demand satisfaction, exclaimed, that he wondered at the insolence of the King of Great Britain sending him a beardless boy. Keppel was only twenty-four, but he is said to have answered, "that had his Majesty, the King of Great Britain, estimated the degree of wisdom by the length of the beard, he would have sent him _a goat_ as an ambassador." Northcote is in doubt of the truth of this speech having been made, but says, that it is certain Keppel answered with great boldness.[269] The tyrant is said to have actually ordered his mutes to advance with the bow-string, telling the commodore that his life should answer for his audacity. Keppel quietly pointed out to the dey the squadron at anchor, and told him, that if it was his pleasure to put him to death, there were Englishmen enough on board to make a funeral pile of his capital. The dey cooled a little, allowed the commodore to depart, and made satisfaction for the damage done, and promised to abstain from violence in future. FOOTNOTES: [260] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 18. [261] Translated from the German by John Oxenford, vol. i., p. 138. [262] Roos must have been limited in his powers, unlike our Landseer, who paints dogs, sheep, horses, cows, stags, and fowls with equal power. [263] Dean Ramsay's "Reminiscences of Scottish Life and Character," 10th edition, p. 19. [264] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 214. [265] There are two copperplates devoted to the figure and portrait of "lang Sandy Wood," as he was called. [266] "Philosophical Transactions," LXI. p. 176 (1771). Paper on Nyl-ghau, with plate, by George Stubbs, engraved by Basire. [267] Baird, "Report on the County of Middlesex," quoted in view of the agriculture of Middlesex, &c., pp. 341, 342, by John Middleton, Esq. London: 1798. [268] The wool which grows on different parts of their bodies, under very long hair, is obtained by gently combing them. [269] "Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds," vol. i., p. 32. CALVES AND KINE. The little anecdote of Gilpin and the three cows illustrates one elegant use of the subjects of the following paragraphs. What home landscape like that painted by Alfred Tennyson would be perfect without its cows? Many anecdotes of them could be collected. The Irish are celebrated for their "bulls," one of them is not the worse for having "Bulls" for its subject. Patrick was telling, so the story goes, that there were four "Bull Inns" in a certain English town. "There are but three," said a native of the place, who knew them well; "the Black Bull, the White Bull, and the Red Bull,--where is the fourth?"--"Sure and do you not know, the Dun Cow--the best of them all?" replied the unconscious Milesian. A GREAT CALF. Sir William B----, being at a parish meeting, made some proposals, which were objected to by a farmer. Highly enraged, "Sir," says he to the farmer, "do you know, sir, that I have been at the two universities, and at two colleges in each university?"--"Well, sir," said the farmer, "what of that? I had a calf that sucked two cows, and the observation I made was, the more he sucked, the greater _calf_ he grew."[270] RATHER TOO MUCH OF A GOOD THING.--VEAL _ad nauseam_. At the table of Lord Polkemmet, when the covers were removed, the dinner was seen to consist of veal broth, a roast fillet of veal, veal cutlets, a florentine (an excellent Scotch dish, composed of veal), a calf's head, calf's foot jelly. The worthy judge observing an expression of surprise among his guests, who, even in Shetland in early spring would have had the veal varied with fish, broke out in explanation, "Ou, ay, it's a cauf! when we kill a beast, we just eat up one side, and down the tither." * * * * * Boswell, the friend and biographer of Johnson, when a young man, went to the pit of Covent Garden Theatre, in company with Dr Blair, and in a frolic imitated the lowing of a cow; and the universal cry in the gallery was, "Encore the cow! encore the cow!" This was complied with, and in the pride of success, Boswell attempted to imitate some other animals, but with less success. Dr Blair, anxious for the fame of his friend, addressed him thus, "My dear sir, I would confine myself to _the cow_."[271] ADAM CLARKE AND HIS BULLOCK PAT. The Rev. Adam Clarke, LL.D., after one of his evangelical visits to Ireland, returned to his home at Millbrook. In writing to his sons he says--"Not only your mother, sisters, and brother, were glad to see me, but also my poor animals in the field, for I lost no time in going to visit them. I found the donkey lame, and her son looking much like a philosopher; it was strange that even the _bullock_, whom we call _Pat_, came to me in the field, and held out his most honest face for me to stroke it. The next time I went to him he came running up, and actually placed his two fore-feet upon my shoulders, with all the affection of a spaniel; but it was a load of kindness I could ill bear, for the animal is nearly three years old; I soon got his feet displaced; strange and uncouth as this manifestation of affectionate gratitude was, yet with it the master and his _steer Pat_ were equally well pleased; so here is a literal comment on 'The ox knoweth his owner;' and you see I am in league with even the beasts of the field."[272] SAMUEL FOOTE AND THE COWS PULLING THE BELL OF WORCESTER COLLEGE CHAPEL. Samuel Foote was a student at Worcester College, Oxford, and when there he practised many tricks, and soon found out what was ridiculous in any man's character. His biographer[273] records one of these tricks which he played off on Dr Gower, the provost of the college. "The church belonging to the college fronted the side of a lane where cattle were sometimes turned out to graze during the night, and from the steeple hung the bell rope, very low in the middle of the outside porch. Foote saw in this an object likely to produce some fun, and immediately set about to accomplish his purpose. He accordingly one night slyly tied a wisp of hay to the rope, as a bait for the cows in their peregrination to the grazing ground. The scheme succeeded to his wish. One of the cows soon after smelling the hay as she passed by the church door, instantly seized on it, and, by tugging at the rope, made the bell ring, to the astonishment of the sexton and the whole parish. "This happened several nights successively, and the incident gave rise to various reports, such as not only that the church was haunted by evil spirits, but that several spectres were seen walking about the churchyard in all those hideous and frightful shapes which fear, ignorance, and fancy usually suggest on such occasions. "An event of this kind, however, was to be explored, for the honour of philosophy, as well as for the quiet of the parish. Accordingly the doctor and the sexton agreed to sit up one night, and on the first alarm to run out and drag the culprit to condign punishment. Their plan being arranged, they waited with the utmost impatience for the appointed signal; at last the bell began to sound its usual alarm, and they both sallied out in the dark, determined on making a discovery. The sexton was the first in the attack. He seized the cow by the tail, and cried out, 'It was a gentleman commoner, as he had him by the tail of his gown;' while the doctor, who had caught the cow by the horns at the same time, immediately replied, 'No, no, you blockhead, 'tis the postman, and here I have hold of the rascal by his blowing-horn.' Lights, however, were immediately brought, when the character of the real offender was discovered, and the laugh of the whole town was turned upon the doctor." THE GENERAL'S COW. At Plymouth there is, or was, a small green opposite the Government House, over which no one was permitted to pass. Not a creature was allowed to approach save the general's cow. One day old Lady D---- having called at the general's, in order to make a short cut, bent her steps across the lawn, when she was arrested by the sentry calling out and desiring her to return. "But," said Lady D----, with a stately air, "do you know who I am?"--"I don't know who you be, ma'am," replied the immovable sentry, "but I knows you b'aint--you b'aint the _general's cow_." So Lady D---- wisely gave up the argument and went the other way.[274] GILPIN'S LOVE OF THE PICTURESQUE CARRIED OUT.--A REASON FOR KEEPING THREE COWS. Lord Sidmouth told the Rev. C. Smith Bird that he was partly educated at Cheam, by Mr Gilpin, the author of many volumes on "Picturesque Scenery." He was but a poor scholar, but seems to have been loved by his pupils. He _carried out_ his regard for the picturesque, as would appear by the following anecdote[275]-- "In visiting the Rev. Mr Gilpin at his house in the New Forest on one occasion, his lordship observed three cows feeding in a small paddock, which he knew to be all that Mr Gilpin had to feed them in. He asked Mr Gilpin how he came to have so many cows when he had so little land? 'The truth is,' said he, 'I found one cow would not do--she went dry.'--'Well,' said Lord Sidmouth, 'but why not be content with another? Two, by good management, might be made to supply you constantly with milk.'--'Oh, yes,' said the old gentleman, '_but two would not group_.'" KING JAMES ON A COW GETTING OVER THE BORDER. In the "Life of Bernard Gilpin," his biographer refers to the inhabitants of the Borders being such great adepts in the art of thieving, that they could twist a cow's horn, or mark a horse, so as its owners could not know it, and so subtle that no vigilance could watch against them. A person telling King James a surprising story of a cow that had been driven from the north of Scotland into the south of England, and escaping from the herd had found her way home; "The most surprising part of the story," the king replied, "you lay least stress on--that she passed unstolen through the debateable land."[276] DUKE OF MONTAGUE AND HIS HOSPITAL FOR OLD COWS AND HORSES. The Rev. Joseph Spence[277] records that "the Duke of Montague has an hospital for old cows and horses; none of his tenants near Boughton dare kill a broken-winded horse; they must bring them all to the _reservoir_. The duke keeps a lap-dog, the ugliest creature he could meet with; he is always fond of the most hideous, and says he was at first kind to them, because nobody else would be." PHILIP IV. OF SPAIN IN THE BULL-RING. This king, whose form and features are so well known from the pictures of Velasquez, was entertained magnificently by his great favourite Olivares, in 1631. At this festival, which was in honour of the birthday of the heir apparent, the sports of ancient Rome were renewed in the bull-ring of Spain. In his life by Mr Stirling,[278] it is recorded that "a lion, a tiger, a bear, a camel--in fact, a specimen of every procurable wild animal, or, as Quevedo expressed it in a poetical account of the spectacle, 'the whole ark of Noah, and all the fables of Æsop,' were turned loose into the spacious Plaza del Parque, to fight for the mastery of the arena. To the great delight of his Castilian countrymen, a bull of Xarama vanquished all his antagonists. The 'bull of Marathon, which ravaged the country of Tetrapolis,' says the historian of the day, 'was not more valiant; nor did Theseus, who slew and sacrificed him, gain greater glory than did our most potent sovereign. Unwilling that a beast which had behaved so bravely should go unrewarded, his majesty determined to do him the greatest favour that the animal himself could have possibly desired, had he been gifted with reason--to wit, to slay him with his own royal hand! Calling for his fowling-piece, he brought it instantly to his shoulder, and the flash and report were scarcely seen and heard ere the mighty monster lay a bleeding corpse before the transported lieges. Yet not a moment,' continues the chronicler, 'did his majesty lose his wonted serenity, his composure of countenance, and becoming gravity of aspect; and but for the presence of so great a concourse of witnesses, it was difficult to believe that he had really fired the noble and successful shot.'" SYDNEY SMITH AND HIS CATTLE.--HIS "UNIVERSAL SCRATCHER." The Rev. Sydney Smith, when at Foston, used to call for his hat and stick immediately after dinner, and sallied forth for his evening stroll. His daughter,[279] who often accompanied him, remarks--"Each cow and calf, and horse and pig, were in turn visited, and fed, and patted, and all seemed to welcome him; he cared for their comforts as he cared for the comforts of every living being around him. He used to say, 'I am all for cheap luxuries, even for animals; now all animals have a passion for scratching their back bones. They break down your gates and palings to effect this. Look! there is my universal scratcher, a sharp-edged pole, resting on a high and a low post, adapted to every height, from a horse to a lamb. Even the Edinburgh Reviewer can take his turn. You have no idea how popular it is. I have not had a gate broken since I put it up. I have it in all my fields.'" REV. AUGUSTUS TOPLADY ON THE FUTURE STATE OF ANIMALS. The Rev. Josiah Bull, in the "Memorials of the Rev. William Bull of Newport, Pagnel,"[280] the friend of Cowper, the poet, and the Rev. John Newton, tells the following anecdote, in which a favourite theory of the author of that exquisite hymn, "Rock of Ages Cleft for Me," is alluded to, and somewhat comically illustrated by the author of the "Olney Hymns:"-- "Mr Newton had been dining with Mr Bull, and they were quietly sitting together, following after 'the things whereby they might edify one another,' and that search aided by 'interposing puffs' of the fragrant weed. It was in that old study I so well remember, ere it was renovated to meet the demands of modern taste. A room some eighteen feet square, with an arched roof, entirely surrounded with many a precious volume, with large, old casement windows, and immense square chairs of fine Spanish mahogany. There these good men were quietly enjoying their _tête-à-tête_, when they were startled by a thundering knock at the door; and in came Mr Ryland of Northampton, abruptly exclaiming, 'If you wish to see Mr Toplady, you must go immediately with me to the "Swan." He is on his way to London, and will not live long.' They all proceeded to the inn, and there found the good man, emaciated with disease, and evidently fast hastening to the grave. As they were talking together, they were attracted by a great noise in the street, occasioned, as they found on looking out, by a bull-baiting which was going on before the house. Mr Toplady was touched by the cruelty of the scene, and exclaimed, 'Who could bear to see that sight, if there were not to be some compensation for these poor suffering animals in a future state?'--'I certainly hope,' said my grandfather, 'that all the bulls will go to heaven; but do you think this will be the case with all the animal creation?'--'Yes, certainly,' replied Mr Toplady, with great emphasis, 'all, all!'--'What!' rejoined Mr Newton, with some sarcasm in his tone, 'do you suppose, sir, there will be fleas in heaven? for I have a special aversion to them.' Mr Toplady said nothing, but was evidently hurt; and as they separated, Mr Newton said, 'How happy he should be to see him at Olney, if God spared his life, and he were to come that way again.' The reply Mr Toplady made was not very courteous; but the good man was perhaps suffering from the irritation of disease, and possibly annoyed by the ridicule cast upon a favourite theory." RIGHT HONOURABLE WILLIAM WINDHAM, M.P., ON THE FEELINGS OF A BAITED BULL. That great parliamentary orator, the Right Honourable William Windham, lived before the days when humanity to animals was deemed a fit subject for legislation. In his speech against "the bill for preventing the practice of bull-baiting" (April 18, 1800),[281] he refers to the introduction of such a measure as follows--"In turning from the great interests of this country, and of Europe, to discuss with equal solemnity such measures as that which is now before us, the House appears to me to resemble Mr Smirk, the auctioneer, in the play, who could hold forth just as eloquently upon a ribbon as upon a Raphael." He speaks of bull-baiting as being, "it must be confessed, at the expense of an animal which is not by any means a party to the amusement; but then," he adds, "it serves to cultivate the qualities of a certain species of dogs, which affords as much pleasure to their owners as greyhounds do to others. It is no small recommendation to bull-dogs that they are so much in repute with the populace." In a second speech, May 24, 1802, he said that he believed "the bull felt a satisfaction in the contest, not less so than the hound did when he heard the sound of the horn that summoned him to the chase. True it was that young bulls, or those which were never baited before, showed reluctance to be tied to the stake; but those bulls which, according to the language of the sport, were called _game bulls_, who were used to baiting, approached the stake, and stood there while preparing for the contest, with the utmost composure. If the bull felt no pleasure, and was cruelly dealt with, surely the dogs had also some claim to compassion; but the fact was that both seemed equally arduous in the conflict; and the bull, like every other animal, while it had the better side, did not dislike his situation--it would be ridiculous to say he felt no pain--yet, when on such occasions he exhibited no signs of terror, it was a demonstrable proof that he felt some pleasure." The "sober loyal men" of Stamford, it would seem, had petitioned for the continuance of their annual sport, which had been continued for a period of five or six hundred years, and who were displeased with their landlord, the Marquis of Exeter, for his endeavours to put down their cruel sport. Windham refers to "the antiquity of the thing being deserving of respect, for respect for antiquity was the best preservation of the Church and State!!" FOOTNOTES: [270] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 36. [271] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 111. [272] "An Account of the Religious and Literary Life of Adam Clarke, LL.D., F.A.S.," by a Member of his Family, vol ii., p. 346. [273] "Memoirs of Samuel Foote, Esq.," by Wm. Cooke, Esq., vol. i., p. 13. [274] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book", p. 246. [275] Lord Sidmouth lived near Burghfield, where Mr Bird kept pupils, and was curate. See "Sketches from the Life of the Rev. Charles Smith Bird." [276] "Lives of Hugh Latimer and Bernard Gilpin," by the Rev. William Gilpin, p. 271. [277] Anecdotes. Supplement, p. 249 (Singer's edition). Spence died in 1768, aged 70. [278] "Velasquez and his Works," by William Stirling, p. 62. [279] Lady Holland's "Memoirs of her Father, the Rev. Sydney Smith," vol. i., p. 118. [280] "Memorials of the Rev. William Bull of Newport, Pagnel," &c., by his grandson, the Rev. Josiah Bull, M.A. 1864. [281] "Speeches in Parliament of the Right Honourable William Windham, to which is prefixed some account of his Life," by Thomas Amyot, Esq., vol. i. pp. 332, 353 (1812). WHALES. Last and greatest of the mammalia are the whales. The adventures of hardy seamen, like Scoresby, in the pursuit of the Greenland whale, or Beale in the more dangerous chase of the spermaceti, in southern waters, form the subjects of more than one readable volume. But here we give no such extracts, but content ourselves with four short skits, having the cetacea for their subject. In these days of zoological gardens, they have succeeded in bringing one of the smallest of the order, a porpoise, to the Zoological Gardens. His speedy dissolution showed that even the bath of a hippopotamus or an elephant was too limited for the dwelling of this pre-eminently marine creature. But he had begun to show an intelligence, they say, which, independently of all zoological and anatomical considerations, showed that he had nothing in common with a fish, but a somewhat similar form, and an equal necessity for abundance of the pure liquid element. WHALEBONE. A thin old man, with a rag-bag in his hand, was picking up a number of small pieces of whalebone, which lay on the street. The deposit was of such a singular nature, that we asked the quaint-looking gatherer how he supposed they came there? "Don't know," he replied, in a squeaking voice; "but I s'pect some unfortunate female was _wrecked_ hereabout somewhere."[282] * * * * * A Scotch lady, who was discomposed by the introduction of gas, asked with much earnestness, "What's to become o' the _puir whales_?' deeming their interests materially affected by this superseding of their oil."[283] VERY LIKE A WHALE. The first of all the royal infant males Should take the title of the Prince of _Wales_: Because, 'tis clear to seamen and to lubber, Babies and _whales_ are both inclined to _blubber_.[284] CHRISTOPHER NORTH ON THE WHALE. _Tickler._ What fish, James, would you incline to be, if put into scales? _Shepherd._ A dolphin: for they hae the speed o' lichtnin. They'll dart past and roun' about a ship in full sail before the wind, just as if she was at anchor. Then the dolphin is a fish o' peace,--he saved the life o' a poet of auld, Arion, wi' his harp,--and oh! they say the cretur's beautifu' in death. Byron, ye ken, comparin' his hues to those o' the sun settin' ahint the Grecian isles. I sud like to be a dolphin. * * * * * _Shepherd._ Let me see--I sud hae nae great objections to be a whale in the Polar Seas. Gran' fun to fling a boatfu' o' harpooners into the air--or, wi' ae thud o' your tail, to drive in the stern posts o' a Greenlandman. _Tickler._ Grander fun still, James, to feel the inextricable harpoon in your blubber, and to go snoving away beneath an ice-floe with four miles of line connecting you with your distant enemies. _Shepherd._ But, then, whales marry but ae wife, and are passionately attached to their offspring. There they and I are congenial speerits. Nae fish that swims enjoys so large a share of domestic happiness. _Tickler._ A whale, James, is not a fish. _Shepherd._ Isna he? Let him alane for that. He's ca'd a fish in the Bible, and that's better authority than Buffon. Oh that I were a whale![285] * * * * * With these sentences, we conclude this book, as well as our selections on the whale. In the Museum at Edinburgh may be seen one of the finest, if not the most perfect, skeleton of a whale exhibited in this kingdom. Our young readers there can soon see, by examining it from the gallery, that the whale is no "fish." FOOTNOTES: [282] Mark Lemon, "Jest Book," p. 122. [283] _Ibid._, p. 201. [284] _Ibid._, p. 142. [285] "Noctes Ambrosianæ," Works of Professor Wilson, vol. ii., p. 4. INDEX. Addison and Steele on the peculiarities of the natural history collectors, 5-8 Albert's horse at Brussels, 256. Ammonianus and his ass, 279. Androcles and the lion, 167-169. Ant-eater, the great, 225-229. Arctic fox, 142-148. Ass, Sydney Smith on sagacity of, 283. Ass and zebra, 276. Ass's foal, 278. Asses with deers' antlers fastened on heads, 284; duty free, 284. Asylum for animals, 265, 266. Austrian general and a bear, 58, 59. Aye-aye, its singular structure and habits, 36-38. Baboons, Lady Anne Barnard on, 24, 25. Babylon, bas-relief of dog found at, 86, 87. Babyrusa, 240. Back, Sir George, anecdote of Arctic lemming, 196. Badger, 71; anecdotes of, 72-75. Baird, origin of name, 241. Barrentz on white or Polar bear, 64. Barnard, Lady Anne, pleads for the baboons, 24, 25; on some rabbits, 222. Bats, fantastic faces of, 38, 39. Bearable pun, 61. Bears, 56, 57; anecdotes of, 58-70. Beechey, Captain, on Polar bear, 63; on the walrus, 184-186, 187. Bell, Professor, on cats, 149. Bell, Sir Charles, on the head of a pig, 239. Bell-Rock horse, 257. Bentham, Jeremy, and his pet cat, 150-152; and the mice, 205, 206. Berwickshire, names of places in, derived from swine, 241. Bess, a pet hare of the poet Cowper's, 216. Bisset and his trained monkeys, 25, 26; musical cats, 152, 153; trained hares and turtle, 221, 222; learned pig, 250. Black Dwarf's cat, 157. Blomfield, Bishop, bitten by a dog, 88. Boar, wild, 239-245. Border, cow getting across, 309. Borneo, the home of the orang, 11. Boswell imitates the lowing of a cow, 305. Bradford, Earl of, on the number of legs of a sheep, 296. Bristol, Bishop of, comparing Cambridge freshmen to puppies, 89. Brock, or badger, 72. Brown, Dr John, "Rab" and "Our Dogs," 78. Browning, Mrs Elizabeth Barrett, lines on her dog Flush, 89-93. Browning's, Robert, description of rats, 199. Bull, an Irish, 304. Bull, Rev. Wm., Newton, and Toplady, anecdote of, 312. Bull-baiting at Olney, 313; Windham on, 314. Bull-ring, Philip IV. in, 310. Bullock and Dr Adam Clarke, 305, 306. Burke, Edmund, question when interrupted, 149; anecdote of his humanity, 257, 258. Burns' "Twa Dogs," 81, 82; the field-mouse, 206-208. Bush-pig, 148. Bussapa, the tiger-slayer, 162-164. Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., and his dog Speaker, 93, 94. Byron on his dog, 79; on Boatswain, a Newfoundland dog, 94, 95; pets, 26, 27; bear at Cambridge, 59. "Calamity," a horse of Sydney Smith's, 272. Calf, a great, 304. Calves and kine, 304. Camel, Captain Wm. Peel on, 287-289. Campbell, Colonel, account of Bussapa and the tiger, 162-164. Canova's sculptured lions and the child, 171-173. Carnac and the she-goat, 299. Cats, 149-161. Cat's letter, by Montgomery, 156. Cattle of Sydney Smith, and their universal scratcher, 311. Chalmers, Dr, and the guinea-pig, 223, 224. _Cheiroptera_, the order which contains the bats, 38, 39. Children and horses cannot explain their complaints, 269. Chimpanzee, Mr Mitchell on the habits of a young one, 22-42. China, roasted pups eaten in, 78. _Chiromys Madagascariensis_, its habits, 36-38. _Choiropotamus Africanus_, 140. Choiseul, Madame de, and her pet monkey and parrot, 33, 34. Chunie, the elephant, 230. Clare's dog and Curran, 98. Clarke, Dr Adam, on Shetland seals, 175, 176; his bullock Pat, 305. Clive's, Lord, handwriting misunderstood, 230. Cockburn, Lord, and the sheep at Bonaly, 298. Collie at Cultershaw, 82. Collins, Wm., R.A., and Sir David Wilkie, 3; the rat-catcher with the ferret, 76; his dog Prinny, 96, 97; paints Odell's old donkey, 277. Collins, W. Wilkie, Sir David Wilkie's first remark on him, 3, 4. Constant and his cat, 153. Cook's sailor, who took a fox-bat for the devil, 40. Cooke, Major-General, 189. Coon, a gone, 71. Couthon and the spaniel, 195. Cowper's narrative of his pet hares, 213-219; dog Beau and the water-lily, 79-81. Cows, anecdotes of, 306-311. Cross, Edward, of Exeter Change and Walworth, 33. Cruelty to horses in Ireland, 275. Cunningham, Major, on Ladak dog, 86. Curran on Lord Clare's dog, 98. Cuvier and the fossil, 236. _Cynocephali_, or African baboons, 9, 24, 25. Dalhousie, Earl of, and the ferocious red-deer, 291. Dandie Dinmont educates his terriers, 122. Davis, Sir George, and the lion, 170, 171. Deer family, 290, 291; their sensibility of smell, 300. Dessin Island, rabbits on, blind of one eye, 222. Dickens on sellers of bears' grease, 59, 60. Dog and the French murderers, 104, 105. Dog-cheap, 100. Dog-matic, 113. Dog-rose, 133. Dogs, 77-87. Douglas, General, and the rats, 201. Dragon-fly exhibited at a show, 61. Dresden, Battle of, General Moreau killed at, 113. Drew on the instinct of dogs, 98-100. Dromedary, Capt. Peel on its rate of motion, 289. Dunbar, Rev. Rowland Hill at, 261. Durian, an eastern fruit, 14. Earl's Court, Hunter's menagerie at, 300-302. Eastern dogs, 84, 85. _Echidna aculeata_, 192. _Edentata_, 228. Edmonstone, Dr, on Shetland seals, 176-182. Eglintoun, Countess of, her fondness for rats, 200, 201. Elephant and his trunk, 232; anecdotes of, 234-236. _Epomophorus_, a genus of tropical bats alluded to by the poet-laureate, 39. Erskine's sheep and the woolsack, 298. Esquimaux dogs, 78, 86. Ettrick Shepherd's monkey, 27, 28; on fox-hunting, 139-141; on whales, 316. Fabricius on Arctic fox, 143. Ferret, 75, 76. Field mouse turned up by Robert Burns, 206-208. Findhorn fisherman and monkey, 29, 30. Flush, lines to her dog, by Mrs Browning, 89-93. Foote, Samuel, makes cows pull bell at Oxford, 306. Forster, Dr, on the fox-bats of the Friendly Islands, 42, 43. Fournier on the squirrel, 196. Fowler the tailor and Gainsborough the artist, 2, 3. Fox, Charles James, on the poll-cat, 77. Fox, 138. Fox-hunting, from the "Noctes," 139-141. Fox-bats, particulars of their history, 41-47. Frederick the Great and his Italian greyhounds, 104. French count at deer-stalking, 293, 294; dogs, time of Louis XI., 110; marquis and his monkey, 30, 31. Fry, Mrs, on Irish pigs, 252. Fuller, Thomas, on destructive fieldmice, 208, 209. Fuller on Norfolk rabbits, 223. Fuseli on Northcote's picture of Balaam and the Ass, 281. Future state of animals, Toplady on, 312. Gainsborough and Fowler the tailor, 2, 3; his wife and their dogs, 100, 101; pigs, countryman on, 252; kept an ass, 277. Garrick and the horse, 259. Gell, Sir William, his dog, 101. General's cow at Plymouth, 308. George III. at Winchester, meets Garrick, 259. George IV. visited at Windsor by "Happy Jerry," 32. Gilpin's, Bernard, horses stolen and recovered, 260. Gilpin's, Rev. Mr, love of the picturesque, 308. Gilray's caricature of Fox and Burke as dogs, 724. Gimcrack, the widow, her letter to Mr Bickerstaff on her husband's peculiarities, 6-8. Giraffe, anecdotes of, 291-295. _Glirine_ animals, 195, 212. Goats, anecdotes of, 299, 300. Goethe on stag-trench at Frankfort, 294; on Roos's etchings of sheep, 296. Good enough for a pig, 251. Gordon, Duchess of, and the wolf-dog, 102, 103. Gorilla and its story, 9-22. Graham, Rev. W., on dogs in the East, 85. Grange, the, near Edinburgh, 30. Gray compares poet-laureate to a rat-catcher, 204, 205. Gray. Dr, gets large specimen of gorilla, 17. Greenland seal, 181. Grotta del Cane, the poor dog at, 111, 112. Guilford, Lord Keeper, and the rhinoceros, 230. Guinea pig, Dr Chalmers, 223, 224. Gunn, Mr, on tiger-wolf, 192, 193. Haff-fish, the Shetland name for seal, 179. Hairs or hares, 220. Hall, Robert, and the dog, 106. Hamilton, Sir Wm., his definition of man, 1, 2. Hanover rats, 202, 203. Happy Jerry, the rib-nosed mandrill, 31, 32. Hardwicke's lady, sow, 253. Hares, Mrs Browning on Cowper's, 212; petted by Cowper the poet, 213-219. Hastings and the refractory donkey, 279. Heard, the herald, on the horse of George III., 261 Hedgehogs, 48. Hill, Rev. Rowland, prayed for his horse, 261, 262. Holcroft on race-horses, 263-265. Hood's dog Dash, 110. Hook and the litter of pigs, 253. Hooker's sea-bear in Regent's Park, 175. Hospital for old cows and horses, 309. Horse, 256; that carried stones to build Bell-Rock lighthouse, 257. Horse exercises, a saying of Rowland Hill's, 263. Horsemanship of Johnson the Irishman, 257, 258. Horsfield, Dr, on the Javanese fox-bat, 45, 46. Hunter, John, and the dead tiger, 165; his menagerie at Earl's Court, 300, 302. Hunters of Polmood, dog that belonged to, 107. Impey, Warren Hastings, and the ass, 279, 280. India shawls, 301. Inglefield, Capt., on the affection of a Polar bear and her two cubs, 65. Irish clergyman and the dogs, 108. Irishman on rat-shooting, 203. Irving, Washington, and the dog, 108, 109. Ivory dust, 233. Jackal, 148, 149. Jeffrey on a donkey; Sydney Smith's lines on 281, 282. Jekyll treading on a small pig, 251; on a squirrel, 195. Jerrold, Douglas, and his dog, 109. Kangaroo Cooke, 189. Kangaroos, Charles Lamb on, 188, 189. Keppel, Commodore, and the Dey of Algiers, 303. King James, on a cow getting over the Border, 309. Laird of Balnamoon and the brock, 75. Lamb, Charles, and the dog, 110; on Kangaroos, 188, 189; on the hare, 212. Landseer's "Monkeyana," 10; stags, 293. Lap-dogs before the House of Commons, 124. Lauder, Sir Thomas Dick, adventures of a monkey in Morayshire, 29, 30. Laurillard, Cuvier's assistant, 237. Lawyer's horse, 268. Lemming, and Arctic voyager, 196; habits of the Arctic, 197, 198. Leifchild, Dr, at Hoxton, 127. Leopard, its ferocity when wounded, 161. Letter from the gorilla, now in British Museum, 13-17. Lightfoot, name for Sir Edwin Landseer, 293. Lion and tiger, 166. Lion, hunts on Assyrian monuments, 162. Lions on monument of Clement XII., 171-173. Liston the surgeon and his cat, 153, 154. Livingston, Dr, on paralysing effect of lion's bite, 162. Luther observes a dog at Lintz, 111. Lyon, Capt., on Arctic fox, 144, 145. Lytton, Sir Edward Bulwer, on the pets of some of the Revolutionary butchers, 195, 196. Macaulay, Lord, on the last days of King William III., 50-56. M'Clintock on Arctic fox, 144. M'Dougall on habits of Arctic lemming, 197. Macgillivray, John, on a fox-bat from Fitzroy Island, 45. Mackenzie, Mrs Colin, on the habits of the apes at Simla, 35, 36; on the tiger being worshipped, 166. Man, Professor Owen on his position, 1; definition of, by Linnæus, 12; defined in the Linnæan manner, 4. Mandrill and George IV., 31, 32. Mansfield's, Lord, joke about a horse, 267. Marat, the citizen, and his doves, 196. Markham, Mr Clement, on the Polar bear, 69. _Marsupialia_, 188-191. Mastiff and the soldier, 97. Matthews, Henry, on the Grotta del Cane, 112. Mayerne, Dr, and his balsam of bats, 47. Metcalfe, when a boy, on camel, 290. Miller, Hugh, on badger-baiting in the Canongate, 72-74. Miscellaneous eating about a pig, 238. Mitchell, D. W., on the habits of a young chimpanzee, 22-24. Mitchell's antipathy to cats, 155. Model dog of the artist Collins, 96, 97. Mole, its habits, 49. Monkey revered by Hindoos, 35. Monkeys, 9; liable to lung disease in British islands, 22; Rev. Sydney Smith on, 34, 35; poor relations, 34. Montagu, Duke of, and his hospital for old cows, &c., 309. Montgomery, James, his translation of a definition of man, 4; and his cats, 155, 156. Moore, General, and his horse at Corunna, 268. Moore on Gilpin and Boatswain, two dogs, 95, 96. Moore, Dr John, sketch of a French marquis and his monkey, 30, 31. More, Hannah, on dog of Garrick's, 105. Moreau and his greyhound, 113. Moses, a dog of Mrs Schimmelpenninck's, 122. Moth larvæ eating at night, 37. Mounsey, anecdote of, 269. Mouse that amused Baron von Trenck, 209, 210. Mules should have their own way, 286. Museum of John Hunter, 164, 165. Musical cats, 152, 153. Musk rat, 200. _Myrmecophaga jubata_, 225-229. Names given to horses, 270-274. Napier, Charles, and the lion in the Tower, 173. Natural history collectors of the days of Addison and Steele, 5, 8. Neill, Dr Patrick, 5. Nelson and the Polar bear, 67-69; in Arctic seas, 186. Newfoundland dog, 126. N'Geena, or gorilla, 18. Nicol, George, the bookseller and hunter, 165. Norfolk, Duke of, and his spaniels, 114. North, Sir Dudley, visits the rhinoceros, 231. North, Lord, and the dog, 115. Northcote's Balaam and the Ass, 281. Norton, Hon. Mrs, address to a dog, 83. Odell and his old donkey, 277. Old Jack, a horse that drew stones for building Waterloo Bridge, 270. Old lady and the beasts on the mound, 173. Ommaney, Capt., and the Polar bear, 70. Opossum, 190. _Ornithorhynchus_, the duck-bill, 192. Owen, Professor, on the gorilla, 18; on the aye-aye, 36. Parasols, how ladies used them at Cross's menagerie, 33. Parrot and monkey, anecdote of two pets, 33, 34. Parry, Capt., on flesh of Polar bear, 66. Paton, Sir J. Noel, has studied physiognomies of bats, &c., 38. Peale, Titian, on a tame fox-bat, 44. Peccaries of South America, 240. Peel, Capt. Wm., on camel, 287-289. _Peracyon_, 19. Perchance, a lap-dog, 96. Perthes derives hints from his dog, 115. Peter the Great and his dog Lisette, 161, 117. _Phascolomys vombatus_, 193. Philip IV. in bull-ring, 310. Phillips, Sir Richard, eats jelly of ivory dust, 233. _Phoca barbata_, 180; _vitulena_, 177. Pied Piper of Hamelin, extract from, 199. Pig, monument to, 239. Pigs and silver spoons, 254. Plants liked by hares, 218. Polar bear, its history, 61-70. Poll-cat, Fox and the, 77. Polkemmet, Lord, a dinner on veal, 305. Polson and the last Scottish wolf, 135-137. Ponsonby and the poodle, 118. Porpoise in Zoological Gardens, 315. Pope on dogs, 95. Porcupine ant-eater, 192. Postman and carrier dog at Moffat, 113. Postmen, Capt. Osborn, on Arctic foxes as, 146. _Potamochoerus_, 240, 245. Prinny, a pet dog of Collins the artist, 96, 97. Prison mouse, 209, 210. _Pteropus conspicillatus_, 44; _medius_, 45. Puss, a pet hare of the poet Cowper's 214, 215. _Quadrumana_, 9-38. Queen of Charles I. and the lap-dog 107. Quixote Bowles fond of pigs, 251. Rabbits, a family all blind of one eye, 222. Raccoon, 71. Race-horses, Holcroft's anecdotes of, 263-265. Ramsgate donkeys, Irishman on, 278. Rats and mice, 198. Rats' whiskers good for artists' brushes, 204. Ravages of rats, 203. Raven, pet of Wood the surgeon, 299. Red-deer at Taymouth, 291, 292. "Relais," a dog belonging to Louis XII., 111. Revolutionary butchers and their pets, 195, 196. Rhinoceros and elephant, 229. Richardson, Sir J., on Arctic fox, 143. River pig, 245. Rodent animals, 195, 212. Rodney, Lord, and his dog Loup, 119. Rogue elephant, skull of one, 230. Roos's etchings of sheep, Goethe on, 296, 297. Ross, Sir James, on Arctic fox, 142, 145. Rowan berries, dog that fetched, 128. Ruddiman and his dog Rascal, 119. Sand liked by hares, 218. Schimmelpenninck, Mrs, her fondness for dogs, 121. Scott, Sir Walter, when a boy, saw Burns, 84; his fondness for his dogs, 122; on a fox, 138; visit to the Black Dwarf, 157. "Scratcher" of Sydney Smith, 311. Scriptures, dogs mentioned in the, 84, 103, 106. Seals, their intelligence, 174-182. _Semnopithecus Entellus_, an Indian monkey, 35. Sergent and his spaniel, 196. Shaved bear at Bristol, 61. Shawl-goat at John Hunter's menagerie, 301. Sheep, anecdotes of, 295-298; and goats, 295; pet, of Alex. Wood the surgeon, 299. Shepherd dogs, 82. Sheridan and the dog, 109; on the dog-tax, 123. Shetland seals, 174-182. Sidmouth, Lord, educated by the Rev. Mr Gilpin, 308. Skins of rabbits, 223. Sloth, Sydney Smith on, 224. Smith, Rev. Sydney, on the differences between man and monkeys, 34, 35; his answer to Landseer, 78; remark on a dog, 88; his dislike of dogs, 124, 125; on pigs, 254; and his horses, 271-274. Smith and the elephant, 234. Sorrel, the horse of William III., 51. Southey and his critics, 48; on dogs, 126; loved cats, 158-160. Sow and swine, 238-255. Spencer, Lord, and Rev. Sydney Smith, 124, 125. _Spermophilus Parryi_, 197. Sportsmen, exaggeration of some, 221. Squirrel, 195. Stags, anecdotes of, 291-293. Stag-trench at Frankfort, 294. Stanhope, Earl, on Jacobites calling adherents of Court "Hanover rats," 202, 203; on the poet Cowper's tastes, 220. Stapelia, a plant at the Cape, 25. Stirling Castle, "Lion's den" at, 162. Stokes, Capt. Lort, on the red-necked fox-bat, 43. Story, Judge, names he gave his horses, 274. Sturge and the pigs, 255. Surgeon, an enthusiastic fox-hunting, 138. Swinton, origin of name, 241. Sykes, Colonel, on the flesh of a fox-bat, 45. Syria, wild boar in, 244. Tail, short-tailed and long-tailed horses, 275. Tailor and the elephant, 235. _Tamandua_, or ant-eater, 226. Tennyson, lines on man, and modern systems, 10; lines describing tropical bats, 39. Thackeray on the Egyptian donkey, 285. _Thalassarctos maritimus_--the polar bear, 61-70. _Thylacinus Harrisii_, 191. Tibetan mastiff, 86, 87. Tiger and lion, 161. Tigers' claws and whiskers regarded as charms, 165. Tiger-wolf of Tasmania, 190-194. Tiney, a pet hare of Cowper's, 216. Toplady on future state of animals, 312. Tonton, Walpole's pet dog, 129, 130. Trained monkeys, 26. Trenck and the tame mouse in prison, 209. _Trichechus rosmarus_, 183. True, on dog being a good judge of eloquence, 127. Ulysses and his dog, 133. _Ursus lotor_, why raccoon was so called, 71. Veal _ad nauseam_, 304 Venison fat, 294. _Vulpes lagopus_, 142. Walker, Dr David, on Polar bear, 62. Wallace, Alfred, on orang-utan, 11; on great ant-eater, 227. Walpole, Horace, the young lady's pet monkey and her parrot, 33, 34; pet dog Rosette, lines on, 129. Walrus, history of, 182-188. Waterton, Charles, letter from, on young gorilla, 18-20; letter to Mrs Wombwell on her young gorilla, 21; "Hanover rats," 202. Watt, James, on rats' whiskers, 204. Wellington's story of musk rat, 200. Whalebone, 315. Whales, 315, 317. Whateley, Archbishop, and his dogs, 131, 132; on a cat that rung the bell, 160. Wild boar, 239-245. Wilkie, Sir David, and the baby, 3, 4; and the puppy, 133. William III., his death, as related by Lord Macaulay, 49-56. Wilson, the American ornithologist, and the mouse, 211. Windham, Right Hon. William, on Capt. Phipps's Arctic expedition, 67, 68; on the feelings of a baited bull, 313. Wolf, 135. Wolf-dog, Hungarian, anecdote of, 102, 103. Wombat, 193. Wood, Sandy, and his pets, 298, 299. Wordsworth on cruelty to horses in Ireland, 275. Zebra, Lattin's joke, 287. Zoological Gardens, 249. THE END. PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE AND COMPANY EDINBURGH AND LONDON +------------------------------------------------------------------+ |Transcriber's note: | | | |"The Aye-Aye, or Cheiromys of Madagascar (_with a Plate_)" | | | |Unfortunately no plate could be found for this particular section.| |Reference to it was removed from the Table of Contents. | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ 
37753	----	NUMBER 109 FEBRUARY 25, 1922 OCCASIONAL PAPERS OF THE MUSEUM OF ZOOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF GOGEBIC AND ONTONAGON COUNTIES, MICHIGAN, 1920 BY L. R. DICE AND H. B. SHERMAN The authors of this paper spent the summer of 1920 in western Michigan studying the mammals of the region for the Michigan Geological and Biological Survey. From June 25 to August 4 was spent in the Cisco Lake Region with headquarters on Lindsley Lake; August 6 to August 20 a camp was maintained in the woods four miles southeast of Little Girl's Point; and from August 20 to September 6 was spent working from a camp on the western shore of Lake Gogebic, about three miles south of Lake Gogebic Station. The first two camps were in Gogebic County, the third in Ontonagon County. The field work was performed jointly by the two authors, under the direction of the senior author, who is responsible for the identification of the species, the descriptions of the general areas and of the habitats, and is jointly concerned in writing the annotated list. In addition to our own records, we have secured many valuable notes on the distribution of the larger species from J. E. Fischer, of Merriweather, Ontonagon County, a trapper of many years' experience; and from Benjamin J. Twombley, of Bent's Resort, Wisconsin, who has made many observations on the mammals of the Cisco Lake Region. We have also added a number of records from J. E. Marshall, who trapped for many years, beginning 1884, in Ontonagon and Gogebic counties, and from Ole Petersen, at one time a trapper at Gogebic Lake. The habitats in which records of occurrence have been obtained for the region under consideration are listed under each species; and the number of individuals taken, or seen and positively identified, in each habitat are given. From the figures a rough estimate of the relative abundance of the various species in the different habitats can be obtained, but the various habitats were not trapped or studied equally intensively, and for the larger and the rarer forms the numbers give little dependable data on relative abundance. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE REGIONS STUDIED _Cisco Lake Region._ In the Cisco Lake Region there are many lakes, mostly small, but several of a length of one to three miles. The water-level in the Cisco Lake chain has been raised six or ten feet by a dam across the outlet, and this change in water-level has killed the trees along the lake borders, so that the lakes are fringed by a narrow line of dead trees. The habitats of emerging vegetation and of aquatic vegetation have been much altered by the change in water-level, and these habitats cannot be well studied in these lakes. However, the neighboring lakes in which the water-level has not been changed show that the forests of the region originally came down to the water's edge, and that there was little normal development of marsh or swamp. The ridges between the lakes rise in general to heights of twenty-five feet or more, though bluffs are not formed. These ridges are mostly covered by mixed hardwood forest in which the hard maple, yellow birch, hemlock, and linden are the dominant trees. There are numerous small wet depressions, some of them containing small black spruce bogs, while others include a few arbor-vitae mixed with linden and other typical trees of the wet hardwood forest. Small areas of nearly pure hemlock occur on some slopes near the lake shores. A few large tamarack bogs are present. Though the pines formerly occurring have been taken out, the region otherwise is in nearly its native condition. A few former clearings along the lake shores have grown up to brush or to white birch saplings or small trees. _Little Girl's Point Region._ Much of the region in the near vicinity of Little Girl's Point has been cleared or burned, but a few miles to the east and southeast there are still considerable areas of native forest. The high ridge running through the region bears a splendid forest of maple, yellow birch, and linden, with little if any hemlock. However, on the steeper lower slopes hemlock occurs in nearly a pure stand. At one place was found a nice grove of large white pines, mixed, on the lower edge of the slope, with a few hemlocks. Black spruce-tamarack bogs are extensive and arbor-vitae swamps occur commonly. The extensive burned areas south of the point have grown up to a thicket of aspen, birch, and various shrubs and saplings. A few small areas are under cultivation. _Region at the north end of Gogebic Lake._ Most of the region about the north end of Gogebic Lake is low and wet. A number of small black ash swamps occur near the lake, and further back there are extensive black spruce bogs. The main forest is of a much mixed wet hardwood type, sugar maple, linden, yellow birch, elm, and hemlock, being the dominant species. The forest in most places reaches the edge of the lake, though a few sandy beaches occur. However, the level of the water in the lake has been raised a few feet by a dam across the outlet, and beaches were probably more abundant before this occurred. The lake is so large, about 13 miles long by 1 to 2 miles broad, that wave action is quite pronounced. One beaver meadow was studied, this meadow including areas of grasses and of sedges, traversed by ditches, small mud-flats covered with low rushes, and alder thickets. Just north of Lake Gogebic Station there are some high hills having bluffs on the southern exposures. These hills were visited, but they had been extensively logged and burned over and no attempt was made to trap for mammals on them. Some large burned areas have grown up to sapling forests of aspens. Near the towns of Lake Gogebic and Merriweather nearly all the forests have been cleared away, but farther south on the sides of the lake the woods are still in their natural condition. HABITATS The habitats studied in Gogebic and Ontonagon counties may be listed as follows: Exposed shores: Open-water Beach Dirt-bluff Forest--shore Protected shores: Water lily Pondweed Rush Submerged-sedge Cat-tail Willow-thicket Mud-flat Meadow: Ditch-border Tall-sedge Grassy-meadow Alder-thicket Swamps: Black ash swamp Arbor-vitae swamp Bogs: Leather leaf bog Sphagnum bog Black spruce--tamarack bog Forests: Hemlock forest White pine forest Wet hardwood forest Dry hardwood forest Mountains: Rock-bluff Mountain-heath Air: Aerial Burns and clearings: Herbaceous stage Shrub stage Paper birch--aspen stage Young hardwood forest stage Artificial conditions: Overflow swamp Cultivated-field Edificarian This list of habitats is admittedly not complete for the regions visited, but is intended to include those which we studied. We had no opportunity of studying either the shores of a large river or jack pine ridges, both of which situations will undoubtedly have habitats not here recognized. The habitats studied in Gogebic and Ontonagon counties but every habitat has been listed which seems to form a distinct type of mammal environment. We are firmly convinced that it is better to describe a great number of habitats rather than to lump different kinds of environments together. It is infinitely easier for a later worker to combine several habitats, which have been split too finely, than it is to separate the component habitats which may have been lumped together under one name. No attempt is made to give complete lists of the plants found in each habitat, but only the more conspicuous plants or those of special importance to the mammals are mentioned. The plant names used are mostly taken from Darlington's list of Gogebic County plants.[1] _Exposed Shores_ _Open-water habitat:_ This habitat includes the areas of open water with no rooted vegetation in the deeper parts of the lakes and rivers. On Lake Superior at Little Girl's Point this habitat comes directly to the beach, for the wave action on this exposed point is sufficient to prevent the growth of plants along the shore. In Gogebic Lake and in the smaller lakes of the Cisco Lake Region there are also many parts where there is no rooted vegetation along shore. This habitat, therefore, covers by far the larger part of the aquatic conditions of northwestern Michigan. We secured no records of mammals for this habitat, and, though some aquatic species must occasionally occur in the open water along lake shores, they are rare there, and are practically absent from the areas of open water farther out in the lakes. _Beach habitat:_ The shore of Lake Superior at Little Girl's Point is subjected to heavy pounding by the lake waves, leading to the formation of a well-developed beach. To the east of the point the beach for some distance is five to ten yards wide, mostly of small gravel, with sand on the upper part; it ends abruptly against a steep dirt bluff. On the beach no vegetation grows and only a few scattered drift logs occur. To the west of Little Girl's Point undetached masses of solid rock are more prominent, though small patches of gravel occur in partially protected places. The beach here in general is narrow and rises steeply, so that the different beach zones, lower, middle, and upper, are not well marked. On the shores of Lake Gogebic are a few small sand beaches; but around this lake, as well as around the smaller lakes of the region, the forest comes, in general, directly to the edge of the water. There was no opportunity to trap for mammals on a beach, and no records for the habitat were obtained. _Dirt-bluff habitat:_ To the east of Little Girl's Point the beach of Lake Superior runs along the base of a dirt bluff about 35 feet high. The storm waves of winter evidently wash against this bluff, eroding it away and destroying the forest, which is of the hemlock type, growing on the level above. The bluff is quite steep, and along with small exposures of bare clay bears a number of scattered herbs and a few shrubs and small trees, such as alder, willow, arbor-vitae, yellow birch, paper birch, and red maple. No collecting was done in this habitat and no records of mammals were obtained from it. _Forest--shore habitat:_ Along all the lakes of the region, except Lake Superior, the forests in general come down to the water's edge. The marginal forests are frequently dominated by hemlock, though often a wet hardwood forest occurs along the shores, and in a number of places along Gogebic Lake black ash swamps border the water. Red maple (_Acer rubrum_) and mountain ash (_Sorbus americana_) frequently occur along the exposed shores of Gogebic Lake. Frequently young forests of paper birch or quaking aspen have replaced the original forests in the clearings and burned areas along the lake borders. The shore beside a forest commonly rises abruptly a few inches to a foot or more in a firm bank, and in most cases the trees overhang the water to some extent. These shores are the favorite promenade of the porcupine; and the mink, muskrat, and otter are typical of the habitat. _Protected Shores_ _Water lily habitat:_ In shallow, protected parts of the lakes and channels of the Cisco Lake chain there are extensive growths of white and yellow water lilies (_Castalia tuberosa_ and _Nymphaea advena_). Water lilies also occur in many places as a narrow border at the edge of deep water. Muskrats were the only mammals noted in this habitat, but mink and otter probably occur also. _Pondweed habitat:_ A thick growth of pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.) occurs in protected places along the shores in many parts of the lakes of the Cisco Lake chain. Muskrats were noted in this habitat. In Gogebic Lake the exposure to wave action is in most places too great for a good development of pondweeds, though in the northern end of the lake there are a number of widely scattered plants of this type, but not forming a very well marked habitat. _Rush habitat:_ On somewhat protected shoals, both in the lakes of the Cisco Lake Region and in Gogebic Lake, there is sometimes a growth of rushes (Juncus sp.). Along the lower course of the Merriweather River, just before it enters Gogebic Lake, rushes thickly cover numerous small areas. The plants in both cases grow partly submerged in the water. No records for mammals were obtained from this type of habitat, though doubtless some of the amphibious forms frequently occur here. _Submerged-sedge habitat:_ Sedges in general do not occur as a definite belt about the margins of the lakes in the region studied. The only place where any considerable growth of sedges was noted at the edge of the water was along the lower course of Merriweather River, just before it enters Gogebic Lake. Here there are considerable areas of sedges partially submerged by the water. No records of mammals were obtained from this habitat. _Cat-tail habitat:_ Under native conditions cat-tails (_Typha latifolia_) apparently do not often form extensive habitats in the region. Along the marshy borders of the lower Merriweather River at Gogebic Lake a few small patches were seen. Small patches were seen in other places along railroad tracks where embankments had produced small areas of marshy ground. In the Cisco Lake Region a few of the areas of timber killed by the raising of the water-level have grown up to cat-tail swamps. In these swamps there are many standing dead trees and fallen logs as well as some areas of open water. The cat-tails seem to occur mostly in those swamps having only a small connection with the main body of the lake. In these places the cat-tail is dominant, though numerous sedges occur, and there is some sphagnum growing on the fallen logs and along the shore. A few small black spruces are starting. Along the edge of such a swamp a few deer-mice were taken, but these were evidently stragglers from the adjacent forest. _Willow-thicket habitat:_ Willows do not occur commonly along the water margins of the lakes of the region. The only place, except in clearings, where willows were noted as a definite growth is along the lower course of the Merriweather River at Gogebic Lake. Along this part of the river there are extensive growths of shrubby willows, growing (in early September) in a foot or more of water. The indications were that earlier in the summer the water about these plants must have been at least a foot higher. Signs of muskrat were noted at the edge of these willows. _Mud-flat habitat:_ Around the margin of a pond formed by an old deserted beaver dam near Gogebic Lake, two miles southwest of Merriweather, is a narrow strip of mud, very wet and sparsely covered with a growth of low rushes. The strip of muddy ground varies from about 1 to 4 meters in width and extends a short distance up along the edge of the small ditch draining into the pond. At the upper border of the strip of muddy shore is a thick growth of sedges, meeting the muddy shore at a fairly sharp line. In this habitat meadow mice are common and four jumping mice (_Zapus hudsonius_) were taken. _Meadows_ _Ditch-border habitat:_ A number of small ditches run through an old beaver meadow of considerable size near Gogebic Lake, about two miles southwest of Merriweather. The borders of the ditches are muddy and the banks are from 6 to 18 inches high; in places the ditch borders are closely encroached upon by the tall sedges of the adjacent meadow. A small amount of water was present (in early September) in most of the ditches. In mouse traps set at the edges of these ditches, partly in the water, star-nosed moles and navigator shrews were taken. In a larger trap a skunk was taken. _Tall-sedge habitat:_ In the beaver meadow studied near Gogebic Lake, an area about 200 meters by 100 meters or more is occupied by a heavy growth of high, coarse sedges, reaching a height of about .75 to 1.00 meter. A few grasses and some low herbs occur sparingly among the sedges. The habitat had not been burned over and the ground is covered with a thick mat of the decaying leaves and stems of the sedges and grasses. In most places the ground is quite wet, sometimes soggy to walk upon, and in a few places low hummocks are numerous. A similar habitat was found in rather a narrow strip at the edge of Mud Lake, one-fourth mile southwest of Thousand Island Lake, Gogebic County. Here a small area of meadow occurs along the inlet of a tiny stream. This area apparently had been artificially cleared of its forest, but the level of the lake had not been raised. The habitat differs from the submerged-sedge habitat of protected lake shores in being higher above the water and in not being covered with water from July to September; probably water does not stand to any depth on it at any time. The Richardson shrew is apparently a characteristic mammal of this habitat, though other shrews and mice were taken here also. _Grassy-meadow habitat:_ Part of the beaver meadow studied near Gogebic Lake is covered by a thick growth of grasses and sedges of a number of species. The ground of the habitat was rather dry and had been burned over the previous year. Grasses are also dominant over a few small areas near Mud Lake in Gogebic County. On a small area of the clearing near this lake a thick stand of bluegrass (Poa) is almost the only plant present. This occurs on an area of fairly moist mud. On the drier slope near the forest Poa also is abundant, forming the dominant species over a strip about 5 to 10 meters wide. Jumping mice are common in this habitat. _Alder-thicket habitat:_ On very wet ground just below an old beaver dam near Gogebic Lake there is a heavy growth of alder (_Alnus incana_) about 20 feet high. No other shrubs were noted in the thicket. The ground under the alders is mostly bare, there being only a few ferns, grasses, and other herbs. On the ground are many dead sticks fallen from the alders. This situation contained few mammals, only one Blarina being taken in four days' trapping with 25 traps. At the south end of the beaver meadow willows and alders are invading the sedges in very wet ground. No trapping was done in this situation. _Swamps_ _Black ash swamp habitat:_ A number of black ash swamps occur along the shores of Gogebic Lake, being apparently partially flooded during periods of heavy rains and during stages of high water. In a swamp of this type near the north end of Gogebic Lake on the west side, black ash (_Fraxinus nigra_) is the dominant tree, the trunks reaching diameters up to 2 feet. Elms (_Ulmus americana_) sometimes reaching a trunk diameter of 3 feet are common, and yellow birches and hard maples are common also. Black maples are rare, and lindens are few. The trees are high and the forest crown nearly closed. Underbrush is common in the more open places, this being mostly mountain maple (_Acer spicatum_) with a few young firs, young arbor-vitae, and Virginia creepers (_Parthenocissus quinquefolia_). There are numerous ferns, and herbs are abundant. Under the more closed parts of the forest canopy the ground is mostly bare, underbrush and herbs being scanty. Smaller black ash swamps occur in the Cisco Lake Region, and in the vicinity of Little Girl's Point a number of small black ashes were noted in a swamp of mixed arbor-vitae and black spruce. _Arbor-vitae swamp habitat:_ In the Cisco Lake Region arbor-vitae (_Thuja occidentalis_) occurs commonly near the edges of the lakes and in the wet depressions in the forest. Near Gogebic Lake also the arbor-vitae grows commonly near the shores of the lake and in wet places in the woods, especially at the edges of swamps. But the trees in both these areas, so far as seen, were small, and the arbor-vitae did not form a dominant species, but occurred in a small percentage mixed with the other types of forest. However, in part of the region near Gogebic Lake extensive arbor-vitae swamps are reported to occur. In the vicinity of Little Girl's Point arbor-vitae swamps are common, occupying the wet lower northern slopes of the high ridge. In a swamp of this type three miles southeast of the point arbor-vitae is the dominant tree, reaching trunk diameters of two feet and more. Under the dense shade of the high forest crown there are many young trees of the same species, and the forest has evidently reached a temporary climax. Of other trees, a few small yellow birch, a few young firs and hemlocks, and one fallen white spruce (_Picea canadensis_) were noted. The ground is very wet and there are numerous tiny streams, which frequently disappear under the ground. Fallen trees and decaying logs on the ground make a thick tangle, very difficult to penetrate. The underbrush is scanty; mountain maple is rather common, and there are a few young black ashes. Much moss grows on the ground and on the decaying logs. In a depression two miles south of Little Girl's Point is a mixed growth of arbor-vitae, black spruce, with a few black ashes. The trees are mostly small, none of them exceeding about eight inches in trunk diameter. In August the ground was very wet, there being standing water in some places, and the ground was heavily covered with sphagnum. This situation may be considered transitional between the black spruce bog and the arbor-vitae swamp. No traps for mammals were set in this situation. _Bogs_ _Leather leaf bog habitat:_ In the northwestern corner of Fish-hawk Lake and at several places along the channel connecting Lindsley and Cisco lakes a heavy growth of leather leaf (_Chamaedaphne calyculata_) adjoins and overhangs the water, a considerable portion of the growth actually floating on the water. With the leather leaf is associated much sweet gale (_Myrica gale_) and alders, and these plants form almost the entire mat in some of the wetter areas. At other places sphagnum becomes abundant and the conditions approach those of a sphagnum bog. Other plants commonly found in the leather leaf bog in the Cisco Lake Region are the Labrador tea (_Ledum groenlandicum_), swamp laurel (_Kalmia potifolia_), wild rosemary (_Andromeda glaucophylla_), small cranberry (_Oxycoccus oxycoccus_), pitcher-plant (_Sarracenia purpurea_), and small trees of black spruce and tamarack. In a typical leather leaf bog on the Ontonagon River near the outlet from Thousand Island Lake a large beaver house is located. _Sphagnum bog habitat:_ In a restricted sense the name is here applied to the part of a bog which is free from trees. It differs from the leather leaf bog in having a greater amount of sphagnum, for while the leather leaf bog when first developed over the water has little or no sphagnum, the sphagnum bog, as here considered, is almost entirely covered by sphagnum. The shrubs found in the two situations are apparently identical, except that the leather leaf is less abundant. A small bog of this type borders the edge of Mud Lake in the Cisco Lake Region, and small parts of many bogs are free from trees. So far as was determined, the mammal fauna is the same as that for the black spruce--tamarack bog, from which the only difference is the absence of trees. _Black Spruce--Tamarack Bog habitat:_ The dominant bog tree in this region is the black spruce (_Picea mariana_), which is usually small and stunted. With the black spruces are a lesser number of small tamaracks (_Larix larcina_), which in places may be dominant. The ground is heavily covered with sphagnum, which is normally soaked with water. Shrubs are abundant, though usually not forming a closed mat. Of the shrubs the leather leaf is the most abundant, though Kalmia, Andromeda, Ledum, and blueberries are common. A few young white pines and red maples were noted. Sedges occur frequently, and the pitcher plant is very characteristic. _Forests_ _Hemlock forest habitat:_ In the Cisco Lake Region groves of hemlock (_Tsuga canadensis_) frequently occupy the lower parts of steep slopes adjoining the lakes. One such area studied is made up of practically a pure stand of hemlocks, the trunks being from about 6 to 18 inches in diameter. A few very old yellow birches are present, and also a few young sugar maples and arbor-vitae, the latter chiefly near the water's edge. Shrubs and herbs are nearly absent, and the forest floor is covered by a thick carpet of dead needles. There are many decaying logs, usually covered by a thin coat of moss. In the Little Girl's Point Region nearly pure stands of large hemlocks cover many of the lower parts of steep slopes and also occur commonly on well-drained soil elsewhere. In the vicinity of the north end of Gogebic Lake a few small groves of hemlocks were noted, but the ground in general is so low and swampy that the species mostly occurs as a part of the mixed forest of the region. Animals are rare in the habitat. _White pine forest habitat:_ White pine (_Pinus strobus_), which formerly was a common forest tree in northern Michigan, has now been mostly removed for lumber. Near Little Girl's Point a small natural grove of this species was studied, occupying a moderate southerly slope above a black spruce bog. The area is about 50 by 150 meters in size. White pines are by far the most numerous and dominant tree, the trunks measuring up to about five feet in diameter. In the grove yellow birch, some of large size, are common; toward the bottom of the slope hemlocks are also common; and near the edge of the bog there are a few arbor-vitae. Shrubs are almost absent, there being merely a few small seedlings of arbor-vitae, hemlock, and fir, mostly toward the bottom of the slope. A few scattered clumps of grass appear, but the forest floor is mostly covered only by a thick carpet of dry pine needles. Numerous dead limbs and sticks have fallen from the pines. _Wet hardwood forest habitat:_ The land adjoining much of Gogebic Lake is low and poorly drained. Here is found a mixed forest dominated by sugar maple (_Acer saccharum_), black maple, hemlock, yellow birch (_Betula lutea_), linden, elm (_Ulmus americana_), ash (not black ash), and ironwood (_Ostrya virginiana_). The hardwoods are decidedly dominant over the conifers. The forest crown is high and closed, and the trees are large. The underbrush in general is scanty, though in some places there is a thick growth of mountain maple (_Acer spicatum_) and of sugar maple seedlings. Leatherwood (_Dirca palustris_), hazel, ferns, and a few young firs (_Abies balsamea_) also occur. Some of the lower forests in the Cisco Lake Region approach the wet hardwood forest type, though none are extensive in area, and they are usually surrounded and dominated by the dry forest condition. _Dry hardwood forest habitat:_ The highest development of the dry hardwood type of forest was found on the upper parts of the moderately high ridge near Little Girl's Point. The slopes in general are very gentle, but well drained. The forest here is dominated by the sugar maple (_Acer saccharum_), yellow birch (_Betula lutea_), and linden (_Tilia americana_). Hemlocks are rare, and only one elm was seen. The trees are large, the trunks frequently reaching diameters of two feet or more. The forest crown is high and heavy. Underbrush is scanty and low, being mostly young seedlings of sugar maple, though seedlings of linden are numerous. Other shrubs and herbs noted were the leatherwood (_Dirca palustris_), hazel (_Corylus rostrata_), yew (_Taxus canadensis_), gooseberry, ferns, false Solomon's seal, and grass. On the ground are many decaying leaves, these usually forming a heavy carpet; decaying logs and freshly fallen sticks are common. In the Cisco Lake Region the drainage is not so good as in the vicinity of Little Girl's Point, and the forests of that district are of a type somewhat intermediate between the wet hardwood forest and the dry hardwood forest. In the Cisco Lake Region the topography is much broken, there being many small hills and ridges, and many small depressions, often poorly drained. In the damp depressions, if not wet enough for a bog, arbor-vitae and hemlock are common, while on the ridges sugar maple and linden are characteristic, though hemlock occurs here sparingly also. There is accordingly much local variation in tree forms, but the whole forest is decidedly of a hardwood type. The dry hardwood forests of the Little Girl's Point Region are inhabited by many deer-mice, while only a few of this species are found in the wet hardwood forests near Gogebic Lake, bob-tailed shrews being there the most abundant mammal and red-backed voles being common, both of which are rare in the other districts. In the dry hardwood forest near Little Girl's Point four woodland jumping mice (Napaeozapus) were taken, while in the Cisco Lake Region only two were taken in a period twice as long, and at Gogebic Lake none were secured. These observations indicate that moisture conditions in hardwood forests have an important influence on the mammal fauna. _Mountains_ _Rock-bluff habitat:_ Rock exposures are rare in the region studied. However there are several high hills with steep exposures of rock a short distance north of Ironwood and Bessemer. These hills could not be studied in the time available, and the only cliff examined was on a small range of hills northeast of the station of Lake Gogebic. On one of these hills is a nearly perpendicular rock cliff about 200 feet high and facing to the southward. The small talus slope at the bottom is overgrown with shrubs and trees, and on the small ledges and gullies of the face of the cliff a few small trees, shrubs, and herbs are also growing. The most conspicuous plants of the rock habitat are scrub oaks, aspens, and heaths. No trapping was done in the habitat, and no notes on mammals were secured. Probably the mammal fauna is not very large. _Mountain-heath habitat:_ A narrow, poorly developed belt of heath fringes the upper edge of the rock cliff examined north of Lake Gogebic. Characteristic plants are the blueberry and bearberry, mixed with creeping juniper and a few scattered grasses. The habitat is very narrow and is closely encroached upon by shrubs and trees, such as sumac, cherry, white pine, jack pine, oaks, aspens, and paper birch. Signs of fox were noted at the edge of the cliff, but no trapping was carried on here. _Air_ _Aerial habitat:_ The only aerial mammals are the bats, of which four species were taken during the summer. The flying squirrel is not considered to be a true aerial form. _Burns and Clearings_ Fires have been numerous throughout northern Michigan and a large part of the region is covered by various stages in the succession following fires or clearings. The areas studied were selected as representative of the natural conditions of the peninsula, but even in these districts there are many burned areas. Many large areas have been heavily logged over, sometimes followed by fire, with a result similar to that of a fire. In the region studied there are numerous small clearings, some of which are in use as the residences of settlers, but most have been allowed to revert to a wild condition. The stages in succession on an abandoned clearing seem to be similar to those following a fire, and they are here considered together. _Herbaceous stage:_ After a fire in a forest in this region the first vegetation to spring up seems to be the herbs, of which the fireweed (_Chamaenerion angustifolium_) is most prominent. A number of areas dominated by this type of vegetation were seen, but the type seems to be short-lived, and is probably quickly replaced by shrubs and tree seedlings. The stages in succession following a fire in swampy areas may be somewhat different from that in a hardwood region, but no data was obtained. No opportunity presented itself to study the mammals of the herbaceous stage, and I have no records for the species found there. _Shrub stage:_ Following a fire or clearing in a hardwood area the herbaceous stage is apparently quickly followed by a thick growth of shrubs and young trees. The characters of the shrub growth vary considerably with the texture of the soil, amount of soil moisture, slope, and completeness of burning. The growth is usually quite thick, though in some clearings where the growth has been kept down for some time there may be open grassy patches. In small clearings near Fish-hawk Lake the raspberry (_Rubus strigosus_) is a characteristic species, but near Little Girl's Point it is much less common. A large area of shrub studied near Little Girl's Point is on a rather steep slope facing to the north, though part is at the bottom of the hill on a very gentle slope. There are no large trees, but saplings up to 2-1/2-inch trunks occur; most, however, are smaller. The quaking and large-toothed aspens (_Populus tremuloides_ and _P. grandidentata_), paper and yellow birches (_Betula papyrifera_ and _B. lutea_), sugar maple, and linden are common seedlings. Shrubs, such as the sumac (_Rhus hirta_), wild cherry (_Prunus pennsylvanica_), raspberry, willows (Salix spp.), mountain maple, red-berried elder (_Sambucus racemosa_), and hazel are common. A few herbs, like the fireweed, golden-rod, and pearly everlasting, occur in open places. A number of mammals are found in the shrub stage, but they are far less abundant than in mature hardwood forest. _Paper birch--aspen stage:_ The continued growth of the young trees in the shrub stage leads to the production of a sapling forest of the more quickly growing species, the paper birches and aspens. Often one or other of these species becomes dominant to the practical exclusion of the other, but sometimes both occur together. On the slopes near the lakes of the Cisco Lake chain aspens are rare, and the sapling forests on the clearings and burns are almost a pure stand of paper birch. Near Watersmeet, however, the aspen seems to be the dominant form, and few paper birches were seen. Near Gogebic Lake, also, the quaking aspen is the dominant form, though paper birches are common in the sapling forests. The growth in these sapling forests is very thick, and the ground is nearly bare of vegetation, though it is heavily covered with dead sticks and small logs. In a thick growth of quaking aspens, on wet ground studied near Gogebic Lake, a number of alders and paper birches, a few young trees of sugar maple and arbor-vitae, and a rare elm occur. A scanty undergrowth of mountain maple and numerous sugar maple seedlings is present. Few mammals are found in this stage of the forest. On the western slope of Birch Point on Cisco Lake there is a good stand of paper birches, growing in an open stand with much grass in the spaces between the trees. This place has been much used for camping and it may be that the development of the grass is the result of opening the forest by clearing out some of the trees. Among the birches are numerous young firs and white pines, with a few young sugar maples, and a rare arbor-vitae. The birches show many signs of age, and would evidently, if undisturbed, soon give way to a forest dominated by the pines and firs. In the grass among these trees deer-mice, red-backed voles, and jumping mice (Zapus) were taken. Signs of snowshoe hare were seen. _Young hardwood forest stage:_ On the eastern slope of a low ridge at Birch Point, Cisco Lake, a young hardwood forest is rapidly replacing a former growth of paper birches which has followed a fire. In this growth numerous old paper birches still persist, but they are being strongly crowded by a thick growth of vigorous young sugar maples, some of which have trunk diameters up to about eight inches, and which form a dense shade. Among the maples are numerous young firs and a few young hemlocks and arbor-vitae. The ground is mostly bare, being scantily covered by leaves. The soil is moist, but there is no grass and little brush. In this habitat deer-mice were taken, and one red squirrel was seen. _Artificial Conditions_ _Overflow swamp habitat:_ Due to the rise in water-level of the lakes of the Cisco Lake chain many low areas of forest have been flooded and killed. Many of the dead trunks of these trees still remain standing, mixed with fallen and decaying logs in the water. Locally these habitats are called "overflow swamps," a name here adopted for the habitat. There is little living vegetation in these swamps, an occasional water lily being almost the only plant present. Porcupines commonly walk out on the logs of the swamp to secure the water lily leaves, and probably the mink occasionally runs over the logs in its movements along the waterways. _Cultivated-field habitat:_ Cleared fields occur only sparingly in the regions visited, and these fields are small in size. No study of their inhabitants was made, though silver-haired bats were collected while they were flying over a small clearing in the Little Girl's Point Region. _Edificarian habitat:_ Towns and buildings are not very common in northern Michigan. In and around a cabin on Lindsley Lake a number of deer-mice were trapped, and signs that porcupines had invaded the cabin were noted. ANNOTATED LIST OF MAMMALS _Condylura cristata._ Star-nosed Mole. Tall-sedge, 2. Two were trapped September 3 and 5, 1920, in a short, open runway in very moist soil at the edge of a small ditch running through tall sedges in a beaver meadow near Gogebic Lake, Ontonagon County. _Sorex personatus personatus._ Masked Shrew. Grassy-meadow, 2. Black spruce--tamarack bog, 2. Wet hardwood forest, 3. Dry hardwood forest, 3. Shrub stage, 2. In the Cisco Lake Region in July, one was taken in a small black spruce bog, two in a narrow tongue of grass between tall sedges and sphagnum bordering Mud Lake, three in the wetter parts of the hardwood forest, and three in the upland, well-drained hardwood forest. Near Little Girl's Point in August, two were taken in a growth of shrubs in a burn. Near Gogebic Lake, Ontonagon County, one was taken September 4 in a black spruce bog. _Sorex richardsonii._ Richardson Shrew. Tall-sedge, 15. Grassy-meadow, 1. Sphagnum bog, 1. This species was found only in or near tall sedges growing in moist or marshy situations. In the Cisco Lake Region six were taken near Mud Lake in July. Four of these were taken in tall sedges, one in grass alongside the sedges, and one in sphagnum between the sedges and the lake. August 30 to September 5, eleven were taken in tall sedges in a beaver meadow near Gogebic Lake, Ontonagon County. An adult female trapped at Mud Lake, July 30, contained five large embryos. There were two pairs of inguinal and one pair of abdominal mammae. Another adult female trapped in the same place, July 22, had two pairs of inguinal mammae, but no abdominal mammae were found. The latter individual was moulting, patches of new fur having replaced the old on the top of the head midway between the ears and eyes, between the shoulders, and on the rump. The other female mentioned above, taken July 30, had nearly completed her moult. Only two specimens have been previously recorded from Michigan, one from Alger County and the other from Chippewa County.[2] _Neosorex palustris palustris._ Marsh Shrew, Water Shrew. Tall-sedge, 1. Ditch-border, 3. September 1 a marsh shrew was trapped in the tall sedges of a beaver meadow near Gogebic Lake, Ontonagon County. Most of the body had been eaten by some carnivore. Other specimens were taken on each of the two succeeding days, and a fourth on September 5. The first specimen taken was trapped eight feet from a tiny stream which flowed through the marshy sedges. Two of the others were taken on the muddy bank of the stream near the water's edge, and the fourth about 35 feet from the water. All were secured within a radius of 35 feet. This species has been recorded but once previously from Michigan, from Chippewa County.[3] _Microsorex hoyi._ Hoy Shrew. Black spruce-tamarack bog, 1. Wet hardwood forest, 1. One specimen was taken July 17 at Fish-hawk Lake in a moderately wet part of the hardwood forest. Another was taken July 29 at the edge of a small black spruce bog. _Blarina brevicauda talpoides._ Bob-tailed Shrew. Tall-sedge, 8. Grassy-meadow, 6. Alder-thicket, 1. Black ash swamp, 6. Arbor-vitae swamp, 4. Black spruce--tamarack bog, 1. Wet hardwood forest, 32. Dry hardwood forest, 8. Shrub stage, 1. Paper birch--aspen stage, 6. The species is rather generally distributed, but is by far the most common in moist woods. In the Cisco Lake Region 11 were secured; in the Little Girl's Point district, 10; and near Gogebic Lake in Ontonagon County, 52. In the latter district it was the most abundant mammal species, even exceeding Peromyscus in numbers; indeed, Peromyscus was relatively uncommon in the partly swampy woods of the region, and it might be that the abundance of the bob-tailed shrews accounts for the scarcity of the deer-mice, for the shrews undoubtedly at times prey upon the mice. The specimen recorded above from the black spruce-tamarack bog was taken near Gogebic Lake in a boggy swamp, which, while dominated by black spruces, yet contained a considerable number of arbor-vitae and hemlocks. In the wet hardwood forest near Gogebic Lake Blarina runways are exceedingly abundant, usually running along or under sticks or logs. Commonly they are just under the leaves, but sometimes for a short distance are without covering. One old log examined was found to be honey-combed with these tunnels. The deeper runways nearly always follow down just under a tree root. The uterus of a female taken July 10, at Fish-hawk Lake, showed a few small swellings which were identified in the field as embryos. Unfortunately, the uterus was not preserved. No embryos were found in 26 other females taken between July 15 and September 4. In the latter part of the season fewer immature specimens were taken than earlier in the summer. These facts show that in this region the species breeds in the spring or early summer and does not usually breed again during July and August. _Myotis lucifugus lucifugus._ Little Brown Bat. Aerial, 15. Nine individuals were shot while they were flying over the lakes in the Cisco Lake Region. These were taken between 8:00 and 9:00 p. m. from July 1 to August 2; but on moonlight nights bats, believed to be of this species, were seen flying as late as 10:00 p. m. At the camp near Little Girl's Point one was shot at 7:55 p. m., August 11, as it flew about over the road through the dry hardwood forest. Five others were shot at the Gogebic Lake camp as they flitted through an opening in the wet hardwood forest. These were taken between 7:30 and 7:55 p. m., August 23 to September 2; but bats almost certainly of this species appeared regularly in the evenings about 7:10 p. m. _Lasionycteris noctivagans._ Silver-haired Bat. Aerial, 3. Near the Little Girl's Point camp one was shot at 7:50 p. m., August 9, and two more in the same region about 7:45 p. m., August 17. One was flying along a road through the dry hardwood forest at a height about equal to that of the tree-tops, and the others were taken in a small clearing in the same forest. _Nycteris borealis borealis._ Red Bat. Aerial, 2. Two were secured near the Little Girl's Point camp at about 7:45 p. m., one August 9 and the other August 14, as they flew about over the road through the dry hardwood forest. _Nycteris cinerea._ Hoary Bat. Aerial, 1. The only specimen secured was shot at 7:55 p. m., August 9, while it was flying over the road through the dry hardwood forest near Little Girl's Point. _Ursus americanus americanus._ Black Bear. Wet hardwood forest, 1. Dry hardwood forest, 1. Reported by residents as being rather common. July 10 a large black bear was seen to cross the railroad track and enter the hardwood forest not over a quarter-mile from Cisco Lake Station. Tracks of a large individual were seen in the mud bordering a small brook in maple-birch-hemlock forest about three miles southeast of the station July 17 and August 15. At dusk, August 28, while Mr. Sherman was setting up a camera and flashgun along a deer trail about 100 yards from the camp on Gogebic Lake, a small bear passed within twenty-five paces of him, apparently but little concerned with his presence or that of the nearby camp and fire, except that it sniffed the air occasionally. _Canis lycaon._ Timber Wolf. Mud-flat, signs. Tall-sedge, tracks. Dry hardwood forest, reported. Residents reported it common in all the districts visited by us. We saw signs and tracks in several habitats; and residents saw a wolf in the dry hardwood forest near our camp in the Little Girl's Point district. _Canis latrans._ Coyote. J. E. Fischer reported in 1920 that coyotes had appeared and become numerous in the region at the north end of Lake Gogebic within the last few years. We have secured several skulls and skeletons taken by him in 1920-21. _Vulpes fulva._ Red Fox. Mountain-heath, signs. Signs of fox were found in late August in a narrow growth of heath at the top of a cliff about a mile north of Lake Gogebic Station. J. E. Fischer has sent us a fox taken in January, 1921, in Gogebic County near Gogebic Lake. Benjamin J. Twombley reports that a few occur in the Cisco Lake Region. J. E. Marshall, in 1911, reported that a few occurred around Gogebic Lake. _Urocyon cinereoargenteus._ Gray Fox. J. E. Marshall reported in 1911 that it was rare, but that he had trapped two near Gogebic Lake. _Martes americanus americanus._ Marten. J. E. Marshall reported in 1911 that it was getting scarce in Gogebic and Ontonagon counties. He trapped a number near Gogebic Lake in the winter of 1884-1885, and took 15 in the winter of 1889-90. In 1920 J. E. Fischer reported marten rare near Gogebic Lake. _Martes pennantii pennantii._ Fisher. In 1911 J. E. Marshall reported that it was getting scarce near Gogebic Lake; he trapped four in the winter of 1889-90 and two in 1890-91. J. E. Fischer took one in Ontonagon County near Gogebic Lake in the winter of 1919-20. Ole Petersen in 1911 reported it rare near Gogebic Lake. _Mustela cicognanii cicognanii._ Bonaparte Weasel. Black spruce--tamarack bog, 1. Dry hardwood forest, 4. Trappers report it common throughout the areas visited. We took five specimens near Little Girl's Point. Several specimens taken in the Cisco Lake Region during the winter of 1920-21 were presented to us by Benjamin J. Twombley, and J. E. Fischer sent us a specimen taken in December, 1920, near Gogebic Lake. _Mustela vison letifera._ Mink. Forest--shore, 6. Wet hardwood forest, den. Reported by trappers as common throughout the area studied. In the Cisco Lake Region two were trapped at the water's edge beside a growth of paper birch saplings; and another was shot as it was running along the bank of the Ontonagon River at the edge of a stand of hemlocks. Three others were seen swimming near the latter locality July 29. Upon the approach of the canoe they swam rapidly to an old hollow log in wet hardwood forest on shore. Around and through the log well-worn runways showed evidence of the presence of a den. _Mephitis hudsonica._ Skunk. Ditch-border, 1. Dry hardwood forest, 5. Four skunks were taken in the dry hardwood forest of the Cisco Lake Region, one in the same type of habitat near the Little Girl's Point camp, and another in a trap set in the bottom of a muddy ditch in the beaver meadow near Gogebic Lake. An adult male, trapped July 14 in the Cisco Lake Region, was badly infested with tapeworms in the middle part of the small intestine. An adult female, taken July 19, was found to have many tapeworms in the intestine, many nematodes in the lung tissue, an infested liver, and a large number of nematodes in a cavity in the top of the skull. While we were photographing a captive juvenile August 2 at Lindsley Lake a horsefly (identified as _Tabanus atratus_ by J. S. Rogers) burrowed into the fur on the rump of the skunk and began sucking blood. _Taxidea taxus taxus._ Badger. J. E. Marshall reports that he trapped one in the winter of 1889-90 between Gogebic Lake and Lake Superior. _Lutra canadensis canadensis._ Otter. In 1911 J. E. Marshall reported that quite a few remained around Gogebic Lake; he took quite a number in the winter of 1884 and several in the winters of 1889 to 1891. J. E. Fischer took two in Ontonagon County in January, 1921. _Lynx canadensis._ Canada Lynx. J. E. Marshall reports that it was not very plentiful near Gogebic Lake in 1884. He took one in the winter of 1890-91; in 1911 it had almost or entirely disappeared. _Lynx ruffus ruffus._ Bob-cat. J. E. Marshall reports that he took three or four near Gogebic Lake in the winter of 1890-91; in 1891-92 it had become quite numerous; and it continued to increase until 1911 at least. In 1920 residents reported that a few occurred in all the regions visited by us. _Peromyscus maniculatus gracilis._ Deer-mouse. Tall-sedge, 4. Black ash swamp, 5. Arbor-vitae swamp, 11. Black spruce--tamarack bog, 4. Hemlock forest, 16. White pine forest, 5. Wet hardwood forest, 78. Dry hardwood forest, 143. Shrub stage, 19. Paper birch--aspen, 15. Young hardwood forest stage, 2. Edificarian, 6. In the Cisco Lake Region and in the vicinity of Little Girl's Point this species is the most abundant mammal, but in the wet woods at the Gogebic Lake camp it is much less abundant, being exceeded in numbers by the bob-tailed shrew. A total of 308 deer-mice were taken during the summer. It was found in a variety of forest habitats, but it is most abundant in the dry upland woods of the Little Girl's Point Region. The individuals taken in the tall sedges at Mud Lake were probably stragglers from the nearby shrubs and forest, for no deer-mice were taken in the extensive sedges of the large beaver meadow studied near Gogebic Lake. Probably most of those taken in the black spruce bogs were stragglers also, though one individual taken in a large black spruce bog was 50 yards from the nearest deciduous woods. When we arrived in the Cisco Lake Region in late June young and subadults were abundant, many of the female subadults, as well as the adults, carrying embryos. Embryos were found throughout the summer up to August 25. Of females containing embryos, five had 4 embryos each, ten females 5 embryos each, nine females 6 embryos each, and one female 8 embryos. _Synaptomys cooperi fatuus._ Lemming-vole. Tall-sedge, 1. Black spruce--tamarack bog, 2. Wet hardwood forest, 1. Dry hardwood forest, 1. In the Cisco Lake Region an adult female was taken in dry hardwood forest near Fish-hawk Lake June 28, 1920. It contained 6 embryos each 21 mm. long. A juvenile was trapped July 26 on top a log in the tall sedges at Mud Lake. The log bridged over a particularly wet part of the marshy sedges and was at the edge of the hardwood forest. Two other juveniles were taken the next day, one in a small black spruce log, and the other in wet hardwood forest at the edge of the same bog. In Ontonagon County near Gogebic Lake a subadult male was taken September 5 in a large black spruce bog. _Evotomys gapperi gapperi._ Red-backed vole. Black ash swamp, 2. Black spruce--tamarack bog, 6. Arbor-vitae swamp, 2. Hemlock forest, 5. White pine forest, 2. Wet hardwood forest, 18. Dry hardwood forest, 17. Shrub stage, 5. Paper birch--aspen stage, 3. Thirty were taken in the Cisco Lake Region, 10 at the Little Girl's Point camp, and 20 near Gogebic Lake in Ontonagon County. It was most common in the forests. Two individuals recorded from the arbor-vitae swamp were taken in a mixed swamp of small arbor-vitae, black spruce, and hemlock with many alders, this situation probably forming a stage in the succession following a beaver meadow. Also, one of the specimens recorded from the paper birch--aspen stage was taken in an open stand of old paper birches with a forest floor of grass, conditions not typical of the stage. Of 13 females examined from June to August, two contained 4 embryos each, two 5 embryos each, and two 6 embryos each. August 14, at Little Girl's Point, was the last date on which embryos were found. The species is somewhat diurnal. Several times one was seen in daylight about the camp in the Cisco Lake Region, and several were trapped during daylight hours. A captive was fond of tender grass blades, but refused the harder stems. In eating he sat up on the hind feet and handled the food with the fore feet. An immature male taken August 8 near Little Girl's Point had a considerable infestation of seed ticks on the posterior lobes of both ears. _Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus._ Meadow vole. Mud-flat, 6. Tall-sedge, 28. Grassy-meadow, 6. Black ash swamp, 1. Arbor-vitae swamp, 1. Leather leaf bog, 15. Sphagnum bog, 9. Black spruce--tamarack bog, 1. Shrub stage, 17. Sixty-five were taken in the Cisco Lake Region and 19 in Ontonagon County, near Gogebic Lake. It is most abundant in grassy and sedgy meadows and in open bogs, though it is found rarely in swamps and tree-covered bogs. The individual listed from the arbor-vitae swamp was taken in a young growth of arbor-vitae, black spruce, hemlock, and many alders, and not in typical arbor-vitae swamp habitat. Of the 17 listed from the shrub stage, one was taken in a wet, sedgy part of a shrub-covered burn at Poor Lake, and the others were secured in the shrub and grass clearing around the camp house on Lindsley Lake. Of ten females examined, July 10 to September 5, one contained 3 embryos, one 4 embryos, and two 5 embryos each. September 5 was the last date on which embryos were found. The three embryos found on the last date were each 23 mm. in length and together they weighed 8.5 grams, which was 26 per cent of the weight of the mother with the embryos removed. Both adults and immature young were seen moving about, and were also trapped in broad daylight, but it is more active in the evening just before sunset. A captive juvenile was placed July 19 in a large tub with an adult female, which might have been its mother, for both were taken on succeeding days in the same trap. The young one immediately tried to nurse, but was severely bitten and driven away, though it made numerous unsuccessful attempts later. When approaching the old female the baby frequently gave a high-pitched squeak, and the old female replied by a hoarse squeak, evidently of warning, for the young one was bitten when it approached in defiance of the warning note and threatening attitude of the adult. The baby evidently had been weaned, and the old female was found to contain five large embryos. _Ondatra zibethica zibethica._ Muskrat. Forest--shore, 5. Water lily, 1. Pondweed, 2. Willow-thicket, signs. Muskrats are numerous in the Cisco Lake Region, and five specimens were taken. Near Little Girl's Point one was seen swimming in a small stream. At the mouth of Merriweather Creek on Gogebic Lake signs were noted in a willow thicket, and muskrats were reported numerous in the region. An adult female trapped July 6 at Fish-hawk Lake contained six large embryos; another female taken July 10 contained no embryos, but the mammae were filled with milk; and two females taken July 26 contained no embryos. In the Cisco Lake Region broken mussel shells were abundant in the muskrat runways along the shores. Remains of pondweeds were also frequently found in the runways, and a quantity of leaves with a few heads containing flowers and seeds collected July 8 were identified by E. A. Bessey as _Potamogeton richardsonii_. _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius._ Jumping-mouse. Mud-flat, 4. Tall-sedge, 12. Grassy-meadow, 8, Arbor-vitae swamp, 1. Sphagnum bog, 1. Black spruce--tamarack bog, 1. Wet hardwood forest, 2. Dry hardwood forest, 1. Shrub stage, 10. Paper birch--aspen stage, 2. Numerous in suitable habitats in the Cisco Lake Region, at Little Girl's Point, and at Gogebic Lake. Most common in open grasses and sedges. Five of those recorded above from the shrub stage were taken in open shrubs and grass in the clearing around the camp house on Lindsley Lake; and the two recorded from the paper birch--aspen stage were taken at Cisco Lake in an open stand of old paper birch with a forest floor of grass. Juveniles were taken throughout the summer, but no one of seven adult or nearly adult females examined between July 7 and September 4 contained embryos. A captive taken July 18, after feeding ravenously on a cooky, retired to a corner and went to sleep. The position taken in this case was a sitting one, the animal resting on the widely spread feet as far as the heels, and on the tail. The head was bent far over, the nose extending between the hind legs. The long tail was curled around the body, it resting on the ground for its whole length. The operation of cleaning the tail was observed two days later. The animal worked from the base of the tail toward the tip, using the fore feet to present the tail to the mouth, where it was licked off. During the process the head was held over on one side, nearly touching the ground. _Napaeozapus insignis fructectanus._ Woodland Jumping Mouse. Wet hardwood forest, 1. Dry hardwood forest, 6. Three were taken in the Cisco Lake Region and four in the Little Girl's Point Region, all in heavy forest. Neither of two adult females taken August 8 and 10 contained embryos. _Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum._ Porcupine. Forest--shore, 13. Wet hardwood forest, 10. Dry hardwood forest, 17. Shrub stage, 5. Paper birch--aspen stage, 10. Overflow swamp, 5. Edificarian, 1. Common at all camps. Many were taken in traps set for carnivores. Well-marked trails at the edges of lakes and streams through the forests are evidently made mostly by these animals. It is detested by the inhabitants of the region, chiefly for the damage done to any woodwork which contains the least amount of salt. Porcupines spend a considerable amount of time inside hollow linden, yellow birch, and hemlock trees, as shown by the large piles of droppings noted at the lower openings of numerous such hollow trees. June 30, and again on July 2, young individuals were closely observed while feeding on the leaves of the yellow water lily. These individuals were on the logs in an overflow swamp, and they reached down with a fore foot into the water to secure the food, which was then presented to the mouth with the same foot. One of these porcupines seemed to be very disinclined to wet his feet, except the fore feet in reaching for food; the other individual waded out on a log which was submerged several inches, but he showed a ludicrous determination to hold the tail up out of the water. A juvenile weighing only 914 grams was taken as late as July 21 at Fish-hawk Lake, but no embryos were found in the period between June 29 and September 3. It is often active throughout the day as well as in the night. A young individual taken in a trap July 3 was found surrounded by a swarm of mosquitoes, which seemed to annoy him considerably, for he shook his skin frequently to dislodge them. One mosquito settled on a lower eyelid as we watched, and others kept alighting on his nose. When he raised his quills on our approach many mosquitoes attacked the skin exposed on the back. _Marmota monax canadensis._ Canada Woodchuck. Hemlock forest, 5. Shrub stage, 9. A few occur in the Cisco Lake Region, where they are most common in the shrubby clearings. Several adults fed commonly on the refuse from the camp. The stomach of a captured individual contained a considerable quantity of cooked corn, spaghetti, and boiled ham. Three woodchucks were noted at different times in hemlock forest along the lake shores. A half-grown juvenile was seen to swim the Ontonagon River near its entrance to Cisco Lake. This was on July 10, near noon, with bright sunshine. The river here is at least 75 yards in width, but has no perceptible current. Juveniles taken in traps were observed to extrude scent glands from the anus when approached. These glands are three in number, one on each side of the anus and one beneath. They are small, whitish, and cup-shaped. Normally they lie just inside the anus, but on excitement they are everted and the fold of skin forming the edge of the anus is rolled outward so that the glands lie outside. We detected a faint musky odor which might have come from these glands. In the Little Girl's Point district several inhabited a woodpile in hemlock forest at the edge of a wide road. None were found near Gogebic Lake. _Eutamias borealis neglectus._ Lake Superior Chipmunk. Tall-sedge, 1. Grassy-meadow, 3. Black spruce--tamarack bog, 1. Hemlock forest, 1. Wet hardwood forest, 1. Shrub stage, 20. Paper birch--aspen stage, 2. Common in shrubby clearings and burns in the Cisco Lake and Little Girl's Point regions. A few were taken in tall sedges and grass not far from shrubs; one was taken in a small black spruce bog, about five yards from the surrounding wet hardwood forest; one was taken in hemlock forest near the lake shore; and one was seen in wet hardwood forest near the lake shore. Not seen near Gogebic Lake. These chipmunks were several times observed feeding on ripe raspberries. August 5, near Watersmeet, one was seen sitting on a rail fence beside a pasture, eating a grasshopper, the remains of which have been identified by T. H. Hubbell as _Melanoplus_ sp. probably _bivittatus_. _Tamias striatus griseus._ Gray Chipmunk. Black ash swamp, 1. Hemlock forest, 1. Wet hardwood forest, 10. Dry hardwood forest, 8. Shrub stage, 2. Five records were obtained in the Cisco Lake Region; 9 near Little Girl's Point, and 8 near Gogebic Lake. It is most numerous in hardwood forest. An adult male taken July 5 had in its cheek-pouches numerous seeds of Carex and a fruit capsule of Viola, the identification being by E. A. Bessey. Of eight adult or nearly adult females examined between July 5 and September 1, one taken July 15 in the Cisco Lake Region contained eight large embryos. _Sciurus hudsonicus loquax._ Southeastern Red-squirrel. Black ash swamp, 1. Arbor-vitae swamp, 3. Black spruce--tamarack bog, 2. Hemlock forest, 1. White pine forest, 1. Wet hardwood forest, 9. Dry hardwood forest, 7. Shrub stage, 1. Paper birch--aspen stage, 3. Early hardwood forest stage, 1. Edificarian, 1. Seventeen records from the Cisco Lake Region; 6 from Little Girl's Point; and 7 from Gogebic Lake. None were noted more than a few yards from the protection of a forest. In a grove of white pines near Little Girl's Point cut pine scales were numerous August 13 on the ground and on logs, and one red-squirrel taken had much pitch on the fur around the mouth. August 24, cut-open fir cones were numerous around the small fir trees in a paper birch--aspen growth near Gogebic Lake, and were certainly the work of this species. July 2 a young red-squirrel which had frequently been seen around the camp in the Cisco Lake Region was found ravenously feeding on the kidney of a recently skinned woodchuck. After feeding it showed no fear, and allowed itself to be picked up; it seemed very sleepy and slept for about a half-hour before running away. This individual was badly infested with fleas. Another juvenile taken July 1 in the same region was infested with small patches of red seed ticks around the anus, anterior to the genital opening, on the belly, on the thigh, and at the base of one ear. Six small embryos were found in an adult female taken in the Cisco Lake Region July 16. _Sciurus carolinensis leucotis._ Gray-squirrel. In 1911, J. E. Marshall reported that a few occurred near Gogebic Lake. _Glaucomys sabrinus macrotis._ Mearns Flying-squirrel. Black ash swamp, 1. Hemlock forest, 1. Wet hardwood forest, 2. Dry hardwood forest, 1. Two were taken in the Cisco Lake Region and three near Gogebic Lake in Ontonagon County. A female taken July 4 near Fish-hawk Lake was still suckling young, and contained no embryos, but a female taken July 6 in the same region contained five small embryos. An immature female taken August 27 near Gogebic Lake was without embryos. _Castor canadensis michiganensis._ Woods Beaver. Leather leaf bog, house. Two houses were found in the Cisco Lake Region, both being in leather leaf bogs near deep water. Around the house studied there was an incomplete moat connected with a channel leading to deep water, and canals and tunnels radiated out through the bog. No beavers were observed nor secured, but fresh cuttings were noted at the edges of some of the "forms" in the bog. A few beaver are reported to occur near Little Girl's Point and near Gogebic Lake. E. E. Brewster in 1895 wrote Dr. Gibbs that it was not uncommon in Gogebic County and in probably all the counties of the Upper Peninsula where trapping and lumbering had been discontinued; he stated that beaver were appearing again even in localities where formerly most sought. In 1911, J. E. Marshall reported it scarce near Gogebic Lake. _Lepus americanus phæonotus._ Snowshoe Hare. Forest--shore, 1. Arbor-vitae swamp, signs. Leather leaf bog, signs. Black spruce--tamarack bog, 1. Wet hardwood forest, signs. Dry hardwood forest, 1. Shrub stage, 7. Paper birch--aspen stage, 1. Cultivated-field, 1. Edificarian, 1. Rare during the season of 1920 in the areas visited. In the Cisco Lake Region an adult female was taken in a trap set for muskrat under water on a brushy point. Other hares were occasionally seen in the evenings in the shrubby clearing around the camp house; and one was even seen on the porch. Droppings were found in a leather leaf bog, and a hare was seen at the edge of a black spruce--tamarack bog. Near Little Girl's Point a juvenile was taken August 13 in the upland hardwood forest, but was partly eaten in the trap by some carnivore; several were seen in shrubby clearings; and a young one was reported captured in an oat field by a farmer. Droppings were found in an arbor-vitae swamp. Near Gogebic Lake in Ontonagon County droppings were found in wet hardwood forest, in a thick growth of aspen and white birch saplings, and in an extensive tamarack bog. An adult female taken July 4 at Fish-hawk Lake had much milk in the mammae. At the camp on Lindsley Lake June 27 one was seen to eat some wood ashes; and June 30 one was seen to feed on the blades of quack grass (_Agropyron repens_), which was identified by E. A. Bessey. _Odocoileus virginianus borealis._ Northern White-tailed Deer. Forest--shore, 1. Mud-flat, signs. Tall-sedge, 1. Grassy-meadow, 1. Alder-thicket, signs. Black ash swamp, signs. Arbor-vitae swamp, signs. Black spruce--tamarack bog, signs. Hemlock forest, signs. Wet hardwood forest, 10. Dry hardwood forest, 7. Shrub stage, 8. Paper birch--aspen stage, 1. Deer are abundant in the Cisco Lake Region; they are less common near Lake Gogebic; and only a few were seen near Little Girl's Point. Most of those seen were in the hardwood forest and in the brushy clearings, but trails and signs were common in many habitats. Wolves were reported to prey extensively on deer in the region, and wolf dung examined August 7 near Little Girl's Point contained much deer hair and some deer bones. _Alces americanus._ Moose. J. E. Marshall reports that a moose was seen near Gogebic Lake in the winter of 1885, and an individual, perhaps the same one, was killed on Flambeau Reservation that year. NORTHERN MICHIGAN MAMMALS PLATE I [Illustration: Fig. 1. Beach of Lake Superior just east of Little Girl's Point. A dirt bluff at the right of the picture. August 10, 1920.] [Illustration: Fig. 2. Tall-sedge habitat in a beaver meadow on the west side of Gogebic Lake, Ontonagon County. September 1, 1920.] NORTHERN MICHIGAN MAMMALS PLATE II [Illustration: Fig. 1. Leather leaf bog invaded by tamaracks, Ontonagon River near Cisco Lake. August 3, 1920.] [Illustration: Fig. 2. Arbor-vitae swamp four miles southeast of Little Girl's Point. The ground is very moist. August 16, 1920.] NORTHERN MICHIGAN MAMMALS PLATE III [Illustration: Fig. 1. Dry hardwood on a ridge four miles southeast of Little Girl's Point. Sugar maple, yellow birch, and linden are dominant. Undergrowth low. August 16, 1920.] [Illustration: Fig. 2. Virgin white pine grove, Gogebic County. Trunks up to four feet in diameter. Little undergrowth. August 17, 1920.] FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: H. T. Darlington, _Mich. Acad. Sci._, 22nd Ann. Rept., 1921.] [Footnote 2: 1914. N. A. Wood, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool., No. 6.] [Footnote 3: N. A. Wood, _op. cit._] * * * * * Transcriber's Notes Page 35: Changed "porcppines" to "porcupines". Originally: One of these porcppines seemed to be very disinclined Pages 42-47: Combined figure captions and images. Originally: Images were on pages following their captions. 
34848	----	[Transcriber's Note: The following changes have been made to the original text: Page 520: "Pinus Lambertiana" changed to "Pinus lambertiana" Page 531: "Virginia Opossom" changed to "Virginia Opossum" Page 551: "4600 ft. 3" changed to "4600 ft., 3" Page 555: "laural sumac" changed to "laurel sumac" Page 566: "concealed itelf" changed to "concealed itself" Page 582: "Oakshott, G. B." changed to "Oakeshott, G. B." Instances of inconsistent hyphenation have been preserved. In cases where tables were located in the middle of a paragraph, they have been moved to the next paragraph break. This may affect at what page number a table was originally located. The list of University of Kansas Publications was originally printed on the front and back covers. For this version of the text, the list has been combined and placed at the end of the text.] UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 7, No. 9, pp. 513-582, 4 pls., 1 fig. in text, 12 tables November 15, 1954 Mammals of the San Gabriel Mountains of California BY TERRY A. VAUGHAN UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1954 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 7, No. 9, pp. 513-582, 4 pls., 1 fig. in text, 12 tables November 15, 1954 Mammals of the San Gabriel Mountains of California BY TERRY A. VAUGHAN UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1954 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Robert W. Wilson Volume 7, No. 9, pp. 513-582, 4 pls., 1 fig. in text, 12 tables Published November 15, 1954 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE, KANSAS PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1954 [Illustration] 25-5184 MAMMALS OF THE SAN GABRIEL MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA by Terry A. Vaughan CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 515 DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA 516 BIOTIC PROVINCES AND ECOLOGIC ASSOCIATIONS 518 Coastal Sage Scrub Association 521 Southern Oak Woodland Association 523 Chaparral Association 524 Yellow Pine Forest Association 526 Pinyon-juniper Woodland Association 527 Sagebrush Scrub Association 530 Joshua Tree Woodland Association 530 ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES 531 LITERATURE CITED 581 INTRODUCTION This paper presents the results of a study of the mammals of the San Gabriel Mountains of southern California, and supplements the more extensive reports on the biota of the San Bernardino Mountains by Grinnell (1908), on the fauna of the San Jacinto Range by Grinnell and Swarth (1913), and on the biota of the Santa Ana Mountains by Pequegnat (1951). The primary objectives of my study were to determine the present mammalian fauna of the San Gabriel Mountains, to ascertain the geographic and ecologic range of each species, and to determine the systematic status of the mammals. In addition, certain life history observations have been recorded. Field work was done in the north-south cross section of the mountains from San Gabriel Canyon on the west, to Cajon Wash on the east; and from the gently sloping alluvium at the Pacific base of the mountains at roughly 1000 feet elevation on the south, over the crest of the range to the border of the Mojave Desert at an elevation of 3500 feet on the north. Camps were established at many points in the area with the object of collecting the mammals of each association and each habitat. Field work was begun in the San Gabriels in November 1948, and was carried on intermittently until March 1952. I was unable to carry on field work in any summer. For advice and assistance in various ways I am grateful to Drs. Willis E. Pequegnat, Walter P. Taylor, Henry S. Fitch, E. Raymond Hall, Mr. Steven M. Jacobs and my wife, Hazel A. Vaughan. More than 350 mammals were prepared as study specimens; most of these are in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. Approximately a fifth of them are in the collection of the Department of Zoology at Pomona College, and a few are in the University of Illinois Museum of Natural History. No symbol is used to designate specimens in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. Specimens from the Department of Zoology of Pomona College and the University of Illinois Museum of Natural History are designated by PC and IM, respectively. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Map of the San Gabriel Mountain area showing the positions of places mentioned in the text.] DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA The San Gabriel Mountains are approximately sixty-six miles long, and average twenty miles wide. The main axis of the range trends nearly east and west, and extends from longitude 117°25' to longitude 118°30'. The widest part of the range is bounded by latitude 34°7' and latitude 34°30'. The San Gabriel Mountains connect the Sierra Nevada with the Peninsular Ranges of southern California and Baja California. On the west the San Gabriels are bordered by the Tehachapi Mountains, which stretch northeastward to meet the southern Sierra Nevada; to the east, beyond Cajon Pass, the San Bernardino Mountains extend eastward and then curve southward to the broad San Gorgonio Pass, from which the San Jacinto Range stretches southeastward to merge with the Peninsular Ranges. The rocks comprising the major part of the San Gabriel Mountains probably were intruded in Late Jurassic times, with severe metamorphic activity taking place concurrently. A long period of erosion followed after which deposition took place during much of the Tertiary. Deformation and uplift beginning in Middle Miocene times resulted in the formation of east-west-trending faults along both sides of the range. By repeated movements along these faults the Late Jurassic crystalline rocks were lifted above late Tertiary and Quaternary sediments and elevated above the surrounding terrain. Continued uplifts in post-Pleistocene time together with erosion in Recent times have shaped the San Gabriel Mountains (Oakeshott, 1937). The alluvial slopes at the coastal base of the range give way to the foothills at roughly 1800 feet elevation; whereas the Mojave Desert merges with the interior foothills at elevations near 4000 feet. The crest or drainage-divide of the range varies from 6000 to 8000 feet in elevation, and many peaks are more than 8000 feet high. San Antonio Peak, the highest peak of the range, rises to an altitude of 10,080 feet. The mountains are characteristically steep and the slopes are deeply carved by canyons, the larger of which have permanent streams. The abruptness of the Pacific slope is in many places impressive. The horizontal distance from the top of Cucamonga Peak, at an elevation of 8911 feet, to the base of the coastal foothills directly to the south, at 2250 feet, an elevational difference of 6661 feet, is only 3.8 miles. From the base of Evey Canyon, at 2250 feet, to an unnamed peak to the northwest with an elevation of 5420 feet, the horizontal distance is 2.1 miles. Because of the steep, rocky nature of many of the slopes and the lack of soil on them, vegetation may be sparse even at high elevations. There are few meadows in the mountains. Because the San Gabriels stand approximately thirty miles from the Pacific Ocean and are a partial barrier to Pacific air masses sweeping inland, the desert side and the coastal side of the range differ climatically. The coastal slope receives much heavier precipitation than the desert slope. The precipitation, for 1951, of 25.36 inches recorded at the mouth of San Antonio Canyon on the Pacific slope contrasts with 7.17 inches recorded at Valyermo at the desert base. Nearly all of the precipitation comes in winter. The higher parts of the range, above approximately 5000 feet, receive much of their mid-winter precipitation in the form of snow. Snow often extends down the desert slope well into the Joshua Tree belt. When there are heavy winter rains the channels of the usually dry washes are filled with rushing, turbid water. There are striking differences in temperature between the two sides of the range and between the lower elevations of the mountains and the higher parts. For example, in December 1951, the mean temperature at the base of San Antonio Canyon (2225 feet) at the coastal foot of the range was 55.4°F, while at Llano (3764 feet) at the desert base it was 43.7°F. In this same year the December mean for Table Mountain (7500 feet), on the desert slope, was 33.4°F. The temperature means for July, 1951, at San Antonio Canyon, Llano, and Table Mountain, were 77.3°F, 82.1°F, and 69.2°F respectively. The weather records for 1951 were used for illustration because average temperature and average precipitation for many other years are lacking for most of the weather stations in the area. There is an important difference in the humidity on the two sides of the range, but actual data are not available. At certain times, especially in spring, fog banks moving in from the Pacific Ocean frequently blanket the coastal base of the mountains and the foothills. On such days the fog generally "burns off" in the morning, but may persist into the afternoon or throughout the day. Never in my experience has fog spilled over the main part of the range far onto the desert slope, although the fog may push through the lower passes to be dissipated quickly in the dry desert atmosphere. The obvious differences in the biota on the two sides of the range are probably due to the contrasting climates. BIOTIC PROVINCES AND ECOLOGIC ASSOCIATIONS Because of the elevational extremes and attendant climatic contrasts in the San Gabriel Mountains, there is a rather wide range of environmental conditions. Four life-zones are represented: Lower Sonoran, Upper Sonoran, Transition, and Canadian. Within these zones certain ecologic communities can be recognized; these represent several biotic provinces. Table 1 shows the relationships between the environmental categories recognized by the writer in the San Gabriel Mountains. The biotic province and ecologic community system is that developed by Munz and Keck (1949), and the life-zone system is that of Merriam (1898). TABLE 1.--RELATIONS OF THE MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CATEGORIES OF THE SAN GABRIEL MOUNTAINS. ======================================================================= Biotic province | Plant community | Life-zone | Slope ----------------+--------------------------+-----------------+--------- |1. Coastal sage scrub | Lower Sonoran | Pacific Californian |2. Southern oak woodland | Upper Sonoran | Pacific |3. Chaparral | Upper Sonoran | Pacific ----------------+--------------------------+-----------------+--------- Sierran |4. Yellow pine forest and | Transition | Pacific | limited areas of | Canadian | and | boreal flora | | Desert ----------------+--------------------------+-----------------+--------- Nevadan |5. Sagebrush scrub | Transition | Desert | | Upper Sonoran | ----------------+--------------------------+-----------------+--------- Southern Desert |6. Pinyon-juniper woodland| Upper Sonoran | Desert |7. Joshua tree woodland | Lower Sonoran | Desert ----------------+--------------------------+-----------------+--------- The Californian Biotic Province dominates the biotic aspect of the coastal slope of the range. Thirty-nine out of the seventy-two mammals recorded from the San Gabriels are typical of this Province. The coastal sage-flats at the Pacific base of the mountains and the vast tracts of chaparral of the coastal slope are included in this Province. Forming a hiatus between the Pacific and the desert slope is the Sierran Biotic Province consisting of coniferous forests on the crest of the range. The chipmunk (_Eutamias speciosus speciosus_) and the introduced black bear (_Ursus americanus californiensis_) are the only two mammals which can be considered typical of this area. On the higher peaks of the range, such as Mount San Antonio and Mount Baden Powell, the Canadian Life-zone is represented by certain boreal plants. At scattered points along the crest of the range and on the desert slope, the Nevadan Biotic Province is represented by the sagebrush scrub association. No mammals can be considered typical of this region. The Southern Desert Biotic Province occurs below 6000 feet elevation on the interior slope of the range, and markedly influences the mammal fauna of this slope. Twenty-one species of mammals are typical of this Province. SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES OF PLANTS MENTIONED IN THIS REPORT _Pinus lambertiana_ Sugar Pine _P. monophylla_ One-leaf Pinyon _P. ponderosa_ Yellow Pine _P. contorta_ Lodge-pole Pine _Pseudotsuga macrocarpa_ Big-cone Spruce _Abies concolor_ White Fir _Libocedrus decurrens_ Incense-Cedar _Juniperus californica_ Juniper _Ephedra sp._ Desert-Tea _Bromus sp._ Brome Grass _Yucca Whipplei_ Spanish Bayonet _Y. brevifolia_ Joshua Tree _Salix sp._ Willow _Alnus rhombifolia_ Alder _Castanopsis sempervirens_ Chinquapin _Quercus Kelloggii_ California Black Oak _Q. agrifolia_ California Live Oak _Q. dumosa_ Scrub Oak _Eriogonum fasciculatum_ California Buckwheat _Umbellularia californica_ Bay, California-laurel _Ribes nevadense_ Gooseberry _R. indecorum_ Currant _R. Roezlii_ Currant _Plantanus racemosa_ Sycamore _Rubus vitifolius_ Western Blackberry _Cercocarpus ledifolius_ Mountain Mahogany _C. betuloides_ Mountain Mahogany _Adenostoma fasciculatum_ Greasewood _Purshia glandulosa_ Antelope-brush _Prunus virginiana_ Choke Cherry _P. ilicifolia_ Holly-leaved Cherry _Larrea divaricata_ Creosote Bush _Rhus diversiloba_ Poisonoak _R. trilobata_ Squaw Bush _R. laurina_ Laurel Sumac _R. integrifolia_ Lemonadeberry _R. ovata_ Sugarbush _Rhamnus crocea_ Buckthorn _Ceanothus sp._ Lilac _C. cordulatus_ Snow-brush _Fremontia californica_ California Slippery-elm _Opuntia occidentalis_ Prickly-pear _Arctostaphylos sp._ Manzanita _Salvia mellifera_ Black Sage _S. apiana_ White Sage _Lycium Andersonii_ Box-thorn _Haplopappus squarosus_ _Chrysothamnus nauseosus_ Rabbitbrush _Baccharis sp._ Mule Fat _Franseria dumosa_ Burroweed _Artemisia tridentata_ Basin Sagebrush _A. californica_ Coastal Sagebrush _Lepidospartum squamatum_ Scale-broom _L. latisquamatum_ Scale-broom _Tetradymia spinosa_ Cotton-thorn Coastal Sage Scrub Association MAJOR PLANTS _Artemisia californica_ _Salvia apiana_ _Salvia mellifera_ _Eriogonum fasciculatum_ _Rhus integrifolia_ _Opuntia occidentalis_ _Haploppapus squarrosus_ This association is restricted to the Pacific base of the range, is typical on the alluvium at the bases of the coastal foothills, and usually grades into the chaparral at about 1800 feet elevation. When seen from above, the rather level terrain of the association is broken sharply at the mouths of canyons by dry washes, and is limited below, to the south, by cultivated land. The coastal sagebrush is the most characteristic plant of this association, occurring in all undisturbed parts of the area. There are several habitats within the coastal sage scrub association. These differ from one another chiefly on the basis of soil type. The soil of the rather level sageland in most places is rocky or gravelly, or, as adjacent to washes, it is finely sandy in texture, and supports the major plants of the association. Most of the eroded adobe banks at the bases of the foothills support these same plants, with white sage being the dominant species. Locally, as in damp hollows or cleared areas, there is grassland. Jumbles of boulders, sand, gravel, and steep cutbanks, are characteristic of the channels of dry washes, these areas supporting sparse vegetation. The fauna and flora of the washes are distinct from those of surrounding sage flats. Because they are included within the geographic limits of the coastal sage belt, however, the washes are discussed along with this association. The abruptness with which one habitat gives way to another in this association causes sharp dividing lines between the local ranges of certain mammals. For example, in trap lines transecting dry washes and level sageland two assemblages of rodents were found. That part of the line amid the boulders and cutbanks of the wash took mostly _Peromyscus eremicus fraterculus_ and _Neotoma lepida intermedia_, while _Perognathus fallax fallax_, _Dipodomys agilis agilis_, and _Peromyscus maniculatus gambeli_ were taken in the adjacent sage flats. The steep adobe slopes of the foothills, which constitute the upper part of the coastal sage scrub association, are commonly inhabited by _Peromyscus californicus insignis_, which rarely occurs in the level tracts of sage a few yards away. Thus, this association is not homogeneous with regard to its rodent population; many of these species have local and discontinuous distributions. The following list gives the results of about 500 trap nights (a trap night equals one trap set out for one night) in typical coastal sage-scrub association one-half mile southwest of the mouth of San Antonio Canyon, at 1700 feet elevation. TABLE 2.--YIELD OF 500 TRAP-NIGHTS IN THE COASTAL SAGE SCRUB ASSOCIATION. ====================================================================== | Number | Per cent | | of total --------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- Perognathus fallax fallax | 31 | 30.7 Dipodomys agilis agilis | 20 | 19.8 Reithrodontomys megalotis longicaudus | 4 | 4.0 Peromyscus californicus insignis | 4 | 4.0 P. eremicus fraterculus | 7 | 6.9 P. maniculatus gambeli | 20 | 19.8 Neotoma lepida intermedia | 9 | 8.8 N. fuscipes macrotis | 2 | 2.0 Microtus californicus sanctidiegi | 4 | 4.0 --------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- The list below indicates the catch in 200 trap nights in San Antonio Wash, at 1700 feet elevation and within the realm of the coastal sage; all of the traps were set in rocky and sandy main channels of the wash. TABLE 3.--YIELD OF 200 TRAP-NIGHTS IN SAN ANTONIO WASH. ====================================================================== | Number | Per cent | | of total --------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- Perognathus fallax fallax | 2 | 5.1 Peromyscus californicus insignis | 2 | 5.1 P. eremicus fraterculus | 26 | 66.7 Neotoma lepida intermedia | 9 | 23.1 --------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- The prickly-pear cactus is of obvious importance to certain mammals of the coastal sage belt. This cactus is most common in disturbed areas such as sandy flats bordering washes, eroded adobe banks, and land once cleared by man. In these areas it is often the dominant plant with respect to area covered, usually growing in dense patches each covering approximately 150 square feet. It provides substitute nesting sites for _Neotoma lepida_ in areas devoid of rock piles, and is probably the major factor governing the distribution of this wood rat in the sageland. Cottontails and brush rabbits use prickly-pear cactus extensively as refuge. Their forms and short burrows can be seen beneath many of the clumps of cactus. This cactus serves as food for many mammals at least in the fruiting period in the fall. Usually only the fruit is eaten, but some pads are chewed by rabbits. The fruit or seeds of this plant are eaten by striped skunks, gray foxes, coyotes, pocket mice, kangaroo rats, wood rats, and probably white-footed mice. The coyote is the dominant carnivore of the coastal sage flats. Many individuals spend the day in the adjacent chaparral-covered foothills and travel down into the flats at night to forage. Southern Oak Woodland Association MAJOR PLANTS _Alnus rhombifolia_ _Quercus agrifolia_ _Ribes indecorum_ _Rhus integrifolia_ _Rhus ovata_ _Rhus trilobata_ This association is limited to the Pacific slope of the mountain range, occurs in the mouths of canyons and on the floors of canyons, and extends up the larger canyons to 4000 feet elevation or higher. In a few areas on the flats at the coastal base of the range the oaks replace the coastal sage. The large oaks forming an overhead canopy and the lack of much undergrowth give the oak woodland a shaded parklike appearance. Few brushy or herbaceous plants grow in the mull-laden soil beneath the oaks. Some grasses, however, are present locally. Two habitats are found in the oak woodland: the pure oak woodland and the riparian. Much of the oak woodland is in canyons and therefore near streams or seepages. The larger streams have bordering growths of alders, willows, and blackberries, inhabited by meadow mice and shrews that are normally absent from the adjacent oak woodland. NEOTOMA FUSCIPES MACROTIS and PEROMYSCUS CALIFORNICUS INSIGNIS are commonly found in the riparian habitat, and _Peromyscus boylii_ probably reaches peak abundance in the stream-side thickets and tangles of plant debris. The rather open floor of the oak woodland is relatively devoid of mammal life. _Peromyscus californicus_ and _Peromyscus boylii_, the only ground-dwelling rodents commonly found here, usually are taken near the limited areas of brushy growth, or the shelter afforded by logs and fallen branches. The paucity of shelter for small mammals seems to be an important factor limiting rodent populations in the oak woodland. In the foothills of the San Gabriels the gray squirrel is restricted to the oak woodland, even though this association may be represented by only a narrow strip of canyon bottom oak trees. The presence or absence of "bridges" of oak woodland between mountains which are centers of gray squirrel populations and nearby ranges has probably been a major factor influencing the present geographic distribution of this animal. The raccoon is the most abundant carnivore of the oak woodland, being especially common in the riparian habitat. Chaparral Association MAJOR PLANTS _Adenostoma fasciculatum_ _Rhamnus crocea_ _Quercus dumosa_ _Cercocarpus betuloides_ _Yucca Whipplei_ _Prunus ilicifolia_ _Ceanothus sp._ _Arctostaphylos sp._ _Umbellularia californica_ This association is characteristic of the Pacific slope of the San Gabriels and extends from roughly 2000 feet elevation to 5000 or 6000 feet elevation. The ecotone between the chaparral and yellow pine forest associations covers a broad elevational belt, with chaparral following dry slopes up into coniferous forests, and conifers extending down north slopes surrounded by chaparral. The chaparral association is characterized by tracts of dense brushy plants. These plants are from three to ten feet tall, their interlacing branches often forming nearly impenetrable thickets. Typically little herbaceous growth is present beneath the chaparral, the ground being covered with varying amounts of mull. The effects of fire, slope, exposure, and elevation, make the chaparral association extremely varied with regard to habitats or plant formations. There are nearly pure stands of greasewood on the lower arid slopes; scrub oak, sumac, and lilac clothe less dry exposures; scrub oak and bay trees occur commonly amid granite talus; and locally groves of bigcone-spruce are found. Because of the many habitats present, and the difficulty of collecting in the chaparral, less was learned of the ecology of the mammals in this association than of those occurring elsewhere. The distribution of several chaparral-inhabiting mammals seems to be influenced by the distribution of locally characteristic plants, for example oak and bay woodland, or greasewood chaparral. Several habitats within the chaparral community support few species of mammals and few individuals. Possibly the compact, rocky nature of the soil limits burrowing rodents, and the lack of herbaceous growth limits the food supply. Steep rocky slopes in San Antonio Canyon grown to mountain-mahogany and scrub oak were sparsely populated by _Peromyscus boylii rowleyi_, _Peromyscus californicus insignis_, and _Neotoma fuscipes macrotis_. Fifty traps set on such a slope for one night caught only three _Peromyscus_. Traps set in tracts of greasewood brush on dry south slopes at the head of Cow Canyon produced only California mice, _Peromyscus californicus insignis_ Rhoads. Following is a list of the mammals taken in the course of approximately 600 trap nights in the lower parts of the chaparral belt. All of the traps were set on slopes in San Antonio Canyon below 4000 feet elevation. The list gives a general indication of the relative numbers of rodents inhabiting one chaparral habitat: the arid greasewood-covered south slopes of the lower chaparral belt. TABLE 4.--YIELD OF 600 TRAP-NIGHTS IN GREASEWOOD CHAPARRAL. ====================================================================== | Number | Per cent | | of total --------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- Perognathus californicus dispar | 4 | 10.0 Dipodomys agilis agilis | 4 | 10.0 Peromyscus californicus insignis | 25 | 62.5 Neotoma fuscipes macrotis | 7 | 17.5 --------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- Heteromyids are evidently absent from the upper parts of the chaparral association, but cricetid rodents are common there beneath heavy clumps of lilac and in the talus beneath oaks and bay trees. The following list gives the mammals taken in the course of about 200 trap nights in the granite talus one half mile northwest of the mouth of Icehouse Canyon, at 5200 feet elevation. TABLE 5.--YIELD OF 200 TRAP-NIGHTS IN THE UPPER PART OF THE CHAPARRAL ASSOCIATION. ====================================================================== | Number | Per cent | | of total --------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- Eutamias merriami merriami | 3 | 6.3 Peromyscus boylii rowleyi | 38 | 79.2 Neotoma lepida intermedia | 2 | 4.2 Neotoma fuscipes macrotis | 5 | 10.4 --------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- The gray fox is the dominant carnivore of the chaparral association and forages widely in all habitats. Yellow Pine Forest Association MAJOR PLANTS _Pinus ponderosa_ _P. lambertiana_ _Libocedrus decurrens_ _Abies concolor_ _Quercus Kelloggii_ _Ribes nevadense_ _Ribes Roezlii_ _Arctostaphylos sp._ _Ceanothus cordulatus_ The crest of the range, from the upper limit of the chaparral association at roughly 6000 feet to the limited areas of boreal flora above 8500 feet elevation, is covered by yellow pine forests. On the desert slope of the range the coniferous forests which extend down to about 6000 feet represent the best development of this association, while the coniferous forests on the coastal side of the drainage divide are often more or less diluted by chaparral elements. For example, yellow pines on the Pacific face of Blue Ridge at 7000 feet elevation often grow in association with scrub oak and mountain-mahogany. Few mammals are resident in the typical yellow pine forest as characterized by dense coniferous timber and little herbaceous or brushy growth. Here most of the species recorded actually find optimal conditions in an adjacent habitat. The forest probably harbors surplus individuals from adjacent preferred habitats, or, as in the case of chipmunks and ground squirrels, the forest often serves as forage ground while nearby brushy areas are utilized for breeding and shelter. The abundance of birds in the timber contrasts strikingly with the paucity of mammals there. The lack of a seed-producing understory, and the open duff-covered stretches of ground on which rodents would be extremely vulnerable to predation, probably in part account for the scarcity of rodents. Within the general area encompassed by the yellow pine forest there are two major habitats, namely coniferous forest and chaparral. The species of plants comprising the chaparral of the Transition Life-zone are different from those comprising the chaparral of the Upper Sonoran Life-zone on the Pacific slope. In the chaparral of the Transition Life-zone, basin sagebrush and snowbrush grow in extensive patches in clearings in the timber. Dense thickets of choke cherry cover many damp hollows, and these thickets harbor the houses of _Neotoma fuscipes_. The food and shelter afforded by these chaparral areas importantly influence the local distribution of rodents: for example, _Dipodomys agilis_ and _Perognathus californicus_ in the yellow pine area are found only in association with chaparral, being completely absent from wooded areas. The severe winter weather in this association must force many of the mammals into periods of inactivity. Probably during the long periods in the winter when snow covers the ground the heteromyids and sciurids remain below ground. Pinyon-Juniper Woodland Association MAJOR PLANTS _Pinus monophylla_ _Juniperus californica_ _Quercus dumosa var. turbinella_ _Purshia glandulosa_ _Fremontia californica_ _Cercocarpus ledifolius_ _Yucca Whipplei_ In the San Gabriel Mountains this association is limited to the desert slope and reaches its lower limit at the bases of the foothills and extends up to the lower edge of the yellow pine forests. The altitudinal extent of the pinyon-juniper association is from roughly 4000 to 6000 feet elevation. Several habitats are evident within the pinyon-juniper belt. On north slopes in the upper part of this association, scattered stands of pinyon pines are found with dense patches of scrub oak intervening, while on other such slopes a dense chaparral is present, consisting primarily of scrub oak, mountain-mahogany, and California slippery-elm. In this type of chaparral several hundred trap nights yielded only two rodent species: _Neotoma fuscipes simplex_ and _Peromyscus truei montipinoris_. There are few pinyons on the south slopes, especially in the lower parts of the association; many of these slopes are clothed with an open growth of manzanita and yucca, while northern exposures there support mostly scrub oak. Many of the flats of the pinyon belt are grown to basin sagebrush. Following is a list of the mammals taken in about 400 trap nights at one locality in the pinyon-juniper association. The area supported a mixed growth of pinyon, scrub oak, mountain-mahogany, and antelope-brush, together with smaller brushy plants, and was at the head of Grandview Canyon, at an altitude of roughly 5000 feet. TABLE 6.--YIELD OF 400 TRAP-NIGHTS IN THE PINYON-JUNIPER ASSOCIATION. ===================================================================== | Number | Per cent | | of total -------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- Perognathus fallax pallidus | 3 | 11.5 Dipodomys agilis fuscus | 9 | 34.6 Peromyscus truei montipinoris | 10 | 38.5 Neotoma fuscipes simplex | 4 | 15.4 -------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- Although Munz and Keck (1949:101) considered the pinyon-juniper belt as one association, on the desert slope of the San Gabriels pinyons and junipers do not generally grow on common ground; but rather the juniper belt represents a well defined habitat occurring between the pinyon covered slopes and the flats that support Joshua trees. Because the mammalian populations of the pinyon belt and the juniper belt are somewhat different, the mammals of these areas are most conveniently taken up separately. In the juniper belt the juniper tree is of marked ecologic significance; the distribution of _Peromyscus truei_ and _Neotoma fuscipes_ is determined here by the presence of junipers. At certain times of year the fruit of this plant is eaten by coyotes, kangaroo rats, and wood rats. The list below indicates the results of approximately 500 trap nights in the juniper belt near Mescal Canyon, between 4000 and 5000 feet elevation. TABLE 7.--YIELD OF 500 TRAP-NIGHTS IN THE JUNIPER BELT. ====================================================================== | Number | Per cent | | of total --------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- Perognathus fallax pallidus | 16 | 16.7 Dipodomys merriami merriami | 3 | 3.1 Dipodomys panamintinus mohavensis | 36 | 37.5 Peromyscus truei montipinoris | 22 | 22.9 Peromyscus maniculatus sonoriensis | 12 | 12.5 Neotoma lepida lepida | 2 | 2.1 Neotoma fuscipes simplex | 2 | 2.1 Onychomys torridus pulcher | 3 | 3.1 --------------------------------------------------+--------+---------- PLATE 1 [Illustration: FIG. 1. View of typical coastal sage scrub association, showing in foreground white sage, and coastal sagebrush. The adobe banks beyond are grown mainly to white sage. Small mammals are abundant in this association, with _Dipodomys agilis_, _Perognathus fallax_, and _Sylvilagus audubonii_ being characteristic of the area. Photo March 25, 1952, at mouth of San Antonio Canyon, 1800 feet elevation.] [Illustration: FIG. 2. View of a main channel in San Antonio Wash on Pacific slope. The wash is a distinct habitat in the coastal sage scrub association, and is the preferred habitat of _Peromyscus eremicus fraterculus_ and _Neotoma lepida intermedia_. These rodents find shelter in the piles of boulders. Photo February 2, 1952, in San Antonio Wash, at 1700 feet elevation.] PLATE 2 [Illustration: FIG. 1. Southern oak woodland association. The open leaf-strewn floor of the woodland lacks shelter for ground-dwelling rodents and the population of rodents is small. _Peromyscus boylii rowleyi_ is the commonest rodent. Photo March 10, 1952, in Evey Canyon, 2700 feet elevation.] [Illustration: FIG. 2. Yellow pine forest association, composed largely of yellow pines, white fir, and black oak. Photo April 27, 1952, at Big Pines, 6800 ft. elevation.] PLATE 3 [Illustration: FIG. 1. View of the sagebrush scrub association showing a nearly pure stand of basin sagebrush. _Dipodomys agilis perplexus_ and _Reithrodontomys megalotis longicaudus_ occur in this association, and _Peromyscus truei montipinoris_ is present where this association merges with the pinyon-juniper association. Photo April 27, 1952, in Swarthout Valley, 6200 feet elevation.] [Illustration: FIG. 2. View of a pinyon pine woodland. This habitat constitutes the upper part of the pinyon-juniper association, and is the habitat of _Neotoma fuscipes simplex_, _Peromyscus truei montipinoris_, and _Eutamias merriami merriami_. Photo April 27, 1952, in Sheep Creek Canyon, 5500 feet elevation.] PLATE 4 [Illustration: FIG. 1. View of the juniper belt. This habitat forms the lower part of the pinyon-juniper association. _Perognathus fallax pallidus_, _Dipodomys panamintinus mohavensis_, and _Peromyscus truei montipinoris_ are typical of this area. Photo April 27, 1952, at Desert Springs, 4300 feet elevation.] [Illustration: FIG. 2. Joshua tree woodland association. The characteristic mammals are _Dipodomys panamintinus mohavensis_, _D. merriami merriami_, and _Onychomys torridus pulcher_. Photo January 4, 1952, 6 miles east and 2 miles south Llano, 3600 feet elevation.] The biota of the washes that cut through the juniper belt in and below many of the larger canyons differs from that of the surrounding juniper-clad benches. Because the washes are in the same geographic area as the juniper belt they are discussed together. These washes on desert slopes are densely populated by rodents derived from adjacent areas, and support vegetation typical of higher floral belts in association with xerophytic, typically desert, species. In a sense, the washes serve to mix up the mammals of adjacent areas. For example, _Onychomys torridus pulcher_ and _Peromyscus eremicus eremicus_, which are mammals typical of the desert, were found in Mescal Wash above their usual desert range; and _Peromyscus californicus insignis_ and _Peromyscus boylii rowleyi_, which are chaparral inhabiting mammals, were found in the wash far removed from their chaparral environment. Washes are evidently effective agents in facilitating the dispersal of certain species of mammals. It is easy to envision a species crossing hostile habitats _via_ dry washes to invade suitable niches in an area which is geographically and ecologically isolated from the original home of the species. Approximately 500 trap nights in Mescal Wash, at 4100 feet elevation, in the lower edge of the juniper belt, yielded the following mammals: TABLE 8.--YIELD OF 500 TRAP-NIGHTS IN MESCAL WASH (DESERT SLOPE). ========================================================== | Number | Per cent | | of total --------------------------------------+--------+---------- Perognathus fallax pallidus | 5 | 4.5 Dipodomys panamintinus mohavensis | 43 | 38.7 Peromyscus californicus insignis | 3 | 2.7 Peromyscus truei montipinoris | 1 | .9 Peromyscus boylii rowleyi | 2 | 1.8 Peromyscus eremicus eremicus | 28 | 25.0 Peromyscus maniculatus sonoriensis | 23 | 20.5 Onychomys torridus pulcher | 4 | 3.5 Neotoma lepida lepida | 3 | 2.7 --------------------------------------+--------+---------- _Dipodomys panamintinus mohavensis_, _Neotoma fuscipes simplex_, and _Peromyscus truei montipinoris_ are probably the most characteristic mammals of the pinyon-juniper association. Sagebrush Scrub Association MAJOR PLANTS _Bromus sp._ _Artemisia tridentata_ _Chrysothamnus nauseosus_ _Purshia glandulosa_ This association is found on only the crest and desert slope of the range between 5000 and 8000 feet elevation. There it characteristically occupies flats and clearings in the yellow pine forest and pinyon-juniper woodland. The dominant plant of the association is basin sagebrush, and in many places this plant forms mixed growths with snowbrush and _Haplopappus_. The low brush of this association is formed by closely spaced bushes with grasses growing between. Because of its limited occurrence in the San Gabriel Mountains, this association there has relatively little effect on mammalian distribution. Locally, nevertheless, the presence of this association governs the distribution of certain mammals. For example, on Blue Ridge, islands of sagebrush amid the conifers provide suitable habitat for _Dipodomys agilis perplexus_ and _Perognathus californicus bernardinus_; and in Swarthout Valley _D. a. perplexus_, _Reithrodontomys megalotis longicaudus_, and _Lepus californicus deserticola_ are seemingly restricted to the sagebrush flats. Joshua Tree Woodland Association MAJOR PLANTS _Yucca brevifolia_ _Lycium Andersonii_ _Eriogonum fasciculatum_ _Tetradymia spinosa_ _Ephedra sp._ _Larrea divaricata_ This association is on the piedmont that dips toward the Mojave Desert from the interior base of the San Gabriels. The widely spaced Joshua trees with low bushes between, and the dry washes breaking the level terrain below the mouths of canyons are typical of this area. Field work was extended no farther down into the desert than about the 3500 foot level, where this association was still dominant. Although the vegetation of this area is scattered and sparse, presenting a barren and sterile aspect, the area supports a rather high population of rodents. The soil at the bases of many large box-thorn- and creosote-bushes is perforated by burrow systems of _Dipodomys panamintinus_ or _Dipodomys merriami_, and those burrows abandoned by kangaroo rats are used as retreats by _Onychomys torridus_ and _Peromyscus maniculatus_. The mammals of this association are all characteristic of the fauna of the Mojave Desert, with the ranges of such species as the coyote and jack rabbit extending well up the desert slope of the mountains. The mammals listed below were taken in 1948 in roughly 400 trap nights in the Joshua belt, at an elevation of 3500 feet, one mile below the mouth of Graham Canyon. TABLE 9.--YIELD OF 400 TRAP-NIGHTS IN THE JOSHUA TREE BELT. ====================================================== | Number | Per cent | | of total -----------------------------------+--------+--------- Dipodomys panamintinus mohavensis | 36 | 59.0 Dipodomys merriami merriami | 15 | 24.6 Onychomys torridus pulcher | 4 | 6.6 Peromyscus maniculatus gambeli | 6 | 9.8 -----------------------------------+--------+--------- Populations of _Dipodomys merriami_ and _D. panamintinus_ fluctuate widely, possibly in response to weather cycles. In November of 1948 trapping in the Joshua belt showed that _panamintinus_ outnumbered _merriami_ approximately three to one, whereas in December of 1951, after a succession of unusually dry years, _merriami_ was the more numerous. Further, _merriami_ occurred in the lower parts of the juniper belt in 1951 where in 1948 it seemed to be absent. _Dipodomys merriami merriami_ and _Onychomys torridus pulcher_ are diagnostic of the Joshua tree woodland association in the San Gabriel Mountains area, since few individuals of either species occur outside of this association. ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES Family DIDELPHIDAE =Didelphis marsupialis virginiana= Kerr Virginia Opossum The opossum is common in and near small towns and cultivated areas at the Pacific base of the mountain range and does not thrive away from human habitation; extensive trapping in the coastal sage and chaparral belts produced no specimens except immediately adjacent to citrus groves. Pequegnat (1951:47) mentions that opossums in the Santa Ana Mountains of southern California are in the lower parts of the larger canyons, especially near human habitation. _Specimens examined._--Los Angeles County: Claremont, 1600 ft., 2 (PC). Family TALPIDAE =Scapanus latimanus occultus= Grinnell and Swarth California Mole Workings of moles were found on the Pacific slope of the mountains from 1600 feet at Claremont up to 7500 feet on Blue Ridge, and on the Pacific slope beneath basin sagebrush in Cajon Canyon one mile from desert slope Joshua-tree flats, but not on the desert slope, although moles probably occur on that slope in some of the places where there is suitable habitat. Near Camp Baldy in the sandy soil beneath groves of alders moles seemed to be especially abundant. Although common on the coastal face of the range, moles shunned compact, dry, or rocky soils. In the greasewood chaparral one-half mile west of the mouth of Palmer Canyon, where the soil was hard and rocky, mole tunnels were in soft soil that had accumulated at the edge of a fire road beneath a steep road cut. The assumption is that this accumulation contained insects attractive, as food, to the moles. _Specimens examined_, 2: Los Angeles County: Camp Baldy, 4200 ft., 1(PC); Claremont, 1600 ft., 1(PC). Family SORICIDAE =Sorex obscurus parvidens= Jackson Dusky Shrew Jackson (1928:124) recorded a specimen from Camp Baldy, 4200 feet, San Antonio Canyon. =Sorex ornatus ornatus= Merriam Ornate Shrew Both of my specimens were taken amid riparian growth on the Pacific slope of the range. _Specimens examined_, 2: Los Angeles County: San Antonio Canyon, 3500 ft., 1; Cobal Canyon, 5 mi. N Claremont, 1800 ft., 1 (PC). =Notiosorex crawfordi crawfordi= (Coues) Gray Shrew One was taken in 1946 beneath a woodpile on the campus of Norton School, two miles northeast of Claremont, and examined by Dr. W. E. Pequegnat. Family VESPERTILIONIDAE =Myotis yumanensis sociabilis= H. W. Grinnell Yuma Myotis A female was taken in lower San Antonio Canyon, 2800 feet elevation, on September 27, 1951. =Myotis evotis evotis= (J. A. Allen) Long-eared Myotis This species was observed and collected at several stations ranging from 2800 feet elevation in San Antonio Canyon, to Blue Ridge at 8200 feet, and down the desert slope to 6000 feet at Jackson Lake. This distribution encompasses most of the chaparral and yellow pine forest associations. Within these areas, however, this bat shows marked habitat preferences. Woodland habitats seem to be preferred by _evotis_. At several ponds in lower San Antonio Canyon this bat was observed repeatedly as it foraged over the water and coursed low between rows of alders and _Baccharis_. At Blue Ridge in September, 1951, these bats foraged approximately six feet above the ground beneath the canopy of coniferous foliage and between the trunks of the trees. Most of the bats were taken by stretching fine wires above the surface of a pond as outlined by Borell (1937:478). Collecting was generally carried on until at least 11:00 p. m., and the time at which each bat was taken at the pond was recorded, thereby making possible a rough estimate of the pre-midnight forage period of each bat commonly collected at the ponds. Usually bats taken at the start of their supposed forage period had empty or nearly empty stomachs, whereas those taken towards the end of their forage period had full or nearly full stomachs. _M. evotis_ usually first appeared just at dark, well after the pipistrelles and California myotis had begun foraging. The forage period of _evotis_ seemed to begin approximately 30 minutes after sunset and to end approximately two and one-quarter hours later. Individuals of this species were taken from May 4, to October 14, 1951. A female taken on May 19, 1951, in San Antonio Canyon, carried one minute embryo, and one taken in the same locality on June 8, had one embryo four millimeters in length. _Specimens examined._--Total, 12, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: San Antonio Canyon, 2800 ft., 11; Claremont, 1100 ft., 1 (P.C.). =Myotis volans interior= Miller Interior Long-legged Bat Although seldom found to be plentiful, this bat was recorded from many points on both the coastal and desert slopes of the mountains. Specimens were taken in the chaparral association in San Antonio Canyon, near Jackson Lake among yellow pines, and in Mescal Canyon at the upper limit of the Joshua tree woodland. Bats, probably _volans_, were noted over sage flats at 8000 feet elevation on Blue Ridge. The only place where these bats appeared to be numerous was Jackson Lake on the interior slope; there, on September 19, 1951, _volans_ appeared with the pipistrelles, and was the most common bat before dark. An individual of this species taken on October 28, 1951, in a short mine-shaft in the pinyon belt at the head of Grandview Canyon was slow in its movements and felt as cold as the walls of the tunnel. It was late afternoon and the temperature outside the cave was below 40°F. The floor of the tunnel was covered with the hind wings of large moths of the genus _Catocala_; _volans_ probably hung in the cave while eating them. The series of _volans_ from the San Gabriels shows that the two color phases of this bat both occur in the area. Two specimens from Jackson Lake contrast sharply with the rest of the series in their dark coloration. Benson (1949:50) states that color variation in a series of _volans_ from a given locality may be striking. This bat was collected in San Antonio Canyon from 50 minutes after sundown to two hours and 40 minutes after sundown. In this area these bats did not visit the ponds in large numbers as they seemed to do on the desert slope. A female taken on May 29, 1951, contained one embryo nearly at term. _Specimens examined._--Total, 9, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: Mescal Canyon, 8 mi. E and 5 mi. S Llano, 4900 ft., 1; 3 mi. W Big Pines, Swarthout Valley, 6000 ft., 3; San Antonio Canyon, 2800 ft., 5. =Myotis californicus californicus= (Audubon and Bachman) California Myotis On the Pacific face of the mountain range this bat was recorded commonly below approximately 5000 feet elevation, where it seemed to be most common in the oak woodland of canyons. On the desert slope it was collected at Jackson Lake in yellow pine woodland, in Mescal Canyon in the juniper belt, and bats presumably of this species were observed at several points in the pinyon-juniper woodland. Individuals of this species were often observed foraging from five to ten feet above the ground around the alders and _Baccharis_ near San Antonio Creek, but they did not fly so low or so near the vegetation as did _Myotis evotis_. Here they were taken from 18 minutes to 55 minutes after sunset; this indicates an early and short forage period. This bat may be active even in winter. On February 8, 1952, in lower San Antonio Canyon, a bat, probably of this species, was noted foraging; and collecting in early November, 1951, yielded specimens. On May 22, 1951, a female obtained in San Antonio Canyon had one five-millimeter embryo, and subsequently all the females examined had embryos until June 12, when collecting was discontinued. _Specimens examined._--Total, 16, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: Mescal Canyon, 4800 ft., 2; Jackson Lake, 6000 ft., 1 (PC); San Antonio Canyon, 3900 ft., 1; San Antonio Canyon, 2800 ft., 12. =Pipistrellus hesperus merriami= (Dobson) Western Pipistrelle This is the most obvious if not the most common bat of the lower coastal slopes of the San Gabriels. In the spring and fall of 1951 individuals were noted from 1700 feet in the coastal sage scrub association to the white fir forests on Blue Ridge at 8200 feet elevation and were commonest in the rocky canyons of the lower Pacific slope below 4000 feet, and usually foraged near the steep canyon sides high above the canyon bottoms. Pipistrelles were generally the first bats to appear in the evening, although the times of their appearance were irregular. In April and May, in lower San Antonio Canyon, they appeared from 28 minutes before sunset to 30 minutes after sunset, with the average time of appearance eight and one-half minutes after sunset. Like _Myotis californicus_ this pipistrelle seemed to have a short and early foraging period. No pipistrelles were recorded at ponds later than one hour and five minutes after sunset, and usually they were not seen later than 40 minutes after sunset. Most of the specimens taken later than one half hour after sunset had full stomachs. More than 50 pipistrelles were captured at the ponds in San Antonio Canyon; six were kept for specimens. This species is probably present in the area throughout the winter. Pipistrelles were active in early April in Evey Canyon, were observed in early November in San Antonio Canyon, and on January 26, 1952, an individual was noted foraging near the mouth of Palmer Canyon. They are probably not active in winter on the colder desert slope of the mountains. Pipistrelles often foraged in loose flocks of about half a dozen individuals. On many occasions these groups were first seen foraging high up above the canyon bottom, then, as it grew darker, they descended and foraged within 50 or 100 feet of the floor of the canyon. Immediately before dark these groups seemed to have forage beats; one minute several pipistrelles would be overhead, and the next minute none would be in sight. A female taken in San Antonio Canyon on June 8, 1951, contained two five-millimeter embryos. _Specimens examined._--Total, 6, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: San Antonio Canyon, 2800 ft., 5; Evey Canyon, 2400 ft., 1. =Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus= (H. Allen) Western Pipistrelle This species was common in the spring and autumn of 1951 from the lower edge of the yellow pine forest down into the belt of Joshua trees. In early April on the desert slope at 4800 feet in Mescal Canyon, pipistrelles foraged on evenings when it was windy but not cold. On cold evenings (when the temperature was below roughly 45°F) none was seen. On windy nights the pipistrelles often forsook their usual high forage habits and foraged 15 feet or so above the ground where the vegetation and outcrops of rock broke the force of the wind. In 1951 no pipistrelles were noted on the desert slope later than October 15. _Specimens examined._--Los Angeles County: Mescal Canyon, 4800 ft., 4. =Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus= Rhoads Big Brown Bat This bat was on the coastal slope from the sage scrub association at 1100 feet, up to 8000 feet on Blue Ridge, and on the desert slope down to the upper edge of the Joshua tree belt at 4800 feet in Mescal Canyon. It was the most common bat at the ponds in San Antonio Canyon in May and June of 1951, but in September and October of the same year none was obtained there. On the Pacific slope of the San Gabriels the big brown bats segregate according to sex in the spring, the males occupying the foothills and mountains and the females the level valley floor at the coastal base of the range. Of 70 big brown bats captured in May and June of 1951, at the ponds in San Antonio Canyon, only one was a female. A large colony of more than 200 individuals in a barn near Covina, in the citrus belt, was composed of only females. Times of capture of this bat at the ponds in San Antonio Canyon ranged from ten minutes after sunset to two hours and thirty minutes after sunset. Generally these bats came to the ponds in groups of several individuals, and often more than a dozen were captured in the course of an evening's collecting. _Specimens examined._--Total, 7, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: Mescal Canyon, 4800 ft., 1; San Antonio Canyon, 2800 ft., 2; Covina, 1100 ft., 4 (2PC). =Lasiurus borealis teleotis= (H. Allen) Red Bat One female was taken on September 30, 1951, in San Antonio Canyon, at 2800 feet elevation. The descriptions which the citrus growers of the Claremont and Glendora vicinity give of the bats they find occasionally hanging in their citrus trees accurately describe this species. Its seasonal occurrence there is unknown. =Lasiurus cinereus cinereus= (Pasilot de Beauvois) Hoary Bat Specimens were collected in spring in 1951 at elevations of 2800 and 3200 feet in San Antonio Canyon, on the coastal slope, and in Mescal Canyon at 4900 feet, on the desert slope. Large, fast flying bats, probably of this species, were seen at Jackson Lake, 6000 feet elevation, on October 15, 1951. Hoary bats are present in the San Gabriels in the fall, winter, and spring. In 1951 the last spring specimen was taken on June 11, in Mescal Canyon; then collecting was discontinued until late September when the first hoary bat was taken on the thirtieth of that month. From this date on into the winter hoary bats were recorded regularly. They seemed to be as common in early June as in most of April and May; possibly some remain in the San Gabriels throughout the summer. In spring these bats seem to segregate by sex; of twelve kept as specimens and at least an equal number captured and released only one was a female. All were captured above 2800 feet. Hoary bats seem to have a long pre-midnight forage period, having been captured at ponds from 21 minutes after sunset, to three hours and 26 minutes after sunset. Generally those taken early had empty stomachs and those taken later had full stomachs. On the night of May 24, 1951, a hoary bat captured two hours and five minutes after sunset had only a partially full stomach. On May 25, 1951, an unusual concentration of hoary bats was observed at a pond at about 3200 feet elevation, in San Antonio Canyon (Vaughan, 1953). The day had been clear and warm, one of the first summerlike days of spring. Beginning at 30 minutes after sundown hoary bats were collected until two hours and 35 minutes after sundown; in this period 22 were caught and at least as many more observed. Many were released after being examined, whereupon they hung on the foliage of nearby alders to rest and dry themselves. This concentration of hoary bats may have been due to a sudden beginning of migration with a resultant concentration of bats at certain altitudinal belts. The warm weather might have set off the migration. On evenings that followed subsequent hot days no such concentration of hoary bats was seen. B. P. Bole (Hall 1946:156) observed a concentration of hoary bats on August 28, 1932, in Esmeralda County, Nevada. Several captive _Myotis californicus_ in a jar next to a pond in San Antonio Canyon set up a squeaking which seemed to attract a hoary bat. Repeatedly the large bat swooped over the jar. _Specimens examined._--Total, 12, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: Mescal Canyon, 4900 ft., 2; San Antonio Canyon, 3200 ft., 2; San Antonio Canyon, 2800 ft., 8. =Antrozous pallidus pacificus= Merriam Pallid Bat The pallid bat is probably the most common and characteristic bat of the citrus belt at the Pacific base of the mountains. Only once, on May 4, 1951, was this bat taken in the mountains. On that night two individuals were collected at 2800 feet in San Antonio Canyon. All of the other specimens and observations were from colonies in old barns and outbuildings in the citrus belt where these bats are found in spring, summer, and fall. The impression gained by examining many mixed colonies of _Antrozous_ and _Tadarida_ was that the former greatly outnumbered the latter. For example, a small colony of bats in an old barn near San Dimas Wash consisted of about thirty pallid bats and five freetails. Large numbers of wings of moths of the family _Sphingidae_, and legs and parts of the heads of Jerusalem crickets (_Stenopelmatus fuscus_) were beneath an _Antrozous_ night-roosting place in a barn near Upland. Pallid bats were collected in 1951, from April 16 to October 17 but probably were active in the area into November. Each of two pregnant females taken two miles northeast of San Dimas on April 20, 1951, carried two embryos 4 millimeters long. _Specimens examined._--Total, 6, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 2 mi. NE San Dimas, 1200 ft., 2 (1PC); Ontario, 1100 ft., 4 (3PC). Family MOLOSSIDAE =Tadarida mexicana= (Saussure) Mexican Free-tailed Bat This bat, regularly met with in the citrus belt at the coastal base of the range, occurred in small numbers with colonies of _Antrozous_, and was once found with a colony of _Eptesicus_ near Covina. None of the females taken in April 1951 was pregnant. _Specimens examined._--Los Angeles County: 2 mi. NE San Dimas, 1200 ft., 4. =Eumops perotis californicus= (Merriam) Mastiff Bat H. W. Grinnell (1918:373) mentioned individuals collected at Sierra Madre (at the coastal base of the San Gabriels west of the study area), and Sanborn (1932:351) reported specimens from Covina and Azusa. Probably this bat occurs locally all along the coastal base of the range. Family LEPORIDAE =Lepus californicus bennettii= Gray California Jack Rabbit This species was found in the coastal sage belt from Cajon Wash west to San Gabriel Canyon and was most plentiful in thin stands of sagebrush, and in and around citrus groves. Because of their preference for semi-open country, jack rabbits are absent from much of the coastal belt of sagebrush where the brush is fairly continuous, and they never were observed in the chaparral association. Coyotes catch many jack rabbits and regularly forage around the foothill borders of the citrus groves for cottontails and jack rabbits. A female examined on February 19, 1951, was pregnant, and one taken on March 15, 1951, carried three small embryos. _Specimens examined._--San Bernardino County: 2 mi. NW Upland, 1600 ft., 3 (PC). =Lepus californicus deserticola= Mearns California Jack Rabbit There was sign of jack rabbits along the desert slope of the San Gabriels up to about 6700 feet, one-half mile west of Big Pines. They were fairly common in the Joshua tree belt, occurred less commonly in the juniper belt, and were present locally in small numbers in the pinyon-juniper association. The population seemed to be at a low ebb from 1948 to 1952, when field work was done on the desert slope. I often hiked for an hour or more on the desert or juniper-covered benches without seeing a jack rabbit. The species was commoner in washes where as many as eleven were noted in two hours' hiking. In December, 1951, below Graham Canyon, the leaves on large areas of many nearly recumbent Joshua trees had been gnawed down to their bases, and jack rabbit feces covered the ground next to these gnawings. Probably the Joshua tree is an emergency food used by the rabbits only when other food is scarce. In years when the population of jack rabbits is not low they serve as a major food for coyotes. In the Joshua tree belt below Mescal Canyon, jack rabbit remains were fairly common in coyote feces, and tracks repeatedly showed where some coyote had pursued a jack rabbit for a short distance. A large male bobcat trapped in the juniper belt in Graham Canyon had deer hair and jack rabbit remains in its stomach. _Specimens examined._--Total, 7, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 6 mi. E and 1 mi. S Llano, 3500 ft., 4; Mescal Canyon, 4800 ft., 3. =Sylvilagus audubonii sanctidiegi= (Miller) Audubon Cottontail Cottontails are common in the coastal sage scrub association and in and around citrus groves, but generally penetrate the mountains no farther than the lower limit of the chaparral association. They are everywhere on coastal alluvial slopes, except in the barren washes, and prefer patches of prickly-pear and often are loathe to leave its protection. After completely destroying a large patch of prickly-pear in the course of examining a wood rat house in the center of the cactus, I found hiding, in the main nest chamber of the house, a cottontail that dashed from its hiding place only when poked forceably with the handle of a hoe. Cottontails are seldom above the sage belt in the chaparral associations, although along firebreaks and roads they occasionally occur there. Habitually cottontails escape predators in partly open terrain offering retreats such as low, thick brush, rock piles, and cactus patches; but on open ground beneath dense chaparral, cottontails may be vulnerable to predation. Examinations of feces and stomach contents of the coyote reveals that it preys more heavily on cottontails than on any other wild species. Remains of several cottontails eaten by raptors were found in the sage belt. In April, 1951, many young cottontails were found dead on roads in the sage belt, and a newly born cottontail was in the stomach of a coyote trapped four miles north of Claremont, on February 7, 1952. _Specimens examined._--Total, 3, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: mouth of San Antonio Canyon, 2000 ft., 1 (PC). San Bernardino County: 2 mi. NW Upland, 1600 ft., 2 (PC). =Sylvilagus audubonii arizonae= (J. A. Allen) Audubon Cottontail This subspecies was recorded on the interior slope from 5200 feet elevation, as at the head of Grandview Canyon, down into the desert, and was common in the sagebrush flats of the upper pinyon-juniper association. Piles of feces under thick oak and mountain-mahogany chaparral indicated that the rabbits often sought shelter there. Adequate cover is a requirement for this rabbit on the desert slope of the San Gabriels; in the juniper and Joshua tree belts the species occurs in washes where there is fairly heavy brush, and only occasionally elsewhere. In the foothills, when frightened from cover in one small wash cottontails often run up over an adjacent low ridge and seek cover in the brush of the next wash. In the wash below Graham Canyon tracks and observations showed that cottontails were taking refuge in deserted burrows of kit foxes. In the pinyon-juniper association cottontails and jack rabbits probably occur in roughly equal numbers, but in the Joshua tree belt cottontails seem far less numerous than jack rabbits. In the course of a two hour hike in lower Mescal Wash, at about 3500 feet, eleven jack rabbits and two cottontails were noted. _Specimens examined._--Total, 2, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 6 mi. E and 1 mi. S Llano, 3500 ft., 1; Mescal Canyon, 4800 ft., 1. =Sylvilagus bachmani cinerascens= (J. A. Allen) Brush Rabbit Brush rabbits inhabit the Pacific slope of the mountains from about 1200 feet in the coastal sagebrush belt up to at least 4500 feet in the chaparral, and are the only lagomorphs found commonly above the lower edge of the chaparral association. Here they were often on steep slopes beneath extensive and nearly impenetrable tracts of chaparral. The ecologic niche of the brush rabbit is in brush where the plants form continuous thickets with little open ground. In the coastal sagebrush flats, areas supporting only scattered bushes are uninhabited by brush rabbits, while areas grown to extensive tracts of brush harbor them. When the brush rabbit's mode of escape from its enemies is considered, the reason for their habitat preference becomes more clear. Almost invariably these rabbits seek escape by running through the densest portions of the brush, never appearing in the open; in this way they travel quickly away from the source of danger without being observed. Because they avoid being seen in the open, and do not seek safety largely through running ability, they need continuous stretches of brush for escape. While hunting in the coastal sagebrush belt I have repeatedly seen frightened brush rabbits turn and dart beneath the bushes a few feet from a human being rather than be driven into the open. A great horned owl shot in March, 1951, in the sage belt, had in its stomach the remains of a freshly killed adult brush rabbit. Although coyotes and brush rabbits often occur in the same general sections of the sage flats, remains of these rabbits have been notably scarce in coyote feces from these areas. This is probably because the coyote hunts along clearings and in open brushland, precisely the type of habitat avoided by brush rabbits. Family SCIURIDAE =Sciurus griseus anthonyi= Mearns Western Gray Squirrel Gray squirrels were on both slopes of the San Gabriels in oak woodland. A gray squirrel was observed in April of 1948, as it climbed a telephone pole adjacent to an orange grove near Cucamonga. This, and one noted bounding up a slope of greasewood chaparral near Cattle Canyon, were the only gray squirrels seen in areas which were not grown to oaks or adjacent to oak woodland. In the lower foothills gray squirrels were invariably found in association with valley oak, this plant forming limited woodland areas in canyon bottoms. In the upper chaparral association the squirrels frequented the large scrub oaks growing on talus slopes and canyon sides. In the yellow pine woodland, gray squirrels are restricted to black oaks, often where they formed mixed stands with the conifers. On the interior slope these squirrels were found only at the lower edge of the yellow pine woodland where black oaks are common. There, in the vicinity of Big Pines, they were present between roughly 5800 and 7000 feet, while on the Pacific slope they inhabited oak woodland from 1600 feet to about 7000 feet elevation. In Live Oak Canyon in December of 1950, tracks indicated that a bobcat had killed a gray squirrel in a small draw beneath the oaks. In Evey Canyon on March 6, 1951, while watching for bats at late twilight, I observed a gray squirrel traveling through the branches of a nearby oak. A great horned owl glided into the oak in an attempt to catch the squirrel, which leaped quickly into a dense mass of foliage and escaped. For roughly ten minutes the owl perched in the oak watching its intended prey, then flew off down the canyon amid frantic scolding by the squirrel. On March 17, 1951, a female gray squirrel taken at about 3500 feet elevation in San Antonio Canyon contained two embryos, each roughly 40 millimeters long. =Spermophilus beecheyi beecheyi= (Richardson) Beechey Ground Squirrel From the coastal sage belt, into the yellow pine forest of the Pacific slope, this species is common on land cleared by man or disturbed in the course of construction, or on severely eroded slopes where the original climax vegetation is partly or completely absent. Thus in the sage belt, ground squirrels live along dirt roads through the brush, on the heavily eroded banks often found in the foothills, on land grazed closely by sheep, and in those parts of major washes such as San Antonio and Cucamonga washes where scatterings of huge boulders offer prominent vantage points. In San Antonio Canyon _Spermophilus_ was restricted to the vicinity of roads and firebreaks, and an especially large colony of at least forty individuals lived at a dump one mile southwest of Camp Baldy at about 4500 feet elevation. Ground squirrels used burned stems of large laurel sumac as observation posts. Because of a preference for open areas offering unobstructed outlooks, ground squirrels originally probably did not penetrate the main belt of heavy chaparral on the Pacific slope of the range except in some of the large washes. In the spring of 1951 and the preceding summer there was a marked increase in the ground squirrel population near Padua Hills as a result of sheep grazing on approximately one-half square mile of sage land. Grasses and smaller shrubs were eaten down to the ground, and in some places coastal sagebrush and _Haplopappus_ were killed by browsing and trampling. The area formerly had a sparse growth of bushes with intervening growths of tall grasses and one colony of perhaps 20 ground squirrels; but after the sheep grazing the area was open brushland with large clear spaces on which the herbage was trimmed to the ground, and had at least four colonies of ground squirrels as large as the first. Also there were other ground squirrels established in various parts of the area. Probably the dry weather in the winter of 1950-51 with consequent retardation of the vegetation aided the spread of the squirrels in this area. In the sage belt, most ground squirrels are dormant by December. In 1951, after a mild winter, squirrels were noted on January 25 near Padua Hills. On February 8, 1951, males in breeding condition were collected, and on March 16, a female taken near San Antonio Wash carried three small embryos. In early March of 1951, ground squirrels were active at 4500 feet elevation in San Antonio Canyon. _Specimen examined._--Los Angeles County: 1 mi. S and 2 mi. E Big Pines, 8000 ft., 1. =Spermophilus beecheyi fisheri= (Merriam) California Ground Squirrel This ground squirrel inhabited the desert slope of the mountains up to 5000 feet elevation, and was most common in the juniper belt; burrows often were made under large junipers. In May, 1949, ground squirrels were common in the rocks adjacent to Mescal Wash at an elevation of 4500 feet. In an apple orchard near Valyermo, squirrels fed on the fallen fruit in early November of 1951. No squirrel was seen in December, January, and February, indicating that all were below ground in winter. _Specimen examined._--San Bernardino County: Desert Springs, 4000 ft., 1 (PC). =Ammospermophilus leucurus leucurus= (Merriam) Antelope Ground Squirrel Antelope ground squirrels were common in the Joshua tree woodland where they were noted up to 4500 feet elevation in Graham Canyon. None was found on the pinyon slopes, possibly because of the competition offered there by _Eutamias merriami_, or because the rocky nature of the soil there rendered burrowing difficult. Although observed less often in winter than in summer, this species is active all year. On February 6, 1949, in Mescal Wash, an antelope ground squirrel was foraging over the snow which was at least six inches deep. These squirrels were attracted to the carcasses of rodents used as bait for carnivore sets, and caused a good deal of trouble by disturbing the traps. Antelope ground squirrels used the topmost twigs of box-thorn bushes extensively as lookout posts, and many of their burrows were at the bases of these thorny bushes. This habit of regularly using observation posts is well developed in each species of ground squirrel found in the San Gabriels. _Specimens examined._--Los Angeles County: 6 mi. E and 1 mi. S Llano, 3500 ft., 2. =Eutamias speciosus speciosus= (Merriam) Lodgepole Chipmunk This chipmunk was characteristic of the most boreal parts of the San Gabriel Mountains. It was recorded from 6800 feet elevation at Big Pines, to an altitude of approximately 9800 feet near Mt. San Antonio, and was common where coniferous timber was interspersed with snowbrush chaparral. In upper Icehouse Canyon and near Telegraph Peak these chipmunks were associated with lodgepole pines and chinquapin, and one mile east of Mt. San Antonio individuals were often observed in thickets of manzanita. This chipmunk usually shunned pure stands of coniferous timber except as temporary forage ground. On Blue Ridge these chipmunks used the uppermost stems of snowbrush as vantage points, and when disturbed ran nimbly over thorny surfaces of the brush in seeking refuge in the tangled growth. In early November of 1951, these animals were not yet in hibernation on Blue Ridge. They were noted on November 6, after the season's first snows had melted; on November 13, however, a cold wind with drifting fog kept most of them under cover, and only two were noted in the course of the day. _Specimen examined._--Los Angeles County: 1 mi. S and 2 mi. E Big Pines, 8100 ft., 1. =Eutamias merriami merriami= (J. A. Allen) Merriam Chipmunk The lower limit of the range of this species, on the coastal face of the range, is roughly coincident with that of manzanita--that is to say, it begins in the main belt of chaparral above the lower foothills. _E. merriami_ seems to reach maximum abundance amid the granite talus, and scrub oak and _Pseudotsuga_ growth at the upper edge of the chaparral association. It was absent, however, from all but the lower fringe of the yellow pine forest association. On the desert slope _merriami_ was partial to rocky areas in the pinyon-juniper association but was also in the black oak woods on the Ball Flat fire road near Jackson Lake. Nowhere was _Eutamias merriami_ and _E. speciosus_ observed on common ground. _Specimens examined._--Los Angeles County: San Antonio Canyon, 5500 ft., 2 (1 PC). =Glaucomys sabrinus californicus= (Rhoads) Northern Flying Squirrel No specimens of this species were taken in the field work in the San Gabriels, nor did I find any rangers or residents of the mountains who had seen flying squirrels in the area. Nevertheless sign found in the white fir forests in the Big Pines area indicated that flying squirrels may occur there. On a number of occasions dissected pine cones were noted on the horizontal limbs and bent trunks of white firs. These cones were too large to have been carried there by chipmunks, and gray squirrels were often completely absent from the areas. I suspect that extensive trapping in the coniferous forests of the higher parts of the mountains would produce specimens of flying squirrels. Willett (1944:19) mentions that flying squirrels probably occur in the San Gabriel Mountains. Family GEOMYIDAE =Thomomys bottae pallescens= Rhoads Valley Pocket Gopher This gopher was found below about 5000 feet elevation in disturbed or open areas from Cajon Wash at Devore westward all along the coastal base of the San Gabriel Range. In the lower part of the chaparral belt the gopher evidently was absent from the chaparral-covered slopes, but was common along roads and on fire trails. Burt (1932) and von Bloeker (1932) discuss the distribution of the three subspecies of this species, _pallescens_, _neglecta_, and _mohavensis_, which are in the San Gabriel Mountains area, and Burt indicates that _pallescens_ grades toward _mohavensis_ in the southern part of Antelope Valley. =Thomomys bottae neglectus= Bailey Valley Pocket Gopher In the forests of yellow pine and white fir of the higher parts of the San Gabriel Mountains the workings of this gopher were common, and sign of its presence was found above 4500 feet on both slopes of the mountain range. The rocky character of the coastal slope seems to limit the occurrence of gophers, for they are not continuously distributed there. On the desert slope they occur locally down into the pinyon-juniper belt. In the vicinity of Big Pines, on the interior slope, these gophers preferred broken forest where snow brush or other brush occurred; their workings, however, were also found beneath groves of conifers and black oaks. The abundance of earth cores resting on the duff indicated that this species is active in the snow in winter. _Specimens examined._--Total, 5, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 2 mi. E Valyermo, 4600 ft., 2; 3 mi. W Big Pines, 6000 ft., 1; 1 mi. S and 2 mi. E Big Pines, 8000 ft., 2. =Thomomys bottae mohavensis= Grinnell Valley Pocket Gopher One specimen of this subspecies was taken on December 31, 1951, in the Joshua tree belt, eight miles east of Llano, 3700 feet elevation. Family HETEROMYIDAE =Perognathus fallax fallax= Merriam San Diego Pocket Mouse This pocket mouse is restricted to the coastal sage scrub association, and was recorded from Cajon Wash west to Live Oak Canyon. The mouse does not inhabit even the lower edge of the chaparral belt, but in the coastal sage flats is usually the most abundant rodent. In disturbed parts of the coastal sage belt _fallax_ is less common, and was never trapped in channels of rocky washes. Trap lines in the eroded adobe banks of the foothills, where white sage and coastal sagebrush are the dominant plants, took mostly these pocket mice. Although the soil of such slopes is compact and seemingly is unsuitable for burrowing by heteromyids, _fallax_ is the most common rodent. Because few burrows of pocket mice were noted there, it is possible that the many old unused burrows of _Spermophilus_ and _Dipodomys_ which honeycomb certain parts of adobe banks are used also by _fallax_; some of these burrows shelter _Peromyscus eremicus_ and _Peromyscus californicus_. These mice are inactive above ground in cold weather. In the sage belt near Thompson Canyon, where this subspecies had been found to be the most common rodent, none was trapped on the sub-freezing night of December 3, 1948, although other rodents were found in usual numbers. Individuals have been taken on nights of intermittent rain, yet none has been trapped on freezing nights. This species is characteristically heavily infested by a large species of mite. Usually these mites congregate around the base of the tail. On October 11, 1949, one lactating female and two carrying embryos were taken. _Specimens examined._--Total, 11, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 4 mi. N and 1 mi. E Claremont, 1900 ft., 5; 3 mi. N Claremont, 1600 ft., 6 (5 PC). =Perognathus fallax pallidus= Mearns San Diego Pocket Mouse On the desert slope of the mountains this species is found in the part of the pinyon-juniper association that is between elevations of 4000 and 5200 feet. The mouse is absent from the higher chaparral and pinyon-covered slopes, but is present on south slopes in the pinyon belt where more open growths of pinyons and scrub oaks are interspersed with yucca. I recorded this pocket mouse from the vicinity of Cajon Pass west to Valyermo. The local distribution of _pallidus_ is striking because of its close positive correlation with the distribution of yucca. On benches around 5000 feet, where yuccas are scattered in their occurrence, _pallidus_ is nearly always taken near (often right at the base of) this plant. Lower in the juniper belt the dry rocky south slopes supporting yucca plants are well populated by _pallidus_, while adjacent flats, and north slopes grown to antelope brush and scrub oak, are completely uninhabited. Near the mouth of Grandview Canyon, on steep rocky southern exposures grown sparsely to burro weed and yucca, one hundred traps produced in one night eight _pallidus_ and no other rodents. Here many of these pocket mice were trapped on large fractured rock outcroppings, where most or all of the mice probably lived in the daytime in the deep cracks; in any event no burrows were noted near these rocks. This species prefers barren slopes supporting yucca plants. These plants produce large seeds which are staple food items for _P. f. pallidus_ and other rodents during the lean part of the year, that is to say, late summer and autumn. Many of the dry capsules of the yucca plants were examined in October, 1951, and these generally still contained a few seeds. Pocket mice taken in October usually carried in their cheek pouches seeds of yucca together with some other material, and often they carried only the seeds of yucca. Probably the wind shakes only a few seeds out of the capsules at a time, thus tending to drop the seeds over a fairly long period. Trapping in winter in the juniper belt revealed that these pocket mice were not active above ground on nights colder than about 40° F. On nights when the temperature was about 36° F. none was taken, but on the one night in late December, 1948, when the minimum was 44° F., several specimens were taken. In this same area in May 1949, pocket mice were the most numerous rodents. Because of their evident sensitivity to cold weather, these mice must remain below ground for weeks at a time during the cold weather of December and January. Specimens of _pallidus_ from the desert slope of the San Gabriels are grayer (less brown) than specimens taken farther southeast in the Mojave and Colorado deserts. Further sampling of populations of _Perognathus fallax_ from areas adjacent to the San Gabriels might demonstrate differences of sufficient magnitude to warrant subspecific distinction of the San Gabriel population. Possibly, however, the San Gabriel series manifests only local variation in the race _pallidus_. Grinnell (1933:54) characterizes the ecological niche of the race _pallidus_ as being "open, sandy ground, often ... surrounded by rocky slopes," whereas these pocket mice in the San Gabriels inhabited gravelly or rocky juniper-dotted benches. _Specimens examined._--Total, 11, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 5 mi. E and 4 mi. S Llano, 4500 ft., 7; 2 mi. E Valyermo, 4500 ft., 3; 4 mi. E Valyermo, 5000 ft., 1. =Perognathus californicus dispar= Osgood California Pocket Mouse Mice of this subspecies were recorded from the lower chaparral association below about 4000 feet elevation along the coastal face of the San Gabriel Range. They were trapped on greasewood-covered slopes, in mixed growths of white sage and buckwheat, and beneath scrub oak and lilac chaparral; however none was taken in the heavy chaparral of the upper parts of the chaparral association. One small juvenile in gray pelage was taken in San Antonio Canyon on October 1, 1951. _Specimens examined._--Total, 5, distributed as follows: San Bernardino County: Lytle Canyon, 4000 ft., 2 (PC). Los Angeles County: San Antonio Canyon, 3000 ft., 3. =Perognathus californicus bernardinus= Benson California Pocket Mouse On Blue Ridge these mice were recorded between 7100 and 8000 feet elevation. Here they were restricted to dense tracts of snowbrush and sagebrush, often where these tracts were interspersed with, or beneath, open groves of conifers. These mice seemed to favor areas where this thick brush was broken by patches of open, grass-covered ground. Benson (1930:450) records this subspecies from Swarthout Valley, near Big Pines, at 6860 feet elevation. While setting traps for pocket gophers one mile southwest of Big Pines, in September of 1951, I frightened a pocket mouse from its burrow. The animal jumped into the tangle of interlacing twigs of a nearby clump of snowbrush, and with great dexterity climbed into the center of the bush, where it was lost to view. I was surprised at the facility with which this saltatorial rodent traveled through the network of small branches. In winter, in areas inhabited by this mouse, snow covers the ground for long periods during which these mice are probably forced to remain below ground. _Specimens examined._--Los Angeles County: 1 mi. S and 2 mi. W Big Pines, 7400 ft., 2. =Dipodomys panamintinus mohavensis= (Grinnell) Panamint Kangaroo Rat This rat is common in the Joshua tree and juniper belts, and locally penetrates the pinyon belt at about 5000 feet elevation. It occurs regularly along the entire desert slope of the San Gabriel Mountains. The upper limit of the range of this species roughly coincides with the upper limit of the juniper belt, and within this range it was found to inhabit areas having widely different soil types. It occurred on the sandy ground of desert washes, the gravelly soil of the juniper-clad benches, and the mixed sandy and rocky ground of washes in canyons. A preference is shown by _panamintinus_ for fairly level ground. Rough terrain or steep slopes are generally avoided, whereas rather large colonies of these kangaroo rats are found in small flats of the desert foothills. Below about 4500 elevation on the interior slope this species was the most numerous rodent, and seemed to reach maximum abundance in the Joshua tree association. About 500 trap-nights in the juniper belt near Graham Canyon yielded 31 specimens, whereas about 300 trap-nights in Joshua tree flats took 34 individuals. The cheek pouches of many specimens taken in early winter contained green shoots of grass and little dry material. On many occasions rat traps set next to wood rat nests beneath large junipers produced _panamintinus_, and many of these animals had their cheek pouches crammed full of juniper berries. In December, 1948, _panamintinus_ was trapped consistently on nights when the temperature dropped to below 20° F. On December 27, 1948, after a three inch snowfall, tracks of this species were noted in the snow at the mouth of Mescal Canyon. Parts of the skulls of this species were found in many coyote feces from the desert slope. _Specimens examined._--Total, 11, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: Mescal Wash, 4000 ft., 8 (6 PC); 2 mi. E Valyermo, 4600 ft., 3. =Dipodomys merriami merriami= Mearns Merriam Kangaroo Rat This kangaroo rat barely enters the area under consideration and is almost restricted to the Joshua tree association, for only a few individuals were taken at the lower edge of the juniper benches. This species inhabits the Joshua tree belt all along the desert base of the San Gabriels. As mentioned in the description of the Joshua tree association, the relative numbers of _Dipodomys merriami_ and _D. panamintinus_ shifted from 1948 to 1951, possibly concurrent with the seasons of low rainfall in this period. Whereas in 1948 _merriami_ was decidedly less abundant than _panamintinus_ in the Joshua tree belt, in 1951 the numbers were reversed. In December, 1951, it was found by tending the traps in the early evening that _merriami_ foraged fairly early before the ground had frozen solidly. _Specimens examined._--Los Angeles County: 2 mi. NW mouth of Graham Canyon, 3500 ft., 5 (PC). =Dipodomys merriami parvus= Rhoads San Bernardino Kangaroo Rat One specimen of this subspecies was trapped on November 26, 1951, in a sandy channel of Cajon Wash near Devore beneath a clump of scale-broom. =Dipodomys agilis agilis= Gambel Pacific Kangaroo Rat This species was found below about 4000 feet elevation all along the coastal face of the range and reached maximum abundance in the level tracts of coastal sage. It was one of the most abundant rodents there, usually being second to _Perognathus fallax_ in point of numbers. Large colonies of kangaroo rats occurred locally on sandy ground adjacent to large washes. The rats were found sparingly on the foothill adobe banks and in the greasewood chaparral of the lower foothills, but in heavy chaparral where a layer of plant debris covered the ground, such as on north slopes grown to scrub oak and lilac, kangaroo rats were completely absent. Thus, in the lower chaparral belt, this rodent had a discontinuous distribution. The coyote probably is one of the major predators of these kangaroo rats; remains of this rodent were often found in coyote feces, and coyotes excavated many burrow systems in large kangaroo rat colonies in the sandy ground near San Antonio Wash. The soil there is so soft that coyotes probably were often successful in digging out their prey. The shed skin of a large Pacific rattlesnake (_Crotalus viridis helleri_) was found four feet inside the mouth of a kangaroo rat burrow; probably this reptile preys on _agilis_. Great horned owls (_Bubo virginianus pacificus_) come down nightly from the chaparral to hunt in the sage flats. Beneath the perches of these owls I have found pellets containing bones of _agilis_. _Specimens examined._--Total, 13, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: San Antonio Wash, 1900 ft., 11 (10 PC); 4 mi. NE Claremont, 1600 ft., 2. =Dipodomys agilis perplexus= (Merriam) Pacific Kangaroo Rat All the specimens of this species from the desert slope of the San Gabriel Range are referred to the subspecies _perplexus_. They were taken in brushy habitats between the elevations of 4500 and 7400 feet. Throughout much of this area _perplexus_ was found only in certain restricted areas more or less surrounded by inhospitable ground. For example, at 7400 feet on Blue Ridge, they were found occasionally in the strips of sagebrush and lilac brush which locally capped this ridge. Often these patches of chaparral on Blue Ridge were surrounded by areas unsuitable for kangaroo rats: on the Pacific slope, talus, oaks, and yellow pines prevailed; on the ridge scattered yellow pine groves were present; and on the steep desert slope there were yellow pines and white firs. In Swarthout Valley _perplexus_ was found in flats that supported basin sagebrush and _Haploppus_, while the coniferous forests to the south, and pinyon-covered slopes to the north were uninhabited. On flats supporting antelope brush and juniper, _perplexus_ was often common, but it did not penetrate the chaparral of adjacent slopes grown to scrub oak and mountain-mahogany. In general then, _perplexus_ was found in fairly open brushy flats or slopes, even where these were surrounded by unsuitable habitats. Specimens of _D. agilis_ from the desert slope two miles east of Valyermo are referrable to the subspecies _perplexus_. A series taken in Cajon Wash at Devore, on the Pacific slope, is intermediate between _agilis_, of the coastal slope of the San Gabriels, and _perplexus_ of the desert slope, but approaches more nearly the later subspecies. Thus, different subspecies of _D. agilis_ occur on opposite slopes of the San Gabriel Mountains, with intergradation taking place in the Cajon Pass area and probably also at the west end of the Mountains. Both scrub oak acorns and juniper berries were found in the cheek pouches of this subspecies, and one immature individual taken in Swarthout Valley had its cheek pouches stuffed with approximately 550 seeds of brome grass. On November 13, 1951, at 7500 feet on Blue Ridge, a small juvenile was taken; it must have been born not earlier than September. _Specimens examined._--Total, 17, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 2 mi. E Valyermo, 4600 ft., 3; 5 mi. E Valyermo, 1; 1 mi. E Big Pines, 6600 ft., 6; 1 mi. S and 2 mi. W Big Pines, 7400 ft., 2. San Bernardino County: Cajon Wash, 1/2 mi. SW Devore, 2200 ft., 5. Family CRICETIDAE =Reithrodontomys megalotis longicaudus= (Baird) Western Harvest Mouse This species inhabited grassy areas of the coastal sage belt, and reached maximum abundance on cleared land grown thickly to weeds and scattered brush. The mouse was only locally abundant--being scarce throughout much of the sage belt--but was found under contrasting conditions. In San Antonio Wash the species was taken among rocks and sparse weeds, at Palmer Canyon specimens were trapped on a barren ridge sparsely clothed with greasewood and white sage, and also one mile E of Big Pines in flats supporting basin sagebrush and a fairly dense growth of grasses. The western harvest mouse was recorded from 1500 feet elevation to 3200 feet on the Pacific slope, and at 6600 feet near Big Pines on the desert slope. Those specimens of harvest mice from near Big Pines may be grading toward the desert race _megalotis_; my series of specimens from this locality, however, is too small for clear indications on this point. Individuals in juvenal pelage were taken on November 26, 1951, near Devore. _Specimens examined._--Total, 6, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 1 mi. E Big Pines, 6600 ft., 2; Palmer Canyon, 2000 ft., 1; 4 mi. N Claremont, 1700 ft., 3 (PC). =Peromyscus eremicus eremicus= (Baird) Cactus Mouse In Mescal Wash on the desert slope of the San Gabriels, this mouse was one of the most abundant mammals and was the only rodent other than _Peromyscus maniculatus_ regularly trapped in the barren channels of washes. In Mescal Wash, at an altitude of 4000 feet, _eremicus_ occurred along with the chaparral-inhabiting _Peromyscus boylii_ and _Peromyscus californicus_. The two species last mentioned were associated with the occasional large patches of manzanita, antelope brush, and other brush of the wash, whereas _eremicus_ was trapped in the rocky and sandy channels among scattered bushes of scale-broom. No specimens of _eremicus_ were taken on the juniper-clad benches adjacent to the wash. _Specimens examined._--Los Angeles County: Mescal Wash, 4000 ft., 10 (4 PC). =Peromyscus eremicus fraterculus= (Miller) Cactus Mouse This mouse was recorded from 1900 feet elevation, one mile south of the mouth of San Antonio Canyon, to 3200 feet elevation in Cajon Canyon. This subspecies is characteristic of the sage belt and shows a strong preference for the rough rocky areas found in dry washes. Although in many areas the channels of the washes are immediately adjacent to sandy sagebrush-covered flats, _eremicus_ is not common in the latter areas. Rocks seem to be essential to _eremicus_, for sandy areas in the sageland which were devoid of rocks yielded only an occasional specimen. For example, 100 trap-nights in the main channel of San Antonio Wash yielded 23 _eremicus_ and only six other rodents; while in the sandy sage areas nearby 200 trap-nights yielded only one _eremicus_ and 32 other rodents. In lower San Antonio Canyon _eremicus_ seemed restricted to the rocky canyon bottom, none having been trapped on the steep slopes nearby. This subspecies occurs commonly, however, on the adobe banks grown to white sage at the base of the foothills. There _eremicus_ occurred on common ground with _Perognathus fallax fallax_, and was often the only _Peromyscus_ taken. This species may be restricted by temperature; washes above 4000 feet elevation, which seemed suitable were uninhabited by these mice. On December 1, 1949, two females taken at the mouth of Palmer Canyon had well advanced embryos. A female trapped in San Antonio Canyon on September 19, 1951, was lactating. Juveniles were caught in the sage belt in October, 1951. _Specimens examined._--Total, 6, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: San Antonio Canyon, 2500 ft., 1; San Antonio Wash, 1800 ft., 5 (PC). =Peromyscus californicus insignis= Rhoads California Mouse This mouse inhabits areas supporting chaparral on the coastal slope of the San Gabriels below 5000 feet. In the chaparral it is usually the most plentiful rodent, being dominant on slopes which have been burned over and on which greasewood chaparral has taken over. On one such slope at the head of Cow Canyon, at 4500 feet, this was the only rodent trapped, although an occasional wood rat house was noted. Trapping records gave the impression that this form was the most ubiquitous rodent in the entire chaparral belt. Nearly every trap line, even in such non-productive areas as oak woodland, took the California mouse; and in many areas, as in thick lilac brush, this mouse was by far the most abundant rodent. Specimens were taken on the damp ground next to San Antonio Creek, and in the riparian growth. In San Antonio Wash the California mouse was found in thickets of laurel sumac and lemonade berry, or other large shrubs, but were absent from most of the adjacent sageland. The one place where they were found away from heavy brush was on a series of barren adobe banks, near Palmer Canyon, clothed mostly with white sage. Here they found shelter in the unused burrows of kangaroo rats and ground squirrels. The only place on the desert slope where this species was taken was in Mescal Wash. There it was taken occasionally near the large clumps of antelope-brush and manzanita which grew in the main channels of the wash. Lactating females of this species were taken in October, 1949, and February, 1950. Two pregnant females were trapped on February 25, 1950, at the mouth of Palmer Canyon. _Specimens examined._--Total 16, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: Mescal Wash (4200 ft., 4; 4300 ft., 1; 4500 ft., 1), 6(2IM); San Antonio Canyon, 4500 ft., 1; San Antonio Canyon, 3000 ft., 5; mouth of Palmer Canyon, 1900 ft., 4 (PC). =Peromyscus maniculatus gambeli= (Baird) Deer Mouse This species occurs from 1000 feet elevation to above 9000 feet elevation on the Pacific slope of the Mountains, but although probably the most widespread rodent in the area it is absent from many habitats. This mouse reaches maximum abundance in the coastal sage scrub association, particularly where the soil is sandy with scattered vegetation--usually coastal sagebrush and black sage. On the foothill adobe slopes none was trapped, nor have any been taken in most of the chaparral habitats. A few _gambeli_ were trapped amid the talus beneath growths of scrub oak and bay trees in San Antonio Canyon, at 4300 feet elevation. On Blue Ridge, at elevations of from 7200 feet to 8300 feet, this mouse inhabited areas clothed with snowbush, basin sagebrush, currant, and scattered conifers, and was found sparingly in the coniferous forests. Thus this species lives on contrasting soil types in association with many different vegetational assemblages, from the coastal base to the crest of the range. There is a rather wide variation in color in _gambeli_ from the San Gabriels. Certain individuals taken in open, sandy coastal sage areas are pale, some being indistinguishable from examples of _sonoriensis_ taken in the pinyon-juniper association on the desert slope. Specimens from San Antonio Canyon have somewhat darker pelage than those from the sage belt, and than individuals taken on Blue Ridge. Possibly a large series of _Peromyscus maniculatus_ from the San Gabriel Mountains would show definite local trends in color of pelage. This species is active on sub-freezing and rainy nights as evidenced by trapping results, and at Big Pines there were tracks around the bases of conifers after a heavy snowfall in December, 1951. Several females taken in the sage belt in October, 1948, carried embryos, and a lactating female was recorded from Blue Ridge on November 13, 1951. Juveniles have been taken in September, October, November, and December. _Specimens examined._--Total, 9, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 1 mi. S and 2 mi. W Big Pines, 7400 ft., 3; 1 mi. S and 2 mi. E Big Pines, 8200 ft., 1; 4 mi. NE Claremont, 1900 ft., 2; San Antonio Wash, 1800 ft., 3 (PC). =Peromyscus maniculatus sonoriensis= (Le Conte) Deer Mouse This subspecies is associated with contrasting types of soil and vegetation. It is seemingly absent from the upper pinyon-juniper sage flats and areas grown to chaparral, but is fairly common on the gravelly benches dotted with junipers, and in the washes issuing from the canyons on the desert slope. It is present in small numbers in the Joshua tree association. In 1951 the numbers of _sonoriensis_ were noticeably less than in 1948; probably this was correlated with the series of dry winters in this period. In December, 1948, this animal was one of the most common rodents in Mescal Wash, 200 trap-nights yielding thirteen specimens; but in November, 1951, none was taken. In parts of the juniper belt, where an average of about six _sonoriensis_ was taken per 100 trap-nights in 1948, the average had dropped to one per 100 trap-nights in 1951. Specimens of this species from the desert slope of the mountains have been assigned to the subspecies _sonoriensis_. Those from Blue Ridge tend toward _sonoriensis_ in color, and may be considered as intergrades between this subspecies and _gambeli_. This species was active on nights when the temperature was as low as 10° F., and individuals were trapped in the juniper belt in December, 1948, when four inches of snow lay on the ground. Gray-pelaged juveniles were taken on the desert slope in December, 1948, and a female taken in Mescal Canyon on December 22 of this year carried four embryos near term. _Specimens examined._--Total, 11, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 8 mi. E and 4 mi. S Llano, 4000 ft., 6 (4 PC); Mescal Canyon, 4800 ft., 5. =Peromyscus boylii rowleyi= (J. A. Allen) Brush Mouse The main range of this mouse in the San Gabriel Mountains lies between 1600 and 6000 feet elevation on the Pacific slope of the Mountains, thus encompassing much of the chaparral and oak woodland associations. It was the most common mammal in the oak woodland association in the lower foothills and often was trapped there on leaf mold beneath the oaks. While trapping for shrews I regularly took this species in riparian growth right down to the edge of the water. In San Antonio Canyon many _boylii_ were trapped beneath logs and dense vegetation, and on wet seepage slopes adjacent to the creek. This species shows a definite predilection for rocky habitats where these occur in the chaparral. In heavy lilac brush near Camp Baldy _Peromyscus boylii_ was outnumbered by _P. californicus_, yet where talus slopes or boulder piles occurred _boylii_ was more numerous. At the head of Cow Canyon amid boulders beneath scrub oak, bay, and big cone-spruce, this species was especially abundant and no other _Peromyscus_ was taken. Of special interest is the occurrence of this mouse on the desert slope of the mountains; there it was taken beneath scrub oaks in the pinyon-juniper association at the mouth of Mescal Canyon, and amid boulder and debris piles in Mescal Wash at 4000 feet elevation. While manzanita and scrub oak grew in the wash at the points of capture, the animals were actually surrounded by the desert conditions of the Joshua woodland, and associated with such desert forms as _Onychomys torridus pulcher_ and _Peromyscus eremicus eremicus_. Immature individuals were taken in October, November, February, and March, and a female with two large embryos was taken near Icehouse Canyon on November 8, 1951. _Specimens examined._--Total, 8, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: Mescal Wash, 4000 ft., 1; Mescal Canyon, 4800 ft., 2; San Antonio Canyon, 5200 ft., 2; San Antonio Canyon, 4500 ft., 1; San Antonio Canyon, 2800 ft., 1; Thompson Canyon, 1800 ft., 1 (PC). =Peromyscus truei montipinoris= Elliot Piñon Mouse Only once was this mouse found outside the pinyon-juniper association of the desert slope; in November, 1949, several were collected near Cajon in mixed manzanita, scrub oak, and greasewood chaparral. This was the only _Peromyscus_ of regular occurrence in the pinyon-juniper area, and was recorded from the upper limit of this association, near Jackson Lake, at 6000 feet, to the lower limit of the association at the mouth of Graham Canyon at roughly 4000 feet elevation. Although in the juniper belt _truei_ often occurs on common ground with _Peromyscus maniculatus sonoriensis_, the habitat preferences of these animals are generally complementary. Where the mice occur together, traps set in a variety of locations caught _Peromyscus maniculatus_, but typically traps set amid the brush or on the open ground away from the junipers were productive. On the contrary _truei_ was invariably trapped quite near the junipers and often in association with the large nests of _Neotoma fuscipes simplex_. In fact traps set right on the beds of litter beneath the junipers were most likely to catch _truei_. Records kept of trapping localities show that _truei_ was without exception trapped within twenty feet of some treelike shelter such as junipers, pinyons, Joshua tree or scrub oaks. Thus _Peromyscus maniculatus_ occupies the open stretches between the trees, while _truei_ inhabits the ground beneath and immediately adjacent to the trees. In Nevada the piñon mouse prefers rocky areas (Hall, 1946:520). In the San Gabriel Mountains this mouse does not seem to have this predilection. In the juniper belt _truei_ was second to _Dipodomys panamintinus_ in point of numbers. In the course of 500 trap-nights in the juniper belt twenty-two _truei_ were taken with thirty-six _Dipodomys_. I consider my series of _Peromyscus truei_ from the desert slope of the San Gabriels to represent the subspecies _montipinoris_. The series is closely comparable to specimens of the subspecies _montipinoris_ in the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology from the Mount Pinos area, but differs from specimens of the race _chlorus_ from the San Bernardino Mountains in certain diagnostic characteristics. In his recent paper on _Peromyscus truei_, Hoffmeister (1951) considered the populations of this species in the San Gabriels to be of the race _chlorus_. Hoffmeister had only one specimen available from the San Gabriel Mountains (Lytle Creek, on the Pacific slope) which was intermediate between _montipinoris_ and _chlorus_, but on the basis of cranial measurements it was referred to the race _chlorus_. Specimens of _Peromyscus truei_ from the eastern end of the desert slope of the San Gabriel Mountains and the Cajon Pass area would probably demonstrate that the race _montipinoris_, which occupies the desert slope of the San Gabriels, intergrades with the race _chlorus_, which occurs in the San Bernardino Range immediately to the east, in the Cajon Pass area. Although _montipinoris_ occurs on the desert slope of the San Gabriels, _chlorus_ may occur on the Pacific slope. I took no specimens of the piñon mouse on the Pacific slope of the San Gabriel Mountains. In December, 1948, many small juveniles were taken in the juniper belt, and on October 15, 1951, two females trapped at the head of Grandview Canyon had embryos: one three and the other four. On November 13, 1951, a partially gray-pelaged subadult female was trapped which had recently suckled young. _Specimens examined._--Total, 17, all in Illinois Museum of Natural History, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: Mescal Canyon, 4500 ft., 8 mi. SE Llano, 11; Mescal Canyon, 4300 ft., 2; 6 mi. SE Valyermo, 5100 ft., 1; Grandview Canyon, 6 mi. SE Valyermo, 5100 ft., 1. San Bernardino County: 1 mi. W Cajon, 3200 ft., 2. =Onychomys torridus pulcher= Elliot Southern Grasshopper Mouse Grasshopper mice seemed to be partial to the more sandy parts of the Joshua tree flats where the mice were trapped regularly but not abundantly. This mouse inhabited the barren sandy channels of Mescal Wash but was rare on the adjacent juniper-clad benches. In the arid, sandy washes this typical desert rodent penetrated the high pinyon-juniper association. Wherever grasshopper mice occurred they were outnumbered by most of the other rodent species. For example, on November 26, 1949, below Graham Canyon, 100 snap traps yielded 10 _Dipodomys panamintinus mohavensis_, 2 _Dipodomys merriami merriami_, 4 _Peromyscus maniculatus sonoriensis_, and 3 _Onychomys torridus pulcher_. Where abandoned kangaroo rat burrows were common in the Joshua tree belt these burrows were used as retreats by _Onychomys_. Some traps set at the entrances to old burrows caught grasshopper mice. _Specimens examined._--Total, 7, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 8 mi. E and 3 mi. S Llano, 3500 ft., 1; Mescal Wash, 4200 ft., 5 (3 PC); 2 mi. S Valyermo, 4600 ft., 1 (PC). =Neotoma lepida intermedia= Rhoads Desert Woodrat This species was on the Pacific face of the Mountains from 1600 feet elevation in the coastal sage belt, to 4800 feet elevation in open groves of big cone-spruce and scrub oak of the chaparral association. The local distribution of this woodrat is determined by suitable nesting sites. Although taken in different types of vegetation, _lepida_, without exception, was associated with rocky areas or areas supporting patches of prickly-pear cactus. In the channels of San Antonio Wash, _lepida_ was commonly associated with jumbles of boulders and boulder-dotted cut banks. There the vegetation is sparse, and the rats dwell among the rocks; only their droppings and faint trails indicate their presence. Among boulders _lepida_ builds only small houses of sticks and debris, and even these only occasionally. The effect of the prickly-pear cactus on the distribution of _lepida_ in the sageland is striking; trap lines there yielded no woodrats where extensive rock piles and patches of prickly-pear were absent, but many rats were taken where patches of prickly-pear are plentiful. On an acre supporting coastal sagebrush at the mouth of San Antonio Canyon, at 1800 feet elevation, there were fourteen patches of prickly-pear, each covering at least thirty square feet. In these patches there were thirteen occupied woodrat nests. Only one patch lacked an occupied nest, and this one contained the remains of an old nest. On this acre there were at least thirteen individuals. In the sagebrush belt only an occasional large patch of cactus lacks a woodrat house occupied by _lepida_. Seemingly _Neotoma fuscipes_ does not build houses in patches of prickly-pear. Most of the houses built by _Neotoma lepida_ are small and simple as compared to those of _Neotoma fuscipes_, and often in rocky areas no nests are in evidence. The most elaborate nests are built among the pads and spines of the prickly-pear and under laurel sumac or other large shrubs growing near washes. One of three houses examined at the mouth of San Antonio Canyon was on sandy ground in a patch of _Opuntia_ measuring approximately 11 x 14 feet. The house was 14 inches high and 41 x 37 inches at the base. It was built around the main stem of the prickly-pear and a rock about 10 inches in diameter. The house was constructed of sticks of coastal sagebrush and buckwheat, and was dotted with dissected fruits and flowers of the prickly-pear. The main chamber was arched over by the main stem of the prickly-pear and was roughly 12 x 19 inches, inside dimensions, being reached through two three-inch openings, one on the east side of the chamber and one on the north side of the chamber. Two cup-shaped nests were inside the chamber, these being constructed mostly of grasses, and each resembling a well constructed bird nest 4 inches in diameter. The grass nests were free of feces, but feces were piled up against the west side of the chamber with many snail shells and dissected fruits and flowers of prickly-pear. Thirty-five inches from the main chamber was a third grass nest on the ground beneath a cluster of cactus pads. Next to this there was a blind burrow about eight inches long, and one and three-quarters inches in diameter. No burrow led to the main chamber, in this or in either of the other houses, but all had at least one short blind burrow beneath the house. At many houses there were one to three grass nests outside the house on the ground, within four feet of the house. From each nest a well worn path lead to the house. Traps set in these nests invariably caught woodrats. The many prickly-pear fruits and snail shells in and around the houses of _lepida_ probably were remnants of food. So many of the rodents caught in traps near woodrat nests were partly eaten--usually the brains were taken--that I suspect the woodrats of eating their relatives. The heads of many composite annuals were piled near woodrat nests. Immature individuals were taken in September, October, and early November, and on September 26, 1951, a lactating female was trapped near Palmer Canyon. An old female bobcat trapped in Thompson Canyon had masses of cactus thorns beneath her skin, especially about the forelegs. These thorns were probably received while she was foraging in growths of prickly-pear for woodrats. The other bobcats from San Antonio Wash also had accumulations of thorns under the skin of the forelegs. Fragments of the skulls of _Neotoma lepida_ were recovered from horned owl pellets and coyote feces. _Specimens examined._--Total, 7, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: San Antonio Canyon, 4500 ft., 2; San Antonio Wash, 1800 ft., 5 (2 PC). =Neotoma lepida lepida= Thomas Desert Woodrat These woodrats were present in rocky situations along the desert slope from the lower edge of the juniper belt down into the desert. Specimens were taken in piles of boulders in Mescal Wash, and amid rock outcroppings on the steep, barren, south slopes at the base of Grandview Canyon, whereas none was found on the juniper-clad benches. This woodrat built no nests in rocky areas; however, in the Joshua tree belt _N. l. lepida_ often built small nests at the bases of large standing or prostrate Joshua trees. There sticks from creosote bushes, along with cow dung and small stones were favorite building materials. Judging from the large number of unused woodrat nests in the Joshua tree flats it seemed that this rat was formerly far more common than it was in the period of this study. _Specimens examined._--Total, 9, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 6 mi. E and 1 mi. S Llano, 3500 ft., 4; Mescal Wash, 4200 ft., 5 (3PC). =Neotoma fuscipes macrotis= Thomas Dusky-footed Woodrat This subspecies was widely distributed along the coastal slope of the mountains from the coastal sage belt, at roughly 1600 feet, up to 6500 feet at the lower edge of the yellow pine forest and was most common in the chaparral association. In the coastal sage belt these woodrats are restricted to wash areas where large chaparral plants such as lemonadeberry and laurel sumac are used as nesting sites. In San Antonio Wash the occasional large juniper trees almost invariably harbor the nests of _fuscipes_. The general absence of suitable nesting sites in the sage belt probably limits the spread of _fuscipes_ in this area. In the upper part of the chaparral belt in talus these woodrats live beneath the angular boulders and build no visible houses. Several areas of talus occupied by woodrats were examined carefully and no sign of houses was noted. Two juveniles were found in the stomach of a rattlesnake (_Crotalus viridis helleri_) killed in May, 1948, at the mouth of Evey Canyon. Remains of woodrats were found in feces of the coyote and gray fox. Lactating females of this species were taken on March 16, and October 2, 1951. _Specimens examined._--Total, 4, distributed as follows: San Bernardino County: Icehouse Canyon, 5500 ft., 2. Los Angeles County: San Antonio Canyon, 2800 ft., 2. =Neotoma fuscipes simplex= True Dusky-footed Woodrat These rats were recorded from the yellow pine forests on Blue Ridge, at 8100 feet, down to the lower edge of the juniper belt, at 3800 feet. Their presence there as elsewhere was determined by the occurrence of adequate cover. On Blue Ridge they were taken in and near patches of snowbrush, currant, and choke cherry, and one was taken beneath a pile of logs where no nest was in evidence. The thickets of choke cherry in hollows on Blue Ridge were favored house-building sites of woodrats. Among the tangle of branches large nests were built, and in September, 1951, the remains of choke cherry fruit and gnawings on the limbs of these plants indicated that woodrats were active throughout these extensive patches of brush. In the pinyon-juniper association most of the large plants were used as nesting sites, but scrub oak, seemed to be especially preferred. Because it often grew in a twisted irregular form with the foliage nearly reaching the ground, the oak offered good shelter for the woodrat nests. In an acre of scrub oak and mountain mahogany brush one-half mile north of Jackson Lake, at 6100 feet, thirteen occupied woodrat nests were found. In the juniper belt, houses were of more irregular occurrence, and were always beneath juniper trees, usually beneath the largest and most widely spreading individuals. Those specimens from Blue Ridge, on the crest of the San Gabriels, are intergrades between the coastal race _macrotis_ and _simplex_ of the desert slope. Although specimens vary widely in color, comparison with series of these two subspecies in the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology indicates that all specimens from the desert slope of the San Gabriels are referable to the race _simplex_. Two specimens of this species from the granite talus above the base of Icehouse Canyon at 5500 feet on the Pacific slope, grade strongly toward _simplex_. Hooper (1938:231) mentions that specimens of this species taken along the San Gabriel and San Bernardino ranges may be intermediate between _simplex_ and _macrotis_. At the head of Grandview Canyon, tracks indicated that a coyote had foraged for about one half mile along the edge of a tract of dense oak and pinyon growth. It seemed as if the animal had been foraging for woodrats. A gray fox trapped near Graham Canyon, in the juniper belt, had in its stomach the remains of a freshly killed adult woodrat. The remains of an adult woodrat were found in the stomach of a rattlesnake (_Crotalus viridis helleri_) obtained on the desert slope of the mountains. _Specimens examined._--Total, 6, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: 6 mi. E Valyermo, 5600 ft., 1; 1 mi. E Big Pines, 6600 ft., 2; 1 mi. S and 3 mi. W Big Pines, 6000 ft., 1; 1 mi. S and 2 mi. E Big Pines, 8100 ft., 2. =Microtus californicus sanctidiegi= R. Kellogg California Meadow Mouse Owing to the paucity of extensive areas of grassland in the San Gabriels, this is one of the least common rodents of the area. It inhabits, however, even small patches of grassland up to 4000 feet elevation on the Pacific slope, and is locally plentiful. For example, a small patch of grassland amid the chaparral at the mouth of Palmer Canyon supported many _Microtus_, and in San Antonio Canyon at about 3000 feet elevation meadow mice were found amid boulders and yuccas in a small grassy area near the stream. _Specimens examined._--Total, 3, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: San Antonio Canyon, 2800 ft., 1; Palmer Canyon, 2100 ft., 1; 4 mi. N Claremont, 1800 ft., 1. Family URSIDAE =Ursus americanus californiensis= J. Miller Black Bear Eleven black bears were introduced into the San Gabriel Mountains "near Crystal Lake" in November 1933 from the Sierra Nevada (Burghduff, 1935:83). I do not know whether or not there have been subsequent introductions. There are still bears present in the higher parts of the mountains, especially north of the study area, where they seem to be maintaining their numbers. The grizzly bear that formerly occurred in the San Gabriel Mountains was exterminated there some years before the black bear was introduced. Family PROCYONIDAE =Bassariscus astutus octavus= Hall Ring-tailed Cat Large sections of the San Gabriel Mountains are uninhabited by this species, while locally, in the chaparral belt near water, ring-tails are common. Many reports of ring-tails were received from owners of cabins and homes who reside in the canyons at the Pacific base of the mountains. Because of the distinctive appearance of this animal it is likely that many of these reports were accurate. The reports testified to the presence of ring-tails in San Gabriel Canyon, Dalton Canyon, Palmer Canyon and San Antonio Canyon. Hall (1927:41) lists specimens from San Antonio Canyon. Kenneth Hill of Upland told me that ring-tailed cats often have been trapped above that town near citrus nurseries that are regularly irrigated. This species probably is not present on the desert slope of the range. The only specimen that I took was a female weighing one pound and fourteen ounces. It was trapped on March 24, 1951, among granite boulders, beneath scrub oak and bay trees, near the mouth of Icehouse Canyon, at 5500 feet elevation. =Procyon lotor psora= Gray Raccoon The raccoon was one of the most common carnivores in the San Gabriels and was found on both slopes of the range. Tracks were noted and one old male was trapped at the base of the Pacific slope foothills at 1900 feet elevation, and raccoons were captured at several localities from this point up to 5500 feet in San Antonio Canyon. They were noted on Blue Ridge at about 8000 feet elevation foraging around the camp grounds. On the desert slope they occurred down to the lower edge of the pinyon-juniper belt, for example near the mouth of Sheep Creek Canyon. Sign of raccoons was most often found near water; tracks, however, indicated that these animals, along with other carnivores, used fire roads for traveling through the chaparral. In a small draw one-half mile east of the mouth of Thompson Canyon two raccoons were trapped although the only water was a series of small, disconnected seepage pools beneath the valley oaks. A raccoon freed from a small steel trap in San Antonio Canyon concealed itself in an unusual but extremely effective manner. When released the coon splashed up the middle of the small creek nearby to a place where some dead alders had fallen over and shaded the water--here the animal squatted down in the stream. The raccoon was mostly submerged, its tail was floating, and its back and the top of its head and snout were above water. With most of its body under water, and with the maze of alder logs above casting a broken pattern of light and shade, it was well hidden. When closely pressed the raccoon hid in the same manner several times before it disappeared up a rocky draw into the scrub oak brush. In the autumn of 1951, raccoons fed on grapes at the Sycamore Valley Ranch one mile south of Devore. The one specimen (P. C.) saved, an old male from 1/2 mi. W Palmer Canyon, had remains of beetles in its stomach and weighed slightly more than 13 pounds. Family MUSTELIDAE =Mustela frenata latirostra= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Several weasels were found dead on roads in the coastal sage belt near San Antonio and Lytle canyons. =Taxidea taxus neglecta= Mearns Badger I found no sign of badgers on the Pacific slope of the range, but James Wolfort, employed by the state Fish and Game Commission to trap coyotes, reported that in 1948 he trapped also several badgers at the coastal foot of the range in the San Fernando Valley area which is west of the study area. =Taxidea taxus berlandieri= Baird Badger Many old badger diggings were found in the Joshua tree woodland and pinyon-juniper associations of the desert slope, but none of the animals was observed nor were specimens secured. Mr. E. A. Eberle who has trapped for many winters in the vicinity of Mescal Canyon stated that he caught badgers occasionally. I examined the skin of a badger taken at Llano which showed the characteristic paleness of the desert subspecies _berlandieri_. =Mephitis mephitis holzneri= Mearns Striped Skunk The populations of striped skunks in the San Gabriels center around cultivated land at the Pacific foot of the range. Citrus groves, grape vineyards, and areas once cleared by man are preferred to coastal sagebrush flats. The cultivated areas now probably support many more skunks than were there under original conditions. I have many sight records of striped skunks which I obtained while driving through the citrus groves at night. Only once was the striped skunk noted in the chaparral; all the other records were from the coastal sagebrush belt. In addition to insects and small mammals, grapes are eaten regularly by skunks in vineyards, and the fruit of the prickly-pear cactus is often eaten. Near the mouth of Thompson Canyon feces examined in October 1948, contained almost exclusively the remains of prickly-pear fruit. A male taken one-half mile south of Devore weighed five pounds and four ounces. _Specimens examined_, 2: San Bernardino County: 1/2 mi. S Devore, 2200 ft., 1. Los Angeles County: 3 mi. N Claremont, 1500 ft., 1 (PC). =Spilogale gracilis microrhina= Hall Spotted Skunk Spotted skunks are common locally in the coastal sage scrub association and lower chaparral association on the coastal face of the mountains, mainly between 1000 and 4000 feet elevation; but they have been reported from Icehouse Canyon at 5000 feet, and I took one above the mouth of this canyon at 5500 feet elevation. A few spotted skunks may inhabit the lower desert slope of the mountains; here feces thought to be those of spotted skunks have been found, and a bobcat trapped near the head of Grandview Canyon smelled strongly of skunk. The spotted skunk usually was in rocky habitats. In the sage flats, sign (mostly feces and tracks) usually was near rock piles and around human developments such as rock walls, old outbuildings and houses. Specimens taken in the chaparral were trapped near granite outcroppings. In the autumn of 1950, at my house near the mouth of Palmer Canyon, a family of spotted skunks lived under the floors. Night after night they scratched under the floor and chattered in high-pitched rasping notes, and on several evenings one walked complacently into the living room. It finally became necessary to trap and deport most of these skunks. In all, nine skunks were trapped; these probably represented more than the original residents. One male was descented and allowed to remain. It spent most of the daylight hours asleep in an old shower room where the many gaps between the rock work and the boards allowed him entrance. Through no special efforts on our part he became tame enough to climb over us in order to get food left on the kitchen sink, and he would eat calmly while we sat only inches away from him. Feces from sage areas contained mostly remains of insects and small rodents whereas many samples of feces from chaparral areas contained, in addition, shells of snails. Feces examined represent all months of the year. _Specimens examined._--Los Angeles County: mouth of San Antonio Canyon, 2 (PC). Family CANIDAE =Canis latrans ochropus= Eschscholtz Coyote Coyotes inhabit the sagebrush flats and foothills up to at least 4000 feet all along the Pacific base of the San Gabriels. This species seems most common at the foot of the range where large dry washes prevent man from occupying the land immediately adjacent to the foothills, and are the dominant carnivores of the coastal sage belt. Repeated observations have indicated that although many individuals range into the higher foothills they seldom are found deep in the major canyons or chaparral slopes. Coyotes rarely occur at 3000 or 4000 feet in San Antonio Canyon where it cuts into the realm of heavy chaparral; yet on steep foothill slopes and ridges, which are adjacent to the flat land, these animals range up to at least 4000 feet. Being hunters primarily of rather open land many coyotes go into the foothills only to find daytime refuge, traveling down dirt roads, ridges, and firebreaks, to forage at night in the sage flats. Coyote feces from the foothills, at about 3500 feet, contained predominantly the remains of such food items as cottontails, chickens, and jack rabbits. These animals could have been found only in the flats. This is additional evidence that coyotes do the major part of their hunting at the base of the range. Observations of coyote tracks and trapping records have shown that these animals hunt mostly in the more open parts of the sage flats. Coyotes frequent areas of scattered brush, sandy areas, wash channels, and old roads, and seemingly shun dense brush. Many coyotes actually hunt for rabbits in the citrus groves near the foothills. On several evenings I traced their howling to orange groves, and Mr. Kenneth Hill of Upland told me of often seeing coyotes in his orange groves at night. The forage beats of several coyotes were discovered in connection with trapping specimens of these animals. In January, 1952, two coyotes, probably a mated pair, traveled nightly from the slopes immediately west of Evey Canyon, at about 3100 feet, down into the sagebrush adjacent to the west side of San Antonio Wash, at about 1700 feet elevation. The route led down open ridges, then for about one half mile across a level, cultivated plateau, and then swung over the eroded banks near the lowermost point of the plateau onto the level sage flats. The distance covered by this route from the foothills down to the flats was somewhat more than a mile, with about a 1400 foot difference in elevation between the daytime retreat and the nocturnal forage area. Another route, seemingly used by only one coyote, was somewhat longer. This animal followed fire breaks and ridges from above Thompson Canyon down onto a fire road, and then into the lower end of Palmer Canyon where it entered the flats. This route covered about three miles in coming from the foothills to the flats. Feces of this coyote often contained the remains of white leghorn chickens which had been found at a refuse pile near several chicken ranches one-half mile from the base of Palmer Canyon. Although no definite idea could be gained of the population density of coyotes in the area, it was clear that in certain localities they were, as carnivores go, abundant. After one large male was obtained in the flats at the base of Cobal Canyon, at least two other individuals were heard howling in this immediate area, and their tracks were noted repeatedly on dirt roads. One night early in January, 1952, immediately west of the head of San Antonio Wash, the voices of six coyotes could be picked out separately from a chorus of coyote howls which came from several different directions in the wash. Many field examinations of coyote feces left the impression that chickens and lagomorphs made up the bulk of the coyote's food on the coastal slope. To check this a study of 39 sets of scats collected at various localities on the coastal slope was made in the laboratory, the results being shown in Table 10. Remains of one of the three species of rabbits, cottontails, jack rabbits, or brush rabbits, occurred in 72 per cent of the feces examined. Cottontails, it will be noted, were preyed upon more heavily than any other wild species, remains of this form being found in 33 per cent of the feces. The prevalence of chicken remains in coyote feces does not imply that these animals were killed by the coyotes. All of the chickens could have been found dead in the refuse piles of the many chicken ranches. In addition, the chickens were raised in wire cages above the ground where they were nearly invulnerable to predation. That coyotes may at times kill deer in this area was suggested by the finding of tracks in the sand in San Antonio Wash which clearly indicated that a deer had been closely pursued by a coyote. The tracks were lost in a stretch of brush so the outcome of the chase could not be determined. Near the mouth of Lytle Creek Canyon, in November, 1951, coyote feces contained mostly remains of grapes from nearby vineyards. Also, above Cucamonga, coyotes were found to be feeding heavily on grapes. This must be a rather unsuitable form of nourishment for coyotes, for many of the grapes in the feces appeared nearly unaltered despite their trip through the alimentary canal. TABLE 10.--RESULTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF THIRTY-NINE SETS OF COYOTE FECES FROM THE PACIFIC SLOPE OF THE SAN GABRIEL MOUNTAINS. FECES WERE DEPOSITED IN AUTUMN AND WINTER (SEPTEMBER TO FEBRUARY). =================================================================== | Number of | | sets of feces | Percentages Food item | which contained | of occurrence[A] | food item | ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ chicken | 18 | 46.2 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Sylvilagus audubonii | 13 | 33.3 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Lepus californicus | 10 | 25.6 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Sylvilagus bachmani | 5 | 12.8 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Odocoileus hemionus | 5 | 12.8 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ rodents (unidentified) | 5 | 12.8 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Dipodomys agilis | 4 | 10.3 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Neotoma species | 3 | 7.7 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Mephitis mephitis | 3 | 7.7 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Carrion beetle | 2 | 5.1 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ passerine bird | 1 | 2.67 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ bot fly larva | 1 | 2.67 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ snail shell | 1 | 2.67 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ scorpion | 1 | 2.67 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Jerusalem cricket | 1 | 2.67 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ sheep hair | 1 | 2.67 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Lynx rufus | 1 | 2.67 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Kitten of wildcat or housecat | 1 | 2.67 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ Lophortyx californica | 1 | 2.67 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ grapes | 1 | 2.67 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ grass | 1 | 2.67 ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ [Footnote A: This is an expression, in percentage, of the number of sets of feces which contained the particular food item out of the total of thirty-nine sets examined.] The six coyotes taken on the Pacific slope are fairly uniform in coloration; the occurrence of white tipping on the tails of most of the specimens, instead of the usual solid black tip, is notable. Three skins, those of a male and two females, have patches of white hairs at the tips of the tails; two skins, of a male and a female, show only scattered white hairs at the tips of the tails; and the skin of one female has a solidly black-tipped tail. An additional female, trapped by David Leighton in Thompson Canyon, had a large patch of white hairs at the tip of the tail. Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1937:501) mention that only an occasional individual (female?) has a white-tipped tail. Weights are available for four specimens: two coyotes trapped in San Antonio Wash, a male and a female, weighed 20.5 and 23.2 pounds respectively; a female from the mouth of San Antonio Canyon weighed 21.6 pounds; and a large male from the mouth of Thompson Canyon weighed 29.3 pounds. _Specimens examined._--Total, 6, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: Live Oak Canyon, 3000 ft., 1; mouth of San Antonio Canyon, 2000 ft., 1; 4 mi. N Claremont, 1600 ft., 2; 4 mi. NE Claremont, 1600 ft., 1; 3 mi. NE Claremont, 1600 ft., 1. TABLE 11.--CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS OF CANIS LATRANS OCHROPUS FROM THE COASTAL SLOPE OF THE SAN GABRIEL MOUNTAINS. ====================================================================== | Four females | Two males | Averages Extremes | Averages Extremes ----------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- Condylobasal length | 180.67 174.2-183.3 | 188.35 179.2-197.5 ----------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- Palatal length | 91.57 88.0-95.0 | 97.15 91.6-102.7 ----------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- Zygomatic breadth | 90.15 88.9-92.0 | 95.60 88.8-102.5 ----------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- Interorbital breadth | 29.12 27.9-29.9 | 31.45 28.1-34.8 ----------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- Length of | | maxillary toothrow | 85.00 80.4-89.80 | 88.00 83.4-92.6 ----------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- Length of | | upper carnassial | 18.30 17.8-19.0 | 18.70 18.1-19.3 ----------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- =Canis latrans mearnsi= Merriam Coyote Coyotes are common on the desert slope of the San Gabriels below about 6000 feet elevation. They seem not, or only rarely, to penetrate the yellow pine forest belt, but tracks have been found occasionally near the lower edge of the forest, as at the head of Mescal Canyon. In the more open parts of the pinyon-juniper association, sign of coyotes was noted and they were the dominant carnivores in the juniper belt and Joshua tree woodland. In the upper part of the pinyon-juniper association coyotes travel and forage in sage flats, along ridges, and in sandy draws, avoiding the extensive patches of scrub oak and mountain mahogany, and the steep, rocky, pinyon-covered slopes. It is apparent that the local ranges of the coyote and the gray fox in the pinyon-juniper belt are complementary, the gray fox keeping to the more thickly wooded or brushy parts of the area, and the coyote staying in the relatively open sections. Probably there is little competition for food there between these two canids. As evidenced by tracks, coyotes commonly traveled and hunted along desert washes, probably because of the larger population of rodents and rabbits there. Below Graham Canyon three fairly recently inhabited dens of coyotes were found in the cutbanks at the edge of a dry wash in December of 1951. The cutbanks were six to ten feet high, and the dens were dug into the banks about three feet above the floor of the wash. On the evening of October 20, 1948, near Desert Springs, Steven M. Jacobs and I set out a line of fifty wooden live traps for kangaroo rats. That night we slept about 300 yards from the middle of the line which was roughly three quarters of a mile long. When we tended the traps the next morning we found the tracks of a coyote over our own tracks of the previous day, and the first trap that had seemingly held a kangaroo rat was chewed and dragged for about fifty feet. Each trap that had held a rodent had been turned upside down so that the door had opened. At one point in the line where we had walked for about two hundred yards without setting a trap the coyote had followed every twist and turn of our trail. The animal had followed out the entire trap line and removed approximately eight rodents from the traps, reducing our take to one _Dipodomys_ and one _Peromyscus_. Examinations of feces showed that in the period from 1948 to 1952, while populations of jack rabbits were low in the Mojave Desert, the coyotes had fed extensively on smaller mammals such as kangaroo rats, and to some extent on fruit. By contrasting the present food habits of coyotes on the desert and coastal slopes of the mountains support is afforded for Errington's (1937:243) statement that predation is "a by-product of population." On the desert slope, with low populations of rabbits, the coyotes have turned to lesser species of prey; while on the Pacific slope, where populations of rabbits were high, the rabbits made up the major portion of the coyote's diet. On the desert slope, remains of the following food items were identified from coyote feces: kangaroo rats, mule deer, jack rabbits, passerine bird, manzanita and juniper fruit, beetles, grapes and apples. Near Valyermo, coyote feces were composed mostly of apples from nearby orchards. A female coyote killed below Grandview Canyon had its stomach and intestines stuffed with apples in large chunks. In the juniper belt, berries of juniper were often eaten by coyotes. The three specimens of coyotes from the desert slope are clearly referable to the desert race _C. l. mearnsi_, both with regard to cranial and pelage characteristics. Although I collected no specimens from Cajon Pass or the passes at the west end of the range, it is in these places that intergradation might be expected to occur between the desert race _C. l. mearnsi_ and the coastal and valley subspecies _C. l. ochropus_, as the higher parts of the San Gabriels seem to constitute a barrier to coyotes. A subadult female coyote taken in the Joshua tree belt near Graham Canyon weighed 20.8 pounds. _Specimens examined._--Los Angeles County: 6 mi. E and 2 mi. S Llano, 3600 ft., 3 (2 PC). =Vulpes macrotis arsipus= Elliot Kit Fox The kit fox barely enters the area under consideration. In the Joshua tree belt, below about 3500 feet elevation, tracks were most often noted in washes and on the adjacent sandy ground. The highest place where tracks were seen was a small sandy draw below the mouth of Graham Canyon at an altitude of roughly 3900 feet. In the Joshua tree belt many old burrows were found but none was occupied. I believe these foxes are returning to this area where once they were common. In the winter of 1948 no sign of kit foxes was found, although intensive field work was done in the Joshua tree belt in the Mescal Canyon area. In December of 1951, in the same locality, sign was obvious and an individual was trapped below Grandview Canyon at 3500 feet elevation. Possibly since the use of poison for carnivores has been discontinued in this district the foxes are repopulating the area. The one specimen taken, a sub-adult female, weighed two pounds and fourteen ounces. _Specimen examined._--Los Angeles Co.: 6 mi. E & 1 mi. S Llano, 3500 ft., 1. =Urocyon cinereoargenteus californicus= Mearns Gray Fox The gray fox is widely distributed in the San Gabriel Mountains, occurring on both slopes of the range wherever extensive tracts of chaparral are present. They reach maximum abundance in the chaparral association of the coastal slope. Individuals have been observed occasionally at night in coastal sage areas at the Pacific foot of the mountains; however they seem to be less common here and probably come out of the adjacent chaparral to forage in the flats at night. Gray foxes occur all the way up the Pacific slope into the yellow pine woodland at 7500 feet, and from 6200 feet elevation on the desert slope down to the upper limit of the Joshua trees as, for example, near Mescal Canyon at 4700 feet. On the Pacific face of the mountains the gray fox probably is the dominant carnivore in terms of its effect on prey species, first, because of its abundance, and second, because of its forage habits. Some appreciation of the abundance of the gray fox may be gained from trapping records. On a fire road at the head of Thompson Canyon, at 2500 feet, two settings of traps about one-quarter mile apart were maintained for four nights. In this time four gray foxes were trapped. At the head of Cow Canyon, at 4500 feet, one trap set on a deer trail caught five gray foxes in five nights. At the end of this time fox tracks were noted about 100 yards away from the set, and another fox was trapped about one quarter mile away. In addition to their abundance, the forage habits of gray foxes are such as to bring them into most habitats present in the chaparral association. Tracks and feces indicate that foxes forage under dense brush, on open rocky ridges, in riparian growth, on talus slopes, and in groves of big cone-spruce and scrub oak. Trapped foxes, if uninjured by the trap, were usually released. One fox was released on a small trail through thick vegetation consisting mainly of snowbrush. When freed, the fox whirled and darted through a patch of snowbrush for about seventy-five feet, then turned and disappeared beneath some large bay trees. Although the brush through which it ran was dense, the fox seemed to run at full speed. The success of gray foxes as predators in the chaparral is probably due in large measure to their agility amid dense cover. The three specimens from the desert slope are referable to the coastal subspecies, _U. c. californicus_, rather than the desert subspecies, _U. c. scottii_. In all respects they resemble foxes taken on the Pacific slope; cranial measurements are near the maximum for the large _U. c. californicus_, and not small as would be expected if they were grading toward the smaller _U. c. scottii_. Floors of desert valleys north of the San Gabriel Mountains probably isolated foxes there from _U. c. scottii_ found in the higher ranges of the Mojave Desert. Consequently one would expect no intergradation between the coastal and desert races in the San Gabriel Mountains. An old female trapped on March 18,1951, in San Antonio Canyon, had three embryos each about 105 mm. long from rump to crown, and weighed 9.2 lbs. The average weight of four non-pregnant females was 6.8 lbs., whereas the average of six males was 7.5 lbs. _Specimens examined._--Total, 11, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: Mescal Canyon, 4800 ft., 1; 4 mi. E Valyermo, 5200 ft., 2; Cow Canyon, 4500 ft., 2; San Antonio Canyon, 3000 ft., 1; Thompson Canyon, 2500 ft., 2 (PC); 1/2 mi. W Palmer Canyon, 2000 ft., 3 (PC). Family FELIDAE =Lynx rufus californicus= Mearns Wildcat Wildcats range over the whole of the San Gabriel Range, with the possible exception of the tops of the highest peaks such as Mt. San Antonio and Mt. Baden Powell. Sign of these animals has been observed, or specimens have been taken, from the coastal sage belt up to about 8500 feet in the yellow pine forests on Blue Ridge. The subspecies _baileyi_ occurs on the desert slope of the range. Wildcats are most common in the chaparral belt where they forage widely from the ridges down into the canyons. Judging from trapping records bobcats are not so common here as the gray fox. Bobcats occur in the sage belt, where they are most common in the broken country around washes and in brushy areas. Although bobcats and coyotes occupy the same general areas here, the habitat preferences of these animals seem to be different, with coyotes occupying the more open country. An indication of the hunting habits of bobcats is furnished by the occurrence of masses of prickly-pear thorns beneath the skin of the legs, particularly the forelegs, of three specimens trapped in the sage belt. These thorns probably were acquired while the bobcats foraged for woodrats or cottontails in the patches of prickly-pear, which are locally abundant in the sage belt. On March 12, 1951, a small subadult female bobcat, trapped at 4000 feet in San Antonio Canyon, was found dead in the trap and had numerous deep cuts around its head and shoulders, and severe bruises on the right shoulder. The spacing of the cuts, and the tracks around the set, indicated that while held in the trap this animal had fought with a second bobcat that had inflicted the fatal wounds. It seems unlikely that the fight was caused by a male attempting to copulate with the female held in the trap, for the female was found to be carrying an embryo. In Live Oak Canyon, in December, 1950, tracks and bits of fur indicated that a bobcat had killed and eaten a gray squirrel. Remains of cottontails were found in the stomachs of two bobcats. All six bobcats from the Pacific slope had nematode worms in the pyloric end of the stomach. Two females obtained on March 12 and 19, 1951, each had one embryo approximately one inch long (rump to crown). The following list gives the weight of each of the specimens from the Pacific slope of the San Gabriels. _Specimens examined._--Total, 8, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: San Antonio Canyon, 4000 ft., 1; San Antonio Canyon, 3200 ft., 1; 4 mi. N Claremont, 1900 ft., 2; Thompson Canyon, 1800 ft., 1; 3 mi. NE Claremont, 1700 ft., 2; Little Dalton Canyon, 1500 ft., 1 (PC). TABLE 12.--WEIGHTS OF LYNX RUFUS CALIFORNICUS FROM THE SAN GABRIEL MOUNTAINS. ===================================================================== sex and age | locality | date | weight -------------+----------------------------+----------------+--------- [Female] ad. |3 mi. NE Claremont, 1700 ft.|January 20, 1951|18.8 lbs. -------------+----------------------------+----------------+--------- [Female] sad.|4 mi. N Claremont, 1900 ft. |March 9, 1951 |12.5 " -------------+----------------------------+----------------+--------- [Male] ad. |Thompson Canyon, 1800 ft. |January 15, 1948|13.2 " -------------+----------------------------+----------------+--------- [Male] sad. |4 mi. N Claremont, 1900 ft. |January 26, 1951|11.3 " -------------+----------------------------+----------------+--------- [Male] ad. |3 mi. NE Claremont, 1700 ft.|January 27, 1951|13.8 " -------------+----------------------------+----------------+--------- [Male] sad. |San Antonio Canyon, 4000 ft.|March 12, 1951 | 7.9 " -------------+----------------------------+----------------+--------- [Male] sad. |San Antonio Canyon, 3200 ft.|March 17, 1951 |11.2 " -------------+----------------------------+----------------+--------- =Lynx rufus baileyi= Merriam Wildcat This subspecies is widely distributed on the desert slope of the range, and was recorded down to the lower edge of the juniper belt. Tracks were observed on many occasions in yellow pine forest, but wildcats seemed to be commonest in the brushy parts of the pinyon-juniper association. Two were trapped in small draws lined with pinyons and scrub oak, and two at the base of rocky pinyon-covered slopes. Only occasionally were tracks noted in the lower part of the juniper belt. Bobcats are most numerous where woodrats also reach peak abundance, suggesting that woodrats are a major food. The four specimens from the desert slope, although exhibiting a wide range of variation, are all representatives of the desert race _baileyi_. A yearling male from near the head of Grandview Canyon, at 5200 feet elevation, has the profuse black spotting of the subspecies _californicus_, but the general pallor dorsally is characteristic of the desert subspecies. An adult female, from 4700 feet elevation in Graham Canyon, shows the double mid-dorsal black line and the distinct black markings around the face characteristic of _californicus_, but is otherwise pale with reduced black patterns on the backs of the ears. The other two specimens, an adult male and a yearling female, are typical examples of _baileyi_, pale, and with reduced black markings. None of the specimens of bobcats from the coastal slope of the mountains showed characters approaching those of _baileyi_. It seems, therefore, that these two subspecies intergrade on the interior slope of the range. A yearling male weighed 12 pounds, and a yearling female weighed 10.5 pounds. An old male weighed 19.6 pounds, and an adult female weighed 15.1 pounds. Remains of deer were in two of the bobcat stomachs, and one of these stomachs also contained jack rabbit remains. Approximately a dozen nematodes (stomach worms) were in the stomach of one of the larger male specimens. _Specimens examined._--Total, 4, distributed as follows: Los Angeles County: Mescal Canyon, 4800 ft., 1; Graham Canyon, 4700 ft., 1; Grandview Canyon, 5200 ft., 2. =Felis concolor californica= May Mountain Lion Several cabin owners near the mouth of Icehouse Canyon reported seeing a lion in that area in 1950, and others said they saw huge cat tracks in Icehouse Canyon. State Trapper James Wolfort reported that he trapped two lions on the coastal face of the range in 1947. Authentic reports indicate that mountain lions occur in remote sections on both slopes of the range, and in these areas mountain lions probably are as common as they ever were. Family CERVIDAE =Odocoileus hemionus californicus= (Caton) Mule Deer Mule deer are common in chaparral areas on both slopes of the San Gabriel Mountains. The animals or their tracks have been observed from the coastal sagebrush flats up to about 9200 feet on Mount San Antonio, and on the desert slope down to the lower limit of the juniper belt. Deer are plentiful in the upper chaparral belt, and large bands are often noted there in spring. These bands may form in the up-mountain migration and reoccupation of areas which were covered by winter snows. A band of fourteen was observed on March 17, 1951, one mile east of the mouth of Cattle Canyon, and bands of about half a dozen individuals each were often noted in March, 1951, at the base of Icehouse Canyon. Cronemiller and Bartholomew (1950) gave a good account of the mule deer in the chaparral belt of the San Gabriel Mountains. On Blue Ridge in the fall of 1951, deer were plentiful, usually being observed near patches of snowbrush and sage. They were seldom found in the coniferous forests. On November 6, 1951, while tending a line of snap traps before sunup, I startled a deer from its bed at one edge of a several-acre patch of snowbrush. In synchrony with the noise made by this deer's rising five other deer in various parts of the brush patch leaped up and made off. When bedded down in these extensive brush tracts deer are probably safe from an undetected approach, for a noiseless approach through the brush is impossible. Two deer skulls from the San Gabriels were examined: that of an adult male from Evey Canyon, and that of an adult female from the mouth of Palmer Canyon. Using as a basis for comparison the cranial measurements for the subspecies _californicus_ and _fuliginatus_ given by Cowan (1933:326), these skulls were subspecies _californicus_. In none of the cranial characteristics considered did they tend toward the southern race _fuliginatus_. A young adult male, however, which was killed by a car near Cajon Pass on October 2, 1951, showed pelage characteristics of _fuliginatus_. Its fresh winter pelage was dark, and had the distinct black mid-dorsal line and the broad dorsal line on the tail mentioned by Cowan (_ibid._) as distinguishing marks of the race _fuliginatus_. Its cranial measurements were not taken. Judging from this limited material the deer in the central part of the range, that is to say, in the San Antonio Canyon region, are of the race _californicus_, while _fuliginatus_ may penetrate the extreme eastern end of the range. Deer hair and bones were often found in coyote feces from the sagebrush belt. Some of these records may represent deer eaten as carrion. On February 6, 1952, tracks across a sandy channel in San Antonio Wash demonstrated that a deer had been closely pursued by a coyote. The deer had leaped from a cutbank onto the sand, had whirled around in several sharp turns, and had run into the adjacent brush. The tracks of a running coyote followed every twist of the deer's trail. The trail was followed into the brush where it was lost. Two bobcats trapped near Graham Canyon on the desert slope had hair and bones of deer in their stomachs. _Specimens examined_, 2: Los Angeles County: Evey Canyon, 2100 ft., 1 (PC); Palmer Canyon, 1900 ft., 1 (PC). Family BOVIDAE =Ovis canadensis nelsoni= Merriam Bighorn Bands of bighorn sheep occur on some of the higher and more rugged peaks of the San Gabriel Mountains. Although I never sighted the animals themselves, I have seen abundant signs of their presence on the ridge sloping west from Telegraph Peak at about 9000 feet elevation. Several bands reportedly range in the head of San Antonio Canyon, and to the south on Telegraph, Ontario, and Cucamonga peaks. The sheep usually stay in the higher sections of the range, generally above about 7000 feet elevation. According to district Ranger A. Lewis some bighorns summer in the lower East Fork of San Gabriel Canyon. The subspecific status of the bighorns in the San Gabriel Mountains has not been definitely determined. Following Grinnell (1933:211) they are here referred to _nelsoni_. If the band can be preserved without introduction of "alien" stock, the United States Forest Service and the California Fish and Game Commission will have registered an achievement that will be applauded by all persons who are interested in American wildlife. LITERATURE CITED BENSON, S. B. 1930. Two new pocket mice, genus _Perognathus_, from the Californias. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 32:449-454. 1949. The bat name _Myotis ruddi_ Silliman and von Bloeker, a synonym of _Myotis volans longicrus_ (True). Jour. Mamm., 30:48-50. BORELL, A. E. 1937. A new method of collecting bats. Jour. Mamm., 18:478-480. BURGHDUFF, A. E. 1935. Black bears released in southern California. California Fish and Game, 21:83-84. BURT, W. H. 1932. The systematic status and geographic range of the San Gabriel pocket gopher (_Thomomys bottae neglectus_ Bailey). Jour. Mamm., 13:369-370. COWAN, I. MC. 1933. The mule deer of southern California and northern Lower California as a recognizable race. Jour. Mamm., 14:326-327. CRONEMILLER, F. P., and BARTHOLOMEW, P. S. 1950. The California mule deer in chaparral forests. California Fish and Game, 36:343-365, 7 figs. in text. ERRINGTON, P. L. 1937. What is the meaning of predation? Smithsonian Inst., Ann. Rept., for 1936:243-252. GRINNELL, H. W. 1918. A synopsis of the bats of California. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 17:223-404, pls. 14-24, 24 figs. in text. GRINNELL, J. 1908. The biota of the San Bernardino Mountains. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 5:1-170, 24 pls. 1933. Review of the Recent mammal fauna of California. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 40:71-234. GRINNELL, J., DIXON, J., and LINSDALE, J. M. 1937. Fur-bearing mammals of California.... Univ. California Press, 2 vols., xii + 375 pp., pls. 1-7, figs. 1-138, xiv + 377-777 pp., pls. 8-13, figs. 139-345. GRINNELL, J., and SWARTH, H. S. 1913. An account of the birds and mammals of the San Jacinto Area of southern California with remarks upon the behavior of geographic races on the margins of their habitats. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 10:197-406, pls. 6-10, 3 figs. in text. HALL, E. R. 1926. Systematic notes on the subspecies of _Bassariscus astutus_ with description of one new form from California. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 30:39-50, pls. 2 and 3. 1946. Mammals of Nevada. Univ. California Press, Berkeley, xi + 710, frontispiece, colored, 11 pls., 485 figs. in text, unnumbered silhouettes. HOOPER, E. T. 1938. Geographical variation in woodrats of the species _Neotoma fuscipes_. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 42:213-246, pls. 7-8, 2 figs. in text. JACKSON, H. H. T. 1928. A taxonomic review of the American long-tailed shrews. N. Amer. Fauna, 51:1-238, pls. 1-13, 24 figs. in text. MERRIAM, C. H. 1898. Life zones and crop zones of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Biol. Surv., Bull. 10:1-79, 1 map. MUNZ, P. A., and KECK, D. D. 1949. California plant communities. Al Aliso, 2:87-105, 4 pls. OAKESHOTT, G. B. 1937. Geology and mineral deposits of the western San Gabriel Mountains, Los Angeles County. California Jour. Mines and Geol., 33:215-249, 1 pl., 7 figs. in text. PEQUEGNAT, W. E. 1951. The biota of the Santa Ana Mountains. Jour. Entomol. and Zool., 42:1-84. SANBORN, C. C. 1932. The bats of the genus _Eumops_. Jour. Mamm., 13:347-357. VAUGHAN, T. A. 1953. Unusual concentration of hoary bats. Jour. Mamm., 34:256. VON BLOEKER, J. C. 1932. Extensions of the ranges of pocket gophers in southern California. Jour. Mamm., 13:76-77. WILLETT, G. 1944. Mammals of Los Angeles County. Los Angeles County Mus. Sci. Ser., no. 9, Zool. no. 4, 26 pls. _Transmitted July 20, 1954._ [Illustration] 25-5184 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Institutional libraries interested in publications exchange may obtain this series by addressing the Exchange Librarian, University of Kansas Library, Lawrence, Kansas. Copies for individuals, persons working in a particular field of study, may be obtained by addressing instead the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. There is no provision for sale or this series by the University Library which meets institutional requests, or by the Museum of Natural History which meets the requests of individuals. However, when individuals request copies from the Museum, 25 cents should be included, for each separate number that is 100 pages or more in length, for the purpose of defraying the costs of wrapping and mailing. * An asterisk designates those numbers of which the Museum's supply (not the Library's supply) is exhausted. Numbers published to date, in this series, are as follows: Vol. 1. 1. The pocket gophers (Genus Thomomys) of Utah. By Stephen D. Durrant. Pp. 1-82, 1 figure in text. August 15, 1946. 2. The systematic status of Eumeces pluvialis Cope, and noteworthy records of other amphibians and reptiles from Kansas and Oklahoma. By Hobart M. Smith. Pp. 85-89. August 15, 1946. 5 3. The tadpoles of Bufo cognatus Say. By Hobart M. Smith. Pp. 93-96, 1 figure in text. August 15, 1946. 4. Hybridization between two species of garter snakes. By Hobart M. Smith. Pp. 97-100. August 15, 1946. 5. Selected records of reptiles and amphibians from Kansas. By John Breukelman and Hobart M. Smith. Pp. 101-112. August 15, 1946. 6. Kyphosis and other variations in soft-shelled turtles. By Hobart M. Smith. Pp. 117-124, 3 figures in text. July 7, 1947. *7. Natural history of the prairie vole (Mammalian Genus Microtus). By E. W. Jameson, Jr. Pp. 125-151, 4 figures in text. October 6, 1947. 8. The postnatal development of two broods of great horned owls (Bubo virginianus). By Donald F. Hoffmeister and Henry W. Setzer. Pp. 157-173, 5 figures in text. October 6, 1947. 9. Additions to the list of the birds of Louisiana. By George H. Lowery, Jr. Pp. 177-192. November 7, 1947. 10. A check-list of the birds of Idaho. By M. Dale Arvey. Pp. 193-216. November 29, 1947. 11. Subspeciation in pocket gophers of Kansas. By Bernardo Villa R. and E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 217-236, 2 figures in text. November 29, 1947. 12. A new bat (Genus Myotis) from Mexico. By Walter W. Dalquest and E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 237-244, 6 figures in text. December 10, 1947. 13. Tadarida femorosacca (Merriam) in Tamaulipas, Mexico. By Walter W. Dalquest and E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 245-248, 1 figure in text. December 10, 1947. 14. A new pocket gopher (Thomomys) and a new spiny pocket mouse (Liomys) from Michoacán, Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall and Bernardo Villa R. Pp. 249-256, 6 figures in text. July 26, 1948. 15. A new hylid frog from eastern Mexico. By Edward H. Taylor. Pp. 257-264, 1 figure in text. August 16, 1948. 16. A new extinct emydid turtle from the Lower Pliocene of Oklahoma. By Edwin C. Galbreath. Pp. 265-280, 1 plate. August 16, 1948. 17. Pliocene and Pleistocene records of fossil turtles from western Kansas and Oklahoma. By Edwin C. Galbreath. Pp. 281-284. August 16, 1948. 18. A new species of heteromyid rodent from the Middle Oligocene of northeastern Colorado with remarks on the skull. By Edwin C. Galbreath. Pp. 285-300, 2 plates. August 16, 1948. 19. Speciation in the Brazilian spiny rats (Genus Proechimys, Family Echimyidae). By João Moojen. Pp. 301-406, 140 figures in text. December 10, 1948. 20. Three new beavers from Utah. By Stephen D. Durrant and Harold S. Crane. Pp. 407-417, 7 figures in text. December 24, 1948. 21. Two new meadow mice from Michoacán, Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 423-427, 6 figures in text. December 24, 1948. 22. An annotated check list of the mammals of Michoacán, Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall and Bernardo Villa R. Pp. 431-472, 2 plates, 1 figure in text. December 27, 1949. 23. Subspeciation in the kangaroo rat, Dipodomys ordii. By Henry W. Setzer. Pp. 473-573, 27 figures in text, 7 tables. December 27, 1949. 24. Geographic range of the hooded skunk, Mephitis macroura, with description of a new subspecies from Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 575-580, 1 figure in text. January 20, 1950. 25. Pipistrellus cinnamomeus Miller 1902 referred to the Genus Myotis. By E. Raymond Hall and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 581-590, 5 figures in text. January 20, 1950. 26. A synopsis of the American bats of the Genus Pipistrellus. By E. Raymond Hall and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 591-602, 1 figure in text. January 20, 1950. Index. Pp. 605-638. *Vol. 2. (Complete) Mammals of Washington. By Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text. April 9, 1948. Vol. 3. *1. The avifauna of Micronesia, its origin, evolution, and distribution. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 1-359, 16 figures in text. June 12, 1951. *2. A quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds. By George H. Lowery, Jr. Pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text. June 29, 1951. 3. Phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. By M. Dale Arvey. Pp. 473-530, 49 figures in text, 13 tables. October 10, 1951. 4. Birds from the state of Veracruz, Mexico. By George H. Lowery, Jr. and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 531-649, 7 figures in text, 2 tables. October 10, 1951. Index. Pp. 651-681. *Vol. 4. (Complete) American weasels. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 1-466, 41 plates, 31 figures in text. December 27, 1951. Vol. 5. 1. Preliminary survey of a Paleocene faunule from the Angels Peak area, New Mexico. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 1-11, 1 figure in text. February 24, 1951. 2. Two new moles (Genus Scalopus) from Mexico and Texas. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 17-24. February 28, 1951. 3. Two new pocket gophers from Wyoming and Colorado. By E. Raymond Hall and H. Gordon Montague. Pp. 25-32. February 28, 1951. 4. Mammals obtained by Dr. Curt von Wedel from the barrier beach of Tamaulipas, Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 33-47, 1 figure in text. October 1, 1951. 5. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some North American rabbits. By E. Raymond Hall and Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 49-58. October 1, 1951. 6. Two new subspecies of Thomomys bottae from New Mexico and Colorado. By Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 59-71, 1 figure in text. October 1, 1951. 7. A new subspecies of Microtus montanus from Montana and comments on Microtus canicandus Miller. By E. Raymond Hall and Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 73-79. October 1, 1951. 8. A new pocket gopher (Genus Thomomys) from eastern Colorado. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 81-85. October 1, 1951. 9. Mammals taken along the Alaskan Highway. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 87-117. 1 figure in text. November 28, 1951. *10. A synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 119-202. 68 figures in text. December 15, 1951. 11. A new pocket mouse (Genus Perognathus) from Kansas. By E. Lendell Cockrum. Pp. 203-206. December 15, 1951. 12. Mammals from Tamaulipas, Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 207-218. December 15, 1951. 13. A new pocket gopher (Genus Thomomys) from Wyoming and Colorado. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 219-222. December 15, 1951. 14. A new name for the Mexican red bat. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 223-226. December 15, 1951. 15. Taxonomic notes on Mexican bats of the Genus Rhogeëssa. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 227-232. April 10, 1952. 16. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some North American woodrats (Genus Neotoma). By Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 233-242. April 10, 1952. 17. The subspecies of the Mexican red-bellied squirrel, Sciurus aureogaster. By Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 243-250, 1 figure in text. April 10, 1952. 18. Geographic range of Peromyscus melanophrys, with description of new subspecies. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 251-258, 1 figure in text. May 10, 1952. 19. A new chipmunk (Genus Eutamias) from the Black Hills. By John A. White. Pp. 259-262. April 10, 1952. 20. A new piñon mouse (Peromyscus truei) from Durango, Mexico. By Robert B. Finley, Jr. Pp. 263-267. May 23, 1952. 21. An annotated checklist of Nebraskan bats. By Olin L. Webb and J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 269-279. May 31, 1952. 22. Geographic variation in red-backed mice (Genus Clethrionomys) of the southern Rocky Mountain region. By E. Lendell Cockrum and Kenneth L. Fitch. Pp. 281-292, 1 figure in text. November 15, 1952. 23. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of North American microtines. By E. Raymond Hall and E. Lendell Cockrum. Pp. 293-312. November 17, 1952. 24. The subspecific status of two Central American sloths. By E. Raymond Hall and Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 313-317. November 21, 1952. 25. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some North American marsupials, insectivores, and carnivores. By E. Raymond Hall and Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 319-341. December 5, 1952. 26. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some North American rodents. By E. Raymond Hall and Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 343-371. December 15, 1952. 27. A synopsis of the North American microtine rodents. By E. Raymond Hall and E. Lendell Cockrum. Pp. 373-498, 149 figures in text. January 15, 1953. 28. The pocket gophers (Genus Thomomys) of Coahuila, Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 499-514, 1 figure in text. June 1, 1953. 29. Geographic distribution of the pocket mouse, Perognathus fasciatus. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 515-526, 7 figures in text. August 1, 1953. 30. A new subspecies of wood rat (Neotoma mexicana) from Colorado. By Robert B. Finley, Jr. Pp. 527-534, 2 figures in text. August 15, 1953. 31. Four new pocket gophers of the genus Cratogeomys from Jalisco, Mexico. By Robert J. Russell. Pp. 535-542. October 15, 1953. 32. Genera and subgenera of chipmunks. By John A. White. Pp. 543-561, 12 figures in text. December 1, 1953. 33. Taxonomy of the chipmunks, Eutamias quadrivittatus and Eutamias umbrinus. By John A. White. Pp. 563-582, 6 figures in text. December 1, 1953. 34. Geographic distribution and taxonomy of the chipmunks of Wyoming. By John A. White. Pp. 584-610, 3 figures in text. December 1, 1953. 35. The baculum of the chipmunks of western North America. By John A. White. Pp. 611-631, 19 figures in text. December 1, 1953. 36. Pleistocene Soricidae from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo Leon, Mexico. By James S. Findley. Pp. 633-639. December 1, 1953. 37. Seventeen species of bats recorded from Barro Colorado Island, Panama Canal Zone. By E. Raymond Hall and William B. Jackson. Pp. 641-646. December 1, 1953. Index. Pp. 647-676. *Vol. 6. (Complete) Mammals of Utah, _taxonomy and distribution_. By Stephen D. Durrant. Pp. 1-549, 91 figures in text, 30 tables. August 10, 1952. Vol. 7. *1. Mammals of Kansas. By E. Lendell Cockrum. Pp. 1-303, 73 figures in text, 37 tables. August 25, 1952. 2. Ecology of the opossum on a natural area in northeastern Kansas. By Henry S. Fitch and Lewis L. Sandidge. Pp. 305-338, 5 figures in text. August 24, 1953. 3. The silky pocket mice (Perognathus flavus) of Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 339-347, 1 figure in text. February 15, 1954. 4. North American jumping mice (Genus Zapus). By Philip H. Krutzsch. Pp. 349-472, 47 figures in text, 4 tables. April 21, 1954. 5. Mammals from Southeastern Alaska. By Rollin H. Baker and James S. Findley. Pp. 473-477. April 21, 1954. 6. Distribution of some Nebraskan Mammals. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 479-487. April 21, 1954. 7. Subspeciation in the montane meadow mouse, Microtus montanus, in Wyoming and Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 489-506, 2 figures in text. July 23, 1954. 8. A new subspecies of bat (Myotis velifer) from southeastern California and Arizona. By Terry A. Vaughn. Pp. 507-512. July 23, 1954. 9. Mammals of the San Gabriel Mountains of California. By Terry A. Vaughn. Pp. 513-582, 4 pls., 1 fig., 12 tables. November 15, 1954. More numbers will appear in volume 7. Vol. 8. 1. Life history and ecology of the five-lined skink, Eumeces fasciatus. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 1-156, 2 pls., 26 figs. in text, 17 tables. September 1, 1954. More numbers will appear in volume 8. 
36653	----	SUBSPECIATION IN POCKET GOPHERS OF KANSAS By BERNARDO VILLA-R. and E. RAYMOND HALL University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 1, No. 11, pp. 217-236 November 29, 1947 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1947 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, H. H. Lane, and Edward H. Taylor Volume 1, No. 11, pp. 217-236 Published November 29, 1947 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FRED VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1947 21-8188 Subspeciation in Pocket Gophers of Kansas By BERNARDO VILLA-R. AND E. RAYMOND HALL Several full species of the genus _Geomys_ have been recorded from Kansas. The purpose of the study now reported upon was to determine the present taxonomic status of these animals and the distribution of each within the boundaries of Kansas. No pocket gopher of any kind has been reported from the southeastern part of the state; in all other parts _Geomys_ is locally common. HISTORY The first published reference that we have found to pocket gophers of Kansas is Prof. Spencer F. Baird's (1857:377, 380) mention of two specimens from Fort Riley. One he identified as _Geomys bursarius_ (p. 377) and the other (p. 380) he doubtfully referred to _Geomys breviceps_. Both specimens were obtained by Dr. W. A. Hammond. J. A. Allen (1874:49) reported pocket gophers from Kansas under the generic name "Geomys?". Professor M. V. B. Knox (1875:21) published a list of Kansas mammals in which he used the names _Geomys bursarius_ Shaw and _Geomys breviceps_ Baird, the last one for the specimen taken by Dr. Hammond, at Fort Riley. Baker (1889:57) employed the name _Geomys bursarius_ Rich. for the gopher "found along the hundredth meridian, between N latitude 38° 30' and 39° 30'." He reported this animal as common in western Kansas. Merriam (1895:129) recorded _G. bursarius_ and _G. lutescens_ from Kansas. Allen (1895:265) recorded five specimens of _Geomys lutescens_ collected between September 16 and October 13 at Long Island, Phillips County, Kansas, by W. W. Granger. Since that time several papers, some of them dealing mostly with habits of pocket gophers, have been published in which reference is made to _Geomys_ in Kansas. Hibbard (1933:240) recognized three species: _G. bursarius_, _G. lutescens_, and _G. breviceps llanensis_. In 1944 (74-75) he recorded _Cratogeomys_ from Meade County, on the basis of two skulls dug out of the ground, and he recognized the same three full species of the genus _Geomys_ that he did in 1933, along with two additional subspecies. Specimens to the total number of 335 from Kansas have been available for the present study of the five subspecies recognized. The reason for arranging all of the named kinds as subspecies of a single species is that intergradation has been found to occur between every pair of kinds having contiguous geographic ranges. The characters previously thought by some writers constantly to differentiate, say, _Geomys lutescens_ of western Kansas from _Geomys bursarius_ of eastern Kansas, prove not to do so; instead, in areas geographically intermediate between the geographic ranges of the two kinds, the pocket gophers are intermediate in morphological characters and therefore are regarded as intergrades. Intergradation of this kind here is accepted as the criterion of subspecies, and lack of such intergradation as the criterion of species. Search for structural characters, distinctive of the different kinds, additional to those characters noted by other writers, has resulted in the finding of a few such characters but they too are subject to intergradation. Therefore the several kinds are arranged as subspecies of a single species which takes the name _Geomys bursarius_ because it is the oldest available name. Detailed comment on specimens showing intergradation are to be found in the accounts of _G. b. bursarius_ and _G. b. major_. METHODS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The series with the largest number of individuals from one restricted locality was selected for initial study. These individuals were segregated by sex, and specimens of each sex were arranged from oldest to youngest. Each series was divided into age-groups, and within a given age-group of one sex from one locality of what was considered as one species, estimation was made of the amount of individual variation. Thus, it was possible when comparing different kinds of pocket gophers to use only one age class of one season of one sex. Age was estimated to some extent by size of animal and nature of its pelage. The immature pelage is grayer and the hair is more crinkled than in adults. A more certain guide to age, however, is furnished by the skull. With increasing age some sutures disappear, the rostrum increases in length and the ridges marking the limits of the temporal muscles come to fuse and eventually, in males, form a high sagittal crest. Cranial measurements were taken as follows: Basilar length.--From the anteriormost inferior border of the foramen magnum to a line connecting the posteriormost margins of the alveoli of the first upper incisors. Length of the nasals.--The greatest length of the nasals. Zygomatic breadth.--The greatest distance across the zygomatic arches. Mastoid breadth.--The greatest distance across the mastoids. Breadth of rostrum.--Width, perpendicular to long axis of the skull. Interorbital constriction.--The least distance between the orbits. Maxillary tooth row.--The greatest length of the upper molariform tooth row at the alveolar border. Extension of premaxillae posterior to nasals.--From the posteriormost border of the nasals to the posterior end of the extension of a premaxilla. Depth of skull.--From the median suture of the frontals, on the dorsal surface of the skull to the median suture of the palatines at the level of the first molar (not premolar). Length of rostrum.--From the anterior border of the nasal to the maxilla at the lateral end of the hamulus of the lacrimal. In the list of specimens examined, localities are arranged by counties from west to east, beginning at the northwestern corner of the state; specimens in each county are arranged from north to south. If several localities are in the same latitude, the westernmost is listed first. Capitalized color terms are after Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Map showing the geographic distribution of the five subspecies of the Mississippi Valley pocket gopher, _Geomys bursarius_, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species.] In connection with this study each of the authors acknowledges assistance from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation and one of us (Villa) is grateful for assistance also to Drs. Isaac Ochoterena and Roberto Llamas of the Biological Institute of Mexico. For the loan of specimens we are grateful to Dr. William B. Davis, of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas; Dr. G. C. Rinker, of Hamilton, Kansas; and Mr. A. J. Kirn, of Somerset, Texas. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. ACCOUNTS OF SUBSPECIES =Geomys bursarius lutescens=, Merriam _Geomys bursarius lutescens_ Merriam, North Amer. Fauna, 4:51, October 8, 1890; Scheffer, Technical Bull., U. S. Dept. Agric., 224:6, January, 1931. _Geomys lutescens_ Merriam, North Amer. Fauna, 8:127-29, January 31, 1895; Lantz, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 19:175, 1905; Lantz, Kansas State Agric. College Bull., 129:335, April, 1905; Hibbard, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 36:240, 1933; Black, 30th Bienn. Rept. Kansas State Board Agric., 35:182, 1937; Swenk, Missouri Valley Fauna, 2:1, February 1, 1940; Allen, Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia, Bull. Inf. in Educ., 20 (no. 5):15, May, 1940; Hooper, Occas. Papers Mus. Zoöl., Univ. Michigan, 420:3, June 28, 1940. _Geomys lutescens lutescens_, Hibbard, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 47:74, 1944. _Type locality._--Sandhills on Birdwood Creek, Lincoln County, western Nebraska. _Distribution in Kansas._--Northwestern Kansas, eastward certainly to Ellis County, southward certainly to Scott County. _Description._--Animals with total length averaging no more than 272 mm.; length of vertebrae of tail averaging no more than 92; hind foot averaging no more than 35. Color: In autumn pelage, upper parts Light Ochraceous-Buff becoming Buckthorn Brown in middorsal region and there forming a faint longitudinal band; sides Pale Yellow Orange. In summer, Buckthorn Brown on upper parts with a dorsal band, especially distinct on specimens from Ellis and Trego counties; specimens from farther west lack the distinct dorsal band. Underparts Gray Drab and sometimes whitish, usually whitish in young specimens; basal color of pelage Deep Neutral Gray; fore and hind feet whitish. Skull: Zygomatic arch broadly and squarely spreading anteriorly; temporal impressions uniting to form a low sagittal crest in adult males, but in adult females and in young males the impressions usually remain apart; shape of interparietal varying from subquadrate in young specimens to subtriangular or triangular in adults; in some young specimens the interparietal is reduced to a minute, ovoid bone. _Comparisons._--See comparisons in the accounts of other subspecies occurring in Kansas. _Remarks._--In his monographic revision of the pocket gophers, Merriam (1895:129) recorded 3 "typical or nearly typical" specimens from Trego County, and 18 "non typical" specimens as follows: Garden Plain, Sedgwick County, 4; Belle Plain, Sumner County, 5; Cairo, Pratt County, 6; Kiowa, Barber County, 2; and Ellis, Ellis County, 1. A detailed discussion of Merriam's account of the distribution of _Geomys lutescens_ in Kansas is given by Swenk (1940:11-12). Judging by specimens in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, _G. bursarius lutescens_ in Kansas is restricted to the northwestern part of the state, reaching southward certainly to Scott County and eastward certainly to Ellis County; precise limits of distribution of this subspecies are unknown. Additional collecting is necessary to determine where the range of _lutescens_ meets the ranges of the other subspecies. The specimens studied are remarkably uniform. One specimen obtained in October, in Trego County, is slightly lighter colored than any other from Kansas. In other characteristics it agrees with specimens from northwestern Kansas and from the type locality. _Specimens examined._--Total number 32, as follows: _Cheyenne County_: 23 mi. (by road) NW St. Francis, 3. _Rawlins County_: 2 mi. NE Ludell, 10. _Logan County_: 5 mi. W Elkader, 3; no locality more precise than county, 1. _Trego County_: Wakeeney, 4; 12 mi. S Collyer, Perrington Ranch, 3; no locality more precise than county, 5. _Scott County_: 4 mi. S Scott City, 2. _Ellis County_: Hays State College Campus, Hays, 1. =Geomys bursarius majusculus= Swenk _Geomys bursarius majusculus_ Swenk, Missouri Valley Fauna, 1:6, December 5, 1939; Hibbard, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 47:74, 1944. _Geomys bursarius_, Baird, Expls. and surveys for a railroad route from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, pt. 1, Mammals, 377, 1857; Merriam, North Amer. Fauna, 8:120, January, 1895; Lantz, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 19:175, 1905; Lantz, Kansas State Agric. College Bull., 129:335, April, 1905; Scheffer, Kansas State Agric. College Ento. and Zoöl. Dept. Bull., 172:199, September, 1910; Hibbard, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 36:240, 1933; Allen, Kansas State Teachers College Emporia Bull. Inf. Stud. in Educ., 20 (no. 5):15, May, 1940. _Geomys bursarius bursarius_, Black, 30th Bienn. Rept. Kansas State Board Agric., 35:181, 1937. _Geomys breviceps_, Baird, Expls. and surveys for a railroad route from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, pt. 1, Mammals, 380, 1857. _Type locality._--Lincoln, Lancaster County, Nebraska. _Distribution in Kansas._--Northeastern Kansas, westward certainly to Clay and Marion counties and southward certainly to Greenwood County. _Description._--Color: Upper parts Mummy Brown in fresh appearing pelage of February but in more worn pelage of March more reddish being near (16') Prout's Brown; top of head and sometimes back darker than rest of upper parts; underparts usually with some whitish anteriorly; fore and hind feet and approximately distal half of tail white. Size: Large, total length averaging more than 280 mm. in males and 257 in females; hind foot averaging 35 mm. or more in males. Skull: Large; rostrum averaging more than twice as long as wide; sagittal crest high in males and barely present in females; occiput vertical when skull is laid top down; least width of braincase less than distance from alveolus of upper incisor to middle of lateral border of P^4 at alveolar border. _Comparisons._--From _Geomys bursarius lutescens_, _majusculus_ differs as follows: Color darker, Mummy Brown to Prout's Brown instead of Buckthorn Brown. In both sexes: head and body a fifth to a sixth longer; hind foot 5 to 6 per cent longer; skull averaging larger in all parts measured except that premaxillae (in each subspecies) extend equally far posteriorly to nasals; diastema longer in relation to basilar length; rostrum longer relative to its width; sagittal crest higher; rostrum often more depressed distally; angle of suture between maxilla and jugal more obtuse. From _G. b. bursarius_, according to Swenk (1939:6), _majusculus_ differs in larger size. From _G. b. illinoensis_, _majusculus_, according to Komarek and Spencer (1931:405), differs in brownish instead of slate-gray coloration and in two cranial characters as follows: Nasals straight-sided instead of shaped like an hour-glass, and superficial canals on palatine extending anteriorly beyond first molar, and from there anteriorly more or less separated. The first of these characters does not always hold; occasional individuals of _majusculus_, for example some from Douglas County, have the nasals shaped like an hour-glass. From _G. breviceps dutcheri_, _majusculus_ differs in larger size (hind foot more than 33 mm. in males, and 29 in females; basilar length more than 42 mm. in males and 36 in females); dorsal exposure of jugal longer than width of rostrum measured between ventral margins of infraorbital foramina. From _G. bursarius major_ of southcentral Kansas (for example Harvey County), _majusculus_ differs in slightly darker color, being Mummy Brown instead of Prout's Brown; size larger (in males total length more than 284 mm., hind foot 35 or more, basilar length of skull more than 42, and in females total length 265 or more, hind foot averaging 33 or more, and basilar length 40 or more). Skull: Averaging larger in all parts measured, except that premaxillae do not extend so far posteriorly to nasals in either males or females; interorbital constriction slightly narrower in adult females; temporal ridges forming a more prominent sagittal crest in adult males (sagittal crest barely present in some adult males of _major_ from Harper County). _Remarks._--In employing the subspecific name _majusculus_ we are following Swenk (1939:6) who on the basis of larger size differentiated the animals from southeastern South Dakota, the eastern parts of Nebraska and Kansas, and the western and southern parts of Iowa, from _G. bursarius bursarius_ to which he assigned a more northern geographic range. In the absence of comparative materials of the northern subspecies we cannot make an independent decision on the validity of _majusculus_ and recognize that if it is inseparable from _G. b. bursarius_ the latter name will apply to specimens from northeastern Kansas. We are the more uncertain about applying the name _majusculus_ to specimens from eastern Kansas because they average smaller than topotypes. Only at the northeasternmost locality in Kansas (3 mi. N Cummings, Atchison County) do specimens average as large as topotypes of _majusculus_. Farther southward they become progressively smaller in eastern Kansas, and we interpret this as intergradation with the still smaller subspecies _major_, to the southwest. The average external measurements of two adult males from Atchison County are: 321-99-35. Thirty-six miles farther south, in Douglas County, 16 adult males average 289-80-36. From Hamilton, Greenwood County, 80 miles farther southwest, nine adult males average 284-83-35. The maximum total length recorded at these three localities is: Atchison County, 342 (1 of 2 specimens), Douglas County, 308 (1 of 16 specimens), Greenwood County, 357 (in coll. of Dr. Glenn C. Rinker and 1 of 15 males of all ages involved). It will be seen, therefore, that although there is a trend to smaller average size toward the southward, the maximum of 357 millimeters total length at Hamilton exceeds the maximum of 352 millimeters recorded by Swenk (1939:3) among 86 males at Lincoln where the recorded average is largest. Four specimens from Salina (Debold Farm) are intermediate structurally, as they are also geographically, between _G. b. majusculus_ on the one hand and _Geomys bursarius lutescens_ and _Geomys bursarius major_ on the other hand. In color they agree with _majusculus_, as they do also in width of nasals posteriorly, in more obtuse angle of the rostrum and maxillary arm of the zygomatic arch. They agree with _G. b. lutescens_ in having the occiput inclined anterodorsally, and are intermediate between _majusculus_ and _lutescens_, but nearer the latter in size of skull and in length of the rostrum relative to its width. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 148, as follows: _Clay County_: 6 mi. SW Clay Center, 3. _Jackson County_: 10-1/2 mi. WSW Holton, 1; no locality more precise than county, 1. _Atchison County_: 3 mi. N Cummings, 2. _Jefferson County_: Oskaloosa, 1. _Leavenworth County_: Fort Leavenworth (Government Hill, 2; Engineer Hill, 1), 6; no locality more precise than county, 19. _Saline County_: Salina, Debold Farm, 4 (coll. of A. J. Kirn). _Morris County_: 1-1/2 mi. N Council Grove, 3. _Douglas County_: 1 mi. NW Midland, 2; 1 mi. N Lawrence, 1; 2-1/2 mi. W Lawrence, 2; 1 mi. W K. U. Campus, 2; 1 mi. W Lawrence, 2; 1/2 mi. W Lawrence, 2; "W K. U. Campus," 2; K. U. Campus, 4; Lawrence, 23; South Lawrence, 1; 1/2 mi. SW K. U. Campus, 2; Southwest K. U. Campus, 1; Haskell Institute, 1; 4-1/2 mi. S Lawrence, 1; 7 mi. SW Lawrence, 6; 7-1/2 mi. SW Lawrence, 1; 8 mi. SW Lawrence, 1; 10 mi. S Lawrence, 1; 11 mi. SW Lawrence, 3; no locality more precise than county, 15. _Marion County_: 1-1/2 mi. NE Lincolnville, 6; 4 mi. SE Lincolnville, 1; 6 mi. S Lincolnville, 1. _Greenwood County_: Hamilton, 1; 1/2 mi. S Hamilton, 4; 1 mi. S Hamilton, 4; 4 mi. S and 14 mi. W Hamilton, 6; 8 mi. SW Toronto, 1; 8-1/2 mi. SW Toronto, 5; no locality more precise than county, 6. =Geomys bursarius jugossicularis= Hooper _Geomys lutescens jugossicularis_ Hooper, Occas. Papers Mus. Zoöl., Univ. Michigan, no. 420: 1, June 28, 1940; Hibbard, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., vol. 47, p. 75, 1944. _Type locality._--Lamar, Prowers County, Colorado. _Distribution in Kansas._--Extreme southwestern part of state, northward certainly to Hamilton County and south certainly to Morton and Seward counties. _Description._--A yellowish-cinnamon colored animal, with body of medium size, zygomatic plate of maxilla deep and mastoid process small. _Comparisons._--Differs from _Geomys bursarius industrius_ in slightly lighter color; occiput not strongly inclined anterodorsally. From _G. b. lutescens_, _jugossicularis_ differs in less buffy coloration and deeper zygomatic plate of maxilla. _Remarks._--_G. bursarius jugossicularis_ and _G. bursarius industrius_ intergrade in the southern part of Meade County. Some specimens from this area show a coloration resembling that of _G. b. jugossicularis_; nevertheless, one specimen from Morton County has the occiput anterodorsally inclined as in _G. b. industrius_. Specimens examined from Hamilton County correspond closely to _G. b. jugossicularis_; they agree with it both in color and in cranial characters. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 20, distributed as follows: _Hamilton County_: 1 mi. E Coolidge, Conard Farm, 4. _Morton County_: 12 mi. NE Elkhart, 2; Cimarron River, 12 mi. N Elkhart, 4; no locality more precise than county, 6. _Seward County_: 1 mi. E Arkalon, 4. =Geomys bursarius industrius=, new subspecies _Geomys lutescens_ Merriam, North Amer. Fauna, 8:127, January 31, 1895. _Geomys breviceps llanensis_, Hibbard, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 36:240, 1933; Black, 30th Bienn. Rept. Kansas State Board Agric., 35:181. 1937. _Geomys lutescens jugossicularis_ Hooper, Occas. Papers Mus. Zoöl., Univ. Michigan, 420:1, June 28, 1940. _Type._--Male, adult, skin and skull, no. 14083 Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas; from 1-1/2 miles north of Fowler, Meade County, Kansas; obtained December 30, 1941, by H. H. Hildebrand, original number 16. _Distribution in Kansas._--Southwestern Kansas from Meade County eastward certainly to Pratt and Clark counties; from Pawnee County southward probably to the Oklahoma boundary. _Diagnosis._--Size of body medium; color of upper parts Cinnamon Brown; skull with occiput strongly inclined anterodorsally in males. [Illustration: FIG. 2. Three views of the skull of the type specimen of _Geomys bursarius industrius_. A. Lateral view; B. Dorsal view; C. Ventral view. All natural size.] _Description._--Color: Upper parts Cinnamon Brown, slightly reddish, but in some specimens collected in September, in Pawnee County, near (15´ _i_) Ochraceous-Tawny; underparts usually Wood Brown, somewhat whitish anteriorly; forefeet white; hind feet and approximately distal half of tail whitish. Size: Medium (see measurements), total length averaging not more than 271 mm. in males and 254 in females; hind foot averaging not more than 35 mm. in males and less than 32 in females. Skull: In males, least width of braincase equal to distance from alveolus of incisor to anterior border of alveolus of first upper molar, occiput strongly inclined anterodorsally, temporal impressions usually united in a low sagittal crest, zygomatic arch heavy and curved at level of jugal bone. In adult females least width of braincase approximately equal to distance from alveolus of incisor to anterior border of alveolus of first upper molar (not premolar); occiput less inclined anterodorsally than in males; temporal ridges not forming a sagittal crest. In young females the width of the braincase is more than the distance between the alveoli of the incisor and first molar. _Comparisons._--_G. lutescens industrius_ differs from _G. lutescens lutescens_ in: Color darker; least width of braincase not equal to (usually more than) the distance from the alveolus of incisor to the anterior border of the alveolus of the first upper molar. _G. lutescens industrius_ differs from _G. lutescens jugossicularis_ in: Color slightly darker, the former being Cinnamon Brown instead of Vinaceous Cinnamon, with hairs basally Deep Neutral Gray in upper parts and underparts. Skull: Jugular part of zygomatic arch more curved (convex dorsally) and occiput far more inclined anterodorsally; lower part of mastoidal ridge more prominent. For comparison with _G. l. major_, see account of that subspecies. _Remarks._--Judging from the known specimens of this subspecies, it has the smallest geographic range of any of the subspecies in Kansas, but additional collecting in Hodgeman County and counties to the north and west of it may extend the known range in those directions; collecting in Comanche County and in adjoining parts of Oklahoma may extend the known range to the southward. The anterodorsal inclination of the occiput in males is the one cranial character in which _industrius_ differs from all of the subspecies with adjoining geographic ranges. The existence of this unique (among adjoining subspecies) cranial character is the principal reason for according subspecific status to this animal. Although it has other characters which are fairly uniform over a considerable geographic area, these other characters, namely, Cinnamon Brown color of the upper parts and medium size of the body, after all, are conditions intermediate between those in _jugossicularis_ to the west and those in the darker and larger animals assigned to _major_ to the eastward. Considering the intermediate geographic position of _industrius_, the color and size are approximately what a person would predict by study of only the animals to the west and those to the east. Therefore, the color and size probably are indicative of intergradation between _jugossicularis_ and _major_. Still, there is the anterodorsally inclined occiput in males--a character of a unique sort--and this influences us to give subspecific status to this animal with full recognition of the fact that it is a "weak" subspecies as compared with any one of the adjoining subspecies. Hooper (1940:2) in naming as new _Geomys lutescens jugossicularis_ referred to his new subspecies a skin-only from Meade County State Park. Our more abundant material from there shows the cranial conformation to be that of _industrius_ to which we accordingly assign the specimens. However, with only a skin available, we, too, would have used the name _jugossicularis_ because the color is paler than in other specimens of _industrius_ and this paleness indicates intergradation between the two named subspecies. Specimens from Pratt County are slightly darker than _industrius_ thereby indicating intergradation between _industrius_ and _major_. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 58, distributed as follows: _Pawnee County_: Jct. Pawnee and Arkansas rivers, Larned, 6; 1 mi. S and 1 mi. E Larned, 7. _Edwards County_: 1 mi. W and 3-1/2 mi. S Kinsley, 1. _Kiowa County_: Rezeau Ranch, 5 mi. N Belvidere, 2. _Pratt County_: Pratt, 14; no locality more precise than county, 1. _Meade County_: 3-1/2 mi. NE Fowler, 2; 2 mi. N Fowler, 2; 1-1/2 mi. N Fowler, 2; 1-1/4 mi. N and 3/4 mi. E Fowler, 2; 7 mi. N Meade, Cudahy Ash Pit, 2; 13 mi. SW Meade, 9; State Lake, 2; State Park, 4. _Clark County_: 7 mi. SW Kingsdown, E. A. Stephenson Ranch, 1; 6 mi. S Kingsdown, 1. =Geomys bursarius major= Davis _Geomys lutescens major_ Davis, Texas Agric. Exp. St., Bull. no. 590:32, August, 1940; Hibbard, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 47:75, 1944. _Geomys lutescens_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 8:129, January 31, 1895. _Geomys breviceps llanensis_, Lantz, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 20 (pt. 2): 215, 1907; Hibbard, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 36:240, 1933; Black, 30th Bienn. Rept. Kansas State Board Agric., 35:182, 1937; Swenk, Missouri Valley Fauna, 2:12, February 1, 1940. _Type locality._--Eight miles west of Clarendon, Donley County, Texas. _Distribution in Kansas._--Southcentral Kansas, northward certainly to Ellsworth County, westward certainly to Stafford and Barber counties and eastward to Cowley County. _Description._--Color: Upper parts varying from Brussels Brown in some specimens to nearly Prout's Brown, especially in specimens from central part of state. Top of head, and sometimes back, darker than rest of upper parts, but no well defined black stripe; underparts varying from whitish to nearly Buffy Brown; fore and hind feet and approximately distal half of tail white. Size: Large (see measurements). Skull: Sagittal crest absent in females and barely present in males; least width of braincase more than distance from alveolus of incisor to middle of lateral border of P^4 at alveolar border. Length of auditory bulla (from anteroventral edge of paroccipital process of exoccipital to hamulus of peterygoid), in each sex, more than 8 mm.; occiput usually vertical when skull is laid top down; zygomatic arch broadly and squarely spreading, divergent anteriorly; rostrum averaging less than twice as long as wide. _Comparisons._--From _G. bursarius lutescens_, _major_ differs in color darker, premaxillae extending slightly farther posteriorly; temporal impressions usually forming a more well-marked sagittal crest in males; ventral side of zygomatic arch, at level of jugal bone, more curved. From _G. bursarius majusculus_, _major_ differs in slightly lighter color, smaller size of body; in males, total length less than 284 mm.; hind foot 34 or less; basilar length of skull less than 42; in females total length less than 264, hind foot no more than 33, and basilar length less than 39. From _G. bursarius industrius_, _major_ differs in color, being Prout's Brown, instead of Cinnamon Brown (less Fuscous); body averaging 10 per cent longer; total length in males from 9 to 9.7 per cent longer, hind foot 9.7 per cent longer on the average; skull averaging larger in all parts measured. Occiput less inclined anterodorsally; top nearly flat, less arched than that of _G. b. industrius_; auditory bulla averaging slightly larger and less inflated. _Remarks._--Specimens of this subspecies from Norman, Cleveland County, Oklahoma, and Canton, Dewey County, Oklahoma, and most of those from Kansas, are more Fuscous than topotypes and tend toward _G. bursarius majusculus_. Specimens from McPherson County have a darker dorsal stripe resembling that of _G. bursarius majusculus_. One adult from Little Salt Marsh, Stafford County, is pale, closely resembling topotypes. Most of the cranial characters, nevertheless, are constant in all available specimens, except that in specimens of each sex from the type locality the basilar length averages 4 to 5 per cent shorter. In the constancy of size of the relatively large auditory bullae and in the nearly flat dorsal profile of the cranial part of the skull, the specimens from Kansas agree with the specimens from the type locality. Specimens from Harper County have the occiput slightly inclined anterodorsally and thus are reminiscent of _industrius_ which has an even greater inclination of the occiput. Probably the appearance in dilute fashion of this character in Harper County is properly to be interpreted as intergradation with _industrius_. If so, the actual intergradation may be to the northwest _via_ Pratt County since specimens from Barber County, immediately west of Harper and lying between Harper County and the range of _industrius_, do not have the occiput so inclined. Of a pair of adults from eight miles west of Rosalia, Butler County, the female is indistinguishable in color from adults of _G. b. industrius_ from northern Meade County and from two specimens from eleven miles west of Clarendon, Donley County, Texas, near the type locality of _G. b. major_. The male from eight miles west of Rosalia is darker as compared either with _G. b. industrius_ or _G. b. major_ and the coloration of the upper parts resembles those in _G. b._ _majusculus_; the underparts are only slightly paler than the upper parts as in _majusculus_. Measurements of the skulls are intermediate between the averages for _G. b. majusculus_ and those for _G. b. major_. These specimens from eight miles west of Rosalia are intermediate structurally, and since they are intermediate geographically between _G. b. majusculus_ and _G. b. major_, they suggest intergradation of the two subspecies. The specimens in question are referred to _major_ because the size is nearer that of _major_. It is mainly the intermediate nature of these two specimens from Butler County, and the intermediate nature of the specimens from McPherson County, Kansas, that have caused us to treat _G. b. majusculus_ as only subspecifically distinct from the more western subspecies, _major_. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 77, as follows: _Ellsworth County_: 2 mi. S Ellsworth, 1. _McPherson County_: Smoky Hill River, 1 mi. S and 1/2 mi. W Lindsborg, 5; 1/2 mi. E McPherson, 1. _Stafford County_: Little Salt Marsh, 12; no locality more precise than county, 3. _Reno County_: 8 mi. N and 1 mi. E Haven, 2. _Harvey County_: 1 mi. E and 1/2 mi. N Halstead, 1; Halstead, 3. _Butler County_: 8 mi. W Rosalia, 2. _Barber County_: near South Bridge, Sun City, 1; 2 mi. S Sun City, 1; Wells Ranch, Aetna, 5; "1 mi. W Aetna," 3; near South Bridge, Aetna, 1; near Bridge, 1 mi. S Aetna, 2. _Harper County_: 4-1/2 mi. NE Danville, 8; 1 mi. N Harper, 11; 3 mi. S Harper, 1. _Cowley County_: 3 mi. SW Arkansas City, 4; 3 mi. SE Arkansas City, 9; 3 mi. S Arkansas City, 1. MEASUREMENTS OF ADULT MALES OF GEOMYS (In millimeters) Key for table headings in table on this page. N: Number of individuals averaged or catalogue number L: Total length T: Length of tail H: Length of hind foot B: Basilar length Na: Length of nasals Z: Zygomatic breadth M: Mastoid breadth Rb: Breadth of rostrum I: Interorbital constriction A: Alveolar length of maxillary tooth row E: Extension of premaxilla posterior to nasals S: Depth of skull Rl: Length of rostrum ======+===+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+===+===+===+====+===== N |L | T | H | B | Na | Z | M | Rb | I | A | E | S | Rl ------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+----+----- _G. b. lutescens_; topotypes 5 ave.|266|82.0|34.2|40.0|17.7|30.5|26.8|11.5|6.7|8.6|3.9|17.1|20.8 min.|257|76.0|33.0|38.3|16.0|29.1|26.1|11.2|6.3|8.1|3.5|16.2|19.1 max.|276|91.0|36.0|42.4|20.3|31.7|27.5|11.9|6.9|9.2|4.2|17.7|23.6 2 mi. NE Ludell, Rawlins Co., Kansas 12088|272|92.0|35.0|43.2|19.1|32.3|27.7|11.3|6.6|8.4|2.8|18.0|22.1 _G. b. majusculus_; Douglas Co., Kansas | | | | | |[A] | | | | | | | 16 ave. |289|79.8|36.3|47.1|21.0|34.1|30.4|12.1|6.8|9.3|3.7|18.5|24.9 min. |273|70.0|32.0|44.7|18.9|30.5|27.5|11.1|6.5|8.2|2.9|17.3|22.9 max. |308|95.0|55.0|49.9|23.2|38.0|34.5|13.5|7.6|10.3|5.7|20.0|28.1 _G. b. jugossicularis_; Morton Co., Kansas 4 ave.|265|82.0|34.2|40.7|16.9|30.0|27.9|10.7|6.0|8.6|5.2|17.3|21.2 min.|250|68.0|30.0|38.5|16.1|29.0|27.5|10.5|5.5|8.2|4.7|16.4|20.2 max.|285|92.0|37.0|42.4|17.4|31.1|28.4|11.0|6.2|9.2|5.5|17.9|22.0 _G. b. industrius_; Meade Co., Kansas 8 ave.|265|82.0|35.0|40.9|18.1|30.0|28.0|11.0|6.2|8.8|4.3|17.7|21.8 min.|247|70.0|33.0|37.9|15.5|28.2|26.5| 9.9|5.7|8.0|2.9|16.8|19.5 max.|280|90.0|36.0|43.4|21.0|32.4|29.5|11.6|7.0|9.1|5.2|19.1|24.2 _G. b. major_; Wells Ranch, Aetna, Barber Co., Kansas 11724|256|66.0|34.0|41.0|18.3|31.6|28.2|10.6|6.1|9.0|4.0|17.0|21.3 1 mi. W Aetna, Barber Co., Kansas 11153|240|75.0|32.0|36.7|15.7|26.9|24.6| 9.9|5.9|8.8|4.0|15.0|19.5 11152|240|65.0|32.0|36.0|14.2|26.1|25.4|10.9|5.6|8.5|5.0|15.5|18.5 3 mi. SE Arkansas City, Cowley Co., Kansas | | | | |[E] | | | | | | | | 12870|246|76.0|32.0|42.1|16.0|33.7|29.7|11.5|6.3|9.4|4.5|17.6|21.3 3 mi. SW Arkansas City, Cowley Co., Kansas 12892|282|84.0|33.0|41.7|17.3|....|27.7|10.8|6.4|8.9|4.2|17.2|21.5 ------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+----+----- MEASUREMENTS OF ADULT FEMALES OF GEOMYS (In millimeters) Key for table headings in table on this page. N: Number of individuals averaged or catalogue number L: Total length T: Length of tail H: Length of hind foot B: Basilar length Na: Length of nasals Z: Zygomatic breadth M: Mastoid breadth Rb: Breadth of rostrum I: Interorbital constriction A: Alveolar length of maxillary tooth row E: Extension of premaxilla posterior to nasals S: Depth of skull Rl: Length of rostrum ======+===+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+===+===+===+====+===== N | L | T | H | B | Na | Z | M | Rb | I | A | E | S | Rl ------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+----+----- _G. b. lutescens_; topotypes 6 ave.|233|72.3|31.1|35.3|15.0|25.9|23.7|10.4|6.1|8.3|3.7|15.4|18.4 min.|215|63.0|30.0|33.5|13.9|24.6|21.8|10.1|5.6|8.1|2.9|14.8|17.3 max.|254|76.0|32.0|37.0|16.8|26.7|24.8|10.7|6.6|8.5|4.5|16.2|19.8 2 mi. NE Ludell, Rawlins Co., Kansas 11733|230|63.0|31.0|35.3|15.1|26.5|24.1| 9.3|6.1|7.5|2.4|15.0|18.2 12155|245|70.0|30.0|35.6|14.6|25.2|24.1|10.6|6.4|7.5|3.1|14.9|18.2 _G. b. majusculus_; Douglas Co., Kansas | | | |[B] |[B] |[A] | | | | | | | 17 ave. |265|78.6|32.8|40.6|17.2|28.6|26.4|10.9|6.5|9.1|3.6|16.6|21.0 min. |222|59.0|30.0|37.1|15.9|26.7|24.9|10.0|5.9|8.5|2.0|15.2|18.8 max. |304|92.0|35.0|47.0|20.1|33.4|29.1|12.3|7.3|10.0|5.9|19.1|24.1 _G. b. jugossicularis_; Morton Co., Kansas 5012|244|72.0|30.0|36.2|16.4|25.4|25.0|10.0|5.9|8.0|4.2|16.0|19.3 5395|230|72.0|30.0|34.6|13.9|24.7|24.8| 9.8|5.8|8.0|4.5|15.2|17.5 _G. b. industrius_; Meade Co., Kansas | |[C] | |[D] | | |[D] | 7 ave. |238|73.0|31.3|36.4|14.9|26.3|24.8|10.0|6.0|8.4|4.1|16.2|18.6 min. |231|65.0|30.0|35.4|14.0|25.8|24.5| 9.5|5.6|8.1|3.6|15.5|17.5 max. |256|75.0|32.0|37.8|16.1|27.8|25.9|10.3|6.5|8.7|4.7|17.6|19.9 _G. b. major_; 1 mi. S Aetna, Barber Co., Kansas 10069|257|95.0|32.0|37.0|16.4|26.4|25.5|10.8|6.2|9.0|3.4|16.4|19.4 Aetna, Barber Co., Kansas 10070|242|83.0|30.0|36.8|15.7|26.2|25.0|10.1|6.5|9.1|3.3|15.8|19.1 Wells Ranch, Aetna, Barber Co., Kansas 12238|239|65.0|31.0|34.2|14.5|24.6|23.7| 9.6|6.0|8.0|3.6|15.2|17.7 1 mi. S.Sun City, Barber Co., Kansas 11075|232|66.0|28.0|34.2|14.4|25.0|23.6| 9.9|5.9|8.0|3.4|15.0|17.0 3 mi. SW Arkansas City, Cowley Co., Kansas 12872|242|66.0|30.0|38.1|15.0|28.0|26.2|10.3|6.3|7.8|4.5|16.1|19.1 3 mi. SE Arkansas City, Cowley Co., Kansas 12894|230|82.0|30.0|38.5|15.5|28.0|25.6|10.0|6.7|8.7|4.0|16.6|19.5 12893|246|83.0|32.0|36.5|14.2|25.6|24.8| 9.6|6.6|8.7|4.6|15.4|18.1 ------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+----+----- [A] 15 averaged. [B] 16 averaged. [C] 6 averaged. [D] 5 averaged. [E] approximate. SUBSPECIES OF THE SPECIES GEOMYS BURSARIUS If _Geomys lutescens major_ Davis is correctly judged to intergrade with _Geomys bursarius majusculus_ Swenk, the name for the full species will be _Geomys bursarius_ because _bursarius_ is the oldest name among those available. Some new combinations of names are required. According to our present understanding, the eleven kinds of pocket gophers named below are properly to be arranged as subspecies of the species _Geomys bursarius_: _Geomys bursarius bursarius_ (Shaw). Type from unknown locality in Upper Mississippi Valley. _Geomys bursarius majusculus_ Swenk. Type from Lincoln, Lancaster County, Nebraska. _Geomys bursarius hylaeus_ Blossom. Type from 10 mi. S Chadron, Dawes County, Nebraska. _Geomys bursarius levisagittalis_ Swenk. Type from Spencer, Boyd County, Nebraska. _Geomys bursarius vinaceus_ Swenk. Type from Scottsbluff, Scotts Bluff County, Nebraska. _Geomys bursarius lutescens_ Merriam. Type from Sandhills on Birdwood Creek, Lincoln County, Nebraska. _Geomys bursarius illinoensis_ Komarek and Spencer. Type from 1 mi. S Momence, Kankakee County, Illinois. _Geomys bursarius jugossicularis_ Hooper. Type from Lamar, Prowers County, Colorado. _Geomys bursarius industrius_ new subspecies. Type from 1-1/2 mi. N Fowler, Meade County, Kansas. _Geomys bursarius major_ Davis. Type from 8 mi. W Clarendon, Donley County, Texas. _Geomys bursarius llanensis_ Bailey. Type from Llano, Llano County, Texas. LITERATURE CITED ALLEN, J. A. 1874. Notes on the mammals of portions of Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming and Utah. Part I. On the mammals of middle and western Kansas. Bull. Essex Inst., 6 (no. 2):43-52. February, 1874. 1895. List of mammals collected in the Black Hills region of South Dakota and in western Kansas by Mr. Walter W. Granger with field notes by the collector. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 7:259-274. August 21, 1895. ALLEN, P. 1940. Kansas mammals. Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia, Bull. Inf. Stud. in Educ., Number 20 (no. 5):l-62. May, 1940. BAKER, A. B. 1889. Mammals of western Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 11:56-58 (for 1887-88). BAIRD, S. F. 1857. Explorations and surveys for a railroad route from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. War Department. Mammals, Part I, xxxii + 757, pls. 17-60, 35 figs. in text, 1857. BLACK, J. D. 1937. Mammals of Kansas. Thirtieth Bienn. Rept. Kansas State Board of Agric., 35:116-217. DAVIS, W. B. 1940. Distribution and variation of pocket gophers (Genus Geomys) in the southwestern United States. Texas Agric. Exp. Station, Bull., 590:1-38, 6 figs. in text. October 23, 1940. HIBBARD, C. W. 1933. A revised check list of Kansas mammals. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 36:230-249. 1944. A checklist of Kansas mammals, 1943. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 47:61-88. HOOPER, E. T. 1940. A new race of pocket gopher of the species Geomys lutescens from Colorado. Occas. Papers, Mus. Zoöl., Univ. Michigan, 420:1-3. June 28, 1940. KNOX, M. V. B. 1875. Kansas Mammalia. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 4:18-22. KOMAREK, E. V. , and SPENCER, D. A. 1931. A new pocket gopher from Illinois and Indiana. Journ. Mamm., 12:404-408, 1 pl., 1 fig. in text. November 11, 1931. LANTZ, D. E. 1905. Kansas mammals in their relations to agriculture. Kansas State Agric. College Bull., 129:331-404. April, 1905. 1905. A list of Kansas mammals. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 19:171-178. 1907. Additions and corrections to the list of Kansas mammals. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 20 (pt. 2):214-217. MERRIAM, C. H. 1890. Descriptions of twenty-six new species of North American mammals. N. Amer. Fauna, 4: v + 60, 3 pls., 3 figs. in text. October 8, 1890. 1895. Monographic revision of the pocket gopher Family Geomyidae.... N. Amer. Fauna, 8:1-258, 19 pls. and frontispiece, 71 figs. in text, 4 maps. January 31, 1895. SCHEFFER, T. H. 1910. The pocket gopher. Kansas State Agric. Coll. Ent. and Zoöl. Dept., Bull., 172:197-233, illustrated. September, 1910. 1931. Habits and economic status of the pocket gophers. U. S. Dept. Agric., Tech. Bull., 224:1-27, 8 pls., 2 figs. in text. January, 1931. SWENK, M. H. 1939. A study of local size variations in the prairie pocket gopher (Geomys bursarius), with description of a new subspecies from Nebraska. Missouri Valley Fauna, 1:1-8. December 5, 1939. 1940. A study of subspecific variation in the yellow pocket gopher (Geomys lutescens) in Nebraska, and the geographical and ecological distribution of the variants. Missouri Valley Fauna, 2:1-12. February 1, 1940. _Transmitted May 30, 1947._ PRINTED BY FRED VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1947 21-8188 Transcriber Notes: Minor typographical errors were corrected without notice. Italic words and phrases are marked _like this_. Bold words and phrases are marked =like this=. Small caps are converted to all upper case, LIKE THIS. Superscripts in text are indicated by use of the caret, like this ^4. 
19550	----	[Frontispiece: FELIS TIGRIS.] NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALIA OF INDIA AND CEYLON. BY ROBERT A. STERNDALE, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., &C., AUTHOR OF "THE DENIZENS OF THE JUNGLE;" "THE AFGHAN KNIFE;" "SEONEE, OR CAMP LIFE IN THE SATPURA RANGE," ETC. WITH 170 ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR, T. W. WOOD, AND OTHERS. CALCUTTA: THACKER, SPINK, AND CO. BOMBAY: THACKER AND CO., LIMITED. LONDON: W. THACKER AND CO. 1884. LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. THIS POPULAR HISTORY OF OUR INDIAN MAMMALS IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED (BY PERMISSION) TO ONE WHO TAKES A DEEP INTEREST IN ALL THAT CONCERNS OUR EASTERN EMPIRE, THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF NORTHBROOK, G.C.S.I., LATE GOVERNOR-GENERAL AND VICEROY OF INDIA. PREFACE. This work is designed to meet an existing want, viz.: a popular manual of Indian Mammalia. At present the only work of the kind is one which treats exclusively of the Peninsula of India, and which consequently omits the more interesting types found in Assam, Burmah, and Ceylon, as well as the countries bordering the British Indian Empire on the North. The geographical limits of the present work have been extended to all territories likely to be reached by the sportsman from India, thus greatly enlarging the field of its usefulness. The stiff formality of the compiled "Natural Histories" has been discarded, and the Author has endeavoured to present, in interesting conversational and often anecdotal style, the results of experience by himself and his personal friends; at the same time freely availing himself of all the known authorities upon the subject. CONTENTS. NO. PAGE INTRODUCTION 1 ORDER BIMANA 3 ORDER QUADRUMANA 7 Genus Hylobates--The Gibbons-- 1. Hylobates hooluck (_White-fronted Gibbon_) 8 2. " lar (_White-handed Gibbon_) 11 3. " syndactylus (_Siamang_) 12 Genus Presbytes--Cuvier's Genus Semnopithecus-- 4. Semnopithecus _vel_ Presbytes entellus (_Bengal Langur_) 14 5. " _vel_ P. schistaceus (_Himalayan Langur_) 16 6. " _vel_ P. priamus (_Madras Langur_) 16 7. " _vel_ P. Johnii (_Malabar Langur_) 17 8. " _vel_ P. jubatus (_Nilgheri Langur_) 18 9. " _vel_ P. pileatus (_Capped Langur_) 18 10. " _vel_ P. Barbei (_Tipperah Langur_) 19 11. " _vel_ P. Phayrei (_Silvery-Leaf Monkey_) 19 12. " _vel_ P. obscurus (_Dusky-Leaf Monkey_) 20 13. " _vel_ P. cephalopterus (_Ceylon Langur_) 20 14. " _vel_ P. ursinus (_Great Wanderu_) 21 15. " _vel_ P. thersites 22 16. " _vel_ P. albinus (_White Langur_) 23 SUB-FAMILY PAPIONINAE 24 Genus Inuus-- 17. Inuus _vel_ Macacus silenus (_Lion Monkey_) 24 18. " _vel_ M. rhesus (_Bengal Monkey_) 25 19. " _vel_ M. pelops (_Hill Monkey_) 26 20. " _vel_ M. nemestrinus (_Pig-tailed Monkey_) 26 21. " _vel_ M. leoninus (_Long-haired Pig-tailed Monkey_) 27 22. " _vel_ M. arctoides (_Brown Stump-tailed Monkey_) 28 23. " _vel_ M. Thibetanus (_Thibetan Stump-tailed Monkey_) 28 Genus Macacus-- 24. Macacus radiatus (_Madras Monkey_) 28 25. " pileatus (_Capped Monkey_) 29 26. " cynomolgus (_Crab-eating Macacque_) 30 27. " carbonarius (_Black-faced Crab-eating Monkey_) 31 FAMILY LEMURIDAE 31 Genus Nycticebus-- 28. Nycticebus tardigradus (_Slow-paced Lemur_) 31 Genus Loris-- 29. Loris gracilis (_Slender Lemur_) 33 SUB-ORDER PLEUROPTERA--FAMILY GALAEOPITHECIDAE 33 Genus Galaeopithecus-- 30. Galaeopithecus volans (_Flying Lemur_) 34 ORDER CARNARIA 35 CHEIROPTERA 35 MEGACHIROPTERA--SUB-FAMILY PTEROPODIDAE 36 Genus Pteropus-- 31. Pteropus Edwardsii _vel_ medius (_Common Flying Fox_) 37 32. " Leschenaultii (Cynonycteris amplexicaudata) (_Fulvous Fox-Bat_) 40 Genus Cynopterus-- 33. Cynopterus marginatus (_Small Fox-Bat_) 40 34. Macroglossus (Pteropus) minimus (_Tenasserim Fox-Bat_) 41 Genus Eonycteris-- 35. Eonycteris spelaea 41 MICROCHIROPTERA--SUB-FAMILY VAMPYRIDAE 42 Genus Megaderma-- 36. Megaderma lyra (_Large-eared Vampire Bat_) 42 37. " spectrum (_Cashmere Vampire_) 43 38. " spasma 43 RHINOLOPHINAE 44 Genus Rhinolophus-- 39. Rhinolophus perniger _vel_ luctus (_Large Leaf-Bat_) 44 40. " mitratus (_Mitred Leaf-Bat_) 44 41. " tragatus _vel_ ferrum-equinum (_Dark-brown Leaf-Bat_) 45 42. " Pearsonii (_Pearson's Leaf-Bat_) 46 43. " affinis (_Allied Leaf-Bat_) 46 44. " rouxi (_Rufous Leaf-Bat_) 46 45. " macrotis (_Large-eared Leaf-Bat_) 47 46. " sub-badius (_Bay Leaf-Bat_) 47 47. " rammanika 47 48. " Andamanensis 48 49. " minor 48 50. " coelophyllus 48 51. " Garoensis 48 52. " Petersii 49 53. " trifoliatus 49 Genus Hipposideros _vel_ Phyllorhina-- 54. Hipposideros armiger (_Large Horse-shoe Bat_) 50 55. " speoris (_Indian Horse-shoe Bat_) 50 56. " murinus (_Little Horse-shoe Bat_) 51 57. " cineraceus (_Ashy Horse-shoe Bat_) 51 58. " larvatus 51 59. " vulgaris (_Common Malayan Horse-shoe Bat_) 52 60. " Blythii 52 61. Phyllorhina diadema 52 62. " Masoni 53 63. " Nicobarensis 53 64. " armigera 53 65. " leptophylla 54 66. " galerita 54 67. " bicolor 55 Genus Coelops-- 68. Coelops Frithii (_Frith's Tailless Bat_) 55 Genus Rhinopoma-- 69. Rhinopoma Hardwickii (_Hardwick's Long-tailed Leaf-Bat_) 56 SUB-FAMILY NOCTILIONIDAE 56 Genus Taphozous-- 70. Taphozous longimanus (_Long-armed Bat_) 57 71. " melanopogon (_Black-bearded Bat_) 57 72. " saccolaimus (_White-bellied Bat_) 58 73. " Theobaldi 58 74. " Kachhensis 58 Genus Nyctinomus-- 75. Nyctinomus plicatus (_Wrinkle-lipped Bat_) 59 76. " tragatus 59 SUB-FAMILY VESPERTILIONIDAE 60 Genus Plecotus-- 77. Plecotus auritus _vel_ homochrous 60 Genus Vesperugo-- 78. Vesperugo noctula 61 79. " leucotis 61 80. " maurus 62 81. " affinis 62 82. " pachyotis 62 83. " atratus 62 84. " Tickelli 63 85. " pachypus 63 86. " annectans 63 87. " dormeri 63 88. (Vesperugo) Scotophilus serotinus (_Silky Bat_) 63 89. " " Leisleri (_Hairy-armed Bat_) 64 Scotophilus pachyomus 64 90. (Vesperugo) Scotophilus Coromandelianus (_Coromandel Bat_) 64 91. " " lobatus (_Lobe-eared Bat_) 65 Genus Scotophilus-- 92. Scotophilus fuliginosus (_Smoky Bat_) 65 93. " Temminckii 65 94. " Heathii 66 95. " emarginatus 66 96. " ornatus 66 97. " pallidus 67 Noctulinia noctula 67 Nycticejus Heathii (_Large Yellow Bat_) 67 " luteus (_Bengal Yellow Bat_) 67 " Temminckii (_Common Yellow Bat_) 67 " castaneus (_Chestnut Bat_) 67 " atratus (_Sombre Bat_) 67 " canus (_Hoary Bat_) 67 " ornatus (_Harlequin Bat_) 68 98. " nivicolus (_Alpine Bat_) 68 Genus Harpiocephalus-- 99. Harpiocephalus harpia 69 100. " (Murina) suillus (_The Pig-Bat_) 69 101. " auratus 70 102. " griseus 70 103. " leucogaster 70 104. " cyclotis 70 Genus Kerivoula-- 105. Kerivoula picta (_Painted Bat_) 71 " pallida 72 106. " papillosa 72 107. " Hardwickii 72 Genus Vespertilio-- 108. Myotis (Vespertilio) murinus 73 109. " Theobaldi 73 110. " parvipes 73 111. Vespertilio longipes 73 112. " mystacinus 73 113. " muricola 73 114. " montivagus 74 115. " murinoides 74 116. " formosus 74 117. " Nepalensis 74 118. " emarginatus 75 Genus Miniopterus-- 119. Miniopterus Schreibersii 76 Genus Barbastellus-- 120. Barbastellus communis 76 121. Nyctophilus Geoffroyi 76 INSECTIVORA 77 FAMILY TALPIDAE--THE MOLES 79 Genus Talpa-- 122. Talpa micrura (_Short-tailed Mole_) 81 123. " macrura (_Long-tailed Mole_) 81 124. " leucura (_White-tailed Mole_) 81 FAMILY SORECIDAE 82 Genus Sorex-- 125. Sorex caerulescens (_Common Musk Shrew, better known as Musk-rat_) 83 126. " murinus (_Mouse-coloured Shrew_) 85 127. " nemorivagus (_Nepal Wood Shrew_) 85 128. " serpentarius (_Rufescent Shrew_) 85 129. " saturatior (_Dark-brown Shrew_) 86 130. " Tytleri (_Dehra Shrew_) 86 131. " niger (_Neilgherry Wood Shrew_) 86 132. " leucops (_Long-tailed Shrew_) 87 133. " soccatus (_Hairy-footed Shrew_) 87 134. " montanus (_Ceylon Black Shrew_) 87 135. " ferrugineus (_Ceylon Rufescent Shrew_) 87 136. " Griffithi (_Large Black Shrew_) 88 137. " heterodon 88 Genus Feroculus-- 138. Feroculus macropus (_Large-footed Shrew_) 88 139. Sorex Hodgsoni (_Nepal Pigmy-Shrew_) 88 140. " Perroteti (_Neilgherry Pigmy-Shrew_) 89 141. " micronyx (_Small-clawed Pigmy-Shrew_) 89 142. " melanodon (_Black-toothed Pigmy-Shrew_) 89 143. " nudipes (_Naked-footed Shrew_) 89 144. " atratus (_Black Pigmy-Shrew_) 89 Sub-genus Soriculus-- 145. Soriculus nigrescens (_Mouse-tailed Shrew_) 90 Genus Crossopus-- 146. Crossopus Himalaicus (_Himalayan Water-Shrew_) 90 Genus Nyctogale-- 147. Nyctogale elegans (_Thibet Water-Shrew_) 92 Genus Corsira-- 148. Corsira Alpina (_Alpine Shrew_) 92 Genus Anurosorex-- 149. Anurosorex Assamensis (_Assam Burrowing Shrew_) 93 FAMILY ERINACEIDAE--THE HEDGEHOGS 93 Genus Erinaceus-- 150. Erinaceus collaris (_Collared Hedgehog_) 96 151. " micropus (_Small-footed Hedgehog_) 96 152. " pictus (_Painted Hedgehog_) 97 153. " Grayi 97 154. " Blanfordi 97 155. " Jerdoni 97 156. " megalotis (_Large-eared Hedgehog_) 98 FAMILY HYLOMIDAE 99 Genus Hylomys-- 157. Hylomys Peguensis (_Short-tailed Tree-Shrew_) 99 FAMILY TUPAIIDAE 99 Genus Tupaia-- 158. Tupaia Ellioti (_Elliot's Tree-Shrew_) 101 159. " Peguana _vel_ Belangeri (_Pegu Tree-Shrew_) 101 160. " Chinensis 103 161. " Nicobarica 103 162. Gymnura Rafflesii (_Bulau_) 104 CARNIVORA 105 ARCTOIDEA--PLANTIGRADA 108 URSIDAE 108 Genus Ursus-- 163. Ursus Isabellinus (_Himalayan Brown Bear_) 111 164. " (Helarctos) torquatus _vel_ Tibetanus (_Himalayan Black Bear_) 113 165. " (Helarctos) gedrosianus (_Baluchistan Bear_) 116 166. " " Malayanus (_Bruang or Malayan Sun Bear_) 116 167. " (Melursus) labiatus (_Common Indian Sloth Bear_) 118 AILURIDAE 123 Genus Ailuropus-- 168. Ailuropus melanoleucos 124 Genus Ailurus-- 169. Ailurus fulgens (_Red Cat-Bear_) 128 SEMI-PLANTIGRADES 130 MELIDIDAE; OR, BADGER-LIKE ANIMALS 130 Genus Arctonyx-- 170. Arctonyx collaris (_Hog-Badger_) 131 171. " taxoides (_Assam Badger_) 132 Genus Meles (Sub-genus Taxidia)-- 172. Meles (Taxidia) leucurus (_Thibetan White-tailed Badger_) 133 173. " albogularis (_White-throated Thibetan Badger_) 134 Genus Mellivora-- 174. Mellivora Indica (_Indian Ratel or Honey-Badger_) 134 Genus Gulo--The Glutton or Wolverene 136 Genus Helictis-- 175. Helictis Nipalensis (_Nepal Wolverene_) 138 176. " moschata (_Chinese Wolverene_) 138 MUSTELIDAE--MARTENS AND WEASELS 139 Genus Martes--The Martens-- 177. Martes flavigula (_White-cheeked Marten_) 141 178. " abietum (_Pine Marten_) 142 179. " toufoeus 143 Genus Mustela--The Weasels-- 180. Mustela (Vison: _Gray_) sub-hemachalana (_Sub-Hemachal Weasel_) 145 181. " (Gymnopus: _Gray_) kathiah (_Yellow-bellied Weasel_) 145 182. " (Gymnopus: _Gray_) strigidorsa (_Striped Weasel_) 146 183. " erminea (_Ermine or Stoat_) 146 184. " (Vison: _Gray_) canigula (_Hoary Red-necked Weasel_) 146 185. " Stoliczkana 147 186. " (Vison) Sibirica 147 187. " alpina (_Alpine Weasel_) 147 188. " Hodgsoni 147 189. " (Vison) Horsfieldi 148 190. " (Gymnopus) nudipes 148 Genus Putorius--The Pole-cat-- 191. Putorius larvatus _vel_ Tibetanus (_Black-faced Thibetan Pole-cat_) 149 192. " Davidianus 149 193. " astutus 150 194. " Moupinensis 150 LUTRIDAE--The Otters 150 Genus Lutra-- 195. Lutra nair (_Common Indian Otter_) 153 196. " monticola _vel_ simung 155 197. " Ellioti 155 198. " aurobrunnea 155 Genus Aonyx--Clawless Otters-- 199. Aonyx leptonyx (_Clawless Otter_) 156 AELUROIDEA 156 FELIDAE--The Cat Family Genus Felis-- 200. Felis leo (_Lion_) 159 201. " tigris (_Tiger_) 161 THE PARDS OR PANTHERS 175 202. Felis pardus (_Pard_) 179 203. " panthera (_Panther_) 183 204. " uncia (_Ounce or Snow Panther_) 184 205. " Diardii _vel_ macrocelis (_Clouded Panther_) 185 206. " viverrina (_Large Tiger-Cat_) 187 207. " marmorata (_Marbled Tiger-Cat_) 188 208. " Bengalensis (_Leopard-Cat_) 189 209. " Jerdoni (_Lesser Leopard-Cat_) 191 210. " aurata (_Bay Cat_) 191 211. " rubiginosa (_Rusty-spotted Cat_) 192 212. " torquata (_Spotted Wild-Cat_) 193 213. " manul (_Black-chested Wild-Cat_) 193 214. " scripta 194 215. " Shawiana (_Yarkand Spotted Wild-Cat_) 194 216. " chaus (_Common Jungle-Cat_) 195 217. " isabellina (_Thibetan Lynx_) 197 218. " caracal (_Red Lynx_) 198 219. " jubata (_Hunting Leopard_) 200 HYAENIDAE--THE HYAENAS 203 Genus Hyaena-- 220. Hyaena striata (_Striped Hyaena_) 205 VIVERRIDAE--THE CIVET FAMILY 207 Genus Viverra-- 221. Viverra zibetha (_Large Civet Cat_) 208 222. " civettina (_Malabar Civet-Cat_) 209 223. " megaspila 209 224. " Malaccensis (_Lesser Civet-Cat_) 211 Genus Prionodon-- 225. Prionodon pardicolor (_Tiger Civet or Linsang_) 212 226. " maculosus (_Spotted Linsang_) 213 227. " gracilis (_Malayan Linsang_) 215 Genus Paradoxurus--The Musangs-- 228. Paradoxurus musanga (_Common Musang_) 216 229. " (Paguma _of Gray_) Grayii (_Hill Musang_) 217 230. " bondar (_Terai Musang_) 218 231. " trivirgatus (_Three-striped Musang_) 218 232. " leucotis (_White-eared Musang_) 219 233. " zeylanicus (_Golden Musang_) 220 234. " (Paguma) laniger 220 Genus Arctictis-- 235. Arctictis binturong (_Binturong_) 221 HERPESTIDAE--THE ICHNEUMON OR MUNGOOSE FAMILY 222 Genus Herpestes-- 236. Herpestes pallidus _vel_ griseus (_Common Grey Mungoose_) 223 237. " Jerdoni _vel_ monticolus (_Long-tailed Mungoose_) 225 238. " Smithii (_Ruddy Mungoose_) 225 239. " auropunctatus (_Gold-speckled Mungoose_) 225 240. " fuscus (_Neilgherry Brown Mungoose_) 226 241. " (Onychogale _of Gray_) Maccarthiae 226 242. " ferrugineus 226 243. " vitticollis (_Stripe-necked Mungoose_) 227 244. Urva cancrivora (_Crab-eating Mungoose_) 227 CYNOIDEA 228 Genus Canis--The Dog-- 245. Canis pallipes (_Indian Wolf_) 232 246. " laniger (Lupus chanco _of Gray_) (_Thibetan Wolf_) 235 247. " lupus (_European Wolf_) 237 248. " aureus (_Jackal_) 237 Genus Cuon-- 249. Canis (Cuon) rutilans (_Indian Wild Dog_) 239 Genus Vulpes-- 250. Vulpes Bengalensis (_Indian Fox_) 243 251. " leucopus (_Desert Fox_) 244 252. " ferrilatus (_Thibetan Grey Fox_) 245 253. " montanus (_Hill Fox_) 245 254. " pusillus (_Punjab Fox_) 245 255. " flavescens (_Persian Fox_) 246 256. " Griffithii (_Afghanistan Fox_) 246 MARINE CARNIVORA 246 ORDER CETACEA--THE WHALES 247 Denticete--The Toothed Whales 248 FAMILY DELPHINIDAE--THE DOLPHINS OR PORPOISES 250 Genus Platanista--The River Dolphins-- 257. Platanista Gangetica (_Gangetic Porpoise_) 251 Genus Orcella--The Round-headed River Dolphins-- 258. Orcella brevirostris (_Short-nosed Round-headed River Dolphin_) 255 259. " fluminalis (_Fresh-water Round-headed Dolphin_) 255 Genus Delphinus--The Marine Dolphins-- 260. Delphinus perniger (_Black Dolphin_) 258 261. " plumbeus (_Lead-coloured Dolphin_) 258 262. " gadamu 258 263. " lentiginosus (_Freckled Dolphin_) 259 264. " maculiventer (_Spot-bellied Dolphin_) 259 265. " fusiformis (_Spindle-shaped Dolphin_) 259 266. " pomeegra (_Black or Pomeegra Dolphin_) 260 267. " longirostris (_Long-snouted Dolphin_) 260 268. " velox 260 Genus Phocaena--The Porpoises 260 Genus Globicephalus--The Ca'ing or Pilot Whale-- 269. Globicephalus Indicus (_Indian Ca'ing Whale_) 261 PHYSETERIDAE--THE CACHELOTS OR SPERM WHALES 261 Genus Euphysetes-- 270. Physeter _or_ Euphysetes simus (_Snub-nosed Cachelot_) 261 MYSTICETE--WHALEBONE OR BALEEN WHALES 262 Genus Balaena--The Right Whales 262 Genus Balaenoptera--Finback Whales or Rorquals-- 271. Balaenoptera Indica (_Indian Rorqual_) 264 SIRENIA--THE MANATEES 267 Genus Halicore--The Dugong-- 272. Halicore dugong (_Dugong_) 268 ORDER RODENTIA--THE GNAWERS 269 SUB-ORDER SIMPLICIDENTATA--SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS 272 SCIUROMORPHA 273 SCIURIDAE--THE SQUIRRELS 274 Genus Sciurus-- 273. Sciurus Indicus (_Bombay Squirrel of Pennant_) 276 274. " maximus (_Central Indian Red Squirrel_) 277 275. " macrourus (_Long-tailed Forest Squirrel_) 278 276. " giganteus (_Black Hill Squirrel_) 279 277. " lokriah (_Orange-bellied Grey Squirrel_) 280 278. " lokroides (_Hoary-bellied Grey Squirrel_) 280 279. " pygerythrus 282 280. " caniceps (_Golden-backed Squirrel_) 282 281. " Phayrei (_Laterally-banded or Phayre's Squirrel_) 282 282. " Blanfordii (_Blanford's Squirrel_) 283 283. " atrodorsalis (_Black-backed Squirrel_) 284 284. " erythraeus (_Assam Red-bellied Squirrel_) 285 285. " Gordoni (_Gordon's Squirrel_) 285 286. " hippurus (_Chestnut-bellied Assam Squirrel_) 285 287. " Sladeni (_Sladen's Squirrel_) 286 288. " ferrugineus (_Rusty-coloured Squirrel_) 287 289. " palmarum (_Common Indian Ground Squirrel_) 287 290. " tristriatus (_Three-striped Ground-Squirrel_) 289 291. " Layardi (_Layard's Striped Ground-Squirrel_) 289 292. " sublineatus (_Dusky-striped Ground-Squirrel_) 290 293. " McClellandi (_McClelland's Ground-Squirrel_) 290 294. " Berdmorei (_Berdmore's Ground-Squirrel_) 291 295. " quinquestriatus (_Stripe-bellied Squirrel_) 291 296. " (Rhinosciurus) tupaoides (_Long-nosed Squirrel_) 292 Genus Pteromys-- 297. Pteromys oral (_Brown Flying Squirrel_) 294 298. " cineraceus (_Ashy Flying Squirrel_) 296 299· " Yunnanensis (_Yunnan Flying Squirrel_) 296 300. " melanopterus (_Black-flanked Flying Squirrel_) 297 301. " alborufus (_Red and White Flying Squirrel_) 297 302. " magnificus (_Red-bellied Flying Squirrel_) 298 303. " albiventer (_White-bellied Flying Squirrel_) 299 304. " caniceps (_Grey-headed Flying Squirrel_) 299 305. " Pearsonii (_Hairy-footed Flying Squirrel_) 300 306. " fuscocapillus (_Small Travancore Flying Squirrel_) 300 307. " fimbriatus (_Grey Flying Squirrel_) 301 308. " alboniger (_Black and White Flying Squirrel_) 301 309. " spadiceus (_Red Flying Squirrel_) 302 ARCTOMYDINAE--THE MARMOTS 302 Genus Arctomys-- 310. Arctomys bobac (_Bobac, or Poland Marmot_) 303 311. " caudatus (_Red Marmot_) 304 312. " Hemachalanus (_Eastern Red Marmot_) 305 313. " aureus (_Golden Marmot_) 305 314. " dichrous 306 315. " robustus 306 MYOMORPHA--MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS 306 FAMILY MURIDAE 307 Genus Platacanthomys-- 316. Platacanthomys lasiurus (_Long-tailed Spiny Mouse_) 308 SUB-FAMILY GERBILLINAE 309 Genus Gerbillus-- 317. Gerbillus Indicus (_Indian Jerboa-Rat, or Kangaroo-Rat_) 309 318. " Hurrianae (_Desert Jerboa-Rat_) 311 319. " cryptorhinus (_Lobe-nosed Jerboa-Rat_) 312 320. " erythrurus (_Red-tailed Jerboa-Rat_) 313 321. " nanus (_Dwarf Jerboa-Rat_) 313 SUB-FAMILY PHLOEMYINAE 314 Genus Nesokia-- 322. Nesokia Hardwickii (_Hardwick's Field-Rat_) 315 323. " Huttoni (_Hutton's Field-Rat_) 315 324. " Scullyi (_Scully's Field-Rat_) 315 325. " providens (_Southern India Field-Rat_) 316 326. " Blythiana (_Bengal Field-Rat_) 317 327. " Barclayiana (_Barclay's Field-Rat_) 318 328. Mus (Nesokia) Elliotanus (_Elliot's Field-Rat_) 318 329. " " giganteus (_Bandicoot_) 319 SUB-FAMILY CRICETINAE 320 Genus Cricetus--The Hamsters-- 330. Cricetus phaeus (_Persian Hamster_) 321 331. " fulvus (_Sandy Hamster_) 321 SUB-FAMILY MURINAE 321 Genus Mus-- 332. Mus rattus (_Black Rat_) 322 333. " decumanus (_Brown Rat_) 323 334. " Andamanensis (_Andaman Rat_) 325 335. " robustulus (_Burmese Common Rat_) 325 336. " Sladeni (_Sladen's Rat_) 326 337. " rubricosa (_Small Red Rat of the Kakhyen Hills_) 326 338. " Yunnanensis (_Common House Rat of Yunnan_) 327 339. " infralineatus (_Striped-bellied Rat_) 327 340. " brunneus (_Tree Rat_) 327 341. " rufescens (_Rufescent Tree Rat_) 328 342. " niveiventer (_White-bellied House Rat_) 329 343. " nitidus (_Shining Brown Rat_) 329 344. " caudatior (_Chestnut Rat_) 329 345. " concolor (_Common Thatch Rat of Pegu_) 330 346. " palmarum (_Nicobar Tree Rat_) 330 347. " Ceylonus 330 348. " plurimammis 331 349. " aequicaudalis 331 350. " oleraceus (_Long-tailed Tree Mouse_) 331 351. " Nilagiricus (_Neilgherry Tree Mouse_) 332 352. " badius (_Bay Tree Mouse_) 332 353. " gliroides (_Cherrapoonjee Tree Mouse_) 333 354. " Peguensis (_Pegu Tree Mouse_) 333 355. " urbanus (_Common Indian Mouse_) 333 356. " homourus 335 357. " Darjeelingensis 335 358. " Tytleri 335 359. " bactrianus 335 360. " crassipes (_Large-footed Mouse_) 337 361. " sublimis 337 362. " pachycercus 337 363. " erythronotus 337 364. " cervicolor (_Fawn-coloured Field Mouse_) 338 365. " terricolor (_Earth-coloured Field Mouse_) 338 366. " Peguensis (_Pegu Field Mouse_) 338 367. " nitidulus (_Shiny Little House Mouse of Pegu_) 338 368. " Beaveni (_Beaven's Mouse_) 339 369. " cunicularis (_Little Rabbit-Mouse_) 339 370. " erythrotis (_Cherrapunji Red-eared Mouse_) 339 371. " fulvidiventris 340 372. " Kakhyenensis (_Kakhyen Mouse_) 340 373. " viculorum (_Kakhyen House Mouse_) 340 Genus Leggada-- 374. Leggada platythrix (_Brown Spiny Mouse_) 341 375. " spinulosa (_Dusky Spiny Mouse_) 342 376. " Jerdoni (_Himalayan Spiny Mouse_) 342 377. " lepida (_Small Spiny Mouse_) 342 Genus Golunda-- 378. Golunda Ellioti (_Bush Rat or Coffee Rat_) 343 379. " meltada (_Soft-furred Bush Rat_) 344 Genus Hapalomys-- 380. Hapalomys longicaudatus 345 381. Mus ouang-thomae (_Kiangsi Rat_) 346 382. " flavipectus (_Yellow-breasted Rat_) 346 383. " griseipectus (_Grey-breasted Rat_) 346 384. " Confucianus 347 385. " Chevrieri 347 386. " pygmaeus (_Pigmy Mouse_) 347 ARVICOLINAE 347 Genus Arvicola-- 387. Arvicola Stoliczkanus (_Yarkand Vole_) 349 388. " Stracheyi (_Kumaon Vole_) 349 389. " Wynnei (_Murree Vole_) 350 390. " Roylei (_Cashmere Vole_) 350 391. " Blanfordi (_Gilgit Vole_) 350 392. " Blythii 351 393. " mandarinus (_Afghan Vole_) 351 394. " Sikimensis (_Sikim Vole_) 351 395. " melanogaster 352 FAMILY SPALACIDAE 352 Genus Rhizomys--The Bamboo-Rat-- 396. Rhizomys badius (_Chestnut Bamboo-Rat_) 353 397. " erythrogenys (_Red-cheeked Bamboo-Rat_) 354 398. " pruinosus (_Hoary Bamboo-Rat_) 354 399. " minor (_Small Bamboo-Rat_) 354 FAMILY DIPODIDAE 355 Genus Dipus--The Jerboas-- 400. Dipus lagopus (_Yarkand Jerboa_) 357 Genus Alactaga-- 401. Alactaga Indica 358 HYSTRICOMORPHA--PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS 359 FAMILY HYSTRICIDAE--THE PORCUPINES 360 SUB-FAMILY HYSTRICINAE--THE TRUE PORCUPINES 360 Genus Atherura--The Long-tailed Porcupine-- 402. Atherura fasciculata (_Brush-tailed Porcupine_) 361 Genus Hystrix--The Porcupine-- 403. Hystrix leucura (_White-tailed Indian Porcupine_) 362 404. " Bengalensis (_Bengal Porcupine_) 365 405. " (Acanthion) longicauda (_Crestless Porcupine_) 366 406. " Yunnanensis 366 SUB-ORDER DUPLICIDENTATA--DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS 367 FAMILY LEPORIDAE--THE HARES 368 Genus Lepus-- 407. Lepus ruficaudatus (_Common Indian Red-tailed Hare_) 369 408. " nigricollis (_Black-naped Hare_) 369 409. " Peguensis (_Pegu Hare_) 370 410. " hypsibius (_Mountain Hare_) 370 411. " pallipes (_Pale-footed Hare_) 370 412. " Tibetanus (_Thibet Hare_) 371 413. " Yarkandensis (_Yarkand Hare_) 371 414. " Pamirensis (_Pamir Hare_) 372 415. " Stoliczkanus (_Stoliczka's Hare_) 372 416. " craspedotis (_Large-eared Hare_) 372 417. " hispidus (_Hispid Hare_) 373 FAMILY LAGOMYIDAE--THE PIKAS, OR MOUSE-HARES 373 Genus Lagomys-- 418. Lagomys Roylei (_Royle's Pika_) 374 419. " Curzoniae (_Curzon's Pika_) 374 420. " Ladacensis (_Ladak Pika_) 374 421. " auritus (_Large-eared Pika_) 375 422. " macrotis 375 423. " griseus (_Grey Pika_) 375 424. " rufescens (_Red Pika_) 376 ORDER PROBOSCIDEA 377 Genus Elephas--The Elephant-- 425. Elephas Indicus (_Indian or Asiatic Elephant_) 389 ORDER UNGULATA 397 SUB-ORDER PERISSODACTYLA 397 FAMILY EQUIDAE--THE HORSE 398 Genus Equus-- 426. Equus onager (_Wild Ass of Kutch_) 399 427. " hemionus (_Kiang or Wild Ass of Thibet_) 401 FAMILY TAPIRIDAE--THE TAPIR 403 Genus Tapirus-- 428. Tapirus Malayanus (_Malay Tapir_) 404 FAMILY RHINOCEROTIDAE 405 Genus Rhinoceros-- 429. Rhinoceros Indicus 407 430. " Sondaicus (_Javan Rhinoceros_) 410 Genus Ceratorhinus-- 431. Rhinoceros _vel_ Ceratorhinus (Crossi?) lasiotis (_Ear-fringed Rhinoceros_) 411 432. Rhinoceros _vel_ Ceratorhinus Sumatrensis (_Sumatran Rhinoceros_) 412 SUB-ORDER ARTIODACTYLA 413 FAMILY SUIDAE--THE HOGS 414 Genus Sus-- 433. Sus scrofa (_European Wild Boar_) 415 434. " Indicus (_Indian Boar_) 416 435. " Andamanensis (_Andaman Island Pig_) 420 436. " Moupinensis 420 Genus Porcula-- 437. Porcula Salvania (_Pigmy Hog of the Saul Forests_) 421 RUMINANTIA--THE RUMINANTS 422 FAMILY BOVIDAE--HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS 424 SUB-FAMILY CAPRINAE--GOATS AND SHEEP 424 Genus Ovis--The Sheep-- 438. Ovis Polii (_Marco Polo's Sheep_) 424 439. " Hodgsoni (_Argali or Ovis Ammon of Thibet_) 427 440. " Karelini (_Karelin's Wild Sheep_) 430 441. " Brookei (_Brooke's Wild Sheep_) 434 442. " Vignei (_Vigne's Wild Sheep_) 435 443. " cycloceros (_Punjab Wild Sheep_) 435 444. " Blanfordii (_Blanford's Wild Sheep_) 437 445. " nahura _vel_ burhel (_Blue Wild Sheep_) 438 Genus Capra--The Goats-- 446. Capra megaceros (_Markhor_) 441 447. " Sibirica (_Himalayan Ibex_) 444 448. " aegagrus (_Wild Goat of Asia Minor_) 446 Sub-genus Hemitragus-- 449. Capra _vel_ Hemitragus Jemlaicus (_Tahr_) 449 450. " " " hylocrius (_Neilgherry Wild Goat, or Ibex of Madras Sportsmen_) 451 THE GOAT ANTELOPES, OR CAPRICORNS 454 Genus Nemorhoedus-- 451. Nemorhoedus bubalina (_Serow, or Forest Goat_) 454 452. " rubida _vel_ Sumatrensis (_Arakanese Capricorn_) 456 453. " Edwardsii (_Thibetan Capricorn_) 457 454. " goral (_Small Himalayan Capricorn_) 457 Genus Budorcas-- 455. Budorcas taxicolor (_Takin_) 460 Genus Gazella--The Gazelles-- 456. Gazella Bennetti (_Indian Gazelle_) 463 457. " fuscifrons (_Baluchistan Gazelle_) 465 458. " subgutterosa (_Persian Gazelle_) 466 459. " picticaudata (_Thibetan Gazelle_) 467 Genus Pantholops-- 460. Pantholops Hodgsonii (_Chiru_) 469 Genus Antelope (restricted)-- 461. Antelope bezoartica (_Indian Antelope_) 472 Genus Portax--The Nylgao-- 462. Portax pictus _vel_ tragocamelus (_Nylgao or Blue Bull_) 476 Genus Tetraceros-- 463. Tetraceros quadricornis (_Four-horned Antelope_) 479 BOVINAE--CATTLE 480 Genus Gavaeus-- 464. Gavaeus gaurus (_Gaur, popularly called Bison_) 481 465. " frontalis (_Mithun or Gayal_) 486 466. " Sondaicus (_Burmese Wild Ox_) 488 Genus Poephagus--The Yak-- 467. Poephagus grunniens (_Yak or Grunting Ox_) 489 Genus Bubalus--The Buffalos-- 468. Bubalus arni (_Wild Buffalo_) 490 Genus Moschus--The Musk Deer-- 469. Moschus moschiferus (_Musk Deer_) 494 CERVIDAE--THE DEER 495 Genus Cervulus--The Muntjacs or Rib-faced Deer-- 470. Cervulus muntjac _vel_ aureus (_Muntjac or Rib-faced Deer_) 500 Genus Rusa--The Rusine Deer-- 471. Rusa Aristotelis (_Sambar_) 503 Genus Axis-- 472. Axis maculatus (_Spotted Deer_) 506 473. " porcinus (_Hog Deer_) 508 Genus Rucervus-- 474. Rucervus Duvaucelli (_Swamp-Deer_) 510 475. " _vel_ Panolia Eldii (_Brown Antlered or Eld's Deer_) 511 Genus Cervus-- 476. Cervus Cashmirianus (_Kashmir Stag_) 512 477. " affinis _vel_ Wallichii (_Sikhim Stag_) 514 TRAGULIDAE--THE CHEVROTIANS OR DEERLETS 515 Genus Tragulus-- 478. Tragulus napu (_Javan Deerlet_) 516 Genus Meminna-- 479. Meminna Indica (_Indian Mouse Deer_) 516 TRIBE TYLOPODA--THE CAMELS 518 ORDER EDENTATA 519 Genus Manis-- 480. Manis pentadactyla _or_ brachyura (_Five-fingered or Short-tailed Pangolin_) 520 481. " aurita (_Eared Pangolin_) 521 482. " Javanica (_Javan Ant-eater_) 522 APPENDIX A 523 APPENDIX B 525 APPENDIX C 526 APPENDIX D 532 INDEX 535 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. SECTION _Felis Tigris_ _Frontispiece_ Skull of _Hylobates hooluck_ 1 _Hylobates lar_; _Hylobates hooluck_ 2 _Presbytes entellus_ 4 " _thersites_ 15 _Macacus silenus_ 17 " _rhesus_ 18 " _nemestrinus_ 20 " _radiatus_ and _Macacus pileatus_ 24 " _cynomolgus_ 26 _Loris gracilis_ and _Nycticebus tardigradus_ 28 _Galaeopithecus volans_ 30 Sternum of _Pteropus_ Cheiroptera The Flying Fox at Home 31 Head of _Pteropus medius_ 31 _Cynopterus marginatus_ 33 _Megaderma lyra_ 36 " _spasma_ 38 _Rhinolophus luctus_ 39 " _ferrum-equinum_ 41 _Phyllorhina armigera_ (male and female) 64 Skull of _Rhinopoma_ 69 _Plecotus auritus_ 77 _Vesperugo noctula_ 78 " _Leisleri_ 89 _Scotophilus Temminckii_ 93 Skull of _Harpiocephalus harpia_ 99 _Vespertilio murinus_ 108 " _formosus_ 116 _Synotus barbastellus_ Genus Barbastellus Dentition of Shrew (magnified) Genus Sorex " of Hedgehog Family Erinaceidae Hedgehog Genus Erinaceus Dentition of _Tupaia_ 158 _Tupaia Peguana_ 159 _Gymnura Rafflesii_ 162 Dentition of Tiger and Indian Black Bear Carnivora " of Bear Ursidae Skull of Bear (under view) Ursidae _Ursus Isabellinus_ 163 " _Tibetanus_ 164 " _Malayanus_ 166 " _labiatus_ 167 _Ailuropus melanoleucos_ 168 _Ailurus fulgens_ 169 _Arctonyx collaris_ 170 _Mellivora Indica_ 174 Skull of _Putorius_ Mustelidae _Martes abietum_ 178 _Mustela_ Genus Mustela Otter's skull (side and under view) Lutridae _Lutra nair_ 195 Skull of Tiger (side view) Felidae Tendons of Tiger's toe Felidae Auditory apparatus of Tiger (section) Felidae _Felis leo_ (Indian variety) 200 Head of Tiger 201 Tiger's skull (under part) 201 _Felis panthera_ (_From a fine specimen in the Regent's Park Gardens_) 203 " _uncia_ 204 " _Diardii_ 205 Skull of _Felis viverrina_ 206 _Felis marmorata_ 207 " _aurata_ 210 " _caracal_ 218 " _jubata_ 219 Skull of _Felis jubata_ 219 Skull of Hyaena Hyaenidae _Hyaena striata_ 220 Dentition of Civet Viverridae _Viverra zibetha_ 221 " _megaspila_ 223 " _Malaccensis_ 224 _Prionodon maculosus_ 226 _Paradoxurus trivirgatus_ 231 _Arctictis binturong_ 235 _Urva cancrivora_ 244 Dentition of Wolf Genus Canis _Canis pallipes_ 245 _Cuon rutilans_ 249 _Platanista Gangetica_ 257 Gangetic Dolphin; Round-headed River Dolphin; Gadamu Dolphin; Freckled Dolphin; Black Dolphin Genus Delphinus Skull of Baleen Whale Genus Balaena Rorqual 271 _Halicore dugong_ 272 Skull of _Pteromys_ (Flying Squirrel) Genus Sciurus _Sciurus maximus_ 274 _Pteromys oral_ 297 Dentition of _Gerbillus_ Genus Gerbillus Dentition of _Cricetus_ Genus Cricetus _Cricetus_ Genus Cricetus Dentition of Black Rat 332 " of _Arvicola_ Arvicolinae _Rhizomys badius_ 396 Dentition of Jerboa Family Dipodidae _Dipus_ Genus Dipus Skull of Porcupine Family Hystricidae _Hystrix leucura_ 403 Dentition of Hare Sub-order Duplicidentata Side view of Grinders of Asiatic Elephant Genus Elephas Grinder of Asiatic Elephant Genus Elephas " of African Elephant Genus Elephas Section of Elephant's Skull Genus Elephas Skeleton of Elephant Genus Elephas Muscles of Elephant's Trunk Genus Elephas Dentition of Horse Family Equidae _Equus onager_ 426 Dentition of Tapir Family Tapiridae _Tapirus Malayanus_ 428 Dentition of Rhinoceros Genus Rhinoceros _Rhinoceros Indicus_ 429 " _Indicus_ 429 " _Sondaicus_ 430 " _lasiotis_ (_R. Indicus_ and _R. Sondaicus_ in the distance) 431 Bones of a Pig's foot Sub-order Artiodactyla Dentition of Wild Boar Family Suidae _Sus Indicus_ 434 _Porcula Salvania_ 437 _Ovis Polii_ 438 Horns of _Ovis Polii_ 438 _Ovis Hodgsoni_ 439 Skull of _Ovis Hodgsoni_ 439 Horns of _Ovis Karelini_ 440 _Ovis Brookei_ 441 " _cycloceros_ 443 " _nahura_ 445 _Capra megaceros_. No. 1 variety 446 " " No. 2 variety 446 " _Sibirica_ 447 _Hemitragus Jemlaicus_ 449 _Nemorhoedus bubalina_ 451 " _goral_ 454 _Budorcas taxicolor_ 455 _Gazella Bennetti_ (male and female) 456 " _subgutterosa_ 458 Saiga Antelope Genus Pantholops _Pantholops Hodgsoni_ 460 _Antelope bezoartica_ 461 _Portax pictus_ 462 _Tetraceros quadricornis_ 463 _Gavaeus gaurus_ 464 " _frontalis_ 465 _Bubalus arni_ 468 Skull of Musk Deer 468 _Moschus moschiferus_ 469 " _moschiferus_ 469 Stag with Horns matured Cervidae " " " in velvet Cervidae _Cervulus aureus_ 470 _Rusa Aristotelis_ 471 _Axis maculatus_ 472 " _porcinus_ 473 _Cervus Cashmirianus_ 476 _Tragulus napu_ 478 Mouse Deer 479 _Manis pentadactyla_ 480 Dentition of Dormouse (magnified) Appendix A _Myoxus_ Appendix A Osteology of the skull of _Platanista Gangetica_ Appendix B The Slow Loris Appendix C Osteology of the feet of Pig, or African deerlet; Javan deerlet; Roebuck; Sheep; Camel Appendix C Gaur Appendix C NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALIA OF BRITISH INDIA AND CEYLON. INTRODUCTION. In laying before the public the following history of the Indian Mammalia, I am actuated by the feeling that a popular work on the subject is needed, and would be appreciated by many who do not care to purchase the expensive books that exist, and who also may be more bothered than enlightened by over-much technical phraseology and those learned anatomical dissertations which are necessary to the scientific zoologist. Another motive in thus venturing is, that the only complete history of Indian Mammalia is Dr. Jerdon's, which is exhaustive within the boundaries he has assigned to India proper; but as he has excluded Assam, Cachar, Tenasserim, Burmah, Arracan, and Ceylon, his book is incomplete as a Natural History of the Mammals of British India. I shall have to acknowledge much to Jerdon in the following pages, and it is to him I owe much encouragement, whilst we were together in the field during the Indian Mutiny, in the pursuit of the study to which he devoted his life; and the general arrangement of this work will be based on his book, his numbers being preserved, in order that those who possess his 'Mammals of India' may readily refer to the noted species. But I must also plead indebtedness to many other naturalists who have left their records in the 'Journals of the Asiatic Society' and other publications, or who have brought out books of their own, such as Blyth, Elliott, Hodgson, Sherwill, Sykes, Tickell, Hutton, Kellaart, Emerson Tennent, and others; Col. McMaster's 'Notes on Jerdon,' Dr. Anderson's 'Anatomical and Zoological Researches,' Horsfield's 'Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Museum of the East India Company,' Dr. Dobson's 'Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera,' the writings of Professors Martin Duncan, Flowers, Kitchen Parker, Boyd Dawkins, Garrod, Mr. E. R. Alston, Sir Victor Brooke and others; the Proceedings and Journals of the Zoological, Linnean, and Asiatic Societies, and the correspondence in _The Asian_; so that after all my own share is minimised to a few remarks here and there, based on personal experience during a long period of jungle life, and on observation of the habits of animals in their wild state, and also in captivity, having made a large collection of living specimens from time to time. As regards classification, Cuvier's system is the most popular, so I shall adopt it to a certain extent, keeping it as a basis, but engrafting on it such modifications as have met with the approval of modern naturalists. For comparison I give below a synopsis of Cuvier's arrangement. I have placed Cetacea after Carnivora, and Edentata at the end. In this I have followed recent authors as well as Jerdon, whose running numbers I have preserved as far as possible for purposes of reference. Cuvier divides the Mammals into nine orders, as follows. (_The examples I give are Indian ones, except where stated otherwise_):-- _Order I_.--BIMANA. Man. _Order II_.--QUADRUMANA. Two families--1st, Apes and Monkeys; 2nd, Lemurs. _Order III_.--CARNARIA. Three families--1st, _Cheiroptera_, Bats; 2nd, _Insectivora_, Hedgehogs, Shrews, Moles, Tupaiae, &c.; 3rd, _Carnivora_: Tribe 1, _Plantigrades_, Bears, Ailurus, Badger, Arctonyx; 2, _Digitigrades_, Martens, Weasels, Otters, Cats, Hyaenas, Civets, Musangs, Mongoose, Dogs, Wolves and Foxes. _Order IV_.--MARSUPIATA. Implacental Mammals peculiar to America and Australia, such as Opossums, Dasyures, Wombats, and Kangaroos. We have none in India. _Order V_.--RODENTIA. Squirrels, Marmots, Jerboas, Mole-Rats, Rats, Mice, Voles, Porcupines, and Hares. _Order VI_.--EDENTATA, or toothless Mammals, either partially or totally without teeth. Three families--1st, _Tardigrades_, the Sloths, peculiar to America; 2nd, _Effodientia_, or Burrowers, of which the Indian type is the Manis, but which includes in other parts of the world the Armadillos and Anteaters; 3rd, _Monotremata_, Spiny Anteaters or Echidnas, and the Ornithorynchus. _Order VII_.--PACHYDERMATA, or thick-skinned Mammals. Three families--1st, _Proboscidians_, Elephants; 2nd, _Ordinary Pachyderms_, Rhinoceroses, Hogs; 3rd, _Solidungula_, Horses. _Order VIII_.--RUMINANTIA, or cud-chewing Mammals. Four families--1st, _Hornless Ruminants_, Camels, Musks; 2nd, _Cervidae_, true horns shed periodically, Deer; 3rd, _Persistent horns_, Giraffes; 4th, _Hollow-horned Ruminants_, Antelopes, Goats, Sheep and Oxen. _Order IX._--CETACEA. Three families--1st, _Herbivorous Cetacea_, Manatees, Dugongs; 2nd, _Ordinary Cetacea_, Porpoises; 3rd, _Balaenidae_, Whales. ORDER BIMANA. Some people have an extreme repugnance to the idea that man should be treated of in connection with other animals. The development theory is shocking to them, and they would deny that man has anything in common with the brute creation. This is of course mere sentiment; no history of nature would be complete without the noblest work of the Creator. The great gulf that separates the human species from the rest of the animals is the impassable one of intellect. Physically, he should be compared with the other mammals, otherwise we should lose our first standpoint of comparison. There is no degradation in this, nor is it an acceptance of the development theory. To argue that man evolved from the monkey is an ingenious joke which will not bear the test of examination, and the Scriptural account may still be accepted. I firmly believe in man as an original creation just as much as I disbelieve in any development of the Flying Lemur (_Galeopithecus_) from the Bat, or that the habits of an animal would in time materially alter its anatomy, as in the case of the abnormal length of the hind toe and nail of the Jacana. It is not that the habit of running over floating leaves induced the change, but that an all-wise Creator so fashioned it that it might run on those leaves in search of its food. I accept the development theory to the extent of the multiplication of species, or perhaps, more correctly, varieties in genera. We see in the human race how circumstances affect physical appearance. The child of the ploughman or navvy inherits the broad shoulders and thick-set frame of his father; and in India you may see it still more forcibly in the difference between Hindu and Mahomedan races, and those Hindus who have been converted to Mahomedanism. I do not mean isolated converts here and there who intermarry with pure Mahomedan women, but I mean whole communities who have in olden days been forced to accept Islam. In a few generations the face assumes an unmistakable Mahomedan type. It is the difference in living and in thought that effects this change. It is the same with animals inhabiting mountainous districts as compared with the same living in the plains; constant enforced exercise tells on the former, and induces a more robust and active form. Whether diet operates in the same degree to effect changes I am inclined to doubt. In man there is no dental or intestinal difference, whether he be as carnivorous as an Esquimaux or as vegetarian as a Hindu; whereas in created carnivorous, insectivorous, and herbivorous animals there is a striking difference, instantly to be recognised even in those of the same family. Therefore, if diet has operated in effecting such changes, why has it not in the human race? "Who shall decide when doctors disagree?" is a quotation that may aptly be applied to the question of the classification of man; Cuvier, Blumenbach, Fischer, Bory St. Vincent, Prichard, Latham, Morton, Agassiz and others have each a system. Cuvier recognises only three types--the Caucasian, the Mongolian, and the Negro or Ethiopian, including Blumenbach's fourth and fifth classes, American and Malay in Mongolian. But even Cuvier himself could hardly reconcile the American with the Mongol; he had the high cheek-bone and the scanty beard, it is true, but his eyes and his nose were as Caucasian as could be, and his numerous dialects had no affinity with the type to which he was assigned. Fischer in his classification divided man into seven races:-- 1_st_.--_Homo japeticus_, divided into three varieties--_Caucasicus_, _Arabicus_ and _Indicus_. 2_nd_.--_H. Neptunianus_, consisting of--1st, the Malays peopling the coasts of the islands of the Indian Ocean, Madagascar, &c.; 2nd, New Zealanders and Islanders of the Pacific; and, 3rd, the Papuans. 3_rd_.--_H. Scythicus_. Three divisions, viz.: 1st, Calmucks and other Tartars; 2nd, Chinese and Japanese; and, 3rd, Esquimaux. 4_th_.--_H. Americanus_, and 5_th_.--_H. Columbicus_, belong to the American Continent. 6_th_.--_H. AEthiopicus_. The Negro. 7_th_.--_H. Polynesius_. The _inland_ inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula, of the Islands of the Indian Ocean, of Madagascar, New Guinea, New Holland, &c. I think this system is the one that most commends itself from its clearness, but there are hardly two writers on ethnology who keep to the same classification. Agassiz classifies by realms, and has eight divisions. The Indian races with which we have now to deal are distributed, generally speaking, as follows:-- Caucasian.--(_Homo japeticus_, Bory and Fischer). Northerly, westerly, and in the Valley of the Ganges in particular, but otherwise generally distributed over the most cultivated parts of the Peninsula, comprising the Afghans (Pathans), Sikhs, Brahmins, Rajputs or Kshatryas of the north-west, the Arabs, Parsees, and Mahrattas of the west coast, the Singhalese of the extreme south, the Tamils of the east, and the Bengalis of the north-east. Mongolians (_H. Scythicus_), inhabiting the chain of mountains to the north, from Little Thibet on the west to Bhotan on the east, and then sweeping downwards southerly to where Tenasserim joins the Malay Peninsula. They comprise the Hill Tribes of the N. Himalayas, the Goorkhas of Nepal, and the Hill Tribes of the north-eastern frontier, viz. Khamtis, Singphos, Mishmis, Abors, Nagas, Jynteas, Khasyas, and Garos. Those of the northern borders: Bhotias, Lepchas, Limbus, Murmis and Haioos; of the Assam Valley Kachari, Mech and Koch. The Malays (_H. Neptunianus_) Tipperah and Chittagong tribes, the Burmese and Siamese. Now comes the most difficult group to classify--the aborigines of the interior, and of the hill ranges of Central India, the Kols, Gonds, Bhils, and others which have certain characteristics of the Mongolian, but with skins almost as dark as the Negro, and the full eye of the Caucasian. The main body of these tribes, which I should feel inclined to classify under Fischer's _H. Polynesius_, have been divided by Indian ethnologists into two large groups--the Kolarians and Dravidians. The former comprise the Juangs, Kharrias, Mundas, Bhumij, Ho or Larka Kols, Santals, Birhors, Korwas, Kurs, Kurkus or Muasis, Bhils, Minas, Kulis. The latter contains the Oraons, Malers, Paharis of Rajamahal, Gonds and Kands. The Cheroos and Kharwars, Parheyas, Kisans, Bhuikers, Boyars, Nagbansis, Kaurs, Mars, Bhunyiars, Bendkars form another great group apart from the Kolarians and Dravidians, and approximating more to the Indian variety of the Japetic class. Then there are the extremely low types which one has no hesitation in assigning to the lowest form of the Polynesian group, such as the Andamanese, the jungle tree-men of Chittagong, Tipperah, and the vast forests stretching towards Sambhulpur. On these I would now more particularly dwell as points of comparison with the rest of the animal kingdom. I have taken but a superficial view of the varieties of the higher types of the human race in India, for the subject, if thoroughly entered into, would require a volume of no ordinary dimensions; and those who wish to pursue the study further should read an able paper by Sir George Campbell in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society' for June 1866 (vol. xxxv. Part II.), Colonel Dalton's 'Ethnology of Bengal,' the Rev. S. Hislop's 'Memoranda,' and the 'Report of the Central Provinces Ethnological Committee.' There is as yet, however, very little reliable information regarding the wilder forms of humanity inhabiting dense forests, where, enjoying apparently complete immunity from the deadly malaria that proves fatal to all others, they live a life but a few degrees removed from the Quadrumana. I have in my book on the Seonee District described the little colonies in the heart of the Bison jungles. Clusters of huts imbedded in tangled masses of foliage, surrounded by an atmosphere reeking with the effluvia of decaying vegetation, where, unheedful of the great outer world beyond their sylvan limits, the Gonds pass year after year of uneventful lives. In some of these hamlets I was looked upon with positive awe, as being the first white man the _Baigas_ had seen. But these simple savages rank high in the scale compared with some others, of whom we have as yet but imperfect descriptions. Some years ago Mr. Piddington communicated to the Asiatic Society an account of some "Monkey-men" he came across on the borders of the Palamow jungle. He was in the habit of employing the aboriginal tribes to work for him, and on one occasion a party of his men found in the jungle a man and woman in a state of starvation, and brought them in. They were both very short in stature, with disproportionately long arms, which in the man were covered with a reddish-brown hair. They looked almost more like baboons than human beings, and their language was unintelligible, except that words here and there resembled those in one of the Kolarian dialects. By signs, and by the help of these words, one of the Dhangars managed to make out that they lived in the depths of the forest, but had to fly from their people on account of a blood feud. Mr. Piddington was anxious to send them down to Calcutta, but before he could do so, they decamped one night, and fled again to their native wilds. Those jungles are, I believe, still in a great measure unexplored; and, if some day they are opened out, it is to be hoped that the "Monkey-men" will be again discovered.[1] [Footnote 1: There has been lately exhibited in London a child from Borneo which has several points in common with the monkey--hairy face and arms, the hair on the fore-arm being reversed, as in the apes.] The lowest type with which we are familiar is the Andamanese, and the wilder sort of these will hardly bear comparison with even the degraded Australian or African Bosjesman, and approximate in debasement to the Fuegians. The Andamanese are small in stature--the men averaging about five feet, the women less. They are very dark, I may say black, but here the resemblance to the Negro ceases. They have not the thick lips and flat nose, nor the peculiar heel of the Negro. In habit they are in small degree above the brutes, architecture and agriculture being unknown. The only arts they are masters of are limited to the manufacture of weapons, such as spears, bows and arrows, and canoes. They wear no kind of dress, but, when flies and mosquitoes are troublesome, plaster themselves with mud. The women are fond of painting themselves with red ochre, which they lay thickly over their heads, after scraping off the hair with a flint-knife. They swim and dive like ducks, and run up trees like monkeys. Though affectionate to their children, they are ruthless to the stranger, killing every one who happens to be cast away on their inhospitable shores. They have been accused of cannibalism, but this is open to doubt. The bodies of those they have killed have been found dreadfully mutilated, almost pounded to a jelly, but no portion had been removed.[2] [Footnote 2: Since the above was written there has been published in the 'Journal of the Anthropological Institute,' vol. xii., a most interesting and exhaustive paper on these people by Mr. E. H. Man, F.R.G.S., giving them credit for much intelligence.] In the above description I speak of the savage Andamanese in his wild state, and not of the specimens to be seen at Port Blair, who have become in an infinitesimal degree civilised--that is to say, to the extent of holding intercourse with foreigners, making some slight additions to their argillaceous dress-suits, and understanding the principles of exchange and barter--though as regards this last a friend informs me that they have no notion of a token currency, but only understand the _argumentum ad hominem_ in the shape of comestibles, so that your bargains, to be effectual, must be made within reach of a cookshop or grocery. The same friend tells me he learnt at Port Blair that there were marriage restrictions on which great stress was laid. This may be the case on the South Island; there is much testimony on the other side as regards the more savage Andamanese. The forest tribes of Chittagong are much higher in the scale than the Andamanese, but they are nevertheless savages of a low type. Captain Lewin says: "The men wear scarcely any clothing, and the petticoat of the women is scanty, reaching only to the knee; they worship the terrene elements, and have vague and undefined ideas of some divine power which overshadows all. They were born and they die for ends to them as incomputable as the path of a cannon-shot fired into the darkness. They are cruel, and attach but little value to life. Reverence or respect are emotions unknown to them, they salute neither their chiefs nor their elders, neither have they any expression conveying thanks." There is, however, much that is interesting in these wild people, and to those who wish to know more I recommend Captain Lewin's account of 'The Hill Tracts of Chittagong.' ORDER QUADRUMANA. The monkeys of the Indian Peninsula are restricted to a few groups, of which the principal one is that of the _Semnopitheci_. These monkeys are distinguished not only by their peculiar black faces, with a ridge of long stiff black hair projecting forwards over the eyebrows, thin slim bodies and long tails, but by the absence of cheek pouches, and the possession of a peculiar sacculated stomach, which, as figured in Cuvier, resembles a bunch of grapes. Jerdon says of this group that, out of five species found on the continent there is only one spread through all the plains of Central and Northern India, and one through the Himalayas, whilst there are three well-marked species in the extreme south of the Peninsula; but then he omits at least four species inhabiting Chittagong, Tenasserim, Arracan, which also belong to the continent of India, though perhaps not to the actual Peninsula. Sir Emerson Tennent, in his 'Natural History of Ceylon,' also mentions and figures three species, of which two are not included in Jerdon's 'Mammals,' though incidentally spoken of. I propose to add the Ceylon Mammalia to the Indian, and therefore shall allude to these further on. The next group of Indian monkeys is that of the Macaques or Magots, or Monkey Baboons of India, the _Lal Bundar_ of the natives. They have simple stomachs and cheek pouches, which last, I dare say, most of us have noticed who have happened to give two plantains in succession to one of them. Although numerically the _Langurs_ or Entellus Monkeys form the most important group of the Quadrumana in India, yet the Gibbons (which are not included by Jerdon) rank highest in the scale, though the species are restricted to but three--_Hylobates hooluck_, _H. lar_ and _H. syndactylus_. They are superior in formation (that is taking man as the highest development of the form, to which some people take objection, though to my way of thinking there is not much to choose between the highest type of monkey and the lowest of humanity, if we would but look facts straight in the face), and they are also vastly superior in intellect to either the _Langurs_ or the _Macaques_, though inferior perhaps to the Ourangs. _GENUS HYLOBATES--THE GIBBONS_, Which, with the long arms of the Ourangs and the receding forehead of the Chimpanzee, possess the callosities of the true monkeys, but differ from them in having neither tail nor cheek pouches. They are true bipeds on the ground, applying the sole of the foot flatly, not, as Cuvier and others have remarked of the Ourangs, with the outer edge of the sole only, but flat down, as Blyth, who first mentions it, noticed it, with the thumb or big toe widely separated. NO. 1. HYLOBATES HOOLUCK. _The White-fronted Gibbon_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Hooluck_, _Hookoo_. HABITAT.--Garo and Khasia Hills, Valley of Assam, and Arracan. DESCRIPTION.--Males deep black, marked with white across the forehead. Females vary from brownish black to whitish-brown, without, however, the fulvous tint observable in pale specimens of the next species. "In general they are paler on the crown, back, and outside of limbs, darker in front, and much darker on the cheeks and chin."--_Blyth_. SIZE.--About two feet. [Figure: Skull of _Hylobates hooluck_.] I think of all the monkey family this Gibbon makes one of the most interesting pets. It is mild and most docile, and capable of great attachment. Even the adult male has been caught, and within the short space of a month so completely tamed that he would follow and come to a call. One I had for a time, some years ago, was a most engaging little creature. Nothing contented him so much as being allowed to sit by my side with his arm linked through mine, and he would resist any attempt I made to go away. He was extremely clean in his habits, which cannot be said of all the monkey tribe. Soon after he came to me I gave him a piece of blanket to sleep on in his box, but the next morning I found he had rolled it up and made a sort of pillow for his head, so a second piece was given him. He was destined for the Queen's Gardens at Delhi, but unfortunately on his way up he got a chill, and contracted a disease akin to consumption. During his illness he was most carefully tended by my brother, who had a little bed made for him, and the doctor came daily to see the little patient, who gratefully accepted his attentions; but, to their disappointment, he died. The only objection to these monkeys as pets is the power they have of howling, or rather whooping, a piercing and somewhat hysterical "Whoop-poo! whoop-poo! whoop-poo!" for several minutes, till fairly exhausted. They are very fond of swinging by their long arms, and walk something like a tipsy sailor. A friend, resident on the frontiers of Assam, tells me that the full-grown adult pines and dies in confinement. I think it probable that it may miss a certain amount of insect diet, and would recommend those who cannot let their pets run loose in a garden to give them raw eggs and a little minced meat, and a spider or two occasionally. In its wild state this Gibbon feeds on leaves, insects, eggs and small birds. Dr. Anderson notices the following as favourite leaves: _Moringa pterygosperma_ (horse-radish tree), _Spondias mangifera_ (amra), _Ficus religiosa_ (the pipal), also _Beta vulgaris_; and it is specially partial to the _Ipomoea reptans_ (the water convolvulus) and the bright-coloured flowers of the Indian shot (_Canna Indica_). Of insects it prefers spiders and the Orthoptera; eggs and small birds are also eagerly devoured. NO. 2. HYLOBATES LAR. _The White-handed Gibbon_. HABITAT.--Arracan, Lower Pegu, Tenasserim, and the Malayan Peninsula. [Figure: _HYLOBATES LAR_. _HYLOBATES HOOLUCK_.] DESCRIPTION.--"This species is generally recognisable by its pale yellowish, almost white hands and feet, by the grey, almost white, supercilium, whiskers and beard, and by the deep black of the rest of the pelage."--_Anderson_. SIZE.--About same as _H. hooluck_. It is, however, found in every variety of colour, from black to brownish, and variegated with light-coloured patches, and occasionally of a fulvous white. For a long time I supposed it to be synonymous with _H. agilis_ of Cuvier, or _H. variegatus_ of Temminck, but both Mr. Blyth and Dr. Anderson separate it. Blyth mentions a significant fact in distinguishing the two Indian Gibbons, whatever be their variations of colour, viz.: "_H. hooluck_ has constantly a broad white frontal band either continuous or divided in the middle, while _H. lar_ has invariably white hands and feet, less brightly so in some, and a white ring encircling the visage, which is seldom incomplete."[3] [Footnote 3: There is an excellent coloured drawing by Wolf of these two Gibbons in the 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1870, page 86, from which I have partly adapted the accompanying sketch.] _H. lar_ has sometimes the index and middle fingers connected by a web, as in the case of _H. syndactylus_ (a Sumatran species very distinct in other respects). The very closely allied _H. agilis_ has also this peculiarity in occasional specimens. This Gibbon was called "_agilis_" by Cuvier from its extreme rapidity in springing from branch to branch. Duvaucel says: "The velocity of its movements is wonderful; it escapes like a bird on the wing. Ascending rapidly to the top of a tree, it then seizes a flexible branch, swings itself two or three times to gain the necessary impetus, and then launches itself forward, repeatedly clearing in succession, without effort and without fatigue, spaces of forty feet." Sir Stamford Raffles writes that it is believed in Sumatra that it is so jealous that if in captivity preference be given to one over another, the neglected one will die of grief; and he found that one he had sickened under similar circumstances and did not recover till his rival (a Siamang, _H. syndactylus_) was removed. NO. 3. _HYLOBATES SYNDACTYLUS_. _The Siamang_. HABITAT.--Tenasserim Province, Sumatra, Malayan Peninsula. DESCRIPTION.--A more robust and thick-set animal than the two last; deep, woolly, black fur; no white supercilium nor white round the face. The skull is distinguished from the skull of the other Gibbons, according to Dr. Anderson, by the greater forward projection of the supraorbital ridges, and by its much deeper face, and the occipital region more abruptly truncated than in the other species. The index and middle toes of the foot are united to the last phalange. SIZE.--About three feet. This Gibbon is included in the Indian group on the authority of Helfer, who stated it to be found in the southern parts of the Tenasserim province. Blyth mentions another distinguishing characteristic--it is not only larger than the other Gibbons, but it possesses an inflatable laryngeal sac. Its arms are immense--five feet across in an adult of three feet high. The other species of this genus inhabiting adjacent and other countries are _H. Pileatus_ and _H. leucogenys_ in Siam; _H. leuciscus_, Java; _H. Mulleri_ and _H. concolor_, Borneo. _GENUS PRESBYTES--CUVIER'S GENUS SEMNOPITHECUS_. These monkeys are characterised by their slender bodies and long limbs and tails. Jerdon says the Germans call them Slim-apes. Other striking peculiarities are the absence of cheek pouches, which, if present, are but rudimentary. Then they differ from the true monkeys (_Cercopithecus_) by the form of the last molar tooth in the lower jaw, which has five tubercles instead of four; and, finally, they are to be distinguished by the peculiar structure of the stomach, which is singularly complicated, almost as much so as in the case of Ruminants, which have four divisions. The stomach of this genus of monkey consists of three divisions: 1st, a simple cardiac pouch with smooth parietes; 2nd, a wide sacculated middle portion; 3rd, a narrow elongated canal, sacculated at first, and of simple structure towards the termination. Cuvier from this supposes it to be more herbivorous than other genera, and considers this conclusion justified by the blunter tubercles of the molars and greater length of intestines and caecum, all of which point to a vegetable diet. "The head is round, the face but little produced, having a high facial angle."--_Jerdon_. But the _tout ensemble_ of the _Langur_ is so peculiar that no one who has once been told of a long, loosed-limbed, slender monkey with a prodigious tail, black face, with overhanging brows of long stiff black hair, projecting like a pent-house, would fail to recognise the animal. The _Hanuman_ monkey is reverenced by the Hindus. Hanuman was the son of Pavana, god of the winds; his strength was enormous, but in attempting to seize the sun he was struck by Indra with a thunderbolt which broke his jaw (_hanu_), whereupon his father shut himself up in a cave, and would not let a breeze cool the earth till the gods had promised his son immortality. Hanuman aided Rama in his attack upon Ceylon, and by his superhuman strength mountains were torn up and cast into the sea, so as to form a bridge of rocks across the Straits of Manar.[4] [Footnote 4: The legend, with native picture, is given in Wilkin's 'Hindoo Mythology.'] The species of this genus of monkey abound throughout the Peninsula. All Indian sportsmen are familiar with their habits, and have often been assisted by them in tracking a tiger. Their loud whoops and immense bounds from tree to tree when excited, or the flashing of their white teeth as they gibber at their lurking foe, have often told the shikari of the whereabouts of the object of his search. The _Langurs_ take enormous leaps, twenty-five feet in width, with thirty to forty in a drop, and never miss a branch. I have watched them often in the Central Indian jungles. Emerson Tennent graphically describes this: "When disturbed their leaps are prodigious, but generally speaking their progress is not made so much by _leaping_ as by swinging from branch to branch, using their powerful arms alternately, and, when baffled by distance, flinging themselves obliquely so as to catch the lower boughs of an opposite tree, the momentum acquired by their descent being sufficient to cause a rebound of the branch that carries them upwards again till they can grasp a higher and more distant one, and thus continue their headlong flight." Jerdon's statement that they can run with great rapidity on all-fours is qualified by McMaster, who easily ran down a large male on horseback on getting him out on a plain. A correspondent of the _Asian_, quoting from the _Indian Medical Gazette_ for 1870, states that experiments with one of this genus (_Presbytes entellus_) showed that strychnine has no effect on _Langurs_--as much as five grains were given within an hour without effect. "From a quarter to half of a grain will kill a dog in from five to ten minutes, and even one twenty-fourth of a grain will have a decided tetanic effect in human beings of delicate temperament."--_Cooley's Cycl_. Two days after _ten_ grains of strychnine were dissolved in spirits of wine, and mixed with rum and water, cold but sweet, which the animal drank with relish, and remained unhurt. The same experiment was tried with one of another genus (_Inuus rhesus_), who rejected the poisoned fruit at once, and on having strychnine in solution poured down his throat, died. The _Langur_ was then tried with cyanide of potassium, which he rejected at once, but on being forced to take a few grains, was dead in a few seconds. Although we may not sympathize with those who practise such cruel experiments as these above alluded to, the facts elucidated are worth recording, and tend to prove the peculiar herbivorous nature of this genus, which, in common with other strictly herbivorous animals, instinctively knows what to choose and what to avoid, and can partake, without danger, of some of the most virulent vegetable poisons. It is possible that in the forests they eat the fruit of the _Strychnos nux-vomica_, which is also the favourite food of the pied hornbill (_Hydrocissa coronata_). NO. 4. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES ENTELLUS. _The Bengal Langur_ (_Jerdon's No. 1_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Langur_, _Hanuman_, Hindi; _Wanur_ and _Makur_, Mahratti; _Musya_, Canarese. HABITAT.--Bengal and Central India. [Figure: _Presbytes entellus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Pale dirty or ashy grey; darker on the shoulders and rump; greyish-brown on the tail; paler on the head and lower parts; hands and feet black. SIZE.--Length of male thirty inches to root of tail; tail forty-three inches. The _Entellus_ monkey is in some parts of India deemed sacred, and is permitted by the Hindus to plunder their grain-shops with impunity; but I think that with increasing hard times the _Hanumans_ are not allowed such freedom as they used to have, and in most parts of India I have been in they are considered an unmitigated nuisance, and the people have implored the aid of Europeans to get rid of their tormentors. In the forest the _Langur_ lives on grain, fruit, the pods of leguminous trees, and young buds and leaves. Sir Emerson Tennent notices the fondness of an allied species for the flowers of the red hibiscus (_H. rosa sinensis_). The female has usually only one young one, though sometimes twins. The very young babies have not black but light-coloured faces, which darken afterwards. I have always found them most difficult to rear, requiring almost as much attention as a human baby. Their diet and hours of feeding must be as systematically arranged; and if cow's milk be given it must be freely diluted with water--two-thirds to one-third milk when very young, and afterwards decreased to one-half. They are extremely susceptible to cold. In confinement they are quiet and gentle whilst young, but the old males are generally sullen and treacherous. Jerdon says, on the authority of the _Bengal Sporting Magazine_ (August 1836), that the males live apart from the females, who have only one or two old males with each colony, and that they have fights at certain seasons, when the vanquished males receive charge of all the young ones of their own sex, with whom they retire to some neighbouring jungle. Blyth notices that in one locality he found only males of all ages, and in another chiefly females. I have found these monkeys mostly on the banks of streams in the forests of the Central Provinces; in fact, the presence of them anywhere in arid jungles is a sign that water is somewhere in the vicinity. They are timid creatures, and I have never seen the slightest disposition about them to show fight, whereas I was once most deliberately charged by the old males of a party of _Rhesus_ monkeys. I was at the time on field service during the Mutiny, and, seeing several nursing mothers in the party, tried to run them down in the open and secure a baby; but they were too quick for me, and, on being attacked by the old males, I had to pistol the leader. NO. 5. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES SCHISTACEUS.[5] _The Himalayan Langur_ (_Jerdon's No. 2_). [Footnote 5: Mr. J. Cockburn, of the Imperial Museum, has, since I wrote about the preceding species, given me some interesting information regarding the geographical distribution of _Presbytes entellus_ and _Hylobates hooluck_. He says: "The latter has never been known to occur on the north bank of the Brahmaputra, though swarming in the forests at the very water's edge on the south bank. The _entellus_ monkey is also not found on the north bank of the Ganges, and attempts at its introduction have repeatedly failed." _P. schistaceus_ replaces it in the Sub-Himalayan forests.] NATIVE NAMES.--_Langur_, Hindi; _Kamba Suhu_, Lepcha; _Kubup_, Bhotia. HABITAT.--The whole range of the Himalayas from Nepal to beyond Simla. DESCRIPTION (after Hodgson).--Dark slaty above; head and lower parts pale yellowish; hands concolorous with body, or only a little darker; tail slightly tufted; hair on the crown of the head short and radiated; on the cheeks long, directed backwards, and covering the ears. Hutton's description is, dark greyish, with pale hands and feet, white head, dark face, white throat and breast, and white tip to the tail. SIZE.--About thirty inches; tail, thirty-six inches. Captain Hutton, writing from Mussoorie, says: "On the Simla side I observed them also, leaping and playing about, while the fir-trees, among which they sported, were loaded with snow-wreaths, at an elevation of 11,000 feet."--'Jour. As. Soc. Beng.' xiii. p. 471. Dr. Anderson remarks on the skull of this species, that it can be easily distinguished from _entellus_ by its larger size, the supraorbital ridge being less forwardly projected, and not forming so thick and wide a pent roof, but the most marked difference lies in the much longer facial portion of _schistaceus_; the teeth are also larger; the symphysis or junction of the lower jaw is considerably longer and broader, and the lower jaw itself is generally more massive and deep. NO. 6. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES PRIAMUS. _The Madras Langur_. NATIVE NAME.--_Gandangi_, Telugu. HABITAT.--The Coromandel Coast and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Ashy grey, with a pale reddish or _chocolat-au-lait_ tint overlying the whole back and head; sides of the head, chin, throat, and beneath pale yellowish; hands and feet whitish; face, palms and fingers, and soles of feet and toes black; hair long and straight, not wavy; tail of the colour of the darker portion of the back, ending in a whitish tuft.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--About the same as _P. entellus_. Blyth, who is followed by Jerdon, describes this monkey as having a compressed high vertical crest, but Dr. Anderson found that the specimens in the Indian Museum owed these crests to bad stuffing. Kellaart, however, mentions it, and calls the animal "the Crested Monkey." In Sir Emerson Tennent's figure of _P. priamus_ a slight crest is noticeable; but Kellaart is very positive on this point, saying: "_P. priamus_ is easily distinguished from all other known species of monkeys in Ceylon by its high compressed vertical crest." Jerdon says this species is not found on the Malabar Coast, but neither he nor McMaster give much information regarding it. Emerson Tennent writes: "At Jaffna, and in other parts of the island where the population is comparatively numerous, these monkeys become so familiarised with the presence of man as to exhibit the utmost daring and indifference. A flock of them will take possession of a palmyra palm, and so effectually can they crouch and conceal themselves among the leaves that, on the slightest alarm, the whole party becomes invisible in an instant. The presence of a dog, however, excites such irrepressible curiosity that, in order to watch his movements, they never fail to betray themselves. They may be frequently seen congregated on the roof of a native hut; and, some years ago, the child of a European clergyman, stationed near Jaffna, having been left on the ground by the nurse, was so teased and bitten by them as to cause its death." In these particulars this species resembles _P. entellus_. NO. 7. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES JOHNII. _The Malabar Langur_ (_Jerdon's No. 4_). HABITAT.--The Malabar Coast, from N. Lat. 14 degrees or 15 degrees to Cape Comorin. DESCRIPTION.--Above dusky brown, slightly paling on the sides; crown, occiput, sides of head and beard fulvous, darkest on the crown; limbs and tail dark brown, almost black; beneath yellowish white.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Not quite so large as _P. entellus_. This monkey was named after a member of the Danish factory at Tranquebar, M. John, who first described it. It abounds in forests, and does not frequent villages, though it will visit gardens and fields, where, however, it shuns observation. The young are of a sooty brown, or nearly black, without any indication of the light-coloured hood of the adult. NO. 8. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES JUBATUS. _The Nilgheri Langur_ (_Jerdon's No. 5_). HABITAT.--The Nilgheri Hills, the Animallies, Pulneys, the Wynaad, and all the higher parts of the range of the Ghats as low as Travancore. DESCRIPTION.--Dark glossy black throughout, except head and nape, which are reddish brown; hair very long; in old individuals a greyish patch on the rump.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Length of head and body, 26 inches; tail, 30. This monkey does not, as a rule, descend lower than 2,500 to 3,000 feet; it is shy and wary. The fur is fine and glossy, and is much prized (Jerdon). Its flesh is excellent food for dogs (McMaster). Dr. Anderson makes this synonymous with the last. NO. 9. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES PILEATUS. _The Capped Langur_. HABITAT.--Assam, Chittagong, Tipperah. DESCRIPTION.--General colour dark ashy grey, with a slight ferruginous tint; darker near head and on shoulders; underneath and on the inside of the limbs pale yellowish, with a darker shade of orange or golden yellow on the breast and belly. The crown of the head is densely covered with bristly hairs, regularly disposed and somewhat elongated on the vertex so as to resemble a cap, whence the name. Along the forehead is a superciliary crest of long black bristles, directed outwardly; whiskers full and down to the chin: behind the ears is a small tuft of white hairs; the tail is long, one third longer than the body, darker near the end, and tufted; fingers and toes black. SIZE.--A little smaller than _P. entellus_. This monkey is found in Northern Assam, Tipperah and southwards to Tenasserim; in Blyth's 'Catalogue of the Mammals of Burmah' it is mentioned as _P. chrysogaster_ (_Semnopithecus potenziani_ of Bonaparte and Peters). He writes of it: "Females and young have the lower parts white, or but faintly tinted with ferruginous, and the rest of the coat is of a pure grey; the face black, and there is no crest, but the hairs of the crown are so disposed as to appear like a small flat cap laid upon the top of the head. The old males seem always to be of a deep rust-colour on the cheeks, lower parts, and more or less on the outer side of the limbs; while in old females this rust colour is diluted or little more than indicated." Dr. Anderson says that a young one he had was of a mild disposition, which however is not the character of the adult animal, which is uncertain, and the males when irritated are fierce, and determined in attack. No rule, however, is without its exception, for one adult male, possessed by Blyth, is reported as having been an exceeding gentle animal. NO. 10. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES BARBEI. _The Tipperah Langur_. HABITAT.--Tipperah, Tenasserim. DESCRIPTION.--No vertical crest of hair on the head, nor is the occipital hair directed downwards, as in the next species. Shoulders and outside of arm silvered; tail slightly paler than body, "which is of a blackish fuliginous hue." More information is required about this monkey, which was named by Blyth after its donor to the Asiatic Society, the Rev. J. Barbe. Blyth considered it as distinct from _P. Phayrei_ and _P. obscurus_, which last is from Malacca. Dr. Anderson noticed it in the valley of the Tapeng in the centre of the Kakhyen Hills, in troops of thirty to fifty, in high forest trees overhanging the mountain streams. Being seldom disturbed, they permitted a near approach. NO. 11. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES PHAYREI. _Syn_.--SEMNOPITHECUS CRISTATUS. _The Silvery-Leaf Monkey_ (_Blyth_). HABITAT.--Arracan, Malayan Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo. DESCRIPTION.-Colour dusky grey-brown above, more or less dark, with black hands and feet; a conspicuous crest on the vertex; under parts white, scarcely extending to the inside of the limbs; sides grey like the back; whiskers dark, very long, concealing the ears in front; lips and eyelids conspicuously white, with white moustachial hairs above and similar hairs below. SIZE.--Two feet; tail, 2 feet 6 inches. This monkey was named by Blyth after Captain (now Sir Arthur) Phayre, who first brought it to his notice; but he afterwards reconciled it as being synonymous with _Semnopithecus cristatus_. The colouring, according to different authors, seems to vary considerably, which causes some confusion in description. It differs from an allied species, _S. maurus_, in selecting low marshy situations near the banks of streams. Its favourite food is the fruit of the Nibong palm (_Oncosperma filamentosa_). NO. 12. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES OBSCURUS. _The Dusky-Leaf Monkey_. HABITAT.--Mergui and the Malayan Peninsula. DESCRIPTION.--Adults ashy or brownish black, darker on forehead, sides of face, shoulder, and sides of body; the hair on the nape is lengthened and whitish. The newly-born young are of a golden ferruginous colour, which afterward changes to dusky-ash colour, the terminal half of the tail being last to change; the mouth and eyelids are whitish, but the rest of the face black. SIZE.--Body, 1 foot 9 inches; tail, 2 feet 8 inches. This monkey is most common in the Malayan Peninsula, but has been found to extend to Mergui, where Blyth states it was procured by the late Major Berdmore. Dr. Anderson says it is not unfrequently offered for sale in the Singapore market. NO. 13. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES CEPHALOPTERUS. _The Ceylon Langur_. NATIVE NAME.--_Kallu Wanderu_. HABITAT.--The low lands of Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--General colour cinereous black; croup and inside of thighs whitish; head rufescent brown; hair on crown short, semi-erect; occipital hairs long, albescent; whiskers white, thick and long, terminating at the chin in a short beard, and laterally angularly pointed; upper lip thinly fringed with white hairs; superciliary hairs black, long, stiff and standing erect; tail albescent and terminating in a beard tuft; face, palms, soles, fingers, toes and callosities black; irides brown.--_Kellaart_. SIZE.--Length, 20 inches; tail 24 inches. Sir E. Tennent says of this monkey that it is never found at a higher elevation than 1,300 feet (when it is replaced by the next species). "It is an active and intelligent creature, little larger than the common bonneted macaque, and far from being so mischievous as others of the monkeys in the island. In captivity it is remarkable for the gravity of its demeanour and for an air of melancholy in its expression and movements, which are completely in character with its snowy beard and venerable aspect. In disposition it is gentle and confiding, sensible in the highest degree of kindness, and eager for endearing attention, uttering a low plaintive cry when its sympathies are excited. It is particularly cleanly in its habits when domesticated, and spends much of its time in trimming its fur and carefully divesting its hair of particles of dust. Those which I kept at my house near Colombo were chiefly fed upon plantains and bananas, but for nothing did they evince a greater partiality than the rose-coloured flowers of the red hibiscus (_H. rosa sinensis_). These they devoured with unequivocal gusto; they likewise relished the leaves of many other trees, and even the bark of a few of the more succulent ones." NO. 14. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES URSINUS. _The Great Wanderu_. NATIVE NAME.--_Maha Wanderu_. HABITAT.--The mountainous district of Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Fur long, almost uniformly greyish black; whiskers full and white; occiput and croup in old specimens paler coloured; hands and feet blackish; tail long, getting lighter towards the lower half. The young and adults under middle age have a rufous tint, corresponding with that of the head of all ages. SIZE.--Body about 22 inches; tail, 26 inches. The name Wanderu is a corruption of the Singhalese generic word for monkey, _Ouandura_, or _Wandura_, which bears a striking resemblance to the Hindi _Bandra_, commonly called _Bandar_--_b_ and _v_ being interchangeable--and is evidently derived from the Sanscrit _Banur_, which in the south again becomes _Wanur_, and further south, in Ceylon, _Wandura_. There has been a certain amount of confusion between this animal and _Inuus silenus_, the lion monkey, which had the name _Wanderu_ applied to it by Buffon, and it is so figured in Cuvier. They are both large monkeys, with great beards of light coloured hair, but in no other respect do they resemble. Sir Emerson Tennent says: "It is rarely seen by Europeans, this portion of the country having till very recently been but partially opened; and even now it is difficult to observe its habits, as it seldom approaches the few roads which wind through these deep solitudes. At early morning, ere the day begins to dawn, its loud and peculiar howl, which consists of quick repetition of the sound _how-how!_ may be frequently heard in the mountain jungles, and forms one of the characteristic noises of these lofty situations." This was written in 1861; since then much of the mountainous forest land has been cleared for coffee-planting, and the Wanderu either driven into corners or become more familiarised with man. More therefore must be known of its habits by this time, and information regarding it is desirable. NO. 15. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES THERSITES. NATIVE NAME.--_Ellee Wanderu_ (Kellaart). HABITAT.--Ceylon. [Figure: _Presbytes thersites_.] DESCRIPTION.--Chiefly distinguished from the others by wanting the head tuft; uniform dusky grey, darker on crown and fore-limbs; slaty brown on wrists and hands; hair on toes whitish; whiskers and beard largely developed and conspicuously white. The name was given by Blyth to a single specimen forwarded by Dr. Templeton, and it was for a time doubtful whether it was really a native, till Dr. Kellaart procured a second. Dr. Templeton's specimen was partial to fresh vegetables, plantains, and fruit, but he ate freely boiled rice, beans, and gram. He was fond of being noticed and petted, stretching out his limbs in succession to be scratched, drawing himself up so that his ribs might be reached by the finger, closing his eyes during the operation, and evincing his satisfaction by grimaces irresistibly ludicrous.--_Emerson Tennent_. Dr. Anderson considers this monkey as identical with _Semnopithecus priamus_, but Kellaart, as I have before stated, is very positive on the point of difference, calling _S. priamus_ emphatically the crested monkey, and alleging that _thersites_ has no crest, and it is probable he had opportunities of observing the two animals in life; he says he had a young specimen of _priamus_, which distinctly showed the crest, and a young _thersites_ of the same age which showed no sign of it. In Emerson Tennent's 'Natural History of Ceylon,' (1861) page 5, there is a plate of a group in which are included _priamus_ and _thersites_; in the original they are wrongly numbered--the former should be 2 and not 3, and the latter 3 and not 2. If these be correct (and Wolf's name should be a voucher for their being so) there is a decided difference. There is no crest in the latter, and the white whiskers terminate abruptly on a level with the eyebrow, and the superciliary ridge of hair is wanting. NO. 16. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES ALBINUS (_Kellaart_). _The White Langur_. HABITAT.--Ceylon, in the hills beyond Matelle. DESCRIPTION.--Fur dense, sinuous, nearly of uniform white colour, with only a slight dash of grey on the head; face and ears black; palm, soles, fingers and toes flesh-coloured; limbs and body the shape of _P. ursinus_; long white hairs prolonged over the toes and claws, giving the appearance of a white spaniel dog to this monkey; irides brown; whiskers white, full, and pointed laterally.--_Kellaart_. The above description was taken by Dr. Kellaart from a living specimen. He considered it to be a distinct species, and not an Albino, from the black face and ears and brown eyes. The Kandyans assured him that they were to be seen (rarely however) in small parties of three and four over the hills beyond Matelle, but never in company with the dark kind. Emerson Tennent also mentions one that was brought to him taken between Ambepasse and Kornegalle, where they were said to be numerous; except in colour it had all the characteristics of _P. cephalopterus_. So striking was its whiteness that it might have been conjectured to be an Albino, but for the circumstance that its eyes and face were black. An old writer of the seventeenth century, Knox, says of the monkeys of Ceylon (where he was captive for some time) that there are some "milk-white in body and face, but of this sort there is not such plenty."--_Tennent's 'Natural History of Ceylon,' page 8_. NOTE.--Since the above was in type I have found in the List of Animals in the Zoological Society's Gardens, a species entered as _Semnopithecus leucoprymnus_, the Purple-faced Monkey from Ceylon--see P.Z.S. PAPIONINAE. This sub-family comprises the true baboons of Africa and the monkey-like baboons of India. They have the stomach simple, and cheek-pouches are always present. According to Cuvier they possess, like the last family, a fifth tubercle on their last molars. They produce early, but are not completely adult for four or five years; the period of gestation is seven months. The third sub-family of _Simiadae_ consists of the genera _Cercopithicus_, _Macacus_, and _Cynocephalus_, as generally accepted by modern zoologists, but Jerdon seems to have followed Ogilby in his classification, which merges the long-tailed Macaques into _Cercopithecus_, and substituting _Papio_ for the others. _GENUS INUUS_. Cuvier applies this term to the Magots or rudimentary-tailed Macaques. The monkeys of this genus are more compactly built than those of the last. They are also less herbivorous in their diet, eating frogs, lizards, crabs and insects, as well as vegetables and fruit. Their callosities and cheek-pouches are large, and they have a sac which communicates with the larynx under the thyroid cartilage, which fills with air when they cry out. Some naturalists of the day, however, place all under the generic name Macacus. NO. 17. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS SILENUS. _The Lion Monkey_ (_Jerdon's No. 6_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Nil bandar_, Bengali; _Shia bandar_, Hindi; _Nella manthi_, Malabari. HABITAT.--The Western Ghats of India from North Lat. 14 degrees to the extreme south, but most abundant in Cochin and Travancore (_Jerdon_), also Ceylon (_Cuvier_ and _Horsfield_), though not confirmed by Emerson Tennent, who states that the _silenus_ is not found in the island except as introduced by Arab horse-dealers occasionally, and that it certainly is not indigenous. Blyth was also assured by Dr. Templeton of Colombo that the only specimens there were imported. [Figure: _Macacus silenus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Black, with a reddish-white hood or beard surrounding the face and neck; tail with a tuft of whitish hair at the tip; a little greyish on the chest. SIZE.--About 24 inches; tail, 10 inches. There is a plate of this monkey in Carpenter and Westwood's edition of Cuvier, under the mistaken name of _Wanderoo_. It is somewhat sulky and savage, and is difficult to get near in a wild state. Jerdon states that he met with it only in dense unfrequented forest, and sometimes at a considerable elevation. It occurs in troops of from twelve to twenty. NO. 18. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS RHESUS. _The Bengal Monkey_ (_Jerdon's No. 7_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Bandar_, Hindi; _Markot_, Bengali; _Suhu_, Lepcha, _Piyu_, Bhotia. HABITAT.--India generally from the North to about Lat. 18 degrees or 19 degrees; but not in the South, where it is replaced by _Macacus radiatus_. [Figure: _Macacus rhesus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Above brownish ochrey or rufous; limbs and beneath ashy-brown; callosities and adjacent parts red; face of adult males red. SIZE.--Twenty-two inches; tail 11 inches. This monkey is too well-known to need description. It is the common acting monkey of the _bandar-wallas_, the delight of all Anglo-Indian children, who go into raptures over the romance of _Munsur-ram_ and _Chameli_, their quarrels, parting, and reconciliation, so admirably acted by these miniature comedians. NOTE.--For _Macacus rheso-similis_, Sclater, see P.Z.S. 1872, p. 495, pl. xxv., also P.Z.S. 1875, p. 418. NO. 19. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS PELOPS. _Syn_.--MACACUS ASSAMENSIS. _The Hill Monkey_ (_Jerdon's No. 8_). HABITAT.--The Himalayan ranges and Assam. DESCRIPTION.--Brownish grey, somewhat mixed with slaty, and rusty brownish on the shoulders in some; beneath light ashy brown; fur fuller and more wavy than in _rhesus_; canine teeth long; of stout habit; callosities and face less red than in the last species (_Jerdon_). Face flesh-coloured, but interspersed with a few black hairs (_McClelland_). NO. 20. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS NEMESTRINUS. _The Pig-tailed Monkey_. HABITAT.--Tenasserim and the Malay Archipelago. [Figure: _Macacus nemestrinus_.] DESCRIPTION.--General colour grizzled brown; the piles annulated with dusky and fulvous; crown darker, and the middle of the back also darker; the hair lengthened on the fore-quarters; the back stripe extends along the tail, becoming almost black; the tail terminates in a bright ferruginous tuft. This monkey is noted for its docility, and in Bencoolen is trained to be useful as well as amusing. According to Sir Stamford Raffles it is taught to climb the cocoa palms for the fruit for its master, and to select only those that are ripe. NO. 21. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS LEONINUS. _The Long-haired Pig-tailed Monkey_. HABITAT.--Arracan. DESCRIPTION.--A thick-set powerful animal, with a broad, rather flattened head above, and a moderately short, well clad, up-turned tail, about one-third the length of the body and head; the female smaller.--_Anderson_. Face fleshy brown; whitish round the eyes and on the forehead; eyebrows brownish, a narrow reddish line running out from the external angle of the eye. The upper surface of the head is densely covered with short dark fur, yellowish brown, broadly tipped with black; the hair radiating from the vertex; on and around the ear the hair is pale grey; above the external orbital angle and on the sides of the face the hair is dense and directed backwards, pale greyish, obscurely annulated with dusky brown, and this is prolonged downwards to the middle of the throat. On the shoulders, back of the neck, and upper part of the thighs, the hairs are very long, fully three inches in the first-mentioned localities; the basal halves greyish; and the remainder ringed with eleven bands of dark brown and orange; the tips being dark. The middle and small of the back is almost black, the shorter hair there being wholly dark; and this colour is prolonged on the tail, which is tufted. The hair on the chest is annulated, but paler than on the shoulders, and it is especially dense on the lower part. The lower halves of the limbs are also well clad with annulated fur, like their outsides, but their upper halves internally and the belly are only sparsely covered with long brownish grey plain hairs, not ringed. The female differs from the male in the absence of the black on the head and back, and in the hair of the under parts being brownish grey, without annulations. The shoulders somewhat brighter than the rest of the fur, which is yellowish olive; greyish olive on outside of limbs; dusky on upper surface of hands and feet; and black on upper surface of tail. SIZE.--Length of male, head and body 23 inches; tail, without hair, 8 inches; with hair 10 inches. The above description is taken from Dr. Anderson's account, 'Anat. and Zool. Res.,' where at page 54 will be found a plate of the skull showing the powerful canine teeth. Blyth mentions a fine male with hair on the shoulders four to five inches long. NO. 22. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS ARCTOIDES. _The Brown Stump-tailed Monkey_. HABITAT.--Cachar, Kakhyen Hills, east of Bhamo. DESCRIPTION.--Upper surface of head and along the back dark brown, almost blackish; sides and limbs dark brown; the hair, which is very long, is ringed with light yellowish and dark brown, darker still at the tips; face red; tail short and stumpy, little over an inch long. This monkey is one over which many naturalists have argued; it is synonymous with _Macacus speciosus_, _M. maurus_, _M. melanotus_, and was thought to be with _M. brunneus_ till Dr. Anderson placed the latter in a separate species on account of the non-annulation of its hair. It is essentially a denizen of the hills; it has been obtained in Cachar and in Upper Assam. Dr. Anderson got it in the Kakhyen Hills on the frontier of Yunnan, beyond which, he says, it spreads to the southeast to Cochin-China. NO. 23. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS THIBETANUS. _The Thibetan Stump-tailed Monkey_. DESCRIPTION.--Head large and whiskered; form robust; tail stumpy and clad; general colour of the animal brown; whiskers greyish; face nude and flesh-coloured, with a deep crimson flush round the eyes. SIZE.--Two feet 9 inches; tail about 3 inches. This large monkey, though not belonging to British India, inhabiting, it is said, "the coldest and least accessible forests of Eastern Thibet," is mentioned here, as the exploration of that country by travellers from India is attracting attention. _GENUS MACACUS_. Tail longer than in _Inuus_, and face not so lengthened; otherwise as in that genus.--_Jerdon_. NO. 24. MACACUS RADIATUS. _The Madras Monkey_ (_Jerdon's No. 9_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Bandar_, Hindi; _Makadu_ or _Wanur_, Mahratti; _Kerda mahr_ of the Ghats; _Munga_, Canarese; _Koti_, Telegu; _Vella munthi_, Malabar. HABITAT.--All over the southern parts of India, as far north as lat. 18 degrees. [Figure: _Macacus radiatus_ and _Macacus pileatus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Of a dusky olive brown, paler and whitish underneath, ashy on outer sides of limbs; tail dusky brown above, whitish beneath; hairs on the crown of the head radiated. SIZE.--Twenty inches; tail 15 inches. Elliott remarks of this monkey that it inhabits not only the wildest jungles, but the most populous towns, and it is noted for its audacity in stealing fruit and grain from shops. Jerdon says: "It is the monkey most commonly found in menageries, and led about to show various tricks and feats of agility. It is certainly the most inquisitive and mischievous of its tribe, and its powers of mimicry are surpassed by none." It may be taught to turn a wheel regularly; it smokes tobacco without inconvenience.--_Horsfield_. NO. 25. MACACUS PILEATUS (_vel_ SINICUS, _Lin_.). _The Capped Monkey_, or _Bonneted Macaque_ of _Cuvier_. NATIVE NAME.--_Rilawa_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Ceylon and China. DESCRIPTION.--Yellowish brown, with a slight shade of green in old specimens; in some the back is light chestnut brown; yellowish brown hairs on the crown of the head, radiating from the centre to the circumference; face flesh-coloured and beardless; ears, palms, soles, fingers, and toes blackish; irides reddish brown; callosities flesh-coloured; tail longish, terminating in short tuft.--_Kellaart_. SIZE.--Head and body about 20 inches; tail 18 inches. This is the _Macacus sinicus_ of Cuvier, and is very similar to the last species. In Ceylon it takes the place of our rhesus monkey with the conjurors, who, according to Sir Emerson Tennent, "teach it to dance, and in their wanderings carry it from village to village, clad in a grotesque dress, to exhibit its lively performances." It also, like the last, smokes tobacco; and one that belonged to the captain of a tug steamer, in which I once went down from Calcutta to the Sandheads, not only smoked, but chewed tobacco. Kellaart says of it: "This monkey is a lively, spirited animal, but easily tamed; particularly fond of making grimaces, with which it invariably welcomes its master and friends. It is truly astonishing to see the large quantity of food it will cram down its cheek pouches for future mastication." NO. 26. MACACUS CYNOMOLGUS. _The Crab-eating Macaque_. NATIVE NAME.--_Kra_, Malay. HABITAT.--Tenasserim, Nicobars, Malay Archipelago. [Figure: _Macacus cynomolgus_.] DESCRIPTION.--"The leading features of this animal are its massive form, its large head closely set on the shoulders, its stout and rather short legs, its slender loins and heavy buttocks, its tail thick at the base" (Anderson). The general colour is similar to that of the Bengal rhesus monkey, but the skin of the chest and belly is bluish, the face livid, with a white area between the eyes and white eyelids. Hands and feet blackish. SIZE.--About that of the Bengal rhesus. According to Captain (now Sir Arthur) Phayre "these monkeys frequent the banks of salt-water creeks and devour shell-fish. In the cheek-pouch of the female were found the claws and body of a crab. There is not much on record concerning the habits of this monkey in its wild state beyond what is stated concerning its partiality for crabs, which can also, I believe, be said of the rhesus in the Bengal Sunderbunds." NO. 27. MACACUS CARBONARIUS. _The Black-faced Crab-eating Monkey_. HABITAT.--Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--In all respects the same as the last, except that its face is blackish, with conspicuously white eyelids. FAMILY LEMURIDAE. The Indian members of this family belong to the sub-family named by Geoffroy _Nycticebinae_. _GENUS NYCTICEBUS_. NO. 28. NYCTICEBUS TARDIGRADUS. _The Slow-paced Lemur_ (_Jerdon's No. 10_). NATIVE NAME.--_Sharmindi billi_, Hindi. HABITAT.--Eastern Bengal, Assam, Garo Hills, Sylhet, Arracan.--_Horsfield_. [Figure: _Loris gracilis_ and _Nycticebus tardigradus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Dark ashy grey, with a darker band down middle of back, beneath lighter grey; forehead in some dark, with a narrow white stripe between the eyes, disappearing above them; ears and round the eye dark; tail very short.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Length about 14 to 15 inches; tail 5/8 of an inch. Nocturnal in its habits; sleeping during the day in holes of trees, and coming out to feed at night. Sir William Jones describes one kept by him for some time; it appeared to have been gentle, though at times petulant when disturbed; susceptible of cold; slept from sunrise to sunset rolled up like a hedgehog. Its food was chiefly plantains, and mangoes when in season. Peaches, mulberries, and guavas, it did not so much care for, but it was most eager after grasshoppers, which it devoured voraciously. It was very particular in the performance of its toilet, cleaning and licking its fur. Cuvier also notices this last peculiarity, and with regard to its diet says it eats small birds as well as insects. These animals are occasionally to be bought in the Calcutta market. A friend of mine had a pair which were a source of great amusement to his guests after dinner. (See Appendix C, p.526.) _GENUS LORIS_. Body and limbs slender; no tail; eyes very large, almost contiguous; nose acute. NO. 29. LORIS GRACILIS. _The Slender Lemur_ (_Jerdon's No. 11_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Tevangar_, Tamil; _Dewantsipilli_, Telegu. (_Oona happslava_, Singhalese.--_Kellaart_.) HABITAT.--Southern India and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Above greyish rufescent (tawny snuff brown: Kellaart); beneath a paler shade; a white triangular spot on forehead, extending down the nose; fur short, dense, and soft; ears thin, rounded (Jerdon). A hooped claw on inner toes; nails of other toes flat; posterior third of palms and soles hairy (Kellaart). SIZE.--About 8 inches; arm, 5; leg, 5-1/2. This, like the last, is also nocturnal in its habits, and from the extreme slowness of its movements is called in Ceylon "the Ceylon sloth." Its diet is varied--fruit, flower, and leaf buds, insects, eggs, and young birds. Sir Emerson Tennent says the Singhalese assert that it has been known to strangle pea-fowl at night and feast on the brain, but this I doubt. Smaller birds it might overcome. Jerdon states that in confinement it will eat boiled rice, plantains, honey or syrup and raw meat. McMaster, at page 6 of his 'Notes on Jerdon,' gives an interesting extract from an old account of 'Dr. John Fryer's Voyage to East India and Bombain,' in which he describes this little animal as "Men of the Woods, or more truly Satyrs;" asleep during the day; but at "Night they Sport and Eat." "They had Heads like an owl. Bodied like a monkey without Tails. Only the first finger of the Right Hand was armed with a claw like a bird, otherwise they had hands and feet which they walk upright on, not pronely, as other Beasts do." These little creatures double themselves up when they sleep, bending the head down between their legs. Although so sluggish generally, Jerdon says they can move with considerable agility when they choose. SUB-ORDER PLEUROPTERA.--FAMILY GALAEOPITHECIDAE. There is a curious link between the Lemurs and the Bats in the Colugos. (_Galaeopithecus_): their limbs are connected with a membrane as in the Flying Squirrels, by which they can leap and float for a hundred yards on an inclined plane. They are mild, inoffensive animals, subsisting on fruits and leaves. Cuvier places them after the Bats, but they seem properly to link the Lemurs and the frugivorous Bats. As yet they have not been found in India proper, but are common in the Malayan Peninsula, and have been found in Burmah. NO. 30. GALAEOPITHECUS VOLANS. _The Flying Lemur_. NATIVE NAME.--_Myook-hloung-pyan_, Burmese. HABITAT.--Mergui; the Malayan Peninsula. [Figure: _Galaeopithecus volans_.] DESCRIPTION.--Fur olive brown, mottled with irregular whitish spots and blotches; the pile is short, but exquisitely soft; head and brain very small; tail long and prehensile. The membrane is continued from each side of the neck to the fore feet; thence to the hind feet, again to the tip of the tail. This animal is also nocturnal in its habits, and very sluggish in its motions by day, at which time it usually hangs from a branch suspended by its fore hands, its mottled back assimilating closely with the rugged bark of the tree; it is exclusively herbivorous, possessing a very voluminous stomach, and long convoluted intestines. Wallace says of it, that its brain is very small, and it possesses such tenacity of life that it is very difficult to kill; he adds that it is said to have only one at a birth, and one he shot had a very small blind naked little creature clinging closely to its breast, which was quite bare and much wrinkled. Raffles, however, gives two as the number produced at each birth. Dr. Cantor says that in confinement plantains constitute the favourite food, but deprived of liberty it soon dies. In its wild state it "lives entirely on young fruits and leaves; those of the cocoanut and _Bombax pentandrum_ are its favourite food, and it commits great injury to the plantations of these."--_Horsfield's_ 'Cat. Mam.' Regarding its powers of flight, Wallace, in his 'Travels in the Malay Archipelago,' says: "I saw one of these animals run up a tree in a rather open space, and then glide obliquely through the air to another tree on which it alighted near its base, and immediately began to ascend. I paced the distance from one tree to the other, and found it to be seventy yards, and the amount of descent not more than thirty-five or forty feet, or less than one in five. This, I think, proves that the animal must have some power of guiding itself through the air, otherwise in so long a distance it would have little chance of alighting exactly upon the trunk." There is a carefully prepared skeleton of this animal in the Indian Museum in Calcutta. ORDER CARNARIA. CHEIROPTERA. It may seem strange to many that such an insignificant, weird little creature as a bat should rank so high in the animal kingdom as to be but a few removes from man. It has, however, some striking anatomical affinities with the last Order, _Quadrumana_, sufficient to justify its being placed in the next link of the great chain of creation. [Figure: Sternum of _Pteropus_.] "Bats have the arms, fore-arms and fingers excessively elongated, so as to form with the membrane that occupies their intervals, real wings, the surface of which is equally or more extended than in those of birds. Hence they fly high and with great rapidity."--_Cuvier_. They suckle their young at the breast, but some of them have pubic warts resembling mammae. The muscles of the chest are developed in proportion, and the sternum has a medial ridge something like that of a bird. They are all nocturnal, with small eyes (except in the case of the frugivorous bats), large ears, and in some cases membranous appendages to the nostrils, which may possibly be for the purpose of guiding themselves in the dark, for it is proved by experiment that bats are not dependent on eyesight for guidance, and one naturalist has remarked that, in a certain species of bat which has no facial membrane, this delicacy of perception was absent. I have noticed this in one species, _Cynopterus marginatus_, one of which flew into my room not long ago, and which repeatedly dashed itself against a glass door in its efforts to escape. I had all the other doors closed. Bats are mostly insectivorous; a few are fruit-eaters, such as our common flying-fox. They produce from one to two at a birth, which are carried about by the mother and suckled at the breast, this peculiarity being one of the anatomical details alluded to as claiming for the bats so high a place. Bats are divided into four sub-families--Pteropodidae, Vampyridae, Noctilionidae, and Vespertilionidae. MEGACHIROPTERA. SUB-FAMILY PTEROPODIDAE. _GENUS PTEROPUS_. These are frugivorous bats of large size, differing, as remarked by Jerdon, so much in their dentition from the insectivorous species that they seem to lead through the flying Lemurs (_Colugos_) directly to the _Quadrumana_. The dentition is more adapted to their diet; they have cutting incisors to each jaw, and grinders with flat crowns, and their intestines are longer than those of the insectivorous bats. They produce but one at birth, and the young ones leave their parents as soon as they can provide for themselves. The tongue is covered with rough papillae. They have no tail. These bats and some of the following genus, which are also frugivorous, are distinguished from the rest of the bats by a claw on the first or index finger, which is short. Dental formula: Inc., 4/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/3--3; molars, 3--3/3--3. NO. 31. PTEROPUS EDWARDSII _vel_ MEDIUS. _The Common Flying Fox_ (_Jerdon's No. 12_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Badul_, Bengali and Mahratti; _Wurbagul_, Hindi; _Toggul bawali_, Canarese; _Sikurayi_, Telegu. HABITAT.--All through India, Ceylon, and Burmah. [Figure: The Flying Fox at Home.] DESCRIPTION.--Head and nape rufous black; neck and shoulders golden yellow (the hair longer); back dark brown; chin dark; rest of body beneath fulvous or rusty brown; interfemoral membrane brownish black.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Length, 12 to 14 inches; extent of wings, 46 to 52 inches. These bats roost on trees in vast numbers. I have generally found them to prefer tamarinds of large size. Some idea of the extent of these colonies may be gathered from observations by McMaster, who attempted to calculate the number in a colony. He says: "In five minutes a friend and I counted upwards of six hundred as they passed over head, _en route_ to their feeding grounds; supposing their nightly exodus to continue for twenty minutes, this would give upwards of two thousand in one roosting place, exclusive of those who took a different direction." [Figure: Head of _Pteropus medius_.] Tickell's account of these colonies is most graphic, though Emerson Tennent has also given a most interesting and correct account of their habits. The former writes:--"From the arrival of the first comer until the sun is high above the horizon, a scene of incessant wrangling and contention is enacted among them, as each endeavours to secure a higher and better place, or to eject a neighbour from too close vicinage. In these struggles the bats hook themselves along the branches, scrambling about hand over hand with some speed, biting each other severely, striking out with the long claw of the thumb, shrieking and cackling without intermission. Each new arrival is compelled to fly several times round the tree, being threatened from all points, and, when he eventually hooks on, he has to go through a series of combats, and be probably ejected two or three times before he makes good his tenure." For faithful portraying, no one could improve on this description. These bats are exceeding strong on the wing. I was aware that they went long distances in search of food, but I was not aware of the power they had for sustained flight till the year 1869, when, on my way to England on furlough, I discovered a large flying fox winging his way towards our vessel, which was at that time more than two hundred miles from land. Exhausted, it clung on to the fore-yard arm; and a present of a rupee induced a Lascar to go aloft and seize it, which he did after several attempts. The voracity with which it attacked some plantains showed that it had been for some time deprived of food, probably having been blown off shore by high winds. Hanging head-downwards from its cage, it stuffed the fruit into its cheeks, monkey-fashion, and then seemed to chew it at leisure. When I left the steamer at Suez it remained in the captain's possession, and seemed to be tame and reconciled to its imprisonment, tempered by a surfeit of plantains. In flying over water they frequently dip down to touch the surface. Jerdon was in doubt whether they did this to drink or not, but McMaster feels sure that they do this in order to drink, and that the habit is not peculiar to the _Pteropodidae_, as he has noticed other bats doing the same. Colonel Sykes states that he "can personally testify that their flesh is delicate and without disagreeable flavour;" and another colonel of my acquaintance once regaled his friends on some flying fox cutlets, which were pronounced "not bad." Dr. Day accuses these bats of intemperate habits; drinking the toddy from the earthen pots on the cocoanut trees, and flying home intoxicated. The wild almond is a favourite fruit. Mr. Rainey, who has been a careful observer of animals for years, states that in Bengal these bats prefer clumps of bamboos for a resting place, and feed much on the fruit of the betel-nut palm when ripe. Another naturalist, Mr. G. Vidal, writes that in Southern India the _P. medius_ feeds chiefly on the green drupe or nut of the Alexandrian laurel (_Calophyllum inophyllum_), the kernels of which contain a strong-smelling green oil on which the bats fatten amazingly; and then they in turn yield, when boiled down, an oil which is recommended as an excellent stimulative application for the hair. I noticed in Seonee a curious superstition to the effect that a bone of this bat tied on to the ankle by a cord of black cowhair is a sovereign remedy, according to the natives, for rheumatism in the leg. Tickell states that these bats produce one at a time in March or April, and they continue a fixture on the mother till the end of May or beginning of June. NO. 32. PTEROPUS LESCHENAULTII (CYNONYCTERIS AMPLEXICAUDATA). _The Fulvous Fox-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 13_). Dobson places this bat in the sub-group _Cynonycteris_. It seems to differ from _Pteropus_ only, as far as I can see, in having a small distinct tail, though the above-quoted author considers it closely allied to the next genus. HABITAT.--The Carnatic, Madras and Trichinopoly; stated also procurable at Calcutta and Pondicherry (_Jerdon_); Ceylon (_Kellaart_). DESCRIPTION.--Fur short and downy; fulvous ashy, or dull light ashy brown colour, denser and paler beneath; the hairs whitish at the base; membranes dark brown. SIZE.--Length, 5 to 5-1/2 inches; extent of wing, 18 to 20 inches. More information is required regarding the habits of this bat. _GENUS CYNOPTERUS_. This genus has four molars less than the last, a shorter muzzle; the cheek-bones or zygomatic arch more projecting; tongue rather longer and more tapering, and slightly extensile. Dental formula: Inc., 4/4 or 4/2; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/3--3; molars, 2--2/2--2. NO. 33. CYNOPTERUS MARGINATUS. _The Small Fox-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 14_). NATIVE NAME.--_Chamgadili_, Hindi; _Coteekan voulha_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--India generally, and Ceylon. [Figure: _Cynopterus marginatus_.] DESCRIPTION.--General colour fulvous olivaceous, paler beneath and with an ashy tinge; ears with a narrow margin of white (_Jerdon_.) A reddish smear on neck and shoulders of most specimens; membranes dusky brown. Females paler (_Kellaart_). SIZE.--Length, 4-1/2 to 5-1/2 inches; extent of wing, 17 to 20 inches. This bat is found all over India; it is frugivorous exclusively, though some of this sub-order are insectivorous. Blyth says he kept some for several weeks; they would take no notice of the buzz of an insect held to them, but are ravenous eaters of fruit, each devouring its own weight at a meal, voiding its food but little changed whilst slowly munching away; of guava it swallows the juice only. Blyth's prisoners were females, and after a time they attracted a male which hovered about them for some days, roosting near them in a dark staircase; he was also caught, with one of the females who had escaped and joined him. Dr. Dobson writes that in three hours one of these bats devoured twice its own weight. This species usually roosts in trees. NO. 34. MACROGLOSSUS (PTEROPUS) MINIMUS. _The Tenasserim Fox-Bat_. NATIVE NAME.--_Lowo-assu_ (dog-bat), Javanese. HABITAT.--The Himalayas, Burmah, Tenasserim, and the Indian Archipelago. DESCRIPTION.--Ears half length of head, narrow and rounded at tip; face abruptly narrowed in front of eyes; muzzle long, narrow, cylindrical; lower jaw slightly projecting; eyes large; tongue very long, last third attenuated, covered with brush-like papillae; interfemoral membrane very narrow, especially at root of tail; fur reddish brown, and very long. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-3/10 inches. Like other _Pteropi_ this bat feeds on fruit of every description, but particularly attacks the various cultivated varieties of _Eugenia_ (Jamoon). _GENUS EONYCTERIS_. Muzzle long and cylindrical; nostrils scarcely projecting; upper lip with a shallow vertical groove in front; _index finger without a claw_; thumb short; part of the terminal phalanx included in the wing membrane; metacarpal bone of the second finger equal to the index finger in length; tail short and distinct; the base contained in the narrow interfemoral membrane; tongue long, as in _Macroglossus_. Dentition: Inc., 4/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3. NO. 35. EONYCTERIS SPELAEA. HABITAT.--Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Head long; muzzle narrow, cylindrical, abruptly narrowed in front of the eyes; nostrils with an intervening emargination, which also passes down to the lips; tongue very long and pointed; ears conical, with rounded tips; body clothed with very short and thinly-spread fur of a uniform dark brown colour; the fur on the head extends only as far as the inner corners of the eye, leaving the rest of the face naked; tail half an inch. On each side, and a little behind the anal opening, are two small, kidney-shaped subcutaneous glandular bodies. SIZE.--Head and body, 4 inches; tail, 1/2 inch. Found in Farm Caves, Moulmein. The absence of the claw on the index finger is specially to be noted. MICROCHIROPTERA. SUB-FAMILY VAMPYRIDAE. _GENUS MEGADERMA_. Bats with simple or complicated nose-leaves or membranes. The conch of the ear very large, and joined together on the top of the head; tragus large and bifurcated; nasal membranes complicated; no tail; wings remarkably ample. They have four incisors below but none above, the intermaxillaries remaining cartilaginous. Dental formula: Inc., 0/4; can., 1--1/1--1; pre-m., 2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3. NO. 36. MEGADERMA LYRA. _The Large-eared Vampire Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 15_). HABITAT.--India and Ceylon. [Figure: _Megaderma lyra_.] DESCRIPTION.--Above ashy blue, slaty or pale mouse colour; albescent or yellowish ashy beneath; nasal appendage large, oblong, free at the tip, reaching to the base of the ears with a fold down the centre; tragus (_oreillon_) cordate, two-lobed, anterior long, narrow and pointed, posterior lobe half the height and rounded; muzzle truncated; under-lip cleft; wing membranes dark brown. SIZE.--Head and body, 3 or 3-1/2 inches; wing extent, 14 to 19 inches. Very abundant in old buildings. They are beyond doubt blood-suckers. Blyth noticed one fly into his room one evening with a small _vespertilio_, which it dropped on being chased. The smaller bat was weak from loss of blood, and next morning (the Megaderm having been caught), on both bats being put into the same cage, the little one was again attacked and devoured; it was seized both times behind the ear. McMaster writes that in Rangoon he had a tame canary killed by a bat, and the bird's mate soon afterwards was destroyed in the same way. The case was clearly proved. Mr. Frith informed Mr. Blyth that these bats were in the habit of resorting to the verandah of his house at Mymensing, and that every morning the ground under them was strewed with the hind quarters of frogs, and the wings of large grasshoppers and crickets. On one occasion the remains of a small fish were observed; but frogs appeared to be their chief diet--never toads; and of a quiet evening these animals could be distinctly heard crunching the heads and smaller bones of their victims. NO. 37. MEGADERMA SPECTRUM. _The Cashmere Vampire_ (_Jerdon's No. 16_). HABITAT.--Cashmere. DESCRIPTION.--Above slaty cinereous, whitish beneath; the vertical nose-leaf of moderate size, oval; inner lobe of tragus ovate (_Jerdon_). SIZE.--Two and three-quarter inches. Dobson makes this bat synonymous with the last. NO. 38. MEGADERMA SPASMA. HABITAT.--Tenasserim, Ceylon. [Figure: _Megaderma spasma_.] DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle, ear-conch, and tragus similar to those of _M. lyra_; the posterior portion of the tragus, however, is longer and more attenuated upwards, and more acutely pointed; the nose-leaf is shorter, with convex sides; but the anterior concave disc is considerably larger, and the base of the thickened process is cordate; thumbs and wings as in _M. lyra_; interfemoral membrane deeper; the calcaneum stronger; colour the same. SIZE.--Head and body, about 3 inches. This bat is alluded to by Jerdon as _M. Horsfieldii_. RHINOLOPHINAE. Nasal leaf complicated, and crests resting on the forehead, presenting more or less the figure of a horse-shoe; tail long and placed in the interfemoral membrane; ears large, but separate, and not joined at the base, as in the last genus; without a tragus, but often with a lobe at the base of the outer margin; wings large and long; forefinger of a single joint. _GENUS RHINOLOPHUS_. Nose-leaf cordate, or semi-orbicular, bi-lobed in front of the nostrils; a longitudinal crest along the nose and an erect frontal leaf posteriorly more or less lanceolate.--_Jerdon_. Dental formula: Inc., 2/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3. NO. 39. RHINOLOPHUS PERNIGER _vel_ LUCTUS. _The Large Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 17_). HABITAT.--Nepaul, Darjeeling, Khasya Hills. [Figure: _Rhinolophus luctus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Ears very large, much longer than the head; broad, acutely pointed; nasal apparatus very complicated; the lower leaf very large, concealing the upper lip like a door knocker; the upper leaf like a graduated spire; ears transversely striate; a rather large semi-circular lobe at base of ear; fur long, dense, soft, and lax, slightly curled or woolly black with a silvery grizzle, or greyish-black or rich chestnut-brown.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Length, 3-3/4; tail, 1-3/4; wing expanse, 17 inches. NO. 40. RHINOLOPHUS MITRATUS. _The Mitred Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 18_). HABITAT.--Chybassa, Central India, Mussoorie(?) DESCRIPTION.--Ears large; anti-helix moderately developed; upper leaf triangular acute; tail extending beyond the tibia; color above light brown; paler beneath.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail, 1-1/2 inch; wing expanse, 12 to 14 inches. NO. 41. RHINOLOPHUS TRAGATUS _vel_ FERRUM-EQUINUM. _The Dark-brown Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 19_). HABITAT.--Nepaul, Mussoorie. [Figure: _Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum_.] DESCRIPTION.--Upper process like a barbed spear-head; central one small and narrow, a little expanded at the summit; anti-tragus less developed than usual; lips simple; colour a uniform deep brown, with tips of the hair paler, and somewhat rusty.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-5/8 inches; tail, 1-7/8 inch; wing, 15-1/2 inches. The tail of this species seems unusually long. It is found in cavities of rock, and issues forth soon after dusk--sooner, according to Hodgson, than the species of _vespertilio_. NO. 42. RHINOLOPHUS PEARSONII. _Pearson's Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 20_). HABITAT.--Lower Himalayan range, Darjeeling, Mussoorie, &c. DESCRIPTION.--Colour above dark brown, with a slight shade of chestnut; underneath brown, with a sooty cast; fur very long, dense and soft; ears distinct, with an additional rounded lobe below, measuring anteriorly nearly three-fourths of an inch; point of the facial crest moderately developed; length from the tip of the nose to root of tail three inches; tail half an inch; length of fore-arm two inches; expanse of the wings eleven inches. Although allied to Mr. Hodgson's _R. tragatus_, possesses distinct characters.--_Horsfield_. SIZE.--As given by Horsfield above. This bat was first sent from Darjeeling by Mr. J. T. Pearson, and was named after him. It has also, according to Jerdon, been found by Captain Hutton at Mussoorie; it is therefore reasonable to suppose that it inhabits the whole range of the lower Himalayas. One striking difference between it and the last species is the very short tail, and it is easily to be recognised by the great length of the fur. NO. 43. RHINOLOPHUS AFFINIS. _The Allied Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 21_). HABITAT.--Ceylon, Burmah, and perhaps the Malabar coast. DESCRIPTION.--Above bright red ferruginous brown; tips of hair darker, paler beneath; ears pointed and external; edge deeply emarginated; internal edge and basal third of external surface hairy; anti-helix well developed; nasal process apparently very similar to that of _R. mitratus_ (_Kellaart_). Upper leaf triangular, emarginate at the tip, reaching above the base of the ears (_Jerdon_). SIZE.--Head and body about 2-3/10 inches; tail, 1 inch; wing extent, 12 inches. This bat seems to vary much in colour. Kellaart says some are of a brighter red than others, and a few had a yellower tinge. Another marked variety was of a uniform pale yellow brown. NO. 44. RHINOLOPHUS ROUXI. _The Rufous Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 22_). HABITAT.--India generally. DESCRIPTION.--Ears large, pointed, externally notched; tragus broad; tips of upper nose-leaf triangular, with its sides well emarginate, reaching above the base of the ears; no upper incisors [as in _Megaderma lyra_]; lower molars only five; canines very large; fur short, crisp; colour above smoky brown in some, reddish brown in others, and golden rufous in some; beneath paler.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Length, 2-3/8 inches; tail, 1-1/8; wing expanse, 13 inches. Hodgson considers this bat as allied to the two following species. It is the _R. lepidus_ of Blyth. NO. 45. RHINOLOPHUS MACROTIS. _The Large-eared Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 23_). HABITAT.--Lower Himalayas. DESCRIPTION.--Ears very large, broad, oval, with pointed recurved tip, and a large obtuse tragus; anterior central crest of nose-leaf produced in front over the top of the flat transverse front edge; hinder leaf lanceolate triangular; above sooty brown or light earthy olive-brown, paler below, some with a rufous or Isabelline tint; no pubic teats.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 1-3/4 inch; tail, 3/4; wing expanse, 9-3/4. NO. 46. RHINOLOPHUS SUB-BADIUS. _The Bay Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 24_). HABITAT.--Nepaul. DESCRIPTION.--Ears not larger than the head, obtusely pointed and ovoid; nasal appendage quadrate, with a transverse bar nearly surmounting it; upper leaf triangular, with slightly emarginate sides; clear brown above, paler below and on head and face. SIZE.--Head and body, 1-1/2 inch; tail, 1-1/4; wing expanse, 7-1/2.--_Jerdon_. NO. 47. RHINOLOPHUS RAMMANIKA (_Kellaart_). HABITAT.--Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Above rufescent, beneath ashy brown; face slightly fulvous; round the base of the ears and on the sides of the posterior half of the body bright fulvous; tail enclosed in the interfemoral membrane. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail, 1; wing expanse, 10 inches. This is a doubtful species. Dr. Kellaart got one from Amanapoora hill at Kaduganava. He says: "As the specimen reached us in a dried condition, we are unable to say anything more about its nasal processes than that in place of a transverse process above the nostrils it had a small triangular peak over the usual horse-shoe process surrounding the nasal opening. This triangular crest was hairy; superiorly there was no appearance of a sac above it to the best of our recollection." NO. 48. RHINOLOPHUS ANDAMANENSIS. HABITAT.--Southern Andaman Island. DESCRIPTION (_apud_ Dobson).--Like _R. affinis_ generally, but the anterior horizontal horse-shoe shaped membrane is very broad, completely concealing the muzzle when viewed from above, as in _R. Pearsonii_; the posterior terminal leaf is also much longer, produced backwards between the ears, and not concave on the sides as in _R. affinis_. The thumb is also much longer. Fur bright reddish brown above and beneath. NO. 49. RHINOLOPHUS MINOR. HABITAT.--Burmah, Yunan. DESCRIPTION.--Light brown above, greyish brown beneath; ears slightly shorter than the head, sub-acutely pointed; anti-tragus large, separated by a deep angular notch; lower lip with three vertical grooves. SIZE.--Length of head and body from 1 to 1-3/4 inch. NO. 50. RHINOLOPHUS COELOPHYLLUS. HABITAT.--Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Fur brown, with whitish roots, light brownish white below; ears large, with pointed tips projecting outwards; "anti-tragus large, separated by an angular emargination from the outer margin of the ear; horse-shoe large; horizontal margins of central nose-leaf triangular, small; erect portion rather short, with parallel sides and rounded summit, meeting the connected vertical process at the same level" (_Dobson_). For a more detailed description see Dobson's Monograph, page 53. Three vertical grooves on lower lip. SIZE.--Length of head and body about 2 inches. NO. 51. RHINOLOPHUS GAROENSIS. HABITAT.--Garo Hills, Assam; Himalayas (Mussoorie). DESCRIPTION (_apud_ Dobson).--Ears acutely pointed, with a large anti-tragus, as in _R. affinis_; anterior vertical process of the sella maintaining the same breadth upwards and rounded off above, considerably exceeded in height by the upper edge of the connecting process, which develops a long acutely pointed projection; terminal portion of the posterior leaf broad with straight sides, forming an almost equilateral triangle. Wing membrane from the ankles, inter femoral membrane square behind; extreme tip of the tail free. SIZE.--Length of head and body about 1.5 inch. This bat is figured (head only) in Dobson's Monograph, page 48. NO. 52. RHINOLOPHUS PETERSII. HABITAT.--India. Precise locality unknown. DESCRIPTION.--Ears acutely pointed, with an emargination immediately beneath the tip; anti-tragus large, separated from the outer margin by a deep angular incision; nose-leaf horizontal, horse-shoe-shaped, not so broad as the muzzle; vertical part of the sella almost same breadth upwards, and rounded off above, exceeded considerably in height by the upper margin of the posterior connecting process; lower lip with three vertical grooves; fur dark brown above, greyish brown beneath. SIZE.--Length of head and body, 2.5 inches; tail, 1 inch. There are two good woodcuts of the head of this bat in Dobson's Monograph. NO. 53. RHINOLOPHUS TRIFOLIATUS. HABITAT.--East coast of India. DESCRIPTION.--Very much like _R. perniger_ (_luctus_), but is distinguished by its smaller size and by the more pointed vertical process of the central nose-leaf, which in the other is truncated. SIZE.--Length of head and body, 2 inches; tail about 1 inch. _GENUS HIPPOSIDEROS_ (_GRAY_) VEL _PHYLLORHINA_ (_BONAPARTE_). Nasal-leaf broad, depressed, transverse; ears with transverse wrinkles; a circular sac behind the nasal crest, which can be turned inside out; when alarmed the animal blows it out, and then withdraws it at each breath; it contains a waxy matter of green or yellow colour. Blyth thinks that this sac is affected by the amorous season, as in the case of the infra-orbital cavities of various ruminants and analogous glandular follicles in other animals. This genus is also distinguishable from the last by the form of the ear conch, the small size of the anti-tragus, and, as Dr. Dobson particularly points out, by the presence of _two_ joints only in all the toes, as also by the number and character of the teeth, which are as follows:-- Inc., 2/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3. NO. 54. HIPPOSIDEROS ARMIGER. _The Large Horse-shoe Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 25_). HABITAT.--Lower Himalaya ranges; Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Nasal-leaf large and square; lips with a triple fold of skin on each side; tragus vaguely developed and wavily emarginate; of a uniform light-brown colour, with maroon tips to the hairs of the upper parts; membranes black. SIZE.--Head and body, 4-1/2 inches; tail, 2-1/2; wing expanse, 22. Jerdon makes this out to be the same as Kellaart's _H. lankadiva_ and the Malayan _H. nobilis_, but those are synonymous with _Phyllorhina diadema_. Kellaart supposed it to be identical with _H. insignis_, which will be found further on as _Phyllorhina larvata_, all those bats closely resembling each other in a general way. I think this No. 25 of Jerdon is the same as Peter's _Phyllorhina armigera_. Hutton found it at Darjeeling, and writes of it as follows:-- "When captured alive the large ears are kept in a constant state of rapid tremulous motion, and the animal emits a low purring sound, which becomes a sharp scream when alarmed or irritated. When suspended at rest the tail and inter-femoral membrane are turned up, not in front, like the _Rhinolophi_, but behind, over the lower part of the back; neither does it appear to envelope itself in its wings so completely as does _R. luctus._" He then goes on to say he has noticed the tremor of the ears and facial crests in all the _Rhinolophi_ when disturbed, and concludes with a graphic description of this species, sallying forth in the evening to prey upon the noisy _Cicadas_; leisurely wheeling with noiseless, cautious flight round some wide-spreading oak, "scanning each branch as he slowly passes by--now rising to a higher circle, and then perchance descending to the lower branches, until at length, detecting the unfortunate minstrel, it darts suddenly into the tree, and snatching the still screaming insect from its perch, bears it away." Jerdon procured specimens at Darjeeling, and Kellaart says it is found in great abundance at Kandy and its neighbourhood; Kurnegalle Tunnel swarms with them. NO. 55. HIPPOSIDEROS SPEORIS. _The Indian Horse-shoe Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 26_). HABITAT.--India generally and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Mouse brown or fulvous brown. Occasionally golden fulvous and sometimes dusky black above, paler beneath; membranes dusky brown; interfemoral membrane narrow, enclosing the tail except the last half joint (about 2-10ths of an inch), which is free. Ear large, erect and pointed, rounded at the base and emarginated on the outer edge; nasal process complicated. "Males have a frontal sac; females none" (_Kellaart_). Pubis naked, with two inguinal warts. SIZE.--Head and body, 2 inches; tail, 1-2/10; wing expanse, 12. Inhabits old buildings, wells, &c. NO. 56. HIPPOSIDEROS MURINUS. _The Little Horse-shoe Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 27_). HABITAT.--Southern India, Ceylon, and Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle short; body short and thick; a transverse frontal leaf with a sac behind it; no folds of skin on each side of the horse-shoe as in the last species; ears large, naked and rounded; colour dusky brown or mouse, sometimes light fawn; wing membrane blackish; interfemoral membrane large, and including the tail all but the tip. SIZE.--Head and body, 1-4/5 inch; tail, 1-1/5 inch; wing expanse, 10. Jerdon says the mouse-coloured variety is common in the Carnatic, but he has only seen the light fulvous race on the Nilgheries; but Mr. Elliot procured both in the southern Mahratta country. A dark variety of this bat was called _Rhinolophus ater_ by Templeton, and _H. atratus_ by Kellaart; in other respects it is identical, only a little smaller. NO. 57. HIPPOSIDEROS CINERACEUS. _The Ashy Horse-shoe Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 28_). HABITAT.--Punjab Salt range. DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the last, but larger, and I should think the argument against _H. atratus_ would apply to this as a distinct species. NO. 58. HIPPOSIDEROS LARVATUS. _Syn_.--PHYLLORHINA LARVATA. HABITAT.--Arracan. DESCRIPTION.--The fur of the upper part bright fulvous; more or less tinged with maroon on the back, lighter underneath; membranes dusky, but tinged with the prevailing colour of the fur; ears angulated; a minute false molar in front of the carnassial in the upper jaw. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-3/4 inches; tail, 1-1/4; wing extent, 12. Kellaart writes of this bat under his _H. aureus_. He describes it as head, neck, and body of a bright golden yellow, with a slight maroon shade on the tips of the hairs on the back. Females paler coloured. Frontal sac only in males; the waxy matter of a yellow colour, and quite transparent. NO. 59. HIPPOSIDEROS VULGARIS. _Syn_.--PHYLLORHINA LARVATA. _The Common Malayan Horse-shoe Bat_. HABITAT.--Arracan and Malayana. DESCRIPTION.--"It differs from the last in being rather smaller, and of a brown colour above, much paler at the base of the hairs and at their extreme tips, and lighter coloured below; the ears more apiculated, or rather they appear so from being strongly emarginated externally towards the tip."--_Blyth_. SIZE.--2-3/10 inches; tail 1-2/10; wing expanse about 12. NO. 60. HIPPOSIDEROS BLYTHII. HABITAT.--Ceylon, Fort Frederic. DESCRIPTION.--Above surface colour a rich dark tawny brown; base of hairs much lighter coloured, of a brighter yellow tinge; beneath paler; face partially blackish; ears black; tip of tail excerted; no frontal sac; membranes blackish; nasal processes as in _H. speoris_. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-2/10 inches; tail, 1; wing expanse, 12. Dr. Kellaart considered this a new and undescribed species, distinguished from _H. speoris_ and _H. vulgaris_ (_vel Templetonii_--Kellaart) by the greater length of the fore-arm, which is two inches. This remark however does not apply to _vulgaris_, of which Kellaart himself gives two inches as the length of the radius, and Blyth gives two and a quarter. The absence of the frontal sac would have been a greater proof, but both specimens on which Kellaart made his observations were females; and as colouring is so varied in the bat tribe as to preclude the division of species on this ground, I think we may put this down as a doubtful species on which more information is desirable. NO. 61. PHYLLORHINA DIADEMA. HABITAT.--India generally; Ceylon and Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--The fur with three shades--buff, then reddish brown with ashy tips, underneath greyish or pale brown. "The hinder erect nose-leaf," according to Dobson's description, "equals the horse-shoe and slightly exceeds the sella in width, its free margin forming a segment of the circumference of a circle, with a small blunt projection in the centre and three vertical ridges on its concave front surface; sella large, with a prominent ridge in the centre, forming a small projection above and one smaller on each side; sides of the muzzle with prominent vertical leaves, three on each side; no frontal pore." There is a good figure of the head of this bat in Cuvier's 'Animal Kingdom,' Carpenter's and Westwood's edition, under the name of _Rhinolophus nobilis_. It is the same also as Kellaart's _Hipposideros lankadiva_. Captain Hutton, who was a keen observer of the habits of the bats at Mussoorie, says of this one: "Like _R. affinis_, this species may frequently be heard during its flight cracking and crunching the hard wings of beetles, which in the evening hours are usually abundant among the trees; the teeth are strong, and the _tout ensemble_ of its aspect is not unlike that of a bull-dog."--'Proc. Zoo. Soc.,' 1872, page 701. NO. 62. PHYLLORHINA MASONI. HABITAT.--Burmah (Moulmein). DESCRIPTION.--This bat resembles the last closely; such difference as exists is that the concave surface of the terminal nose-leaf is divided into two cells only by a single central vertical ridge, and from the under surface of the juncture of the mandible a small bony process projects downwards about equal to the lower canine tooth in vertical extent, and covered by the integument. There is an excellent figure of this bat in Dobson's Monograph, from whence I have also taken the above description. NO. 63. PHYLLORHINA NICOBARENSIS. HABITAT.--Nicobar Island. DESCRIPTION.--"Ears large, acute; outer margin slightly concave beneath the tip; no frontal sac behind the nose-leaf; upper margin of the transverse terminal leaf simple, forming an arc of a circle, folded back and overhanging the concave front surface, which is divided into _two_ cells only by a single central longitudinal ridge; in front the margin of the horse-shoe is marked by three small points" (_Dobson_). Fur light brown, then greyish, with light brown tips. SIZE.--Length of head and body, 3 inches. NO. 64. PHYLLORHINA ARMIGERA. HABITAT.--The entire range of the Himalayas, Khasya Hills, and Ceylon. [Figure: _Phyllorhina armigera_. Male. Female.] DESCRIPTION.--The hinder erect nose-leaf narrow, not so broad as the horse-shoe; upper edge sinuate, slightly elevated in the centre, and at either extremity; vertical ridges beneath well developed, prominent, enclosing moderately deep cells; wart-like granular elevations on each side above the eyes are usually greatly developed, forming large thickened longitudinal elevations extending forward on each side of the posterior erect nose-leaf, and backwards towards the frontal sac (_Dobson_). The colour varies. SIZE.--Length of head and body from 3 to 4 inches; tail about 2. This is the largest of this genus, and one of the most interesting of the species. My space will not admit of extensive quotations from those who have written about it, but there is a fuller description of it in Dr. Dobson's book, and a very interesting account of its habits by Capt. J. Hutton, in the 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1872, page 701. NO. 65. PHYLLORHINA LEPTOPHYLLA. HABITAT.--Khasya Hills. DESCRIPTION.--Ears large, broad, triangular, with subacute tips; outer margin slightly concave; upper transverse nose-leaf small; upper edge simple, narrower than horse-shoe, thin; three vertical folds in front faintly descernible at base only; horse-shoe with small incision in centre of front free edge; frontal pore small, placed at some distance behind the transverse nose-leaf; fur and integuments dark throughout.--_Dobson_. SIZE.--Length of head and body, 2 inches; tail, 1-6/10. NO. 66. PHYLLORHINA GALERITA. HABITAT.--Central India, Deccan. DESCRIPTION.--"Ear comparatively small, as broad as long; inner margin very convex forward; outer margin slightly concave beneath the tip; nose-leaf as in _P. larvata_, but the transverse terminal leaf is more rectangular; the superior margin less convex, and its concave front surface is marked by three very prominent vertical ridges; frontal pore small, indistinct, not larger than in the females of _P. larvata_."--_Dobson_. SIZE.--Head and body about 2 inches; tail, 1 inch. NO. 67. PHYLLORHINA BICOLOR. HABITAT.--India (N. W. Himalaya), Nicobar Islands. DESCRIPTION.--Fur above reddish chestnut; the base of the hairs pale reddish-white, or base of hair pure white, the tip, dark reddish-brown. Ears as long as the head, broad; the lower half of the inner margin very convex; the summit of the ear conch rounded off broadly as far as a point on the outer side, where a slight but distinct flattening occurs, and indicates the position of the tip. Horse-shoe small, square; the concave front surface divided into four cells by three distinct vertical ridges; no secondary leaflets external to the horse-shoe; frontal sac distinct in males, rudimentary in females (_Dobson_). Blyth includes this bat in his Burmese Catalogue, but does not say much about it. GENUS COELOPS. Possesses the general characteristics of _Rhinolophus_, but the tail and calcanea wanting entirely; the intercrural membrane acutely emarginate to the depth of a line even with the knees; ears large, broad and rounded; the summit of the facial membranes rising abruptly, obtusely bifid, bent forward; fur long, delicately fine.--_Jerdon_. Dental formula: Inc., 1--1/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3. NO. 68. COELOPS FRITHII. _Frith's Tailless Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 29_). HABITAT.--The Sunderbunds, Bengal. DESCRIPTION.--Colour dusky or blackish; the fur tipped with ashy brown above, paler and somewhat ashy beneath; membranes fuscous. SIZE.--Length, 1-7/8 inch; membrane beyond 3/4 inch; forearm, 1-3/4. This bat is rare. The above description, given by Jerdon, is based on one specimen sent to Mr. Blyth by Mr. Frith, who obtained it in the Sunderbunds. It also inhabits Java. Dr. Dobson examined a specimen from thence in the Leyden Museum. He says: "Calcanea and tail very short," whereas the above description says entirely wanting. "The ears are funnel-shaped, and thickly covered with fine hair. Metacarpal bone of thumb very long; the wing membrane enclosing the thumb up to the base of the claw; wing to the tarsus close to the ankles; feet very slender; toes with strong claws." _GENUS RHINOPOMA_. Ears moderate, but joined above, as in the Megaderms; the nostrils at the end of the muzzle, with a little lamina above, forming a kind of snout; tail slender and joined at the base with the intercrural membrane, but extending far beyond it. Dental formula: Inc., 2/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 1--1/2--2; molars 3--3/3--3. NO. 69. RHINOPOMA HARDWICKII. _Hardwick's Long-tailed Leaf Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 30_). HABITAT.--All over India, Burmah and Malayana. [Figure: Skull of _Rhinopoma_.] DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle long, thick, truncated, and surrounded by a small leaf; tragus oblong, bi-acuminate; forehead concave with a channel down the centre; fur soft and very fine, dull brown throughout; face, rump, and part of abdominal region naked.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-6/10 inches; tail, 2-1/2; expanse, 13. Frequents old ruins, caves, and clefts in rocks. SUB-FAMILY NOCTILIONIDAE. Bats without facial membranes; with short obtuse and bull-doggish heads; large lips. _GENUS TAPHOZOUS_. Have a small rounded indenture on the forehead; no raised lamina on the nostrils; the head pyramidal; eyes rather large; ears moderate in size and not joined at the base, but widely apart; the tip of the tail free above the membrane, which is much longer. The males have a transverse cavity under the throat; wings long and narrow, collapsing with a double flexure outwards; fur soft and velvety. (Dobson includes this genus in his Family _Emballonuridae_.) Dental formula: Inc., 1--1/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3; premaxillaries cartilaginous, supporting only one pair of weak incisors with a gap between them. NO. 70. TAPHOZOUS LONGIMANUS. _The Long-armed Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 31_). HABITAT.--India generally. DESCRIPTION.--"Ears oval, with many distinct folds, naked except at the base; tragus securiform; fur thick, close, fuscous-black; or dark fuscous-brown above; beneath paler, except on the throat, the hairs being conspicuously tipped with grey, the upper hairs being all white at their base; face nude, and the membrane dark brownish-black" (_Jerdon_). The gular sac, though represented in the male, is almost absent in the female, being but a rudimentary fold of skin; in this it differs from another common Indian species, _T. saccolaimus_, in which the gular sac is well developed in both sexes, though larger in the male. SIZE.--Length, 5 inches; expanse, 15 to 16; tail, 1; fore-arm, 2-5/8; tibia, 1 inch. This bat frequents old buildings, dark cellars, old ruins, &c.; the young are fulvescent, and become darker with age. Blyth states that it has a surprising faculty for creeping about on the vertical board of a cage, hitching its claws into the minute pores of the wood. NO. 71. TAPHOZOUS MELANOPOGON. _The Black-bearded Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 32_). HABITAT.--Common about Calcutta, East Coast of India, Burmah, and Cochin China. DESCRIPTION.--"No gular sac, the openings of small pores appearing along a line corresponding to the position of the mouth of the gular sac in other species; in some male specimens the hair behind these pores is very long, forming a dense black beard" (_Dobson_). Ears moderate, oval, with the outer margin extending under the eyes, dilated into a large rounded lobe; the tragus leaf-shaped; the head, muzzle, and chin covered with short hairs. SIZE.--Length of head and body about 3-1/2; tail, 2/3; wing expanse, 14 inches. Horsfield says it occurs in caves in Java inhabited by the esculent swallows (_Collocalia nidifica_), the gelatinous nests of which are used for soup by the Chinese. Dobson remarks that the black beard is not always developed in the males; he conceives it to be owing to certain conditions, probably connected with the amorous seasons. In five males in the Indian Museum the beard is well developed; he found that only two per cent. of the Cochin China specimens in the Paris Museum possessed it. NO. 72. TAPHOZOUS SACCOLAIMUS. _The White-bellied Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 33_). HABITAT.--Peninsula of India, Burmah, and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--"Muzzle angular, naked, very acute; nostrils small, close; ears distant, shorter than the head, large inner margin recurved, outer margin dilated, reaching to the commissure of the mouth; tragus wide, securiform (i.e. axe-shaped); fur short, smooth, blackish on the head, chestnut brown on the back; beneath, dirty-white or black brown above with white pencillings; pure white below" (_Jerdon_). Dobson says of the fur: "above, white at the base, the terminal three-fourths of the hairs black, with a few irregular small white patches on the back; beneath dark brown." The gular sac is to be found in both sexes, but somewhat larger in the males. SIZE.--About 5 inches; wing expanse, 17. NO. 73. TAPHOZOUS THEOBALDI. HABITAT.--Tenasserim. DESCRIPTION.--The gular sac is absent in both sexes; ears larger than in any others of the sub-genus; the muzzle, from the corners of the eyes downwards, naked. SIZE.--Head and body about 3-1/10 inches; tail, 1-1/4. NO. 74. TAPHOZOUS KACHHENSIS. HABITAT.--Kachh, N. W. India. DESCRIPTION (_apud_ Dobson).--"Gular sac absent in both male and female; its usual position indicated in the male by a semi-circular fold of skin and nakedness of the integument in this situation; in other respects similar to _T. nudiventris_. The deposits of fat about the tail very large." SIZE.--Head and body about 3 inches; tail, 1-1/4. _T. nudiventris_, above alluded to, is an inhabitant of Asia Minor, Egypt, and Nubia; similar to the above, only that it has a small gular sac in the male, of which a trace only exists in the female. Its most striking peculiarity is the deposit of fat at the root of the tail, which may possibly be for purposes of absorption during the dormant winter season. _GENUS NYCTINOMUS_. "Ears broad, short, approximate or connate with the outer margin, terminating in an erect lobe beyond the conch; tragus small, concealed" (often very small and quadrate, but never reduced to a mere point, as in _Molossus_--Dobson); "wings narrow, folded as in _Taphozous_; intercrural membrane short, truncate; tall free at the tip; feet short, with strong toes; muzzle thick; lips tumid, lax; upper lip with coarse wrinkles."--_Jerdon_. Dental formula: Inc., 2/6 or 2/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premol., 2--2/2--2; mol., 3--3/3--3. NO. 75. NYCTINOMUS PLICATUS. _The Wrinkle-lipped Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 34_). HABITAT.--India generally. DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle broad and thick; upper lip overhanging the lower, marked by vertical wrinkles; ears large and quadrilateral; outer margin ending in a decided anti-tragus; tail thick; the lower part of the leg is free from the wing membrane, which however, is connected with the ankle by a strong fibrous band; fur dense, smoky or snuff brown above (or bluish black--_Dobson_); paler beneath. SIZE.--Head and body about 2-1/10 inches; tail, 1-1/10. Jerdon gives length, 4-1/4 to 4-1/10; expanse, 13-1/2; tail, 1-3/4. This bat is common about Calcutta, frequenting ruins, dark places and hollow trees. It is allied to _N. tenuis_ (_Horsfield_), and it is mentioned as inhabiting hollow trees in such numbers as to attract attention by the hissing noise from within, every available spot in the interior being occupied. A synonym of the genus is _Dysopes_. NO. 76. NYCTINOMUS TRAGATUS. HABITAT.--India generally. DESCRIPTION.--This differs from the last in having the wing membrane from the ankles, and in the free portion of the tail being shorter; ears united at the base; tragus broad and rounded above, partially concealed by the large anti-tragus. SIZE.--About the same as the last. SUB-FAMILY VESPERTILIONIDAE. These bats have simple nostrils, as in the frugivorous ones, with no complications of foliated cutaneous appendages; the muzzle is conical, moderately long, and clad with fur; the ears wide apart; the inner margins springing from the sides, not the top of the head; the tragi are large; eyes usually very small, and the tail, which is long, is wholly included in the membrane. Dentition (usually): Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1, premol., 3--3/3--3; mol., 3--3/3--3. The upper incisors are small, and placed in pairs near the canines, leaving a gap in the centre. The lower ones sharp-edged and somewhat notched. At birth there are twenty-two teeth, which are shed, and replaced by others, with sixteen additional ones, the adult bat having thirty-eight teeth. _GENUS PLECOTUS_. Ears very large, united at the base; outer margin of the ear conch terminating opposite the base of the tragus, the inner margin with an abrupt rounded projection directed inwards above the base; tragus very large, tapering upwards, with a lobe at the base of the outer margin. Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3. The English species _P. auritus_ is very common there, and also in France; its ears are nearly as long as its body, yet, when reposing, they are so folded as to be almost out of sight. The Indian species is only a variety distinguishable by its yet longer ears ("and comparative shortness of the thumbs"--_Dobson_). NO. 77. PLECOTUS AURITUS _vel_ HOMOCHROUS. HABITAT.--The Himalayas and the Khasia Hills. [Figure: _Plecotus auritus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Head slightly raised above the face-line; ears nearly as long as the fore-arm, joined by a low band across the forehead at the bases of their inner margins; wings from the base of the toes; feet slender; tip of the tail free; fur silky, short, and of a uniform dull brown. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.7 inch; ears, 1.55 (ears of English type of same size, 1.4 inch); tail, 1.7 inch. Jerdon gives larger results, but I put more reliance on Dobson's figures. _GENUS VESPERUGO_. Bats with very broad and obtuse muzzles; the glandular prominences much developed between the eyes and the nostrils; crown of the head flat; but what distinguishes it from the following genus, _Scotophilus_, is the presence of four incisors in the upper jaw, whereas _Scotophilus_ has two only--otherwise the two genera are very similar. NO. 78. VESPERUGO NOCTULA. HABITAT.--Nepal. [Figure: _Vesperugo noctula_.] DESCRIPTION.--Head broad and flat; ears oval and broad; the outer margin convex, reflected backwards, and forming a thick lobe terminating close to the angle of the mouth; tragus short and curved inwards; muzzle devoid of hair; fur dark reddish brown. NO. 79. VESPERUGO LEUCOTIS. HABITAT.--Deserts of Northern India, and Beluchistan. DESCRIPTION.--"Ears, sides of face, about the eyes, interfemoral membrane, antehumeral membrane, and that portion of the wing membrane along the sides of the body, white, very translucent; remaining portion of wing membrane sepia, traversed by very distinct reticulations; fur on the upper surface black at the base of the hairs for about half their length, remaining portion light yellowish brown; beneath the same, but paler, almost white."--_Dobson_. NO. 80. VESPERUGO MAURUS. HABITAT.--Khasya Hills. DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle broad and flat, with large labial development; ears broad, triangular, broadly rounded off above; tragus broad and square; fur long and dense, uniformly sooty brown, with greyish tips; membranes, nose, ears and lips black. SIZE.--Head and body 1-1/10 inch; tail, 1 inch. NO. 81. VESPERUGO AFFINIS. HABITAT.--Burmah (Bhamo, Yunan). DESCRIPTION (_apud_ Dobson).--Head flat; upper labial glands so developed as to cause a deep depression between them on the face behind the nostrils; ears broad as long from behind; the outer margin extends from the tip to its termination near the corner of the mouth without emargination or lobe; tragus broad; inner margin straight; outer convex; small triangular lobe at base. Fur chocolate brown above, lighter on head and neck; beneath dark brown with lighter tips on the pubes, and along the thighs dirty white or pale buff. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.9 inch; tail, 1.65 inch. There is a good figure of the head of this bat in Dobson's Monograph; it was obtained by Dr. J. Anderson at an elevation of 4500 feet at Bhamo. NO. 82. VESPERUGO PACHYOTIS. DESCRIPTION.--"This species is readily distinguished by the peculiar thickness of the lower half of the outer side of the ear-conch, which appears as it were excavated out of the thick integument of the neck; tragus short, curved inwards."--_Dobson_. This bat is more fully described with three illustrations in Dobson's Monograph; he does not mention where it is found, so it may or it may not be an Indian species. NO. 83. VESPERUGO ATRATUS. _Syn_.--NYCTICEJUS ATRATUS. HABITAT.--Darjeeling. DESCRIPTION.--Head broad; muzzle obtuse; upper labial glands largely developed; ears large, oval, with rounded tips, which in the natural position of the ears appear acute, owing to the longitudinal folding of the outer side of the conch on the inner, commencing at and almost bisecting the tip (_Dobson_). Fur long, dense and black; Jerdon says rich dark brown; paler beneath. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.9 inch; tail, 1.8 inch. NO. 84. VESPERUGO TICKELLI. HABITAT.--Chybassa, Jashpur, and Sirguja. DESCRIPTION.--Head broad and flat; labial glands developed; ears moderate, rounded above; outer edge straight, emarginate opposite base of tragus, terminating in a small lobe; tragus lunate; tail long; last vertebra free. The face is more clad with fur than in other species of this genus; fur of the body pale, straw brown above, pale buff beneath. For a fuller description and illustration, see Dobson's Monograph. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.65 inch; tail, 2 inches. NO. 85. VESPERUGO PACHYPUS. HABITAT.--Darjeeling, Tenasserim, and Andaman Islands. DESCRIPTION.--Crown of head very flat; ears short, triangular, with broadly rounded tips, tragus short; under surface of the base of the thumb and soles of the feet with broad fleshy pads; wings rather short; fur fine and dense, above reddish brown, paler beneath. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.75 inch; tail 1 inch. NO. 86. VESPERUGO ANNECTANS. HABITAT.--Naga Hills and Assam. DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle sharper; face hairy; ears pointed; tragus long; colour dark brown; illustration in Dobson's Monograph. SIZE.--About 2 inches; tail, 1.6 inch. Unites the appearance of a _Vespertilio_ to the dentition of _Vesperugo_. NO. 87. VESPERUGO DORMERI. HABITAT.--Southern India and Bellary Hills. DESCRIPTION.--Head flat; ears shorter, triangular, with rounded tips; tragus with a small triangular lobe near base of outer margin; fur brown, with ashy tips above, darker brown below, with the terminal third of the hairs white. Dentition approaches the next genus, there being only one pair of unicuspidate upper incisors placed, one by each upper canine. NO. 88. (VESPERUGO) SCOTOPHILUS SEROTINUS. _Syn_.--VESPERUGO SEROTINUS. _The Silky Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 35_). HABITAT.--Europe, but extending through Asia to the Himalayas, Beluchistan and Kashmir. DESCRIPTION.--Ears shorter than head, widely separate, ovate, angular, projecting forward, terminating in a convex; lobe ending on a level with the corner of the mouth; tragus twice the length of its breadth, semi-cordate; fur deep bay or chestnut brown; above fulvous, grey beneath; hairs of back long and silky, but the colour of the fur varies considerably. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail, 2; wing expanse, 13. This is a rare bat in India, though Captain Hutton has procured it at Mussoorie. In England it is not uncommon even near London; it flies steadily and rather slow, and is found in ruins, roofs of churches, and sometimes old hollow trees. NO. 89. (VESPERUGO) SCOTOPHILUS LEISLERI. _Syn_.--VESPERUGO LEISLERI. _The Hairy-armed Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 36_). HABITAT.--Himalayas. [Figure: _Vesperugo Leisleri_.] DESCRIPTION.--Ears short, oval, triangular; tragus short, rounded at tip; membrane attached to base of outer toe; all toes short; membrane over the arms very hairy, some cross-lines of hair on the interfemoral membrane; fur long, deep fuscous brown at base, chestnut at the tip; beneath greyish brown.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/4 inches; tail, 3-3/4; expanse, 11-1/2. SCOTOPHILUS PACHYOMUS. (_Jerdon's No. 37._) Synonymous with his No. 35; see Dobson's Monograph. NO. 90. (VESPERUGO) SCOTOPHILUS COROMANDELIANUS. _Syn_.--VESPERUGO ABRAMUS; VESPERTILIO COROMANDELICUS. _The Coromandel Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 38_). HABITAT.--India generally, Burmah and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Ears triangular, rather large; outer margin straight or slightly concave; tragus lunate; feet small; wing membrane attached to the base of the toes; fur short, above dingy brown, the hairs tipped with a lighter tinge, paler beneath. SIZE.--2-1/2 inches, including tail, which is about 1-1/8; wing expanse, 7-1/2. This is a very common little bat, akin to the English Pipistrelle, and is found everywhere in roofs, hollow bamboos, &c. NO. 91. (VESPERUGO) SCOTOPHILUS LOBATUS. _Syn_.--VESPERUGO KUHLII. _The Lobe-eared Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 39_). HABITAT.--India generally. DESCRIPTION.--Ears small, triangular; the base of the margin very convex forward; a triangular lobule above the base of the outer margin; tragus short and uniform in width; a short muzzle; wings from the base of the toes; feet small; calcaneum long; tip of tail free; fur blackish yellow above, ashy beneath. SIZE.--Two and a-half inches, of which the tail is 1-1/4; expanse 7-2/3. Jerdon, quoting Tomes, states that this is the same as _V. Abramus_, but that is the synonym of the last species. _GENUS SCOTOPHILUS_. Muzzle short, bluntly conical, devoid of hair; ears longer than broad; tail shorter than the head and body; wing membrane attached to the base of the toes. Dentition: Inc., 1--1/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 1--1/2--2; molars 3--3/3--3. Jerdon's formula gives upper incisors 4. NO. 92. SCOTOPHILUS FULIGINOSUS. _The Smoky Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 40_). HABITAT.--Central Nepal. DESCRIPTION (_apud_ Hodgson).--"Feet very small, included in the wing membrane nearly to the end of the toes; ears acutely pointed, shorter than the head; muzzle groved, nudish; face sharp; rostrum somewhat recurved; wholly sooty brown; a little smaller than _Vesp. formosa_." I cannot find this bat mentioned by any other author, and Jerdon says it does not seem to be recognised. NO. 93. SCOTOPHILUS TEMMINCKII. _Syn_.--NYCTICEJUS TEMMINCKII (_Jerdon_). HABITAT.--India generally; Burmah and Ceylon. [Figure: _Scotophilus Temminckii_.] DESCRIPTION.--Ears short, rounded and narrow; tragus narrow, curved and pointed inwards; muzzle thick, blunt and conical; the fur varies, sometimes dark olive brown, fulvous beneath, and occasionally chestnut, with a paler shade of yellow below. SIZE.--Four and a-half inches, of which the tail is 1-1/2; expanse, 13. A very common species, appearing early in the evening. Horsfield says of it that it collects by hundreds in hollow trees, and feeds chiefly on white ants. NO. 94. SCOTOPHILUS HEATHII. HABITAT.--India and Ceylon (Rajanpore, Punjab). DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the above, but longer in all its measurements (_Dobson_). Judging from drawings, the head and muzzle of this are more in a line than in the last species, the ears project forward, and are also larger, the tragus especially, and there is a greater width between the ears. SIZE.--Five inches, of which the tail is 2. NO. 95. SCOTOPHILUS EMARGINATUS. HABITAT.--India; precise locality unknown. DESCRIPTION.--Head broad and flat; muzzle obtuse and thick; ears long and large, with rounded tips turning outwards; tragus short; thumb long with a strong claw; wing membrane quite devoid of hair, except on the interfemoral membrane, which is half covered; fur tricolored, first dark chestnut, buff, and then yellowish brown. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/10 inches; tail, 2 inches. NO. 96. SCOTOPHILUS ORNATUS. _Syn_.--NYCTICEJUS ORNATUS. HABITAT.--India and Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Head broad; muzzle short; ears triangular, erect, with rounded tips, and broadly rounded lobe at the base; tragus narrow, semi-lunate, curved towards the front; fur a light Isabelline brown, spotted with white; a white spot on the centre of the forehead, and from the back of the head down the spine for two-thirds of its length a narrow white streak; on each side of the body two white patches; a broad white collar, or rather demi-collar, from one ear spot to the other, passing under the throat. Dr. Dobson says the position of these patches is very constant, but the size varies, being greatest in individuals of a pale rusty red colour, and these he found always to be males. SIZE.--Head and body, 3 inches; tail, 2 inches; expanse, 15. NO. 97. SCOTOPHILUS PALLIDUS. HABITAT.--Mian Mir, Lahore. DESCRIPTION.--Head and muzzle as in _S. Temminckii_; ears slightly shorter than the head; internal basal lobe convex, evenly rounded; tip broadly rounded off; tragus moderately long and rounded at the tip; a prominent triangular lobe at base. Wing membrane from base of toes; lobule at the heel very narrow and long; last rudimentary caudal vertebra free; fur of the body, wings, and interfemoral membrane pale buff throughout. SIZE.--Head and body, 2 inches; tail, 1.4 inch. NOCTULINIA NOCTULA. (See _ante: Vesperugo noctula--Jerdon's No. 41_.) NYCTICEJUS HEATHII. _Large Yellow Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 42_). (See _ante: Scotophilus Heathii_.) NYCTICEJUS LUTEUS. _The Bengal Yellow Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 43_). NYCTICEJUS TEMMINCKII. _The Common Yellow Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 44_). Both the above (Nos. 43 and 44) are, according to Dr. Dobson, synonymous with _Scotophilus Temminckii_, which see. NYCTICEJUS CASTANEUS. _The Chestnut Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 45_). This is also a variety of _Scotophilus Temminckii_. NYCTICEJUS ATRATUS. _The Sombre Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 46_). (See _ante: Vesperugo atratus_.) NYCTICEJUS CANUS. _The Hoary Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 47_). (See _ante: Vesperugo lobatus_.) NYCTICEJUS ORNATUS. _The Harlequin Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 48_). (See _ante: Scotophilus ornatus_.) NO. 98. NYCTICEJUS NIVICOLUS. _The Alpine Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 49_). HABITAT.--Sikim. DESCRIPTION.--"Head and body above uniform light brown with a slight yellowish shade; underneath, from the throat to the vent, dark grey with a brownish tint, lighter on the sides of the throat. Ears long, attenuated to an obtuse point."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 3 inches; tail, 2 inches; expanse, 19 inches. This bat was described by Hodgson ('Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.' 1855), but there is some doubt about it, and it has been classed as a _Lasiurus_ and also with _Scot. ornatus_ and _Vesp. formosa_, but Jerdon thinks it a _distinct_ species. I cannot find any mention of it in Dobson's monograph. _GENUS HARPIOCEPHALUS_. This is also the genus _Murina_ of Gray. Dr. Dobson explains his acceptance of the former term in the following way: that he first accepted _Murina_ on the score of priority in a paper showing that _Harpiocephalus_ and _Murina_ must be united in a single genus; but finding afterwards that Gray had founded _Murina_ on a specimen of what he believed to be _Vesp. suillus_ (Temm.), but which was in reality a specimen of a very different species from Darjeeling, belonging to the same section of the genus as _Vespertilio harpia_ (Temm.) the type of his genus _Harpiocephalus_, it remained therefore either to discard both names or to retain _Harpiocephalus_, in which course he was supported by Professor Peters, to whom he mentioned the facts. Horsfield's genus _Lasiurus_ is included in this one, though Jerdon considers it distinct from _Murina_. Muzzle elongated, conical; _nostrils prominent, tubular; produced beyond the upper lip_, opening laterally or sublaterally, emarginate between; crown of the head scarcely raised above the face line; ears thin, generally covered with glandular papillae; tragus long, attenuated towards the tip, and inclined outwards; thumb very large, with a large, strongly curved claw; wings around interfemoral membrane very hairy.--_Dobson_. Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can. 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3. NO. 99. HARPIOCEPHALUS HARPIA. _Lasiurus Pearsonii_ (_Horsfield_) (_Jerdon's No. 50_). HABITAT.--Darjeeling and Khasia hills. DESCRIPTION.--"Fur above very soft, silky, and rather long; colour on the head, neck, and shoulders brownish grey, with a ferruginous cast, variegated with whitish hairs; the rest of the body above, with the base of the membrane, the thighs and the interfemoral membrane, have a deep bay or reddish-brown hue, and delicate hairs of the same colour are scattered over the membrane and project from its border; the body underneath is thickly covered with a grey fur, which is paler on the breast and body; the interfemoral membrane marked with regularly parallel transverse lines" (_Horsfield_). Ears ovoid; tragus rather long, nearly straight, acute at the tip (_Jerdon_). Muzzle rather short, obtusely conical; end of nose projecting considerably beyond the lip, consisting of diverging tubular nostrils opening laterally, with a slight emargination between each (_Dobson_). SIZE.--Head and body, 3 inches; tail, 1-1/2 inch; expanse, 14. Hodgson, who procured it at Darjeeling, writes of it: "Entire legs and caudal membrane clad in fur like the body, which is thick and woolly. Colour bright rusty above; sooty below, the hairs tipped with hoary." [Figure: Skull of _Harpiocephalus harpia_.] This bat is, for its size, one of the most powerfully armed with teeth. The skull reminds one of that of a dog or hyaena in miniature; the teeth are very stout, the canines blunt and conical, and the cusps of the molars short and blunt, well coated with enamel; the jaws are correspondingly muscular and adapted to the food of the animal, which consists of hard-shelled beetles, the crushed cases of which have been found in its stomach. NO. 100. HARPIOCEPHALUS (MURINA) SUILLUS. _The Pig-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 51_). HABITAT.--Darjeeling (_Jerdon_); Malayan archipelago. DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle narrow, elongated; nostrils very prominent, which, viewed from below, resemble in shape a small hour-glass placed horizontally at the extremity of the muzzle; ears moderate, shorter than the head, rounded at the tips; tragus moderately long, attenuated above and slightly curved outwards; fur light greyish-brown; extremities dark brown; beneath light greyish-brown throughout.--_Dobson_. SIZE.--Head and body, 1-3/4 to 2 inches; tail, 1-1/2 inch; expanse 9 to 10. NO. 101. HARPIOCEPHALUS AURATUS. HABITAT.--Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Head and muzzle as in _H. suillus_, but the nostrils are differently shaped; each nostril forms a distinct tube directed sublaterally with a circular aperture marked by a very small notch on the outer and upper margin (_Dobson_). The whole body is thickly clad; the fur on the back is black, with bright golden yellow tips; the back of the fore-arm covered with short golden hair; the hair of the under parts black with silvery tips, whiter on the lower jaw, neck and pubis; the interfemoral membrane is covered with very long hair, which forms a fringe along its free margin extending on the legs and feet, and projecting beyond the toes; underneath short silvery hair. SIZE.--Head and body 1.4 inch; tail 1.2. NO. 102. HARPIOCEPHALUS GRISEUS. HABITAT.--Jeripani, N.W. Himalayas. DESCRIPTION.--Head and muzzle as in _H. suillus_; fur above dark brown, with yellowish-brown extremities; beneath similar, but with the extreme points of the hairs ashy. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.4 inch; tail 1 inch. This bat was found near Mussoorie by Captain Hutton, who writes that it occurs, but sparingly, on the outer southern range of hills at 5500 feet. It skims close to the ground, and somewhat leisurely over the surface of the crops and grass; and one which flew into his room kept low down, passing under chairs and tables, instead of soaring towards the ceiling, as bats generally do. NO. 103. HARPIOCEPHALUS LEUCOGASTER. HABITAT.--N.W. Himalayas, Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Head and muzzle as in _H. harpia_; fur long and dense, above brown with grey bases; underneath whitish; sides light brown. It differs from the next species by a small projecting tooth on the inner margin of the ear conch, by the smaller size of the first upper premolar, and by the colour.--_Dobson_. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.9 inch; tail 1.5. NO. 104. HARPIOCEPHALUS CYCLOTIS. HABITAT.--Darjeeling, Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the last, but with round ears; fur bicoloured, the hairs being dark brown at the base, with bright ferruginous tips; below pale brown; the upper surface of the interfemoral membrane and back of the feet covered with hair, which also extends beyond the toes; the first premolar in the upper jaw nearly equal in size to the second, whereas in the last species it is only about three-fourths. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.7 inch; tail, 1.5. _GENUS KERIVOULA_. DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle long and narrow; skull very concave between the nasal bones and the vertex, so that the crown appears considerably vaulted; ears funnel-shaped and semi-transparent; tragus very long, narrow and pointed; wings very wide; tail longer than head and body, wholly contained within the interfemoral membrane. Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 3--3/3--3; molars, 3--3/3--3. The generic name of this bat is composed of two Singhalese words--_kehel_ or _kela_, the plantain, and _voulha_, which is the Singhalese for bat, the specimen on which Gray founded his genus being the following:-- NO. 105. KERIVOULA PICTA. _The Painted Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 53_). HABITAT.--India generally, Burmah and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--"Fur fine, woolly; above yellowish-red or golden rufous, beneath less brilliant and more yellow; wing membranes inky black, with rich orange stripes along the fingers extending in indentations into the membrane."--_Jerdon_. Ears moderate, laid forwards; the tips reach midway between the eyes and the middle of the muzzle; tragus very long and straight; thumb short; wings to the base of the toes. SIZE.--Head and body, 1-1/2 inch; tail, 1.6 inch; expanse about 10 inches. This beautiful little bat is found all over India, but is not common; it is occasionally caught in plantain gardens, as it resorts to the leaves of that tree for shelter during the night, and may sometimes be discovered in the folds of a leaf. As Jerdon remarks, it looks more like a butterfly or a moth when disturbed during the day time. Dr. Dobson pertinently observes that the colours of this bat appear to be the result of the "protective mimicry" which we see so often in insects, the Mantidea and other genera, the colours being adapted to their abiding places. He alludes to Mr. Swinhoe's account ('P. Z. S.,' 1862, p. 357) of an allied species:--"The body of this bat was of an orange yellow, but the wings were painted with orange yellow and black. It was caught suspended head downwards on a cluster of the round fruit of the longan tree. (_Nephelium_ [_Scytalia_] _longanum_) [the _ash phul_ of Bengal]. Now this tree is an evergreen, and all the year through some portion of its foliage is undergoing decay, the particular leaves being in such a stage partially orange and black; this bat can therefore at all seasons suspend from its branches and elude its enemies by its resemblance to the leaf of the tree." This bat was named by Pallas _Vespertilio pictus_. Boddaert in 1785 termed it _Vesp. kerivoula_, and Gray afterwards took the second specific name for that of the genus, leaving the first as it is. KERIVOULA PALLIDA. (_Jerdon's No. 54._) This is synonymous with _Vespertilio formosus_, which see further on, it is the same as the _Kerivoula formosa_ of Gray. NO. 106. KERIVOULA PAPILLOSA. (_Jerdon's No. 55._) HABITAT.--Java, but said by Jerdon to have been found in Calcutta and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Fur fine woolly, long, bicoloured; above light shining brown, paler below; the free edge of the interfemoral membrane margined with small papillae. NO. 107. KERIVOULA HARDWICKII. HABITAT.--India (Assam--Shillong, Khasia hills). DESCRIPTION.--Same size as _K. picta_, but ears larger; fur uniformly dark above and below, with shining greyish-brown extremities. _GENUS VESPERTILIO_. Muzzle long; ears often larger than the head, oval, apart; tragus long, acute; crown of head vaulted; feet moderate; wing membrane from base of toes; tail, wholly included in interfemoral membrane, less than length of head and body. Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 3--3/3--3; molars, 3--3/3--3. NO. 108. MYOTIS (VESPERTILIO) MURINUS. (_Jerdon's No. 61._) HABITAT.--N.W. Himalayas. [Figure: _Vespertilio murinus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Fur above light reddish or smoke brown beneath dusky white, the base of the hairs dark. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail, 2 inches; expanse, 15 inches. NOS. 109 & 110. MYOTIS THEOBALDI and MYOTIS PARVIPES. (_Jerdon's Nos. 62 & 63._) Both these appear to be closely allied to the _pipistrelle_ of Europe, and are stated to have been found at Mussoorie and in Kashmir. NO. 111. VESPERTILIO LONGIPES. HABITAT.--Kashmir (caves of Bhima Devi, 6000 feet). DESCRIPTION.--Wings from the ankles; _feet very large_, about one-fourth the length of the head and body; fur black above, underneath black with whitish tips. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.75 inch; tail, 1.45 inch. NO. 112. VESPERTILIO MYSTACINUS. HABITAT.--Himalayas. DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle narrow; skull vaulted; ears as long as head, wings from base of toes; fur dark brown. NO. 113. VESPERTILIO MURICOLA. HABITAT.--Himalayas, Arracan. DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the above, but may be distinguished by a small lobe behind the heel, by the deep emargination of the upper third of the outer margin of the ear; by the intensely black colour of the fur and membranes, and by its small size.--_Dobson_. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.6 inch; tail, 1.55 inch. NO. 114. VESPERTILIO MONTIVAGUS. HABITAT.--Burmah, Hotha, Yunan. DESCRIPTION.--Head slightly elevated above the face line; muzzle obtuse; ears narrow, tapering, _with_ rounded tips slightly turned outwards; tragus long, narrow, and acutely pointed; feet very small; toes two-thirds the length of the whole foot; tail wholly contained in the membrane; wings from base of toes; fur dark brown above, the tips paler and shining, beneath much darker, almost black, with ashy tips to the hairs; face much covered with hair, which almost conceals the eyes; the tip of the nose alone naked; wing membranes partially covered with fur. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.8 inch; tail, 1.6 inch. This bat, of which the above description is taken from Dobson's monograph, was obtained by Dr. J. Anderson during the Yunan Expedition. NO. 115. VESPERTILIO MURINOIDES. HABITAT.--N.W. Himalayas (Chamba), 3000 feet. DESCRIPTION.--General form of the ear triangular, with narrow rounded tips; outer margin concave beneath tips; tragus slender and acutely pointed, with a quadrangular lobe at the base of the outer margin; fur dark brown above with light brown tips; dark brown below, almost black with greyish tips. SIZE.--Head and body, 2.5 inches; tail 2. NO. 116. VESPERTILIO FORMOSUS. HABITAT.--N.W. Himalayas (Nepal, Darjeeling), Khasia hills. [Figure: _Vespertilio formosus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Wing membrane broad and variegated with orange and rich dark brown; the portions of the dark-coloured membrane are triangular in form, and occupy the spaces between the second and third and third and fourth fingers; all the remaining portions of the membranes, including interfemoral, are orange, as are also the ears; the orange colour extends in narrow lines along each side of the fingers, and is dispersed over the dark triangular space in dots and streaks. SIZE.--Head and body, 2 inches; tail, 1.1; expanse 11. NO. 117. VESPERTILIO NEPALENSIS. HABITAT.--Khatmandu, Nepal. DESCRIPTION.--Fur of head and back long and dense, bicoloured; base black, tips brown; underneath the hairs are two-thirds black, with the remaining upper third pure white. SIZE.--Head and body, 1.65 inch; tail, 1.35. NO. 118. VESPERTILIO EMARGINATUS. VARIETY.--_Desertorum_. HABITAT.--Beluchistan. DESCRIPTION.--The upper third of the outer margin of the ears deeply emarginate; colour of fur light brownish; ears and interfemoral membranes pale yellowish white; membranes dusky white. SIZE.--Head and body, 2 inches; tail 1.6. _GENUS MINIOPTERUS_ (_Bonaparte_). DESCRIPTION.--Crown of head abruptly and very considerably raised above the face line; ears separate, rhomboidal, the outer margin carried forward to the angle of the mouth; tragus like that in _Vesperugo_; first phalanx of the second or longest finger very short; feet long and slender; tail as long as head and body, wholly contained in the membrane. Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1, premolars, 2--2/3--3, molars, 3--3/3--3. NO. 119. MINIOPTERUS SCHREIBERSII. HABITAT.--Burmah and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Colour of fur varies, the basal half of the hair always dark greyish black, dark brown or black; the extremities varying from light grey to light reddish-grey, dark reddish-brown and black. For further details see Dobson's monograph. _GENUS BARBASTELLUS_. Ears large, connate at the base in front, triangular, emarginate on the outer margin, broad, concealing the back of the head, hairy in the middle; tragus broad at the base, narrow at the tip, and curved outwardly. [Figure: _Synotus barbastellus_.] Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3. NO. 120. BARBASTELLUS COMMUNIS. (_Jerdon's No. 65._) HABITAT.--Himalayas, Nepal and Mussoorie. DESCRIPTION.--Fur above blackish brown; the hairs fulvous at the tips; abdomen greyish brown; hairs fine silky. SIZE.--Head and body, 2 inches; tail, 1-2/12; expanse; 10-1/2.--_Jerdon_. This is the same as the English Barbastelle, and it appears in Dobson's monograph as _Synotus Darjeelinensis_. NO. 121. NYCTOPHILUS GEOFFROYI. (_Jerdon's No. 66._) HABITAT.--Mussoorie. Jerdon here goes back to the nose-leafed bats. I can find no trace of it in Dobson's monograph, which is so exhaustive as far as Asiatic species are concerned. DESCRIPTION.--Over the eyes, at the hind corner, a tuft of black hair; fur dark brown, above throat and flank brownish-white; below black with white tips. A simple transverse nose-leaf; ears large, ovoid, united at base as in _Plecotus_. SIZE.--Head and body, 1-3/4 to 2 inches; tail, 1-5/12; expanse, 9-3/4. * * * * * We have now concluded our notice of Indian bats but yet much is to be discovered concerning them. Very little is known of the habits of these small nocturnal animals, only a few of the most familiar large ones are such as one can discourse upon in a popular way; the lives and habits of the rest are a blank to us. We see them flit about rapidly in the dusky evening, and capture one here and there, but, after a bare description, in most cases very uninteresting to all save those who are "bat fanciers," what can be said about them? Many of them have been written about for a century, yet how little knowledge has been gained! It has been no small labour to collate all the foregoing species, and to compare them with various works; it would have been a most difficult task but for the assistance I have received from Dr. Dobson's book, which every naturalist should possess if he desires to have a thorough record of all the Indian Chiroptera. INSECTIVORA. These are mostly small animals of, with few exceptions, nocturnal habits. Their chief characteristic lies in their pointed dentition, which enable them to pierce and crush the hard-shelled insects on which they feed. The skull is elongated, the bones of the face and jaw especially, and those of the latter are comparatively weak. Before we come to the teeth we may notice some other peculiarities of this order. The limbs are short, feet five-toed and plantigrade, with the entire sole placed on the ground in running, and these animals are all possessed of clavicles which in the next order are but rudimentary; in this respect they legitimately follow the Bats. The mammae are placed under the abdomen, and are more than two. None of them (except _Tupaia_) have a caecum (this genus has been most exhaustively described in all its osteological details by Dr. J. Anderson: see his 'Anatomical and Zoological Researches'); the snout is usually prolonged and mobile. The dentition is eccentric, and not always easy to determine; some have long incisors in front, followed by other incisors along the sides of their narrow jaws and canines, all shorter than the molars; others have large separated canines, between which are placed small incisors. In Blyth's additions to Cuvier he states that "in this group we are led to identify the canine tooth as simply the first of the false molars, which in some has two fangs, and, as in the Lemurs, to perceive that the second in the lower jaw is in some more analogous in size and character to an ordinary canine than that which follows the incisors. The incisor teeth are never more than six in number, which is the maximum throughout _placental_ mammalia (as opposed by _marsupial_), and in several instances one or two pairs are deficient. (It should be remarked that a single tooth with two fangs is often represented by two separate teeth, each with one fang.) The canines, with the succeeding false molars, are extremely variable, but there are ordinarily three tuberculated molars posterior to the representative of the carnivorous or cutting grinder of the true _Carnivora_." All the molar teeth are studded with sharp points or cusps; the deciduous teeth are developed and disappear before birth. This order is divided into four families, viz., _Talpidae_ or Moles, _Sorecidae_ or Shrews, _Erinaceidae_ or Hedgehogs, and the _Tupaiadae_, Banxrings or Tree-shrews. Of all these well-defined types are to be found in India, but America and Africa possess various genera which we have not, such as the Condylures (_Condylura_, Illiger), the Shrew-moles (_Scalops_, Cuvier), belonging to _Talpidae_; the Solendons, Desmans, and Chrysochlores to _Sorecidae_; the Sokinahs, Tenrecs and Gymnures to _Erinaceidae_; and the Macroscelles or Elephant-mice of the Cape Colony form another group more allied to _Tupaia_ than the rest. This last family is the most interesting. Anatomically belonging to this order, they externally resemble the squirrels so closely as to have been frequently mistaken for them. The grovelling Mole and creeping Shrew are as unlike the sprightly Tupaia, as it springs from branch to branch, whisking its long bushy tail, as it is possible to conceive. I intend further on to give an illustration of this little animal. The first we have on record concerning it is in the papers relating to Captain Cook's third voyage, which are now in the British Museum, where the animal is described and figured as _Sciurus dissimilis_; it was obtained at Pulo Condore, an island 100 miles from Saigon, in 1780. Sir T. Stamford Raffles was the next to describe it, which he did under the generic name _Tupaia_--_tupai_ being a Malayan word applied to various squirrel-like small animals--but he was somewhat forestalled in the publication of his papers by MM. Diard and Duvaucel. Dr. Anderson relates how Sir T. Raffles engaged the services of these two naturalists to assist him in his researches, on the understanding that the whole of the observations and collections were to be the property of the East India Company; but ultimately on this point there arose a disagreement between them, and the paper that was first read before the Asiatic Society of Bengal on the 10th of March, 1820, was drawn up by MM. Diard and Duvaucel, though forwarded by Sir T. Raffles, whose own paper on the subject was not read before the Linnean Society until the 5th of December of that year, nor published till 1821; therefore to the others belongs the credit of first bringing this curious group to notice. They regarded it in the light of a true Shrew, disguised in the form and habits of a squirrel, and they proposed for it the name _Sorex-Glis_, i.e. Shrew-squirrel (_Glis_ properly means a dormouse, but Linnaeus used it for his rodential group which he termed _Glires_); this was afterwards changed by Desmarest and Giebel to _Gli Sorex_ and _Glisosorex_, which latter stands for one of the generic terms applied to the group. F. Cuvier, objecting to _Tupaia_, proposed _Cladobates_ (signifying branch walkers), and Temminck, also objecting to _Tupaia_, suggested _Hylogale_ (from Gr. _hyla_, forest, and _gale_, a weasel), so now we have four generic names for this one small group. English naturalists have however accepted _Tupaia_; and, as Dr. Anderson fairly remarks, though it is a pity that some definite rules are not laid down for the guidance of naturalists for the acceptance or rejection of terms, still those who reject _Tupaia_ on the ground of its being taken from a savage tongue should be consistent, and refuse all others of similar origin. He is quite right; but how many we should have to reject if we did so--_Siamanga_ in Quadrumana, _Kerivoula_ in Cheiroptera, _Tupaia_ in Insectivora, _Golunda_ in Rodentia, _Rusa_ in Ruminantia, and others! At the same time these names are wrong; they convey no meaning; and had they a meaning (which only _Kerivoula_ or _Kelivoulha_, i.e. plantain-bat, has) it is not expressed in languages common to all western nations, such as the Latin and Greek. _Tupaia_ is an unfortunate selection, inasmuch as it does not apply to one type of animal, but reminds me somewhat of the Madras _puchi_, which refers, in a general way, to most creeping insects, known or unknown. FAMILY TALPIDAE--THE MOLES. These animals have a small cylindrical body, very short arm attached to a large shoulder-blade, supported by a stout clavicle or collar-bone. The fore-feet are of great breadth, supported by the powerful muscles of the arm; the palm of the foot or hand is directed outwards or backwards, the lower edge being trenchant, with scarcely perceptible fingers armed with long, flat nails, strong and sharp, with which to tear up the ground and shovel the earth aside. The hind feet are small and weak in comparison, with slender claws. The head tapers to a point, the long snout being provided with a little bone which assists it in rooting, and the cervical muscles are very strong. The eyes are microscopical, and almost concealed in the fur. At one time it was a popular delusion that the mole was devoid of the power of sight, but this is not the case. The sense of hearing is extremely acute, and the tympanum is large, although externally there is no aural development. The tail is short, the fur set vertically in the skin, whence it is soft and velvety. The bones of the pubis do not join, and the young when produced are large. The mammae are six in number. The jaws are weak, the incisors are six above and eight below. The canines (false molars?) have two roots. There are four false molars above and three below, and three molars with pointed cusps. Moles live principally on earth-worms, snails, and small insects, though they are also said to devour frogs and small birds. They are more common in Europe than in India, where the few known species are only to be found in hilly parts. I have, I think, procured them on the Satpura range some years ago, but I cannot speak positively to the fact at this lapse of time, as I had not then devoted much attention to the smaller mammalia, and it is possible that my supposed moles were a species of shrew. They are seldom if ever trapped in India, for the simple reason that they are not considered worth trapping, and the destruction of moles in England has long been carried on in the same spirit of ignorance which led farmers, both there and in France, to destroy small birds wholesale, till they did themselves much injury by the multiplication of noxious insects. Moles, instead of being the farmers' foes, are the farmers' friends. Mr. Buckland in his notes to Gilbert White's 'Natural History of Selborne'(Macmillan's _edition de luxe_ of 1876)--says: "After dinner we went round the sweetstuff and toy booths in the streets, and the vicar, my brother-in-law, the Rev. H. Gordon, of Harting, Petersfield, Hants, introduced me to a merchant of gingerbread nuts who was a great authority on moles. He tends cows for a contractor who keeps a great many of the animals to make concentrated milk for the navy. The moles are of great service; eat up the worms that eat the grass, and wherever the moles have been afterwards the grass grows there very luxuriantly. When the moles have eaten all the grubs and the worms in a certain space, they migrate to another, and repeat their gratuitous work. The grass where moles have been is always the best for cows." In another place he says: "M. Carl Vogt relates an instance of a landed proprietor in France who destroyed every mole upon his property. The next season his fields were ravaged with wire-worms, and his crops totally destroyed. He then purchased moles of his neighbours, and preserved them as his best friends." The poor little despised mole has had its part to play in history. My readers may remember that William the Third's horse is supposed to have put his foot into a mole-pit, and that the king's death was hastened by the unconscious agency of "the little gentleman in black," who was so often toasted afterwards by the Jacobites. _GENUS TALPA_ NO. 122. TALPA MICRURA. _The Short-tailed Mole_ (_Jerdon's No. 67_). HABITAT.--The Eastern Himalayan range. NATIVE NAMES.--_Pariam_, Lepcha; _Biyu-kantyen_, Bhotia (_Jerdon_). DESCRIPTION.--Velvety black, with a greyish sheen in certain lights; snout nude; eyes apparently wanting. Jerdon says there is no perforation of the integument over the eyes, but this I doubt, and think that by examination with a lens an opening would be discovered, as in the case of the Apennine mole, which M. Savi considered to be quite blind. I hope to have an opportunity of testing this shortly. The feet are fleshy white, also the tail, which, as its specific name implies, is very small. "There are three small upper premolars between the quasi-canine tooth and the large scissor-toothed premolar, which is much developed." SIZE.--Length, 4-3/4 to 5 inches; head alone, 1-3/4; palm with claws, 7/8 inch; tail, 3/16 of an inch or less. Jerdon says: "This mole is not uncommon at Darjeeling, and many of the roads and pathways in the station are intersected by its runs, which often proceed from the base of some mighty oak-tree to that of another. If these runs are broken down or holes made in them they are generally repaired during the night. The moles do not appear to form mole-hills as in Europe." Jerdon's specimens were dead ones picked up, as the Lepchas do not know how to trap them. NO. 123. TALPA MACRURA. _The Long-tailed Mole_ (_Jerdon's No. 68_). HABITAT.--Sikim. DESCRIPTION.--Deep slaty blue, with a whitish or hoary gloss, iridescent when wet; the tail covered with soft hair. SIZE.--Head and body, 4 inches; tail, 1-1/4 inch; head alone, 1-1/8 inch; palm, 3/4 inch. NO. 124. TALPA LEUCURA (_Blyth_). _The White-tailed Mole_. HABITAT.--Sylhet, Burmah (Tenasserim). DESCRIPTION.--Similar to _micrura_, but with a short tail covered with white hairs, and it has one premolar less. FAMILY SORECIDAE. Small animals, which from their size, shape, and nocturnal habits are frequently confounded with rats and mice, as in the case of the common Indian Shrew, known to most of us as the Musk-rat; they have distinct though small eyes, distinct ears, the conch of which is like that of a mouse. The tail _thick_ and tapering, whence the generic name _Pachyura_, applied by De Selys Longchamp, and followed latterly by Blyth; but there is also a sub-family of bats to which the term has been applied. "On each flank there is a band of stiff closely-set bristles, from between which, during the rutting season, exudes an odorous fluid, the product of a peculiar gland" (_Cuvier_); the two middle superior incisors are hooked and dentated at the base, the lower ones slanted and elongated; five small teeth follow the larger incisors on the upper jaw, and two those on the lower. There are three molars with sharp-pointed cusps in each jaw, with a small tuberculous tooth in the upper. The feet are five-toed, separate, not webbed like the moles; the snout is long and pointed and very mobile. This family has been subdivided in various genera by naturalists, each one having his followers; and it is puzzling to know which to adopt. Simplicity being the great point to aim at in all these matters, I may broadly state that Shrews are divided into land and water shrews (_Sorex_ and _Hydrosorex_); the former includes _Crocidura_ of Wagner, _Corsira_ of Gray, and _Anurosorex_ of Milne-Edwards, the latter _Crossopus_ and _Chimarrogale_, Gray. For ages both in the West and East this poor little animal has been the victim of ignorance. In England, even in the last century, it was looked upon as an evil thing, as Gilbert White says: "It is supposed that a shrew-mouse is of so baneful and deleterious a nature that wherever it creeps over a beast, be it horse, cow, or sheep, the suffering animal is afflicted with cruel anguish, and threatened with loss of the use of the limb," the only remedy in such cases being the application of the twigs of a shrew ash, which was an ash-tree into which a large hole had been bored with an augur, into which a poor little shrew was thrust alive and plugged up (_see_ Brand's 'Popular Antiquities' for a description of the ceremonies). It is pleasant to think that such barbarities have now ceased, for though shrew ashes are to be found in various parts of England, I have never heard (in my own county, Derbyshire, at least) of the necessity for their use. In an article I contributed to a magazine some thirteen years ago, I pointed out a coincident superstition prevailing in India. Whilst marching as a Settlement officer in the district of Seonee, I noticed that one of my camels had a sore back and on inquiring into the cause was told by the natives that a musk-rat (our commonest shrew) had run over him. Jerdon also remarks that in Southern India (Malabar) the bite of _S. murinus_ is considered venomous, and so it is in Bengal. _GENUS SOREX_ (_Linn_.). SYNONYM.--_Pachyura_, De S. Long; _Crocidura_, Wagner. [Figure: Dentition of Shrew (magnified).] DESCRIPTION.--Upper front teeth large; "inferior incisors entire, or rarely so much as the trace of a serrated upper edge;" between these and the first cutting molar four teeth as follows: large, small, middling, very small; teeth wholly white; tail thick and tapering, with a few scattered hairs, some with glands secreting a pungent musky odour, some without. NO. 125. SOREX CAERULESCENS. _The Common Musk Shrew, better known as Musk-rat_. NATIVE NAME.--_Chachhunder_, Hind.; _Sondeli_, Canarese. HABITAT.--India generally. DESCRIPTION.--Bluish gray, sometimes slightly mouse-coloured; naked parts flesh-coloured. SIZE.--Head and body, 6 to 7 inches; tail 3-1/2 to 4 inches. This little animal is almost too well known, as far as its appearance is concerned, to need much description, though most erroneous ideas prevail about its habits. It is proverbially difficult to uproot an old-established prejudice; and, though amongst my friends I have been fighting its battles for the poor little shrew for years, I doubt whether I have converted many to my opinions. Certainly its appearance and its smell go strongly against it--the latter especially--but even here its powers are greatly exaggerated. I think by this time the old fallacy of musk-rats tainting beer and wine in bottles by simply running over them is exploded. When I came out in 1856 it was a common thing at the mess table, or in one's own house, to reject a bottle of beer or wine, because it was "musk-ratty;" but how seldom is the complaint made now since country-bottled beverages are not used? Jerdon, Kellaart, and every Indian naturalist scouts the idea of this peculiar power to do what no chemist has yet succeeded in, viz., the creation of an essence subtle enough to pass through glass. That musky bottles were frequent formerly is due to impregnated corks and insufficient washing before the bottle was filled. The musk-rat in a quiescent state is not offensive, and its odour is more powerful at certain seasons. I am peculiarly sensitive to smells, and dislike that of musk in particular, yet I have no objection to a musk-rat running about my room quietly if I do not startle him. I never allow one to be killed, and encourage their presence in the house, for I think the temporary inconvenience of a whiff of musk is amply repaid by the destruction of the numerous objectionable insects which lurk in the corners of Indian houses. The notion that they do damage by gnawing is an erroneous one, the mischief done by mice and rats being frequently laid to their charge; they have not the powerful dentition necessary for nibbling through wood and mortar. In my book on 'Camp Life in Seonee,' I say a good word for my little friends, and relate as follows an experiment which I tried many years ago: "We had once been talking at mess about musk-rats; some one declared a bottle of sherry had been tainted, and nobody defended the poor little beast but myself, and I was considerably laughed at. However, one night soon after, as I was dressing before dinner, I heard a musk-rat squeak in my room. Here was a chance. Shutting the door, I laid a clean pocket-handkerchief on the ground next to the wall, knowing the way in which the animal usually skirts round a room; on he came and ran over the handkerchief, and then, seeing me, he turned and went back again. I then headed him once more and quietly turned him; and thus went on till I had made him run over the handkerchief five times. I then took it up, and there was not the least smell. I then went across to the mess house, and, producing the handkerchief, asked several of my brother officers if they could perceive any peculiar smell about it. No, none of them could. 'Well, all I know is,' said I, 'that I have driven a musk-rat five times over that pocket-handkerchief just now.'" When I was at Nagpore in 1864 I made friends with one of these shrews, and it would come out every evening at my whistle and take grasshoppers out of my fingers. It seemed to be very short-sighted, and did not notice the insect till quite close to my hand, when, with a short swift spring, it would pounce upon its prey. A correspondent of _The Asian_, writing from Ceylon, gives an account of a musk-rat attacking a large frog, and holding on to it in spite of interference. McMaster says that these shrews will also eat bread, and adds: "insects, however, form their chief diet, so they thus do us more good than harm. I once disturbed one that evidently had been eating part of a large scorpion." NO. 126. SOREX MURINUS. _The Mouse-coloured Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 70_). HABITAT.--India generally, Burmah and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Brownish-grey above, paler beneath; fur coarser and longer than in the last species, and in the young ones the colour is more of a bluish-grey, browner on the back. The ears are larger than those of _S. caerulescens_; tail nearly equal to the body, thick at the base, and sparsely covered with long coarse hairs; feet and tail flesh-coloured in the living animal. SIZE.--Head and body about 6 inches; tail, 3-1/2 inches. "This," as Jerdon says, "is the common musk-rat of China, Burmah, and the Malayan countries, extending into Lower Bengal and Southern India, especially the Malabar Coast, where it is said to be the common species, the bite of which is considered venomous by the natives." Kellaart mentions it in Ceylon as the "common _musk shrew_ or rat of Europeans;" but he confuses it with the last species. He gives the Singhalese name as "_koone meeyo_." The musky odour of this species is less powerful, and is almost absent in the young. Blyth states that he was never able to obtain a specimen of it in Lower Bengal, yet the natives here discriminate between the light and dark-coloured shrews, and hold, with the people of Malabar, that the bite of the latter is venomous. Horsfield states that it has been found in Upper India, Nepal, and Assam, and he gives the vernacular name in the last-named country as "_seeka_." NO. 127. SOREX NEMORIVAGUS. _The Nepal Wood Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 71_). HABITAT.--Nepal. DESCRIPTION.--Differs from the last "by a stouter make, by ears smaller and legs entirely nude, and by a longer and more tetragonal tail; colour sooty black, with a vague reddish smear; the nude parts fleshy grey; snout to rump, 3-5/8 inches; tail, 2 inches, planta, 11/16 inch. Found only in woods and coppices."--_Hodgson_. NO. 128. SOREX SERPENTARIUS. _The Rufescent Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 72_). HABITAT.--Southern India, Burmah and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Colour dusky greyish, with rufous brown tips to the hairs (_Blyth_). Above dusky slate colour with rufescent tips to the fur; beneath paler, with a faint rufous tinge about the breast (_Jerdon_). Fur short ashy-brown, with a ferruginous smear on the upper surface; beneath a little paler coloured (_Kellaart_). Teeth and limbs small; tail slender. SIZE.--Head and body about 4-1/2 inches; tail, 2 inches; skull, 1-2/10 inch. The smell of this musk shrew is said by Kellaart, who names it _S. Kandianus_, to be quite as powerful as that of _S. caerulescens_. Blyth seems to think that this animal gets more rufescent with age, judging from two examples sent from Mergui. By some oversight, I suppose, he has not included this species in his 'Catalogue of the Mammals of Burmah.' NO. 129. SOREX SATURATIOR. _The Dark Brown Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 73_). HABITAT.--Darjeeling. DESCRIPTION.--"Colour uniform deep brown, inclining to blackish, with a very slight rufescent shade; fur short, with an admixture of a few lengthened piles, when adpressed to the body smooth, but reversed somewhat harsh and rough; tail cylindrical, long, gradually tapering; mouth elongated, regularly attenuated, ears moderate, rounded." SIZE.--Head and body, 5-1/2 inches; tail, 3 inches. Jerdon seems to think this is the same as _S. Griffithi_ or closely allied; I cannot say anything about this, as I have no personal knowledge of the species, but on comparison with the description of _S. Griffithi_ (which see further on) I should say they were identical. NO. 130. SOREX TYTLERI. _The Dehra Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 74_). HABITAT.--Dehra Doon. DESCRIPTION.--"Light rufescent sandy brown, paler beneath; unusually well clad even on the feet and tail, this last being covered with shortish fur having numerous long hairs intermixed; form very robust; basal portion of tail very thick." SIZE.--Head and body, 4-1/2 inches; tail, 2-3/4 inches; hind foot, 7/8 inch. NO. 131. SOREX NIGER. _The Neilgherry Wood Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 75_). HABITAT.--Ootacamund, Neilgherry hills. DESCRIPTION.--"Blackish-brown, with a rufescent shade on the upper parts; abdomen greyish; tail equal in length to the entire animal, exclusive of the head, gradually tapering to a point; snout greatly attenuated. Length of head and body, 3-1/2 inches; of the tail, 2-1/2 inches."--_Horsfield_. NO. 132. SOREX LEUCOPS. _The Long-tailed Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 76_). HABITAT.--Nepal. DESCRIPTION.--Uniform blackish-brown colour; tail very long and slender, exceeding in length the head and body, terminating in a whitish tip of half an inch long. SIZE.--Head and body, 3 inches; tail, 2-1/2 inches. Jerdon supposes that it is found at great altitudes, from Hodgson having in another place described it (MSS.) under the name _nivicola_. NO. 133. SOREX SOCCATUS. _The Hairy-footed Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 77_). HABITAT.--Nepal, Sikim, Mussoorie. DESCRIPTION.--According to Hodgson, nearly the size of _S. nemorivagus_, "but distinguished by its feet being clad with fur down to the nails, and by its depressed head and tumid bulging cheeks (mystaceal region); ears large and exposed; colour a uniform sordid or brownish-slaty blue, extending to the clad extremities; snout to rump, 3-1/2 inches; tail, 2-1/2 inches; planta, 13/16 inch. This animal was caught in a wood plentifully watered, but not near the water. It had no musky smell when brought to me dead." NO. 134. SOREX MONTANUS. _The Ceylon Black Shrew_. HABITAT.--Ceylon, mountainous parts. DESCRIPTION.--"Fur above sooty black without any ferruginous smear, beneath lighter coloured; whiskers long, silvery grey; some parts of legs and feet greyish, clothed with adpressed hairs; claws short, whitish; ears large, round, naked; outer margin lying on a level with the fur of the head and neck, the ears being thus concealed posteriorly; tail tetragonal, tapering, shorter than head and body."--_Kellaart_. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-3/4 inches; tail, 2-1/4 inches; hind feet, 1/3 inch. NO. 135. SOREX FERRUGINEUS. _The Ceylon Rufescent Shrew_. HABITAT.--Ceylon, Dimboola, below Newara Elia. DESCRIPTION.--"Colour uniform dusky or dusky slate, with the tips of the fur rufescent; fur long; large sebaceous anal glands; smell very powerful."--_Kellaart_. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-3/4 inches; tail, 2-1/4 inches. NO. 136. SOREX GRIFFITHI. _The Large Black Shrew_. HABITAT.--Khasia hills and Arracan. DESCRIPTION.--"Deep blackish-brown, with a slight rufous reflection in a certain light; fur short, close, soft, and adpressed; tail thick at the base, with a few long very slender straggling hairs along its entire length; ears small and rounded; snout elongated."--_Horsfield_. SIZE.--Head and body, 5-3/4 inches; tail, 2-1/2 inches. Horsfield puts this down as having been found in Afghanistan by Griffiths, but this is an error owing to Griffiths' Afghanistan and Khasia collections having got mixed up. NO. 137. SOREX HETERODON. HABITAT.--Khasia hills. DESCRIPTION.--"Very similar to _S. soccatus_ in general appearance, but less dark coloured, with shorter fur, and pale instead of blackish feet and tail underneath; the feet too are broader, especially the hind feet, and they have a hairy patch below the heel" (_Blyth_). The skull is narrower, and the upper incisors less strongly hooked. _GENUS FEROCULUS_. Teeth small; upper incisors shorter and less strongly hooked than in restricted _Sorex_; posterior spur large; lower incisors serrated with three coronal points. Feet very large. NO. 138. FEROCULUS MACROPUS. _The Large-footed Shrew_. HABITAT.--Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Fur, long, soft uniform blackish--faint rufescent tinge. SIZE.--Head and body 4-1/4 inches; tail 2-1/4. * * * * * The following species are of a more diminutive type, and are commonly called "pigmy-shrews;" in other respects they are true shrews. NO. 139. SOREX HODGSONI. _The Nepal Pigmy-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 78_). HABITAT.--Nepal and Sikim. DESCRIPTION.--Brown, with a slight tinge of chestnut; feet and tail furred; claws white. SIZE.--Head and body 1-1/2 inch; tail, 1 inch. Found in coppices and fields; rarely entering houses. NO. 140. SOREX PERROTETI. _The Neilgherry Pigmy-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 79_). HABITAT.--Neilgherry hills, probably also other parts of Southern India. DESCRIPTION.--"Back deep blackish-brown; belly pale; limbs and feet brown; palms and plantae clad with hairs; ears large, conspicuous." SIZE.--Head and body, 1-4/12 inch; tail, 11/12 inch. NO. 141. SOREX MICRONYX. _The Small-clawed Pigmy-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 80_). HABITAT.--West Himalayas, Kumaon, Mussoorie. DESCRIPTION.--Claws very minute, with fine hairs impending them, only to be detected by a lens; fur paler and more chestnut-brown than any other of these minute shrews, and more silvery below. SIZE.--Head and body, 1-5/8 inch; tail 1-1/8 inch. NO. 142. SOREX MELANODON. _The Black-toothed Pigmy-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 81_). HABITAT.--Calcutta. DESCRIPTION.--Called _melanodon_ from the remarkable colouring of its teeth, which are piceous and white-tipped; colour uniform fuscous, scarcely paler beneath. SIZE.--Head and body, 1-7/8 inch; tail, 1-1/16 inch. NO. 143. SOREX NUDIPES. _The Naked-footed Shrew_. HABITAT.--Tenasserim. DESCRIPTION.--"Remarkable for its naked feet and very large ears; also for the odoriferous glands on the sides being strongly developed, whereas we can detect them in no other of these minute species" (_Blyth_). Colour brown above, a little grizzled and glistening, more silvery below. SIZE.--Head and body, 1-3/4 inch; tail, 1-1/16 inch. NO. 144. SOREX ATRATUS. _The Black Pigmy-Shrew_. HABITAT.--Khasia hills. DESCRIPTION.--"Very dark colour, extending over the feet and tail which is even _blackish underneath_; fur blackish-brown above, a little tinged rufescent, and with dark greyish underneath; the feet and tail conspicuously furred, beside the scattered long hairs upon the latter."--_Blyth_. This species was determined by Blyth on a single specimen, which was found without its head, impaled by some shrike upon a thorn at Cherrapunji. The same thing occasionally occurs in England, when the common shrew may be found impaled by the rufous-backed shrike (_Lanius collurio_). _SUB-GENUS SORICULUS_ (_Blyth_). The foregoing species being of the _white-toothed_ variety (with the exception of _S. melanodon_, which, however, exhibits coloration decidedly the _reverse_ of the following type), we now come to the shrews with teeth tipped with a darker colour; the dentition is as in the restricted shrews, with the peculiarity of colour above mentioned. The hind feet of ordinary proportions, unadapted for aquatic habits, and the tail slender and tapering, like that of a mouse, instead of being cylindrical with a stiff brush at the end. NO. 145. SORICULUS NIGRESCENS. _The Mouse-tailed Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 82_). HABITAT.--Sikim and Nepal. DESCRIPTION.--"Above dark-blackish or blackish-brown, slightly tinged rufescent, and with a silvery cast in certain lights; beneath greyish-black" (_Jerdon_). Feet and claws pale; tail slender, straight and naked. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/4 inches; tail, 1-1/2 inch; hind foot, 5/8 inch. Jerdon says that Kellaart named an allied species from Ceylon _Corsira newera ellia_, but I have not been able to find it in his 'Prodromus Faunae Zeylanicae,' nor elsewhere. _GENUS CROSSOPUS_ (_Wagner_). The hind feet large; the lower surface, as also of the tail, fringed with stiff hairs; tail somewhat compressed towards the tip; habits aquatic. NO. 146. CROSSOPUS HIMALAICUS. _The Himalayan Water-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 83_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Oong lagniyu_, Lepcha; _Choopitsi_, Bhot. HABITAT.--Darjeeling. DESCRIPTION.--Fur dark brown above, paler beneath; rusty brown on the lower part of throat and middle of belly, according to Jerdon; slate coloured back with scattered long hairs, which are longer and white-tipped on the sides and rump, according to Blyth's memoir; ears very small, hairy, concealed; tail long, slender, fringed with stiff whitish hair beneath; whiskers long and brown. SIZE.--Head and body, 5 to 6 inches; tail about 3-1/2 inches; hind foot, 3/4 to 11/12 inch. Jerdon procured this water-shrew at Darjeeling in the Little Rungeet river; it is said to live on small fish, tadpoles, water insects, &c. The movements of the English water-shrew, when swimming, are very agile. It propels itself by alternate strokes of its hind feet, but with an undulating motion, its sides being in a manner extended, and body flattened, showing a narrow white border on each side; then the fur collects a mass of tiny air bubbles which make the submerged portion glow like silver. It prefers clear still water, but at the same time will make its way up running streams and ditches, and occasionally wanders away into fields, and has been found in houses and barns. Its food is principally aquatic insects, worms, mollusca, and freshwater crustacea. In Bell's 'British Quadrupeds' its mode of poking about amongst stones in search of fresh-water shrimps (_Gammarus pulex_) is well described. Mr. F. Buckland states that he once dissected a water-shrew and found the intestines to contain a dark fluid pulpy matter, which, on being examined by a microscope, proved to consist entirely of the horny cases and legs of minute water insects. Continental writers declare that it will attack any small animal that comes in its way, giving it quite a ferocious character, and it is said to destroy fish spawn. I can hardly believe in its destroying large fish by eating out their brain and eyes. Brehm, who gives it credit for this, must have been mistaken. I have also read of its attacking a rat in a trap which was dead, and was discovered devouring it, having succeeded in making a small hole through the skin. In England this animal breeds in May. The young are from five to seven in number, and are brought forth in a small chamber in the bank, which is constructed with several openings, one of which is usually under the level of the water. Dr. Anderson has very fully described the Himalayan species under the name of _Chimarrogale Himalaica_. He caught a specimen in a mountain stream at Ponsee in the Kakhyen hills, 3500 feet above the sea level, and observed it running over the stones in the bed of the stream and plunging freely into the water hunting for insects. _GENUS NYCTOGALE_. Head and skull as in _Soricidae_, but with palmated feet and compressed tail, as in _Myogalidae_. Special characteristic, large pads on the soles of the feet, which form sucking discs. NO. 147. NYCTOGALE ELEGANS. _The Thibet Water-Shrew_. HABITAT.--Moupin in Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Fur of two kinds, a soft under down of slaty grey colour through which pass longer hairs, grey at the base with white tips, "causing the animal to vary considerably in appearance according as these hairs are raised or laid flat;" ears quite concealed, and without a conch; tail stout, longer than the body, quadrangular at the base, then triangular, and finally flattened; feet large and palmated, with large pads on the soles, depressed in the middle, forming sucking discs, which are a peculiar characteristic of this animal. SIZE.--Head and body about 3-1/2 inches; tail about 4 inches. Though this is not properly an Indian animal, I have thought fit to include it as belonging to a border country in which much interest is taken, and which has as yet been imperfectly explored. _GENUS CORSIRA_. Of Gray, _Amphisorex_ of Duvernoy; differs in dentition from the last in having the lower quasi-incisors serrated with three or four coronal points, and the anterior point of the upper incisors not prolonged beyond the posterior spur, tipped with ferruginous; the lateral small teeth in the upper jaw are five in number, diminishing in size from the first backwards. Tail cylindrical, not tapering, and furnished with a stiffish brush at the extremity. The common British land-shrew is of this type. NO. 148. CORSIRA ALPINA. _The Alpine Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 84_). HABITAT.--Darjeeling. DESCRIPTION.--Deep blackish brown, very slightly rufescent in certain lights; tail slender, nearly naked, very slightly attenuated, compressed at the tip. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail 2-1/2 inches. This is identical with the European Alpine shrew; the _Sorex caudatus_ of Horsfield's Catalogue (No. 148), which was a specimen named by Hodgson, is also the same animal. _GENUS ANUROSOREX_. Remarkably for its large head, nude, scaly extremities, and extremely short, nude, scaly tail. "The structure of the ear, limbs and tail has special reference to a burrowing animal--the ear being valvular, so that it may be effectually closed against the entrance of foreign substances, and the feet devoid of hair, but scaly, and the tail reduced to very small dimensions. The eye is also excessively small, and buried deep in the dense silky fur. The hind feet, contrary to what is almost invariably the case in burrowing mammals, are larger than the fore feet."--_Anderson_. NO. 149. ANUROSOREX ASSAMENSIS. _The Assam Burrowing Shrew_. HABITAT.--Assam, Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--General colour dark slaty, faintly washed with brownish rusty on the long hairs of the rump; fur long and silky, longest over the rump; occasional long brown hairs with pale tips are scattered over the body; long whiskers, yellow claws; naked parts of snout, limbs and tail flesh-coloured. SIZE.--Head and body nearly 3 inches; tail, 1/2 inch; forefoot, 1/2 inch; hind foot, 3/4 inch. The skull and dentition of this animal are essentially soricine. The Thibetan species (_A. squamipes_) is described as being over four inches in length, of a greyish colour, with a greenish-brown tinge; feet and nails whitish. It lives in burrows which it digs in the earth. I think it should properly come after the moles, which it resembles in some particulars. FAMILY ERINACEIDAE--THE HEDGEHOGS. The molar teeth broad; the hinder ones nearly square, the tubercles on their upper surface rounded; the other teeth are three incisors on each side, of which the inner one is considerably larger than the rest; behind these, separated by a little gap, come three premolars gradually increasing in size, then one having much the appearance of a true molar, but furnished with a cutting edge; then three molar teeth, two of which are nearly square with strong tubercles. The last molar is small. In the lower jaw the lowermost incisor is very large, and projects almost horizontally forwards, and it is followed by three small teeth now acknowledged to be premolars, with another large premolar, which is of the nature of a carnassial or cutting tooth acting on the one in the upper jaw. Then three molars as above, two large and one small, but with sharp tubercles. The skull has a more carnivorous form; it has "a complete zygomatic arch, and the tympanic bone forms a bundle-like swelling on each side of the back of the skull." Feet pentadactylous or five-toed; legs very short. The tibia and fibula (two bones of the shank) are joined together. The back is clothed with hair intermixed with sharp spines or bristles. Tail short or wanting entirely. [Figure: Dentition of Hedgehog.] _GENUS ERINACEUS_. The European hedgehog is well known to most of us. Few boys who have lived a country life have been without one at some time or other as a pet. I used to keep mine in a hole at the root of an old apple-tree, which was my special property, and they were occasionally brought into the house at the cook's request to demolish the black-beetles in the kitchen. These they devour with avidity and pursue them with the greatest ardour. They also eat slugs, worms, and snails; worms they seize and eat from end to end, like a Neapolitan boy with a string of maccaroni, slowly masticating, the unconsumed portion being constantly transferred from one side of the mouth to the other, so that both sides of the jaws may come into play. Dr. Dallas quaintly remarks on the process: "This must be an unpleasant operation for the worm, much as its captor may enjoy it." Toads, frogs, mice, and even snakes are eaten by the European hedgehog. It would be interesting to find out whether the Indian hedgehog also attacks snakes; even the viper in Europe is devoured by this animal, who apparently takes little heed of its bite. The European species also eats eggs when it can get them, and I have no doubt does much damage to those birds who make their nests on the ground. Few dogs will tackle a hedgehog, for the little creature at once rolls itself into a spiny ball, all sharp prickles, by means of the contraction of a set of cutaneous muscles, the most important of which, the _orbicularis panniculi_, form a broad band encircling the body which draws together the edges of the spiny part of the skin. There is a most interesting account of the mechanism of the spines in Mr. F. Buckland's notes to White's 'Natural History of Selborne,' vol. ii., page 76. A jet of water poured on to the part within which the head is concealed will make the creature unroll, and it is said that foxes and some dogs have discovered a way of applying this plan, and also that foxes will roll a hedgehog into a ditch or pond, and thus make him either expose himself to attack or drown. Gipsies eat hedgehogs, and consider them a delicacy--the meat being white and as tender as a chicken (not quite equal to porcupine, I should say); they cook them by rolling them in clay, and baking them till the clay is dry; when the ball is broken open the prickles come off with the crust. [Figure: Hedgehog.] Hedgehogs have had several popular fallacies concerning them. They were supposed to suck cows dry during the night and to be proof against poisons. Mr. Frank Buckland tried prussic acid on one with fatal results, but he says the bite of a viper seemed to have no effect. Pallas, I know, has remarked that hedgehogs will eat hundreds of cantharides beetles with impunity, whereas one or two will cause extreme agony to a cat or dog. The female goes with young about seven weeks, and she has from three to eight in number. The little ones when born have soft spines--which, however, soon harden--are blind, and, with the exception of the rudimentary prickles, quite naked. They are white at birth, but in about a month acquire the colour of the mother. NO. 150. ERINACEUS COLLARIS. _The Collared Hedgehog_ (_Jerdon's No. 85_). HABITAT.--Northern India and Afghanistan. Dallas says from Madras to Candahar; but Jerdon calls it the North Indian hedgehog, and assigns to it the North-west, Punjab, and Sind, giving Southern India to the next species. DESCRIPTION.--Spines irregularly interwoven, ringed with white and black, with yellowish tips, or simply white and black, or black with a white ring in the middle; ears large; chin white; belly and legs pale brown. SIZE.--Head and body, 8 to 9 inches; tail, 7/12 inch. I have found this species in the Punjab near Lahore. One evening, whilst walking in the dusk, a small animal, which I took to be a rat, ran suddenly between my legs. Now I confess to an antipathy to rats, and, though I would not willingly hurt any animal, I could not resist an impulsive kick, which sent my supposed rat high in the air. I felt a qualm of conscience immediately afterwards, and ran to pick up my victim, and was sorry to find I had perpetrated such an assault on an unoffending little hedgehog, which was however only stunned, and was carried off by me to the Zoological Gardens. Captain Hutton writes of them that they feed on beetles, lizards, and snails; "when touched they have the habit of suddenly jerking up the back with some force so as to prick the fingers or mouth of the assailant, and at the same time emitting a blowing sound, not unlike the noise produced when blowing upon a flame with a pair of bellows." He also says they are very tenacious of life, bearing long abstinence with apparent ease; when alarmed they roll themselves up into a ball like the European species. Hutton also remarks that _E. collaris_, on hearing a noise, jerks the skin and quills of its neck completely over its head, leaving only the tip of the nose free. NO. 151. ERINACEUS MICROPUS. _The Small-footed Hedgehog_ (_Jerdon's No. 86_). HABITAT.--South India. DESCRIPTION.--"Ears moderately large; form somewhat elongated; tail very short, concealed; feet and limbs very small; head and ears nude, sooty-coloured; belly very thinly clad with yellowish hairs; spines ringed dark brown and whitish, or whitish with a broad brown sub-terminal ring, tipped white."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body about 6 inches. Dr. Anderson considers this as identical with _E. collaris_. NO. 152. ERINACEUS PICTUS. _The Painted Hedgehog_. HABITAT.--Central India, Goona, Ulwar, Agra, Kurrachee. DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the above, but the tips of the spines are more broadly white, and the brown bands below not so dark; the ears are somewhat larger than _micropus_, and the feet narrower and not so long. NO. 153. ERINACEUS GRAYI. HABITAT.--North-west India. DESCRIPTION.--The general colour is blackish-brown; the spines are narrowly tipped with black, succeeded by a narrowish yellow band; then a blackish-brown band, the rest of the spine being yellowish; the broad dark-brown band is so strongly developed as to give the animal its dark appearance when viewed from the side; some animals are, however, lighter than others. The feet are large; the fore-feet broad, somewhat truncated, with moderately long toes and powerful claws. SIZE.--Head and body about 6-3/4 inches. NO. 154. ERINACEUS BLANFORDI (_Anderson_). HABITAT.--Sind, where one specimen was obtained by Mr. W. T. Blanford, at Rohri. DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle rather short, not much pointed; ears moderately large, but broader than long, and rounded at the tips; feet larger and broader than in the next species, with the first toe more largely developed than in the last. The spines meet in a point on the forehead, and there is no bare patch on the vertex. Each spine is broadly tipped with deep black, succeeded by a very broad yellow band, followed by a dusky brown base; fur deep brown; a few white hairs on chin and anterior angle of ear. SIZE.--Head and body, 5.36 inches. NO. 155. ERINACEUS JERDONI (_Anderson_). HABITAT.--Sind, Punjab frontier. DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle moderately long and pointed; ears large, round at tip and broad at base; feet large, especially the fore-feet; claws strong. The spines begin on a line with the anterior margins of the ears; large nude area on the vertex; spines with two white and three black bands, beginning with a black band. When they are laid flat the animal looks black; but an erection the white shows and gives a variegated appearance. SIZE.--Head and body about 7-1/2 inches. NO. 156. ERINACEUS MEGALOTIS. _The Large-eared Hedgehog_. HABITAT.--Afghanistan. More information is required about this species. Jerdon seems to think it may be the same as described by Pallas (_E. auritus_), which description I have before me now ('Zoographica Rosso Asiatica,' vol. i. page 138), but I am unable to say from comparison that the two are identical--the ears and the muzzle are longer than in the common hedgehog. This is the species which he noticed devouring blistering beetles with impunity. It has a very delicate fur of long silky white hairs, covering the head, breast and abdomen, "forming also along the sides a beautiful ornamental border" (_Horsfield_, from a specimen brought from Mesopotamia by Commander Jones, I.N.) The space to which I am obliged to limit myself will not allow of my describing at greater length; but to those of my readers who are interested in the Indian hedgehogs, I recommend the paper by Dr. J. Anderson in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal' for 1878, page 195, with excellently drawn plates of the heads, skulls and feet of the various species. There is one peculiarity which he notices regarding the skull of _E. collaris_ (or, as he calls it, _micropus_): the zygomatic arch is not continuous as in the other species, but is broken in the middle, the gap being caused by the absence of the _malar_ or cheek-bone. In this respect it resembles, though Dr. Anderson does not notice it, the _Centetidae_ or _Tanrecs_ of Madagascar. Dr. Anderson's classification is very simple and good. He has two groups: the first, containing _E. micropus_ and _E. pictus_, is distinguished by the _second upper premolar simple, one-fanged, the feet club-shaped; soles tubercular_. The second group, containing _E. Grayi_, _E. Blanfordi_ and _E. Jerdoni_, has _the second upper premolar compound, three-fanged, and the feet well developed and broad_. The first group has also a division or bare area on the vertex; the second has not. FAMILY HYLOMIDAE (_Anderson_). The following little animal has affinities to both _Erinaceidae_ and _Tupaiidae_, and therefore it may appropriately be placed here. Dr. Anderson on the above ground has placed it in a separate family, otherwise it is generally classed with the _Erinaceidae_. Its skull has the general form of the skull of _Tupaia_, but in its imperfect orbit, in the rudiment of a post-orbital process, and in the absence of any imperfections of the zygomatic arch and in the position of the lachrymal foramen it resembles the skull of _Erinaceus_. The teeth are 44 in number: Inc., 3--3/3--3; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 4--4/4--4; molars, 3--3/3--3, and partake of the character of both _Tupaia_ and _Erinaceus_. The shank-bones being united and the rudimentary tail create an affinity to the latter, whilst its arboreal habits are those of the former. _GENUS HYLOMYS_. Head elongate; ears round; feet arboreal, naked below; tail semi-nude; pelage not spiny. NO. 157. HYLOMYS PEGUENSIS. _The Short-tailed Tree-Shrew_. HABITAT.--Burmah, Pegu, Ponsee in the Kakhyen hills. Appears to be identical with the species from Borneo (_H. suillus_). FAMILY TUPAIIDAE. These interesting little animals were first accurately described about the year 1820, though, as I have before stated, it was noticed in the papers connected with Captain Cook's voyages, but was then supposed to be a squirrel. Sir T. Stamford Raffles writes: "This singular little animal was first observed tame in the house of a gentleman at Penang, and afterwards found wild at Singapore in the woods near Bencoolen, where it lives on the fruit of the kayogadis, &c." Another species, _T. Javanica_, had, however, been discovered in Java fourteen years before, but not published till 1821. They are sprightly little creatures, easily tamed, and, not being purely insectivorous, are not difficult to feed in captivity. Sir T. S. Raffles describes one that roamed freely all over the house, presenting himself regularly at meal-times for milk and fruit. Dr. Sal. Muller describes the other species (_T. Javanica_) as a confiding, simple little animal, always in motion, seeking its food at one time amongst dry leaves and moss on the ground, and again on the stems and branches of trees, poking its nose into every crevice. Its nest, he says, is formed of moss at some height from the ground, supported on clusters of orchideous plants. Dr. Cantor, in his 'Catalogue of the Mammalia of the Malayan Peninsula,' writes as follows: "In a state of nature it lives singly or in pairs, fiercely attacking intruders of its own species. When several are confined together they fight each other, or jointly attack and destroy the weakest. The natural food is mixed insectivorous and frugivorous. In confinement, individuals may be fed exclusively on either, though preference is evinced for insects; and eggs, fish and earth-worms are equally relished. A short, peculiar, tremulous, whistling sound, often heard by calls and answers in the Malayan jungle, marks their pleasurable emotions, as for instance on the appearance of food, while the contrary is expressed by shrill protracted cries. Their disposition is very restless, and their great agility enables them to perform the most extraordinary bounds in all directions, in which exercise they spend the day, till night sends them to sleep in their rudely-constructed lairs in the highest branches of trees. At times they will sit on their haunches, holding their food between their forelegs, and after feeding they smooth the head and face with both fore-paws, and lick the lips and palms. They are also fond of water, both to drink and to bathe in. The female usually produces one young." The above description reminds one forcibly of the habits of squirrels, so it is no wonder that at one time these little creatures were confounded with the _Sciuridae_. _GENUS TUPAIA_. The dentition of this genus is as follows: Either four or six incisors in the upper jaw, but always six in the lower; four premolars and three molars in each jaw, upper and lower. The skull has a complete bony orbit, and the zygomatic arch is also complete, but with a small elongated perforation; the muzzle attenuated, except in _T. Ellioti_; ears oval; the stomach possesses a caecum or blind gut; the eyes are large and prominent, and the tail bushy, like that of a squirrel; the toes are five in number, with strong claws; the shank-bones are not united as in the hedgehogs. The diet is mixed insectivorous and frugivorous. NO. 158. TUPAIA ELLIOTI. _Elliot's Tree-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 87_). HABITAT.--Southern India, Godavery district, Cuttack; the Central Provinces, Bhagulpore range. [Figure: Dentition of _Tupaia_.] DESCRIPTION.--Fur pale rufous brown, darker on the back and paler on the sides; the chin, throat, breast and belly yellowish, also a streak of the same under the tail; the upper surface of the tail is of the same colour as the centre of the back; there is a pale line from the muzzle over the eye, and a similar patch beneath it; the fur of this species is shorter and more harsh, and the head is more blunt than in the Malayan members of the family. SIZE.--Head and body, 7 to 8 inches; tail, 7 to 9 inches. NO. 159. TUPAIA PEGUANA. _Syn_.--TUPAIA BELANGERI. _The Pegu Tree-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 88_). HABITAT.--Sikim (Darjeeling), Assam and through Arakan to Tenasserim. [Figure: _Tupaia Peguana_.] DESCRIPTION.--Jerdon says: "General hue a dusky greenish-brown, the hairs being ringed brown and yellow; lower parts the same, but lighter; and with a pale buff line; a stripe from the throat to the vent, broadest between the forearms and then narrowing; ears livid red, with a few short hairs; palms and soles dark livid red." Dr. Anderson remarks that the fur is of two kinds of hairs--one fine and wavy at the extremity, banded with black, yellow and black; the second being strong and somewhat bristly, longer than the other, and banded with a black basal half and then followed by rings of yellow and black, then yellow again with a black tip, the black basal half of the hairs being hidden, the annulation of the free portions produces a rufous olive-grey tint over the body and tail. SIZE.--Head and body about 7 inches; tail, 6-1/2. Jerdon says of it that those he procured at Darjeeling frequented the zone from 3000 to 6000 feet; they were said by the natives to kill small birds, mice, &c. The Lepcha name he gives is _Kalli-tang-zhing_. McMaster in his notes writes: "The Burmese Tupaia is a harmless little animal; in the dry season living in trees and in the monsoon freely entering our houses, and in impudent familiarity taking the place held in India by the common palm squirrel. It is, however, probably from its rat-like head and thievish expression, very unpopular. I have found them in rat-traps, however, so possibly they deserve to be so." He adds he cannot endorse the statement regarding their extraordinary agility mentioned by Dr. Cantor and quoted by Jerdon, for he had seen his terriers catch them, which they were never able to do with squirrels; and cats often seize them. Mason says: "One that made his home in the mango-tree near my house at Tonghoo made himself nearly as familiar as the cat. Sometimes I had to drive him off the bed, and he was very fond of putting his nose into the teacups immediately after breakfast, and acquired a taste both for tea and coffee. He lost his life at last by incontinently walking into a rat-trap." The Burmese name for it is _Tswai_ in Arracan. Jerdon states that it is one of the few novelties that had escaped the notice of Mr. Brian Hodgson, but Dr. Anderson mentions a specimen (unnamed) from Nepal in the British Museum which was obtained by Hodgson. NO. 160. TUPAIA CHINENSIS (_Anderson_). HABITAT.--Burmah, Kakhyen hills, east of the valley of the Irrawaddy. DESCRIPTION.--Ferruginous above, yellowish below, the basal two-thirds of the hair being blackish, succeeded by a yellow, a black, and then a yellow and black band, which is terminal; there is a faint shoulder streak washed with yellowish; the chest pale orange yellow, which hue extends along the middle of the belly as a narrow line; under surfaces of limbs grizzled as on the back, but paler; upper surface of tail concolorous with the dorsum. SIZE.--Head and body, 6-1/2 inches; tail, 6.16. The teeth are larger than those of _T. Ellioti_, but smaller than the Malayan _T. ferruginea_, and the skull is smaller than that of the last species, and the teeth are also smaller. Dr. Anderson says: "When I first observed the animal it was on a grassy clearing close to patches of fruit, and was so comporting itself that in the distance I mistook it for a squirrel. The next time I noticed it was in hedgerows." The other varieties of _Tupaia_ belong to the Malayan Archipelago--_T. ferruginea_, _T. tana_, _T. splendidula_, and _T. Javanica_ to Borneo and Java. There is one species which inhabits the Nicobars. NO. 161. TUPAIA NICOBARICA. HABITAT.--Nicobar Island. DESCRIPTION.--Front and sides of the face, outside of fore-limbs, throat and chest, golden yellow; inner side of hind limbs rich red brown, which is also the colour of the hind legs and feet; head dark brown, with golden hairs intermixed; back dark maroon, almost black; upper surface of the tail the same; pale oval patch between shoulders, dark band on each side between it and fore-limbs, passing forward over the ears. SIZE.--Head and body, 7.10; tail, 8 inches. * * * * * There is a little animal allied to the genus _Tupaia_, which has hitherto been found only in Borneo and Sumatra, but as Sumatran types have been found in Tenasserim, perhaps some day the _Ptilocercus Lowii_ may be discovered there. It has a rather shorter head than the true Banxrings, more like _T. Ellioti_, but its dentition is nearly the same, as also are its habits. Its chief peculiarity lies in its tail, which is long, slender and naked, like that of a rat for two-thirds of its length, the terminal third being adorned with a broad fringe of hair on each side, like the wings of an arrow or the plumes of a feather. There is an excellent coloured picture of it in the 'Proc. Zool. Society,' vol. of Plates. * * * * * I had almost concluded my sketch of the Insectivora without alluding to one most interesting genus, which ought properly to have come between the shrews and the hedgehogs, the _Gymnura_, which, though common in the Malay countries, has only recently been found in Burmah--a fact of which I was not aware till I saw it included in a paper on Tenasserim mammals by Mr. W. T. Blanford ('Jour. As. Soc. Beng.,' 1878, page 150). Before I refer to his notes I may state that this animal is a sort of link between the _Soricidae_ and the _Erinaceidae_, and De Blainville proposed for it the generic name of _Echinosorex_, but the one generally adopted is _Gymnura_, which was the specific name given to it by its discoverer, Sir Stamford Raffles, who described it as a _Viverra_ (_V. gymnura_); however, Horsfield and Vigors and Lesson, the two former in England and the latter in France, saw that it was not a civet, and, taking the naked tail as a peculiarity, they called the genus _Gymnura_, and the specimen _Rafflesii_. There is not much on record regarding the anatomy of the animal, and in what respects it internally resembles the hedgehogs. Outwardly it has the general soricine form, though much larger than the largest shrew. The long tail too is against its resemblance to the hedgehogs, which rests principally on its spiny pelage. The teeth in some degree resemble _Erinaceus_, the molars and premolars especially, but the number in all is greater, there being forty-four, or eight more. It would be interesting to know whether the zygomatic arch is perfect and the tibia and fibula united, as in the hedgehogs, or wanting and distinct as in the shrews. I have given a slight sketch in outline of the animal. NO. 162. GYMNURA RAFFLESII. _The Bulau_. HABITAT.--Tenasserim (Sumatra, Borneo); Malacca. [Figure: _Gymnura Rafflesii_.] DESCRIPTION.--Long tapering head, with elongated muzzle, short legs, shrew-like body, with a long, round, tapering and scaly rat-like tail, naked, with the exception of a few stiff hairs here and there among the scales. In each jaw on each side three incisors, one canine (those in the upper jaw double-fanged) and seven premolars and molars; feet five-toed, plantigrade, armed with strong claws. Fur of two kinds, fine and soft, with longer and more spiny ones intermixed. The colour varies a good deal, the general tint being greyish-black, with head and neck pale or whitish, and with a broad black patch over the eye. Some have been found almost wholly white, with the black eye-streak and only a portion of the longer hairs black, so that much stress cannot be laid on the colouring; the tail is blackish at the base, whitish and compressed at the tip. Mr. Blanford says: "The small scales covering the tail are indistinctly arranged in rings and sub-imbricate; on the lower surface the scales are convex and distinctly imbricate, the bristles arising from the interstices. Thus the under surface of the tail is very rough, and may probably be of use to the animal in climbing." He also refers to the fact that the claws of his specimen are not retractile, and mentions that in the original description both in Latin and English the retractability of the claws is pointed out as a distinction between _Gymnura_ and _Tupaia_. In the description given of the Sumatran animal both by Dallas and Cuvier nothing is mentioned about this feature. SIZE.--A Sumatran specimen: head and body, 14 inches; tail, 12 inches. Mr. Blanford's specimen: head and body, 12 inches; tail, 8.5. Mr. Blanford was informed by Mr. Davison, who obtained it in Burmah, that the _Gymnura_ is purely nocturnal in its habits, and lives under the roots of trees. It has a peculiar and most offensive smell, resembling decomposed cooked vegetables. The Bulau has not the power of rolling itself up like the hedgehog, nor have the similar forms of insectivores which resemble the hedgehog in some respects, such as the Tenrecs (_Centetes_), Tendracs (_Ericulus_), and Sokinahs (_Echinops_) of Madagascar. CARNIVORA. Speaking generally, the whole range of mammals between the _Quadrumana_ and the _Rodentia_ are _carnivorous_ with few exceptions, yet there is one family which, from its muscular development and dentition, is pre-eminently flesh-eating, as Cuvier aptly remarks, "the sanguinary appetite is combined with the force necessary for its gratification." Their forms are agile and muscular; their circulation and respiration rapid. As Professor Kitchen Parker graphically writes: "This group, which comprises all the great beasts of prey, is one of the most compact as well as the most interesting among the mammalia. So many of the animals contained in it have become 'familiar in our mouths as household words,' bearing as they do an important part in fable, in travel, and even in history; so many of them are of such wonderful beauty, so many of such terrible ferocity, that no one can fail to be interested in them, even apart from the fact likely to influence us more in their favour than any other, that the two home pets, which of all others are the commonest and the most interesting, belong to the group. No one who has had a dog friend, no one who has watched the wonderful instance of maternal love afforded by a cat with her kittens, no one who loves riding across country after a fox, no lady with a taste for handsome furs, no boy who has read of lion and tiger hunts and has longed to emulate the doughty deeds of the hunter, can fail to be interested in an assemblage which furnishes animals at once so useful, so beautiful and so destructive. It must not be supposed from the name of this group that all its members are exclusively flesh-eaters, and indeed it will be hardly necessary to warn the reader against falling into this mistake, as there are few people who have never given a dog a biscuit, or a bear a bun. Still both the dog and several kinds of bears prefer flesh-meat when they can get it, but there are some bears which live almost exclusively on fruit, and are, therefore, in strictness not carnivorous at all. The name must, however, be taken as a sort of general title for a certain set of animals which have certain characteristics in common, and which differ from all other animals in particular ways." I would I had more space at my disposal for further quotations from Professor Parker's 'General Remarks on the Land Carnivora,' his style is so graphic. The dentition of the Carnivora varies according to the exclusiveness of their fleshy diet, and the nature of that diet. In taking two typical forms I give below sketches from skulls in my possession of the tiger, and the common Indian black bear; the one has trenchant cutting teeth which work up and down, the edges sliding past each other just like a pair of scissors; the other has flat crowned molars adapted for triturating the roots and herbage on which it feeds. A skull of an old bear which I have has molars of which the crowns are worn almost smooth from attrition. In the most carnivorous forms the tubercular molars are almost rudimentary. [Figure: Dentition of Tiger and Indian Black Bear] The skull exhibits peculiar features for the attachment of the necessary powerful muscles. The bones of the face are short in comparison with the _cranial_ portion of the skull (the reverse of the _Herbivores_); the strongly built zygomatic arch, the roughened ridges and the broad ascending ramus of the lower jaw, all afford place for the attachment of the immense muscular development. Then the hinge of the jaw is peculiar; it allows of no lateral motion, as in the ruminants; the _condyle_, or hinge-bolt of a tiger's jaw (taken from the largest in my collection), measures two inches, and as this fits accurately into its corresponding (glenoid) cavity, there can be no side motion, but a vertical chopping one only. The skeleton of a typical carnivore is the perfection of strength and suppleness. The tissue of the bones is dense and white; the head small and beautifully articulated; the spine flexible yet strong. In those which show the greatest activity, such as the cats, civets and dogs, the spinous processes, especially in the lumbar region, are greatly developed--more so than in the bears. These serve for the attachment of the powerful muscles of the neck and back. The clavicle or collar-bone is wanting, or but rudimentary. The stomach is simple; the intestinal canal short; liver lobed; organs of sight, hearing, and smell much developed. Now we come to the divisions into which this group has been separated by naturalists. I shall not attempt to describe the various systems, but take the one which appears to me the simplest and best to fit in with Cuvier's general arrangement, which I have followed. Modern zoologists have divided the family into two great groups--the _Fissipedia_ (split-feet) or land Carnivora, and the _Pinnipedia_ (fin-feet) or water Carnivora. Of the land Carnivora some naturalists have made the following three groups on the characteristics of the feet, _viz_., _Plantigrada_, _Sub-plantigrada_ and _Digitigrada_. The dogs and cats, it is well known, walk on their toes--they are the _Digitigrada_; the bears and allied forms on the palms of their hands and soles of their feet, more or less, and thus form the other two divisions, but there is another classification which recommends itself by its simplicity and accuracy. Broadly speaking, there are three types of land carnivores--the cat, the dog, and the bear, which have been scientifically named _AEluroidea_ (from the Greek _ailouros_, a cat); _Cynoidea_ (from _kuon_, a dog); and _Arctoidea_ (from _arctos_, a bear). The distinction is greater between the families of _Digitigrades_, the cat and dog, than between the _Plantigrades_ and _Sub-plantigrades_, and therefore I propose to adopt the following arrangement:-- I. ARCTOIDEA |_Plantigrades_. |_Sub-plantigrades_. II. AELUROIDEA | |_Digitigrades_. III. CYNOIDEA | I may here remark that the Insectivora are in most cases plantigrade, therefore the term is not an apposite one as applied to the bear and bear-like animals only, but in treating of them under the term _Arctoidea_ we may divide them again into _Plantigrades_ and _Sub-plantigrades_. ARCTOIDEA. PLANTIGRADA. _URSIDAE_. The bears differ from the dogs and cats widely in form and manner, and diet. The cat has a light springy action, treading on the tips of its toes, a well-knit body glistening in a silky coat, often richly variegated, "a clean cut," rounded face, with beautifully chiselled nostrils and thin lips, and lives exclusively on flesh. The bear shambles along with an awkward gait, placing the entire sole of his foot on the ground; he has rough dingy fur, a snout like a pig's, and is chiefly a vegetarian--and in respect to this last peculiarity his dentition is modified considerably: the incisors are large, tri-cuspidate; the canines somewhat smaller than in the restricted carnivora; these are followed by three small teeth, which usually fall out at an early period, then comes a permanent premolar of considerable size, succeeded by two molars in the upper, and three in the under jaw. The dental formula is therefore: Inc., 3--3/3--3; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 4--4/4--4; molars, 2--2/3--3. In actual numbers this formula agrees with that for the dogs; but the form of the teeth is very different, inasmuch as the large premolars and the molars have flat tuberculated crowns, constituting them true grinders, instead of the trenchant shape of the cats, which is also, to a modified extent, possessed by the dogs, of which the last two molars have, instead of cutting edges, a grinding surface with four cusps. The trenchant character is entirely lost in the bear, even in the carnivorous species which exhibit no material difference in the teeth, any more than, as I mentioned at the commencement of this work, do the teeth of the human race, be they as carnivorous as the Esquimaux, or vegetarian as the Hindu. [Figure: Dentition of Bear.] [Figure: Skull of Bear (under view).] There is also another peculiarity in the bear's skull as compared with the cat's. In the latter there is a considerable bulging below the aperture of the ear called the _bulla tympani_, or bulb of the drum. This is almost wanting in the bear, and it would be interesting to know whether this much affects its hearing. I myself am of opinion that bears are not acute in this sense, but then my experience has been with the common Indian _Ursus_, or _Melursus labiatus_ only, and the skulls of this species in my possession strongly exhibit this peculiarity.[6] The cylindrical bones resemble those of man nearer than any other animal, the _femur_ especially; and a skinned bear has a most absurd resemblance to a robust human being. The sole of the hind foot leaves a mark not unlike that of a human print. [Footnote 6: On referring to Mr. Sanderson's interesting book, 'Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India,' and General Shakespear's 'Wild Sports,' I find that both those authors corroborate my assertion that the sloth bear is deficient in the sense of hearing. Captain Baldwin, however, thinks otherwise; but the evidence seems to be against him in this respect.] The Brown Bear of Europe (_Ursus arctos_) is the type of the family, and has been known from the earliest ages--I may say safely prehistoric ages, for its bones have been frequently found in post-pliocene formations along with those of other animals of which some are extinct. An extinct species of bear, _Ursus spelaeus_, commonly called the Cave Bear, seems to have been the ancestor of the Brown Bear which still is found in various parts of Europe, and is said to have been found within historic times in Great Britain. The bear of which we have the oldest record is almost the same as our Indian Brown or Snow Bear. Our bear (_U. Isabellinus_) is but a variety of _U. Syriacus_, which was the one slain by David, and is spoken of in various parts of the Bible. It is the nearest approach we have to the European _U. arctos_. NO. 163. URSUS ISABELLINUS. _The Himalayan Brown Bear_ (_Jerdon's No. 89_). NATIVE NAME.--_Barf-ka-rich_ or _Bhalu_, Hind.; _Harput_, Kashmiri; _Drin-mor_, Ladakhi. [Figure: _URSUS ISABELLINUS_.] DESCRIPTION.--A yellowish-brown colour, varying somewhat according to sex and time of year. Jerdon says: "In winter and spring the fur is long and shaggy, in some inclining to silvery grey, in others to reddish brown; the hair is thinner and darker in summer as the season advances, and in autumn the under fur has mostly disappeared, and a white collar on the chest is then very apparent. The cubs show this collar distinctly. The females are said to be lighter in colour than the males." Gray does not agree in the theory that _Ursus Syriacus_ is the same as this species; in external appearance he says it is the same, but there are differences in the skull; the nose is broader, and the depression in the forehead less. The zygomatic arch is wider and stronger; the lower jaw stronger and higher, and the upper tubercular grinders shorter and thicker than in _Ursus Isabellinus_. "It is found," Jerdon says, "only on the Himalayas and at great elevations in summer close to the snow. In autumn they descend lower, coming into the forests to feed on various fruits, seeds, acorns, hips of rose-bushes, &c., and often coming close to villages to plunder apples, walnuts, apricots, buckwheat, &c. Their usual food in spring and summer is grass and roots. They also feed on various insects, and are seen turning over stones to look for scorpions (it is said) and insects that harbour in such places. In winter they retreat to caves, remaining in a state of semi-torpidity, issuing forth in March and April. Occasionally they are said to kill sheep or goats, often wantonly, apparently, as they do not feed upon them. They litter in April and May, the female having generally two cubs. This bear does not climb trees well." * * * * * The next three species belong to the group of Sun Bears; _Helarctos_ of some authors. NO. 164. URSUS (HELARCTOS) TORQUATUS _vel_ TIBETANUS. _The Himalayan Black Bear_ (_Jerdon's No. 90_). NATIVE NAME.--_Bhalu_, Hind.; _Thom_, Bhot.; _Sona_, Lepcha. HABITAT.--The Himalayas, Nepal, Assam, Eastern Siberia, and China. [Figure: _URSUS TIBETANUS_.] DESCRIPTION.--Entirely black, with the exception of a broad white V-shaped mark on the chest and a white chin. Neck thick, head flattened; ears large; claws very long and curved; fur short; body and head more slender than the preceding species. Jerdon remarks that the specific name of this bear is unfortunate, since it is rare in Thibet. However the more appropriate specific name _torquatus_ is now more generally adopted. It seems to be common in all the Himalayan ranges, where it is to be found from 5000 to 12,000 feet. Jerdon says it lives chiefly on fruit and roots, apricots, walnuts, apples, currants, &c., and also on various grains, barley, Indian corn, buckwheat, &c., and in winter on acorns, climbing the oak trees and breaking down the branches. They are not afraid of venturing near villages, and destroy not only garden stuff, but--being, like all bears, fond of honey--pull down the hives attached to the cottages of the hill people. "Now and then they will kill sheep, goats, &c., and are said occasionally to eat flesh. This bear has bad eyesight, but great power of smell, and if approached from windward is sure to take alarm. A wounded bear will sometimes show fight, but in general it tries to escape. It is said sometimes to coil itself into the form of a ball, and thus roll down steep hills if frightened or wounded." If cornered it attacks savagely, as all bears will, and the face generally suffers, according to Jerdon; but I have noticed this with the common Indian Sloth Bear, several of the men wounded in my district had their scalps torn. He says: "It has been noticed that if caught in a noose or snare, if they cannot break it by force they never have the intelligence to bite the rope in two, but remain till they die or are killed." In captivity this bear, if taken young, is very quiet, but is not so docile as the Malayan species.[7] [Footnote 7: Since writing the above, the following letter appeared in _The Asian_ of May 11, 1880:-- "THE HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR. "SIR,--Mr. Sterndale, in the course of his interesting papers on the Mammalia of British India, remarks of _Ursus Tibetanus_, commonly known as the Himalayan Black Bear, that 'a wounded one will sometimes show fight, but in general it tries to escape.' This description is not, I think, quite correct. As it would lead one to suppose that this bear is not more savage than any other wild animal--the nature of most of the _ferae_ being to try to escape when wounded, _unless_ they see the hunter who has fired at them, when many will charge at once, and desperately. The Himalayan Black Bear will not only do this _almost invariably_, but often attacks men without any provocation whatever, and is altogether about the most fierce, vicious, dangerous brute to be met with either in the hills or plains of India. They inflict the most horrible wounds, chiefly with their paws, and generally--as Mr. Sterndale states--on the face and head. I have repeatedly met natives in the interior frightfully mutilated by encounters with the Black Bear, and cases in which Europeans have been killed by them are by no means uncommon. These brutes are totally different in their dispositions to the Brown Bear (_Ursus Isabellinus_), which, however desperately wounded, will never charge. I believe there is no case on record of a hunter being charged by a Brown Bear; or even of natives, under any circumstances, being attacked by one; whereas every one of your readers who has ever marched in the Himalayas must have come across many victims of the ferocity of _Ursus Tibetanus_. As I said before, this brute often, unwounded, attacks man without any provocation whatever. Two cases that I know of myself may not be without interest. An officer shooting near my camp was stalking some thar. He was getting close to them, when a Black Bear rushed out at him from behind a large rock on his right and above him. He was so intent on the thar, and the brute's rush was so sudden, that he had barely time to pull from the hip, but he was fortunate enough to kill the animal almost at his feet. I heard this from him on the morning after it happened. On another occasion, I was shooting in Chumba with a friend. One evening he encamped at a village, about which there was, as usual, a little cultivation on terraces, and a good many apricot-trees. Lower down the khud there was dense jungle. The villagers told us that a Black Bear had lately been regularly visiting these trees, and generally came out about dusk, so that if we would go down and wait, we should be pretty sure of a shot. We went, and took up positions behind trees, about 200 yards apart, each of us having a man from the village with us. Intervening jungle prevented us from seeing each other. I had not been at my post more than ten minutes when I was startled by loud shrieks and cries from the direction of my companion. No shot was fired, and the coolie with me said that the bear had killed some one. In less than a minute I had reached the spot where I had left my friend. He, and the man with him, had disappeared; but, guided by the shrieks, which still continued, I made my way into the thick cover in front of his post, and about fifty yards inside it, much to my relief, came upon him, rifle in hand, standing over the dead body of a man, over which two people--the coolie that had been with my friend and an old woman--were weeping, and shrieking loudly, 'Look out!' said he, as I came up, 'the bear has just killed this fellow!' The first thing to be done was to carry him out into the open. I helped to do this, and directly I touched him I felt that he was stone cold, and a further examination showed he must have been dead some hours. That he had been killed by a bear was also very evident. He was naked to the waist, and had been cutting grass. His bundle lay by him, and the long curved kind of sickle that the hillmen used to cut grass with was stuck in his girdle, showing that he had not had time to draw it to strike one blow in his defence. The mark of the bear's paw on his left side was quite distinct. This had felled him to the ground, and then the savage brute had given him one bite--no more, but that one had demolished almost the whole of the back of his head, and death must have been instantaneous. The man had apparently cut his load of grass, and was returning with it to the village, when he disturbed the bear, which attacked him at once. The old woman was his mother, and the coolie with J---- some relation. Her son having been away all day, I suppose the old woman had gone to look for him. She found his body, as described, just below J----'s post, and at once set up a lamentation which brought the coolie, J----'s attendant, down to her, and J---- following himself, thought at first that the man had been killed then and there. There was such a row kicked up that no bear came near the apricots that night, and the next day we had to march, as our leave was up. I have heard of many other cases of the Black Bear attacking without any provocation, and from what I know of the brute I quite believe them; and, after all, the animal is not worth shooting. Their skins are always poor and mangy, and generally so _greasy_ that they are very difficult to keep until you can make them over to the dresser. The skin of the Snow or Brown Bear, on the other hand, particularly if shot early in the season, is a splendid trophy, and forms a most beautiful and luxurious rug, the fur being extremely soft, and several inches in depth. "SPINDRIFT."] In _The Asian_ of January 7th, 1879, page 68, a correspondent ("N. F. T. T.") writes that he obtained a specimen of this bear which was coal black throughout, with the exception of a dark dirty yellow on the lower lip, but of the usual crescentic white mark she had not a trace. This exceptional specimen was shot in Kumaon. Robinson, in his 'Account of Assam,' states that these bears are numerous there, and in some places accidents caused by them are not unfrequent. All the Sun Bears are distinguished for their eccentric antics, conspicuous among which is the gift of walking about on their hind legs in a singularly human fashion. Those in the London Zoological Gardens invariably attract a crowd. They struggle together in a playful way, standing on their hind legs to wrestle. They fall and roll, and bite and hug most absurdly. Captain J. H. Baldwin, in his 'Large and Small Game of Bengal,' puts this bear down as not only carnivorous, but a foul feeder. He says: "On my first visit to the hills I very soon learnt that this bear was a flesh-eater, so far as regards a sheep, goats, &c., but I could hardly believe that he would make a repast on such abominations (i.e. carrion), though the paharies repeatedly informed me that such was the case. One day, however, I saw a bear busy making a meal off a bullock that had died of disease, and had been thrown into the bed of a stream." In another page Captain Baldwin states that the Himalayan Bear is a good swimmer; he noticed one crossing the River Pindur in the flood, when, as he remarks, "no human being, however strong a swimmer, could have stemmed such a roaring rapid." NO. 165. URSUS (HELARCTOS) GEDROSIANUS. _Baluchistan Bear_. NATIVE NAME.--_Mamh_. HABITAT.--Baluchistan. DESCRIPTION.--Fur ranging from brown to brownish-black, otherwise as in last species. This is a new species, brought to notice by Mr. W. T. Blanford, and named by him. The skull of the first specimen procured was scarcely distinguishable from that of a female of _Ursus torquatus_, and he was for a time apparently in doubt as to the distinctness of the species, taking the brown skin as merely a variety; but a subsequently received skull of an adult male seems to prove that it is a much smaller animal. NO. 166. URSUS (HELARCTOS) MALAYANUS. _The Bruang or Malayan Sun Bear_. NATIVE NAME.--_Wet-woon_, Arracan. HABITAT.--Burmah, Malay Peninsula and adjacent islands. [Figure: _Ursus Malayanus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Smaller than _U. torquatus_, not exceeding four and a half feet in length. Fur black, brownish on the nose; the chest marked with a white crescent, or, in the Bornean variety, an orange-coloured heart-shaped patch; the claws are remarkably long; mouth and lower jaw dirty white; the lower part of the crescent prolonged in a narrow white streak down to the belly, where it is widened out into a large irregular spot. Marsden, in his 'History of Sumatra,' published towards the end of the last century, speaks of this bear under the name of _Bruang_ (query: is our _Bruin_ derived from this?), and mentions its habit of climbing the cocoa-nut trees to devour the tender part, or cabbage. It is more tamable and docile than the Himalayan Sun Bear, and is even more eccentric in its ways. The one in the London "Zoo," when given a biscuit, lies down on its back, and passes it about from fore to hind paws, eyeing it affectionately, and making most comical noises as it rolls about. Sir Stamford Raffles writes of one which was in his possession for two years:--"He was brought up in the nursery with the children; and when admitted to my table, as was frequently the case, gave a proof of his taste by refusing to eat any fruit but mangosteens, or to drink any wine but champagne. The only time I ever knew him out of humour was on an occasion when no champagne was forthcoming. He was naturally of a playful and affectionate disposition, and it was never found necessary to chain or chastise him. It was usual for this bear, the cat, the dog, and a small blue mountain bird, or lory, of New Holland, to mess together and eat out of the same dish. His favourite playfellow was the dog, whose teasing and worrying was always borne, and returned with the utmost good humour and playfulness. As he grew up he became a very powerful animal, and in his rambles in the garden he would lay hold of the largest plantains, the stems of which he could scarcely embrace, and tear them up by the roots." The late General A. C. McMaster gives an equally amusing account of his pet of this species which was obtained in Burmah. "Ada," he writes, "is never out of temper, and always ready to play with any one. While she was with me, 'Ada' would not eat meat in any shape; but I was told by one of the ship's officers that another of the same species, 'Ethel' (also presented by me to the Committee of the People's Park of Madras, and by them sent to England), while coming over from Burmah killed and devoured a large fowl put into her cage. I do not doubt the _killing_, for at that time 'Ethel' had not long been caught, and was a little demon in temper, but I suspect that, while attention was taken off, some knowing lascar secured the body of the chicken, and gave her credit for having swallowed it. 'Ada's' greatest delight was in getting up small trees; even when she was a chubby infant I could, by merely striking the bark, or a branch some feet above her head, cause her to scramble up almost any tree. At this time poor 'Ada,' a Burman otter, and a large white poodle were, like many human beings of different tastes or pursuits, very fast friends." In another part he mentions having heard of a bear of this species who delighted in cherry brandy, "and on one occasion, having been indulged with an entire bottle of this insinuating beverage, got so completely intoxicated that it stole a bottle of blacking, and drank off the contents under the impression that they were some more of its favourite liquor. The owner of the bear told me that he saw it suffering from this strange mixture, and evidently with, as may easily be imagined, a terrible headache." So much for the amusing side of the picture, now for the other. Although strictly frugivorous, still it has been known to attack and devour man in cases of the greatest want, and it also occasionally devours small animals and birds, in the pursuit of which, according to Dr. Sal Muller, it prefers those that live on a vegetable diet. The Rev. Mr. Mason, in his writings about Burmah, says "they will occasionally attack man when alone;" he instances a bear upsetting two men on a raft, and he goes on to add that "last year a Karen of my acquaintance in Tonghoo was attacked by one, overcome, and left by the bear for dead." In this case there was no attempt to devour, and it may have been, as I have often observed with the Indian Sloth Bear, that such attacks are made by females with young. Dr. Sal Muller states: "in his native forests this bear displays much zeal and ingenuity in discovering the nests of bees, and in extracting their contents by means of his teeth from the narrow orifices of the branches of the trees in which they are concealed." * * * * * The next species constitutes the genus _Melursus_ of Meyer or _Prochilus_ of Illiger. It is an awkward-shaped beast, from which it probably derives its name of "Sloth Bear," for it is not like the sloth in other respects. It has long shaggy hair, large curved claws (which is certainly another point of resemblance to the sloth), and a very much elongated mobile snout. Another peculiarity is in its dentition; instead of six incisors in the upper jaw it has only four. Blyth, in his later writings, adopts Illiger's generic name _Prochilus_. NO. 167. URSUS (MELURSUS) LABIATUS. _The Common Indian Sloth Bear_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Bhalu_, Hind.; _Reench_, Hind.; _Riksha_, Sanscrit; _Aswail_, Mahr.; _Elugu_, Tel.; _Kaddi_ or _Karadi_, Can.; _Yerid_ or _Asol_ of the Gonds; _Banna_ of the Coles. HABITAT.--All over the peninsula of India. Blyth says it is not found in Burmah. [Figure: _Ursus labiatus_.] DESCRIPTION.--General shape of the ursine type, but more than usually ungainly and awkward. Hair very long and shaggy, all black, with the exception of a white V-shaped mark on the chest, and dirty whitish muzzle and tips to its feet; snout prolonged and flexible; claws very large. SIZE.--A large animal of this species will measure from five to six feet in length, and stand nearly three feet high, weighing from fifteen to twenty stones. Our old friend is so well known that he hardly requires description, and the very thought of him brings back many a ludicrous and exciting scene of one's jungle days. There is frequently an element of comicality in most bear-hunts, as well as a considerable spice of danger; for, though some people may pooh-pooh this, I know that a she-bear with cubs is no despicable antagonist. Otherwise the male is more anxious to get away than to provoke an attack. This bear does not hibernate at all, but is active all the year round. In the hot weather it lies all day in cool caves, emerging only at night. In March and April, when the _mohwa_-tree is in flower, it revels in the luscious petals that fall from the trees, even ascending the branches to shake down the coveted blossoms. The _mohwa_ (_Bassia latifolia_) well merits a slight digression from our subject. It is a large-sized umbrageous tree, with oblong leaves from four to eight inches long, and two to four inches broad. The flowers are globular, cream coloured, with a faint greenish tint, waxy in appearance, succulent and extremely sweet, but to my taste extremely nasty, there being a peculiar disagreeable flavour which lingers long in the mouth. However not only do all animals, carnivorous as well as herbivorous, like them, but they are highly appreciated by the natives, who not only eat them raw, but dry them in the sun and thus keep them for future consumption, and also distil an extremely intoxicating spirit from them. The fresh refuse, or _marc_, after the extraction of the spirit is also attractive to animals. Some years ago I sent to Mr. Frank Buckland, for publication in _Land and Water_, an account of a dog which used to frequent a distillery for the purpose of indulging in this refuse, the result of which was his becoming completely intoxicated. This _marc_, after further fermentation, becomes intensely acid, and on one occasion I used it successfully in cleaning and brightening a massive steel and iron gate which I had constructed. I made a large vat, and filling it with this fermented refuse, put the gate in to pickle. The seeds of the _mohwa_ yield an oil much prized by the natives, and used occasionally for adulterating _ghee_. The wood is not much used; it is not of sufficient value to compensate for the flower and fruit, consequently the tree is seldom cut down. When an old one falls the trunk and large limbs are sometimes used for sluices in tanks, for the heart wood is generally rotten and hollow, and it stands well under water. If you ask a Gond about the _mohwa_ he will tell you it is his father and mother. His fleshly father and mother die and disappear, but the _mohwa_ is with him for ever! A good _mohwa_ crop is therefore always anxiously looked for, and the possession of trees coveted; in fact a large number of these trees is an important item for consideration in the assessment of land revenues. No wonder then that the villager looks with disfavour on the prowling bear who nightly gathers up the fallen harvest, or who shakes down the long-prayed-for crop from the laden boughs. The Sloth Bear is also partial to mangos, sugar-cane, and the pods of the _amaltas_ or _cassia_(_Cathartocarpus fistula_), and the fruit of the jack-tree (_Artocarpus integrifolia_). It is extremely fond of honey, and never passes an ant-hill without digging up its contents, especially those of white ants. About twenty years ago my first experience of this was in a neighbour's garden. He had recently built himself a house, and was laying out and sowing his flower-beds with great care. It so happened that one of the beds lay over a large ants' nest, and to his dismay he found one morning a huge pit dug in the centre of it, to the total destruction of all his tender annuals, by a bear that had wandered through the station during the night. Tickell describes the operation thus: "On arriving at an ant-hill the bear scrapes away with the fore-feet till he reaches the large combs at the bottom of the galleries. He then with violent puffs dissipates the dust and crumbled particles of the nest, and sucks out the inhabitants of the comb by such forcible inhalations as to be heard at two hundred yards distant or more. Large larvae are in this way sucked out from great depths under the soil." Insects of all sorts seem not to come amiss to this animal, which systematically hunts for them, turning over stones in the operation. The Sloth Bear has usually two young ones at a birth. They are born blind, and continue so till about the end of the third week. The mother is a most affectionate parent, defending her offspring with the greatest ferocity. A she-bear with cubs is always an awkward customer, and she continues her solicitude for them till they are nearly full grown. The young ones are not difficult to rear if ordinary care be taken. The great mistake that most people make in feeding the young of wild animals is the giving of pure cows' milk. I mentioned this in 'Seonee' in speaking of a bear:-- "The little brute was as savage as his elders, and would do nothing but walk to the end of the string by which he was attached to a tent peg, roll head over heels, and walk in a contrary direction, when a similar somersault would be performed; and he whined and wailed just like a child; one might have mistaken it for the puling of some villager's brat. Milford was going to give it pure cows' milk when Fordham advised him not to do so, but to mix it with one half the quantity of water. 'The great mistake people make,' he said, 'who try to rear wild animals, is to give them what they think is best for them, viz., good fresh cows' milk, and they wonder that the little creatures pine away and die, instead of flourishing on it. Cows' milk is too rich; buffalos' milk is better, but both should be mixed with water. It does not matter what the animal is: tiger-cub, fawn, or baby monkey--all require the same caution.'" I had considerable experience in the bringing up of young things of all sorts when in the Seonee district, and only after some time learnt the proper proportions of milk and water, and also that regularity in feeding was necessary--two-thirds water to one of milk for the first month; after that half and half. The Sloth Bear carries her cubs on her back, as do the opossums, and a singular little animal called the koala (_Phascolarctos cinereus_)--and she seems to do this for some time, as Mr. Sanderson writes he shot one which was carrying a cub as large as a sheep-dog. In that most charming of all sporting books ever written, Campbell's 'Old Forest Ranger,' there is an amusingly-told bit with reference to this habit of cub-carrying which I am sure my readers will forgive me for extracting. Old Dr. Jock M'Phee had been knocked over by a she-bear, and is relating his grievances to Charles:-- "Well, as I was saying, I was sitting at my pass, and thinking o' my old sweethearts, and the like o' that, when a' at ance I heard a terrible stramash among the bushes, and then a wild growl, just at my very lug. Up I jumps wi' the fusee in my hand, and my heart in my mouth, and out came a muckle brute o' a bear, wi' that wee towsie tyke sitting on her back, as conciety as you please, and haudin' the grip like grim death wi' his claws. The auld bear, as soon as she seed me, she up wi' her birse, and shows her muckle white teeth, and grins at me like a perfect cannibal; and the wee deevil he sets up his birse too, and snaps his bit teeth, and tries to grin like the mither o't, with a queer auld farrant look that amaist gart me laugh; although, to tell the blessed truth, Maister Charles, I thought it nae laughing sport. Well, there was naething else for it, so I lets drive at them wi' the grit-shot, thinking to ding them baith at ance. I killed the sma' ane dead enough; but the auld one, she lets a roar that amaist deeved me, and at me she comes like a tiger. I was that frighted, sir, I did na ken what to do; but in despair I just held out the muzzle o' the fusee to fend her off, and I believe that saved my life, for she gripped it atween her teeth, dang me o'er the braid o' my back, and off she set, trailing me through the bushes like a tether-stick; for some way or other I never let go the grip I had o' the stock. I was that stupefied I hae nae recollection what happened after this, till I found mysel' sticking in the middle o' a brier-bush, wi' my breeks rived the way you see, and poor old 'Meg' smashed in bits--de'el be in her skin that did it." Poor old Jock M'Phee! On the whole he did well to escape with but injury to his garments. I have seen several men mauled by she-bears; one of them was scalped and torn to such an extent that it was a long time before he recovered; and I always marvelled to think he got over it at all. The British soldier is rather fond of a bear cub as a pet; and Captain Baldwin tells an amusing story of one which followed the men on to the parade ground, and quite disorganised the manoeuvres by frightening the colonel's horse. In 1858 I was quartered for a time with a naval brigade; and once, when there was an alarm of the enemy, Jack went to the front with all his pets, including Bruin, which brought up the rear, shuffling along in blissful ignorance of the bubble reputation to be found at the cannon's mouth. Although as a rule vegetarian, yet this species is not altogether free from the imputation of being a devourer of flesh when it comes in its way. In such cases it possibly has been impelled by hunger, and I doubt whether it ever kills for the sake of eating. I have known even ruminants eat meat, and in their case hunger could not have been urged as an excuse. Mr. Sanderson mentions an instance when a Barking Deer he shot was partially devoured by a bear during the night. Very few elephants, however steady with tigers, will stand a bear. Whether it is that bears make such a row when wounded, or whether there be anything in the smell, I know not, but I have heard many sportsmen allude to the fact. A favourite elephant I had would stand anything but a bear and a pig. Few horses will approach a bear, and this is one difficulty in spearing them; and for this reason I think bear dancers should be prohibited in towns. Calcutta used to swarm with them at one time. It always makes me angry when I see these men going about with the poor brutes, whose teeth and claws are often drawn, and a cruel ring passed through their sensitive nostrils. I should like to set an old she-bear after the _bhalu-wallas_, with a fair field and no favour. The bear rising to hug its adversary is a fallacy as far as this species is concerned; it does not squeeze, but uses its claws freely and with great effect. * * * * * I think we have now exhausted our Indian bears. Some have spoken of a dwarf bear supposed to inhabit the Lower Himalayas, but as yet it is unknown--possibly it may be the _Ailuropus_. We now come to the Bear-like animals, the next in order, being the Racoons (_Procyon_), Coatis (_Nasua_), Kinkajous (_Cercoleptes_), and the Cacomixle (_Bassaris_) of North and South America, and then our own Panda or Cat-Bear (_Ailurus fulgens_). This, with the above-mentioned Racoons, &c., forms a small group of curious bear-like animals, mostly of small size. Externally they differ considerably, especially in their long bushy tails, but in all essential particulars they coincide. They are plantigrade, and are without a caecum or blind gut; the skull, however it may approach to a viverrine or feline shape, has still marked arctoid characteristics. The ear passage is well marked and bony, as in that of the bear, but the bulb of the drum (_bulla tympani_) is much developed, as in the dogs and cats. The molars are more tuberculated than in the bears, resembling the hinder molars of a dog. AILURIDAE. F. Cuvier, who received the first specimen of the type of this family from his son-in-law, M. Duvaucel, was not happy in his selection of a name, which would lead one to suppose that it was affixed to the cats instead of the bears. It certainly in some degree resembles the cat externally, and it has also semi-retractile claws, but in greater measure it belongs to the Arctoidea. There are only two genera as yet known--the Red Cat-Bear, _Ailurus fulgens_, and the Thibetan _Ailuropus melanoleucos_. _GENUS AILUROPUS_. This very rare and most curious animal should properly come between the bears and _Ailurus_, as it seems to form a link between the two. Such also is the idea of a naturalist friend of mine, who, in writing to me about it, expressed it as being a link between _Helarctos Malayanus_ and _Ailurus fulgens_. Very little is, however, known of the creature, which inhabits the most inaccessible portions of a little-known country--the province of Moupin in Eastern Thibet. It was procured there by the Abbe David, who, after a prolonged residence in China, lived for nearly a year in Moupin, and he sent specimens of the skull, skin, &c., to M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, from whose elaborate description in his 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes' I have extracted the following notice. The original article is too long to translate _in extenso_, but I have taken the chief points. NO. 168. AILUROPUS MELANOLEUCOS. HABITAT.--The hilly parts Moupin, Eastern Thibet. [Figure: _Ailuropus melanoleucos_.] DESCRIPTION.--The _Ailuropus_ has a thick-set heavy form. His head is short, rather slender in front, but extremely enlarged in the middle and after part; the nose is small and naked at its extremity; the forehead very large and convex; the eyes are small; the ears short, wide between and rounded at the ends; neck thick and very strong; the body is squat and massive; the tail is so short as to be hardly distinguishable. The feet are short, very large, nearly of the same length, terminated by five toes very large and with rounded ends, the general conformation of which recalls in all respects those of the bears, but of which the lower parts, instead of being completely placed on the sole in walking and entirely naked or devoid of hair, are always in great measure raised, and abundantly clad with fur to almost their full extent. On the hind feet can be noticed at the base of the toes a transverse range of five little fleshy pads, and towards the anterior extremity of the metatarsal region another naked cushion placed transversely; but between these parts, as well as the posterior two-thirds of the planta, the hair is as abundant and as long almost as on the upper part of the foot. In the fore-limbs the disposition is much the same, though the metacarpal cushion may be larger; and there is another fleshy pad without hair near the claws. The _Ailuropus_ is thus an animal not strictly plantigrade, like the Bears in general, or the same as the Polar Bear, of which the feet, although placed flat on the earth, are not devoid of hair; but, on the contrary, the _Ailuropus_ resembles the _Ailurus_, which is semi-plantigrade, yet hairy under Its soles. The colouring of the _Ailuropus_ is remarkable: it is white with the exception of the circumferences of the eyes, the ears, the shoulders, and the lower part of the neck which are entirely black. These stand out clearly on a groundwork of slightly yellowish-white; the spots round the eyes are circular, and give a strange aspect to the animal; those on the shoulders represent a sort of band placed transversely across the withers, widening as they descend downwards to lower limbs. The hinder limbs are also black from the lower part of the thigh down to the toes, but the haunches, as also the greater part of the tail, are as white as the back and belly; the colouring is the same in young and old. The fur is long, thick, and coarse, like that of the bears. From the general form of the skull it would seem impossible to determine the family to which this animal belongs. In effect the head differs considerably from the _Ursidae_ and the _Mustelidae_, and presents certain resemblances to that of the hyaena; but there are numerous and important particulars which indicate a special zoological type, and it is only by an inspection of the dental system that the natural affinities of the _Ailuropus_ can be determined. In the upper jaw the incisors are, as usual, in three pairs. They are remarkable for their oblique direction; the centre ones are small and a little widened at the base; the second pair are stronger and dilated towards the cutting edge; the external incisors are also strong and excavated outside to admit the canines of the lower jaw. The canines are stout, but short, with a well-marked blunt ridge down the posterior side, as in the Malayan bears. The molars are six in number on each side, of which four are premolars, and two true molars. The first premolar, situated behind, a little within the line of the canine, is very small, tuberculiform, and a little compressed laterally. The second is strong and essentially carnassial; it is compressed laterally and obliquely placed. It is furnished with three lobes: the first lobe is short, thick, and obtuse; the second is raised, triangular and with cutting edges; the third of the size of the first, but more compressed--in short, a double-fanged tooth. This molar differs considerably from the corresponding tooth of the bear by its form and relative development, since in that family it is one-fanged, very low and obtuse. On the contrary, it approaches to that of the hyaenas and felines. With the panda (_Ailurus fulgens_) the corresponding premolar is equally large, double-fanged and trenchant, but the division in lobes is not so marked. The third or penultimate molar of the _Ailuropus_ is larger and thicker than the preceding, divided in five distinct lobes--three outer ones in a line, and two less projecting ones within. The last premolar is remarkably large; it is much larger behind than in front, and its crown is divided into six lobes, of which five are very strong; the three external ones are much developed and trenchant, the centre one being the highest and of a triangular shape. Of the internal lobes, the first one is almost as large as the external ones; the second is very small, almost hidden in the groove between the last mentioned; and the third, which is very large, rounded and placed obliquely inwards in front, and outwards behind. Professor Milne-Edwards remarks that he knows not amongst the carnivora a similar example of a tooth so disposed. That of _Ailurus_ shows the least difference, that is to say it is nearest in structure, having also six lobes, but more thick-set or depressed. The true molars are remarkable for their enormous development: the first is almost square, with blunt rounded cusps, four-fanged, and presenting a strange mixture of characteristics, in its outward portion resembling an essentially carnivorous type, and its internal portion that of molars intended to triturate vegetable substances. Amongst bears, and especially the Malayan bears, this character is presented, but in a less striking degree; the panda resembles it more, with certain restrictions, but the most striking analogy is with the genus _Hyaenarctos_. The last molar is peculiar in shape, longer than broad, and is tuberculous, as in the bears, but it differs in this respect from the pandas, in which the last molar is almost a repetition of the preceding one, and its longitudinal diameter is less than its transverse. In the lower jaw the first premolar, instead of being small and tuberculate, as its corresponding tooth in the upper jaw, is large, double-fanged, trenchant and tri-lobed, resembling, except for size, the two following ones. The second is not inserted obliquely like its correspondent in the upper jaw, its axis is in a line with that of its neighbours; tricuspidate, the middle lobe being the highest. The third premolar is very large, and agrees with its upper one, excepting the lobule on the inner border. The first true molar is longer than broad, and wider in front; the crown, with five conical tubercles in two groups, separated by a transverse groove; the next molar is thicker and stouter than the preceding one, and the last is smaller, and both much resemble those of the bears, and differ notably from the pandas. From what M. Milne-Edwards describes, we may briefly epitomise that the premolarial dentition of the _Ailuropus_ is ailuroid or feline, and that the true molars are arctoid or ursine. The skull is remarkable for the elongation of the cranium and the elevation of the occipital crest, for the shortness of the muzzle, for the depression of the post-frontal portion, and for the enormous development of the zygomatic arches. In another part M. Milne-Edwards remarks that there is no carnivorous animal of which the zygomatic arches are so developed as in the _Ailuropus_. He states that it inhabits the most inaccessible mountains of Eastern Thibet, and it never descends from its retreats to ravage the fields, as do the Black Bears; therefore it is difficult to obtain. It lives principally on roots, bamboos and other vegetables; but we may reasonably suppose from its conformation that it is carnivorous at times, when opportunity offers, as are some of the bears, and as is the _Ailurus_. I have dwelt at some length on this animal, though not a denizen of India proper; but it will be a prize to any of our border sportsmen who come across it on the confines of Thibet, and therefore I have deemed it worthy of space. SIZE.--From muzzle to tail, about four feet ten inches; height about twenty-six inches. _GENUS AILURUS_. NO. 169. AILURUS FULGENS. _The Red Cat-Bear_ (_Jerdon's No. 92_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Wah_, Nepal; _Wah-donka_, Bhot.; _Sunnam_ or _Suknam_, Lepch.; _Negalya_, _Ponya_ of the Nepalese (_Jerdon_). In the Zoological Gardens in London it is called the _Panda_, but I am unable just now to state the derivation of this name. HABITAT.--Eastern Himalayas and Eastern Thibet. [Figure: _Ailurus fulgens_.] DESCRIPTION.--"Skull ovate; forehead arched; nose short; brain case ovate, ventricose; the zygomatic arches very large, expanded; crown bent down behind" (_Gray_). The lower jaw is very massive, and the ascending ramus unusually large, extending far above the zygomatic arch, forming almost a right angle with equal arms. Hodgson's description is: "Ursine arm; feline paw; profoundly cross-hinged, yet grinding jaw, and purely triturative and almost ruminant molar of _Ailurus_; tongue smooth; pupil round; feet enveloped in woolly socks with leporine completeness. It walks like the marten; climbs and fights with all the four legs at once, like the _Paradoxuri_, and does not employ its forefeet--like the racoon, coatis, or bears--in eating." Jerdon's outward description is: "Above deep ochreous-red; head and tail paler and somewhat fulvous, displayed on the tail in rings; face, chin, and ears within white; ears externally, all the lower surface and the entire limbs and tip of tail jet-black; from the eye to the gape a broad vertical line of ochreous-red blending with the dark lower surface; moustache white; muzzle black." The one at present in the London "Zoo" is thus described: "Rich red-chestnut in colour on the upper surface, jet black as to the lower surface, the limbs also black, the snout and inside of ears white; the tail bushy, reddish-brown in colour and indistinctly ringed." SIZE.--Head and body 22 inches; tail 16; height about 9; weight about 8 lbs. Jerdon has epitomised Hodgson's description of the habits of this animal as follows: "The Wah is a vegetivorous climber, breeding and feeding chiefly on the ground, and having its retreat in holes and clefts of rock. It eats fruits, roots, sprouts of bamboo, acorns, &c.; also, it is said, eggs and young birds; also milk and ghee, which it is said to purloin occasionally from the villages. They feed morning and evening, and sleep much in the day. They are excellent climbers, but on the ground move rather awkwardly and slowly. Their senses all appear somewhat blunt, and they are easily captured. In captivity they are placid and inoffensive, docile and silent, and shortly after being taken may be suffered to go abroad. They prefer rice and milk to all other food, refusing animal food, and they are free from all offensive odour. They drink by lapping with the tongue, spit like cats when angered, and now and then utter a short deep grunt like a young bear. The female brings forth two young in spring. They usually sleep on the side, and rolled into a ball, the head concealed by the bushy tail." (For the full account see 'Jour. As. Soc. Beng.' vol. xvi. p. 1113.) Mr. Bartlett, who has studied the habits of the specimen in the London Gardens, says that in drinking it sucks up the fluids like a bear instead of licking it up like a dog or cat, which disagrees with what Hodgson states above. "When offended it would rush at Mr. Bartlett, and strike at him with both feet, the body being raised like a bear's, and the claws projecting." General Hardwicke was the first to discover this animal, which he described in a paper read before the Linnaean Society on the 6th of November 1821, but it was not published for some years, and in the meanwhile M. Duvaucel sent one to M. F. Cuvier, who introduced it first to the world. Some years ago I had a beautiful skin of one offered to me for sale at Darjeeling by some Bhotias, but as it was redolent of musk and other abominations quite foreign to its innocent inodorous self, I declined to give the high price wanted for it. SEMI-PLANTIGRADES. These form part of the Plantigrada of Cuvier and part of the Digitigrada; they walk on their toes, but at the same time keep the wrist and heel much nearer to the ground than do the true Digitigrades, and sometimes rest on them. Of those Semi-plantigrades with which we now have to deal there are three sections, viz., the _Mustelidae_, containing the Gluttons, Martens, Weasels, Ferrets, Grisons, &c., the _Melidae_, _Melididae_ and _Melinidae_ of various authors: i.e. Badgers, Ratels, and Skunks; and the _Lutridae_ or Otters. Some writers bring them all under one great family, _Mustelidae_, but the above tripartite arrangement is, I think, better for ordinary purposes. To the mind of only moderate scientific attainments, a distinct classification of well-defined groups is always an easier matter than a large family split up into many genera defined by internal anatomical peculiarities. Of the Semi-plantigrades at large Jerdon remarks: "None of them have more than one true molar above and another below, which, however, vary much in development, and the flesh tooth is most marked in those in which the tuberculate is least developed, and _vice versa_. The great and small intestines differ little in calibre, and many of them (i.e. the family) can diffuse at will a disgusting stench." This last peculiarity is a specialty of the American members of the family, notably the skunk, of the power of which almost incredible stories are told. I remember reading not long ago an account of a train passing over a skunk, and for a time the majority of the passengers suffered from nausea in consequence. Sir John Richardson writes: "I have known a dead skunk thrown over the stockades of a trading port produce instant nausea in several women in a house with closed doors, upwards of a hundred yards distant." The secretion is intensely inflammatory if squirted in the eye. MELIDIDAE; OR, BADGER-LIKE ANIMALS. This group is distinguished by a heavier form, stouter limbs, coarse hair, and slower action; in most the claws are adapted for burrowing. None of them are arboreal, although in olden times marvellous tales were told of the wolverene or glutton as being in the habit of dropping down from branches of trees on the backs of large animals, clinging on to them and draining their life blood as they fled. Some of them are capable of emitting a noisome smell. The teledu of Java (_Mydaus meliceps_) is the worst of the family in this respect, and almost equals the skunk. It is possible that this animal may be found in Tenasserim. _GENUS ARCTONYX_. Dentition much the same as that of the Badger (_Meles_). Incisors, 6/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 3--3/3--3; molars, 1--1/1--1. The incisors are disposed in a regular curve, vertical in the upper jaw, obliquely inclined in the lower; canines strong, grinders compressed; general form of the badger, but stouter. Feet five-toed, with strong claws adapted for digging, that of the index finger being larger than the other. NO. 170. ARCTONYX COLLARIS. _The Hog-Badger_ (_Jerdon's No. 93_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Balu-suar_, Hind., Sand-pig, or, as Jerdon has it, _Bhalu-soor_, Hind., i.e. Bear-pig; _Khway-too-wet-too_, Arakanese. HABITAT.--Nepal, Sikim, Assam, Sylhet, Arakan, extending, as Dr. Anderson has observed, to Western Yunnan. The late General A. C. McMaster found it in Shway Gheen On the Sitang river in Pegu. I heard of it in the forests of Seonee in the Central Provinces, but I never came across one. [Figure: _Arctonyx collaris_.] DESCRIPTION.--"Hair of the body rough, bristly, and straggling; that of the head shorter, and more closely adpressed. Head, throat, and breast yellowish white; on the upper part this colour forms a broad regularly-defined band from the snout to the occiput; ears of the same colour; the nape of the neck, a narrow band across the breast, the anterior portion of the abdomen, the extremities, a band arising from the middle of the upper lip, gradually wider posteriorly, including the eyes and ears, and another somewhat narrower arising from the lower lip, passing the cheek, uniting with the former on the neck, are deep blackish-brown" (_Horsfield_). The tail is short, attenuated towards the end, and covered with rough hairs. SIZE.--From snout to root of tail, 25 inches; tail, 7 inches; height at the rump, 12 inches. M. Duvaucel states that "it passes the greatest part of the day in profound somnolence, but becomes active at the approach of night; its gait is heavy, slow, and painful; it readily supports itself erect on its hind feet, and prefers vegetables to flesh." Jerdon alludes to all this, and adds, "one kept in captivity preferred fruit, plantains, &c., as food, and refused all kinds of meat. Another would eat meat, fish, and used to burrow and grope under the walls of the bungalow for worms and shells." My idea is _Balu-suar_, or Sand-pig is the correct name, although _Bhalu-suar_ or Bear-pig may hit off the appearance of the animal better, but its locality has always been pointed out to me by the Gonds in the sandy beds of rivers in the bamboo forests of Seonee; and Horsfield also has it _Baloo-soor_, Sand-pig. Bewick, who was the first to figure and describe it, got, as the vulgar phrase hath it, the wrong pig by the lug, as he translates it _Sand-bear_. McMaster also speaks of those he saw as being in deep ravines on the Sitang river. The stomach of Arctonyx is simple; there is no caecum, as is the case also with the bears; the liver has five lobes; under the tail it has glands, as in the Badgers, secreting a fatty and odorous substance. NO. 171. ARCTONYX TAXOIDES. _The Assam Badger_. HABITAT.--Assam and Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Smaller than the last, with longer and finer fur, narrower muzzle, smaller ears, shorter tail, and more distinct markings. The measurement of the respective skulls show a great difference. The length of a skull of a female of this species given by Dr. Anderson is 4.75 inches against 6.38 of a female of _A. collaris_. The breadth across the zygomatic arch is 2.38 against 3.64 of _A. collaris_. The breadth of the palate between the molars is only 0.81 against 1.07. _GENUS MELES_. _SUB-GENUS TAXIDIA_. This sub-genus is that of the American type of Badger, to which Hodgson, who first described the Thibetan _T. leucurus_, supposed his species to belong; but other recent naturalists, among whom are Drs. Gray and Anderson, prefer to class it as _Meles_. Hodgson founded his classification on the dentition of his specimen, but Blyth has thrown some doubt on its correctness, believing that the skull obtained by Hodgson with the skin was that of _Meles albogularis_. Hodgson, however, says: "from the English Badger type of restricted _Meles_ our animal may be at once discriminated without referring to skulls by its inferior size, greater length of tail, and partially-clad planta or foot-sole." NO. 172. MELES (TAXIDIA) LEUCURUS. _The Thibetan White-tailed Badger_. NATIVE NAME.--_Tampha_. HABITAT.--The plains of Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--"Fur long, flaccid, dark iron-grey and white mixed; hair long, white, with a broad sub-lunate black band and a white tip; under fur abundant, long, white; a streak on each side of the forehead blackish grey, varied; chin, throat, legs and under side of the body black; tail, sides of head, and body whitish."--_Gray_. The aspect, according to Hodgson, is entirely that of a long-tailed Badger (Gray remarks: "it most resembles the European animal "), with somewhat smaller head, with longer, finer fur than usual; the entire sole of the foot is not naked, but only about two-thirds, and the toe-pads are very much developed, thus raising the powerful long fossorial claws from the ground in walking. SIZE.--Total length 37 inches, of which the tail, with the hair, is 10 inches, and without the hair 7 inches; the longest hair of the body is 4-1/2 inches. There is not much known about the _Tampha_. According to what Hodgson was able to gather concerning his habits, "he dwells in the more secluded spots of inhabited districts, makes a comfortable, spacious and well-arranged subterraneous abode, dwells there in peace with his mate, who has an annual brood of two to four young, molests not his neighbour, defends himself if compelled to it with unconquerable resolution, and feeds on roots, nuts, insects and reptiles, but chiefly the two former--on vegetables, not animals--a point of information confirmed by the prevalent triturant character of the teeth." The colouring of this animal is almost identical with the English badger, only that his tail is longer and whiter. NO. 173. MELES ALBOGULARIS. _The White-throated Thibetan Badger_. HABITAT.--Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Smaller and much less tufted ears than the last species; a shorter and much less bushy tail; and the fur shorter and coarser, though of finer texture than in the European badger, with much woolly hair at its base. Both the English badger and _M. leucurus_ are black throated; this one is white throated. The English animal has a broad band of brownish-black, which begins between the muzzle and the eye, and runs through the eye and ear till it fades off on the neck; the space of white between these two bands on the forehead runs back and contracts behind the ears. In the Thibetan animal it contracts just behind the eyes, and is continued as a faint narrow streak only as far as the ears. In the English one the cheeks are broadly white between the eye-band and the black throat; in the Thibetan there is a little white below the eye, and this is bordered by a narrow black stripe, beneath which is the white throat. There is another Thibetan badger mentioned by Professor Milne-Edwards in his 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes,' a white-throated one, _M. obscurus_, but it appears to be the same as _M. albogularis_. _GENUS MELLIVORA_. Tubercular grinder transverse; flesh-tooth larger, with a small internal lobe, and with a single tubercle; lower flesh-tooth tricuspidate, sharp-edged; head depressed; nose blunt; ears not visible externally; body stout, depressed; legs short, and strong; feet plantigrade, five-toed; front claws elongated and strong; the bald sole of the hind foot occupying the whole under surface, only slightly divided across about one-third of its length from the front; tail very short, with powerfully offensive glands; it has a thick loose skin and a subcutaneous layer of fat, which doubtless protect it from stings of bees, on which this genus is supposed to feed whenever it can. NO. 174. MELLIVORA INDICA. _The Indian Ratel or Honey-Badger_ (_Jerdon's No. 94_). NATIVE NAME.--_Biju_, Hind.; _Biyu-khawar_, Telegu; _Tavakaradi_, Tamil; _Bajru-bhal_, at Bhagulpore (Santali?); _Bharsiah_, Nepalese. HABITAT.--Throughout India. [Figure: _Mellivora Indica_.] DESCRIPTION.--The upper half of its body is ashy-grey; the lower half, muzzle, limbs, and tail black; the general appearance is that of a black animal with a grey cloak on its back. The only difference between the Indian and the Cape Ratel is, that the grey cloak of the latter has a conspicuous white border which is wanting in the Indian species; the tail also of the latter is shorter, otherwise they are the same, and were for a long time considered the same. SIZE.--Head and body, 26 to 32 inches; tail, 5 to 6 inches. Jerdon says it is chiefly found in hilly districts, and that he has not found it in Lower Bengal nor on the Malabar coast. In Central India it is not uncommon. It has got a reputation for digging into graves, and is called in some parts "the grave-digger;" but I do not believe in its carnivorous propensities to this extent; it lives principally on small fry, insects, and small animals, honey and vegetable food. Jerdon says it is destructive to poultry, which is probable, for it will eat small birds. Both it and the Cape species will eagerly look out for bees, but it is not to be supposed, as some books would make out, that bees and honey form the staple diet. Its thick and loose skin, the stiffness of the hair above, and the layer of fat below, effectually preserve it from the effects of the stings. The tail glands contain a very strong and pungent secretion. Some years ago, before I knew exactly what they were, the Ratels in the London Zoological Gardens used to interest me greatly. They had a low cage, on the ground I think, and their peculiar antics never failed to draw a crowd. They used to run round in an idiotic sort of way, and always at one point gravely turn head over heels and then proceed as before and repeat. In Cassell's 'Natural History' this is alluded to, only the writer says that now they are in fresh quarters, and the flitting seems to have disturbed them. He adds: "We have often watched one of them run round and round the cage in the usual purposeless manner of captive animals, but with this peculiarity: when he reached a particular corner of the den, he quietly, and without effort, turned head over heels, and then went on again. On one occasion, after he had been doing this with great regularity for some rounds he seemed to become abstracted, and passed the usual spot without the somersault; when, however, he had proceeded a few paces he recollected himself, stopped for a moment, returned to the exact place, turned over as usual, and proceeded without further let or hindrance." The African species is said to live largely on bees--I suppose ground bees, such as our English humble bee, for these animals are not arboreal--and it is said to exhibit great skill in tracking the flying insects to their nest. "Sparrman states that it seats itself on a hillock to look for the bees, and shades its eyes with one forepaw against the rays of the setting sun." Here is something for our Indian naturalists to observe. Some other animals are said to do the same; whether the Biju does it or not I cannot say. McMaster says of it: "Two that I saw in confinement appeared very good-tempered, and much more playful than tame bears would have been. They were, I think, fed entirely upon vegetables, rice and milk." This animal is the same as Hodgson's _Ursitaxus inauritus_, the _Bharsiah_ which figures as a separate genus in Cuvier. The skull is very like that of the wolverenes in general form. _GENUS GULO--THE GLUTTON OR WOLVERENE_. This animal was placed by Linnaeus among the _Ursidae_, and is classed by some with the _Melididae_, but its dentition is more that of the Martens, which occupy the next group. The true Glutton (_Gulo luscus_) is not known in India, but we have some so-called Wolverenes (_Helictis_) to which I shall presently allude. Still a few remarks about the typical animal, which is by no means an uninteresting creature, may not be out of place. The Glutton inhabits a wide tract of country in the Northern Hemisphere, the colder regions of Europe, Asia, and America; it is abundant in Siberia and Kamschatka, and is the pest of the trappers in North America. Fabulous stories were told of this animal in olden days, some of which are still propagated at the present time. It was supposed to be of insatiable appetite, and to attack its prey (deer, &c.) by dropping down from the branch of a tree on to the back of its victim, and to eat its way into a vital part, whilst being carried along--a decided fallacy, for neither the Glutton nor our Indian species of _Helictis_ are arboreal in their habits. Then it was accused of eating to such a pitch of distention that it had to squeeze itself between two close-growing trees for relief ere it returned again to the repast. There is no doubt, however, that it is to a great extent voracious and extremely cunning; and what it cannot eat it will carry off and hide. The trappers complain bitterly of it, and spare no pains to kill every one they can come across; but it is not easily to be caught, and only a very cunningly-devised bait will succeed. Were I to relate some of the stories recorded of this animal I might get accused, if not of being a romancer myself, at all events of being a too credulous propagator of other people's romances. It is told of it that it will discover hidden stores, and, digging them up out of the snow, carefully smooth the surface over again; that it will avoid every trap set for itself, and, going round to the back of spring guns, gnaw through the string connected with the trigger before it drags away the bait. It follows up the lines laid down by the trappers, taking the martens out, and devouring them, or hiding what it cannot eat, and by wearying out the patience of the hunters, compel them to strike a new "marten-road." It is said by Dr. Coues to possess a singular habit of sitting down on its haunches, shading its eyes with a forepaw, and gazing earnestly at the approaching enemy before it takes to flight. I have already alluded to the Cape ratel doing this on the look-out for bees. The Indian form of Wolverene is a slighter and much smaller animal, with a still more weasel-like appearance. The Glutton is comparatively a large beast, the body being about 2-1/2 feet, and the tail 10 inches; the _Helictis_ is only half the size, and there is a slight difference in the dentition. _GENUS HELICTIS_. "Head tapering; nose acute, conical; muzzle bald, obliquely truncated; other side hairy, with a central groove; nostrils inferior; ears ovate; body slender; legs short; toes 5.5; front claws elongate, curved; hinder short and acute; sole of foot hairy behind, bald in front, and rhombic for half the length of the foot, with three large oblong pads on the front, and three small ones on the hinder edge; toes elongate; thumb short; fur black, like _Herpestes_; tail moderate, sub-cylindrical; teeth, 38; premolars, 4--4/4--4; grinders, 5/6."--Gray. There are four species of this genus, and of these two come within the geographical limits of these papers, viz., _Helictis Nipalensis_ and _H. moschata_; the third, _H. orientalis_, belongs to Java; and the fourth, _H. subaurantiaca_, to Formosa. NO. 175. HELICTIS NIPALENSIS. _The Nepal Wolverene_ (_Jerdon's No. 95_). NATIVE NAME.--_Oker_, Nepalese; _Kyoung-pyan_, Arakanese. HABITAT.--Nepal, Arakan, and Pegu. DESCRIPTION.--Hodgson, who first described this animal in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Beng.' (vol. v. pp. 237-38), says: "Above earthy brown; below, with the edge of the upper lip, the insides of the limbs, and terminal half of the tail, yellow; a white mesial stroke from the nape to the hips, and a white band across the forehead, spreading on the cheeks, and confluent with the pale colour of the animal's lower surface; head and body vermi-formed; digits and nails of the anterior extremities stronger; half way from the os calcis to the fingers hairy; fur of two sorts and abundant, but not lengthened, nor harsh, nor annulated; tail cylindrico-tapered, pointed, half the length of the animal." He goes on to add: "The anterior limbs are decidedly fossorial, and the hinder suited for walking in a sub-plantigrade manner; both wholly unfitted for rapatory or scansorial purposes." SIZE.--Head and body 16 inches; tail 7-1/2 inches, 9 inches, including hair. The habits of this animal are nocturnal. Swinhoe mentions this in his account of the Formosan species, and Dr. Anderson relates that he is aware that the Nepal one is similar in its ways, and that it not unfrequently enters Bhotia huts at night; and on one occasion he killed one in a Bhotia hut, thinking it was a large rat, greatly to the chagrin of his host, who informed him that the animal was in the habit of visiting him nightly, and was most useful in destroying cockroaches and other insects. NO. 176. HELICTIS MOSCHATA. _The Chinese Wolverene_. HABITAT.--China, also Burmah (Pegu, Yunnan). DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the last, but differing in dentition and the formation of certain points in the skull. The teeth are smaller, and the infra-orbital foramen much larger. Both the above species are noted for long skulls and palate, whereas _H. orientalis_ has a short skull and palate. The following are the chief characteristics:-- Short head and palate, large teeth, _small_ infra-orbital foramen = _H. orientalis_. Long head and palate, large teeth, _small_ infra-orbital foramen = _H. Nipalensis_. Long head and palate, _small_ teeth, _large_ infra-orbital foramen = _H. moschata_. Dr. Anderson obtained a specimen of this species at an elevation of 5000 feet, at Teng-yue-chow in Yunnan. MUSTELIDAE--MARTENS AND WEASELS. In India the members of this family are restricted to the Weasels and Martens, but in other countries are included the Grisons, Zorillas, Skunks, &c. They are small animals of elongated form, with short legs, commonly expressed as vermiform; where the head of a weasel will go his body will follow--at least that was my experience in my boyish days, when I was particularly interested in vermin, and the gamekeeper was my first instructor in natural history. The face is rounded like a cat, but the skull behind the eye is very long and pear-shaped when viewed from above; in proportion to a cat's skull the brain case is a fourth longer. They are most sanguinary in their habits, and their agility is great, so on the whole they are most formidable to many animals, not only smaller, but in many cases four times their own size. The ferocity of the common weasel (_Putorius vulgaris_) ought to be as proverbial as its watchfulness. A case has been known of a kite carrying off one of these animals, but falling dead after a time with the large blood-vessels under the wing cut through by the savage little prisoner, who, on reaching _terra firma_, escaped apparently unhurt. I think in Wolff's admirable 'Illustrations of Natural History' this fact, related by Bell, is made the subject of a picture called "Catching a Tartar." [Figure: Skull of _Putorius_.] Most of the animals of this group are eagerly sought for on account of their fur. In Northern India the skin of one species, probably a variety of _Martes abietum_, is sold in the bazaars at Peshawur and Lahore. In 1868 I bought sufficient to line a large overcoat, which proved most comfortable in travelling in the cold weather in the Punjab, as well as in subsequent wanderings on the European continent in winter. Dr. E. Coues, in his monograph on the North American Mustelidae, gives the following interesting information regarding the number of skins of various species sold by the Hudson's Bay Company in London during the century 1769-1868:-- Sables, 1,240,511; otters, 674,027; wolverenes, 68,694; minks, 1,507,240; skunks, 218,653; badgers, 275,302; sea otters, 5349. In 1868, which appears to have been a prosperous year, the Company sold: Sables, 106,254; otters, 14,966; wolverenes, 1104; minks, 73,473; skunks, 6298; badgers, 1551; sea otters, 123.[8] [Footnote 8: In the same year were sold by other firms, 22,000 otter skins and 4500 sables. See Appendix _C_ for further statistics.] When one considers the number of those whose skins are damaged and cast aside, the number that fall victims to larger predatory animals, and the operations of disease, from which no animals, small or great, are free, we may form some idea of the immense multitude of these little creatures. The ordinary divisions of the restricted Mustelidae are the Martens (_Martes_), Pole-cats (_Putorius_), and Weasels (_Mustela_), but Gray has further subdivided them chiefly on the characteristics of the feet. The Martens have four more teeth than the rest, which are distinguished as follows:-- _Putorius_.--Short ovate head; feet very hairy, especially between the pads; body stout; underside blackish. _Mustela_.--Narrow, elongated head; feet very hairy between the pads; slender body; under-side yellow or white. _Vison_.--Head elongate, narrow; feet slightly hairy; pads exposed; body rather slender; under-side same colour as upper. _Gymnopus_.--Head elongate, narrow; feet rather naked, bald beneath, between, and rather behind the pads; toes largely webbed; soles hairy behind; body slender. It is doubtful whether these distinctions are of sufficient importance to warrant so much subdivision; and unnecessary multiplication of genera is a thing to be avoided as much as possible. _GENUS MARTES--THE MARTENS_. A more or less arboreal group of larger size, and possibly less sanguinary habits than the weasels, although in this respect I do not think there is much difference. The tail is longer, though not so long as the head and body, and it is bushy; the fur is fine and in general highly prized; the dentition differs from the typical _Mustela_ in having four more teeth and an additional false molar on either side in each jaw; and the inner side of the carnassial or flesh tooth has a tubercle which is not present in the weasels; head elongate; feet very hairy; space between the pads hairy, often covering them from sight, except in the case of _Martes flavigula_, of which the soles are nude. NO. 177. MARTES FLAVIGULA. _The White-cheeked Marten_ (_Jerdon's No. 96_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Mal-sampra_, Nepalese; _Tuturala_ in Kumaon; _Kusiah_ in Sirmoor; _Huniah_ or _Aniar_, Bhotia; _Sakku_, Lepcha. HABITAT.--Nepal, Thibet, Kumaon, Gurhwal, Sirmoor, Assam, Burmah, Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Glossy blackish brown, with the throat and breast yellow; the chin and lower parts white, from which I have preferred to call it after Pennant "the White-cheeked Marten" instead of the "yellow-throated," this characteristic belonging also to some other species. The fur seems to vary a good deal. Jerdon says of it: "The body is at times dirty brownish or chestnut brown, or brown mixed with grey, and the middle of the back is sometimes paler than the rest, or the same tint as the sides of the body. In some the top of the head is pale brown, but it is edged by a dark peripheral line, and in some there are one or more irregular dark spots between the fore-limbs." Blyth writes of the Burmese specimens that they are "similar to the Himalayan, but differing from the Malayan race--found also in Formosa--by having much longer fur, and a wholly black cap instead of a brown cap with a black periphery." The soles are nude. SIZE.--Head and body about 20 inches; tail, including fur, 12 inches. This Indian Marten, according to Jerdon, is also found in Ceylon; it was, however, apparently unknown to Kellaart, nor does Sir Emerson Tennent allude to it. It is to be had in the Neilgherries, the Khasia hills, and the ranges in Arakan, as well as in the valleys of the great Himalayan chain up to 7000 or 8000 feet of elevation. It is found in pairs or in small families of five or six. If hunted it takes to trees at once, being a good climber. According to Captain the Hon. C. Shore, who observed its habits in Kumaon and Gurhwal, "its food is chiefly birds, rats, mice, hares and even young fawns of the kakur or barking-deer." He adds: "The specimen sent to the Zoological Society was brought to me in September 1828, when it was about four months old. It had been caught when not many days old, and was so tame that it was always kept loose about a well, sporting about the windlasses, posts, &c., and playing tricks with the people who came to draw water." This is the one alluded to by Jerdon as having been described by Mr. Bennett in the 'Gardens and Menageries of the Zoological Society.' _Martes Gwatkinsi_ of Horsfield's Catalogue (page 99), is evidently, as Jerdon says, the same as _M. flavigula_, although the colouring is different, and is supposed to be the same animal in its summer fur, some specimens being darker than others. It is just one hundred years since this little animal was first described, the earliest record of it being in Pennant's 'History of Quadrupeds' (first edition), published in 1781. It must, however, have been known before that, for Pennant first observed it in Brooks's Menagerie in 1774, and named it the "White-cheeked Weasel," which Boddart afterwards in 1785 introduced into his 'Elenchus Animalium' under the name of _Mustela flavigula_ (_Horsfield_). NO. 178. MARTES ABIETUM. _The Pine Marten_. HABITAT.--Ladakh and the Upper Himalayas, Afghanistan (?) [Illustration: _Martes abietum_.] DESCRIPTION.--Brown; throat yellow or yellow spotted (_Gray_). Light yellowish-grey, rather deeper in a line along the back; the hair brown; extremities blackish; chin, threat and breast white (according to Horsfield). SIZE.--About 18 to 20 inches; tail 12 inches. Horsfield remarks that the specimens received in the Indian Museum combine the peculiarities of the Pine and Beech Martens respectively, and lead to the conclusion that both are varieties of one species. This idea was prevalent some time ago, and the Beech Marten (_M. foina_) was supposed to be merely a variety of the Pine species, but there are certain differences in the skulls of the two animals. It is stated by the editor of my edition of Cuvier that, on examination of the crania of the two, he found that those of _M. abietum_ are constantly smaller, with the zygomatic arch fully twice as strong as in the other. There is also a slight difference in the teeth, the hinder upper tubercular grinder in _M. foina_ not being quite so large as in the other. The Pine Marten has a wide distribution; the finest specimens are found in Sweden; in England it is becoming scarce, but in other parts of Europe and Asia it is common. Professor Parker and his brother write of it: "This animal is essentially arboreal in its habits, inhabiting chiefly thick coniferous woods, whence its name of Pine Marten is derived. In the branches the female makes a nest of leaves or moss, and sometimes spares herself this trouble by ejecting squirrels or woodpeckers, and occupying the vacant dwellings. For its size it is, like all the Mustelidae, extremely ferocious and strong. It attacks and kills fawns, notwithstanding their superior size; from these down to mice nothing comes amiss to it, and nothing is safe from its attacks." It seems almost incredible that such a small animal should venture on such large game, but the same is reported of _M. flavigula_; and a much smaller creature, the Yellow-bellied Weasel, _M. kathiah_, is reported by Hodgson to attack even goats and sheep. NO. 179. MARTES TOUFOEUS. NATIVE NAME.--_Toufee_. HABITAT.--Thibet. DESCRIPTION (from skins only).--General colour smoky brown, darker along the spine and on the limbs, but without marks, and paler to sordid yellowish hoary on the neck and head; head palest, except the mystaceal region and chin, which are embrowned; moustache moderate and dark brown. SIZE.--Head and body about 20 to 22 inches. The above description is taken from Hodgson, who had only received imperfect skins. Jerdon just alludes to it by name, but I cannot find it mentioned by any other author. As much stress cannot be laid on colouring in these animals, I feel inclined to think that it is a variety of _Martes abietum_, probably in its dark summer coat. _GENUS MUSTELA--THE WEASELS_. These are smaller animals of the true vermiform shape; the legs are very short in comparison with the body, and the neck is very thick and very long, and the head is small, so that head, neck, and body are almost equally cylindrical, and the length of the neck gives a far, set-back appearance to the forelegs, so much so that they seem to start from behind the chest instead of in front of it. The teeth are 34 in number, or four less than in the preceding genus; upper tubercular grinder transverse or broader than long; the feet are slightly webbed, covered with hair, and the space between the pads is hairy; the tail is short; fur dark above, white or yellowish beneath. [Illustration: _Mustela_.] Some authors contend that the weasel, though commonly referred to the genus _Mustela_, should be _Putorius_, which is an instance of the disagreement which exists among naturalists. I have however followed Gray in his classification, although perhaps Cuvier, who classes the weasels and pole-cats under the genus _Putorius_, has the claim of priority. Ray applied the name of _Mustela_ to the restricted weasels, and _Martes_ to the martens, but Cuvier gives _Mustela_ to the martens, and brings the weasels and pole-cats together under _Putorius_. NO. 180. MUSTELA (VISON: _Gray_) SUB-HEMACHALANA. _The Sub-Hemachal Weasel_ (_Jerdon's No. 97_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Zimiong_, Bhotia; _Sang-king_, Lepcha; _Kran_ or _Gran_, Kashmiri. DESCRIPTION.--"Uniform bright brown, darker along the dorsal line; nose, upper lip, and forehead, with two inches of the end of the tail black-brown; mere edge of upper lip and whole of lower jaw hoary; a short longitudinal white stripe occasionally on the front of the neck, and some vague spots of the same laterally, the signs, I suspect, of immaturity; feet frequently darker than the body or dusky brown; whiskers dark; fur close, glossy and soft, of two sorts, or fine hair and soft wool, the latter and the hair basally of dusky hue, but the hair externally bright brown; head, ears, and limbs more closely clad than the body, tail more laxly, tapering to the point."--_Hodgson_. SIZE.--Head and body about 12 inches; tail, 6 inches. Jerdon calls this the Himalayan Weasel, but I have preferred to translate Hodgson's' name, which, I confess, puzzled me for some time till I found out there was a Hemachal range in Thibet. NO. 181. MUSTELA (GYMNOPUS: _Gray_) KATHIAH. _The Yellow-bellied Weasel_ (_Jerdon's No. 98_). NATIVE NAME.--_Kathia-nyal_, Nepalese. HABITAT.--Nepal, Bhotan. DESCRIPTION.--Dark brown; upper lip, chin, throat, chest, underside of body and front of thighs, bright yellow; tail dark brown, shorter than the body and head, tapering, and of the same colour to the tip; the soles of the hind feet bald; pads well developed, exposed. SIZE.--Head and body, 10 inches; tail, 5 inches. Hodgson states that a horribly offensive yellowish-grey fluid exudes from two subcaudal glands. He says that the Nepalese highly prize this little animal for its services in ridding houses of rats. It is easily tamed; and such is the dread of it common to all murine animals that not one will approach a house wherein it is domiciled. Rats and mice seem to have an instinctive sense of its hostility to them, so much so that when it is introduced into a house they are observed to hurry away in all directions, being apprised, no doubt, of its presence by the peculiar odour it emits. Its ferocity and courage are made subservient to the amusement of the rich, who train it to attack large fowls, geese, and even goats and sheep. It seizes these by the great artery of the neck, and does not quit its hold till the victim sinks exhausted from the loss of blood--a cruel pastime which one could only expect of a barbarous people. NO. 182. MUSTELA (GYMNOPUS: _Gray_) STRIGIDORSA. _The Striped Weasel_ (_Jerdon's No. 99_). HABITAT.--Sikim. DESCRIPTION.--Dark chestnut-brown, with a narrow streak of long yellow hairs down the back; edge of upper lip, chin, throat, chest, and a narrow stripe down the centre of the belly, yellow, or yellowish-white. SIZE.--Head and body, 12 inches; tail, 5-1/2 inches without the hair, 6-1/2 inches with it. This is similar to the last, but is slightly larger, and distinguishable by the dorsal stripe. NO. 183. MUSTELA ERMINEA. _The Ermine or Stoat_. HABITAT.--Europe, America and Asia (the Himalayas, Nepal, Thibet, Afghanistan). DESCRIPTION.--Brown above; upper lip, chin, and lower surface of body, inside of limbs and feet yellowish-white; tail brown, with a black tip. In winter the whole body changes to a yellowish-white, with the exception of the black tip of the tail. SIZE.--Head and body, about 10 inches; tail, 4-1/2 inches. This is about the best known in a general way from its fur being used as part of the insignia of royalty. The fur however only becomes valuable after it has completed its winter change. How this is done was for a long time a subject of speculation and inquiry. It is, however, now proved that it is according to season that the mode of alteration is effected. In spring the new hairs are brown, replacing the white ones of winter; in autumn the existing brown hairs turn white. Mr. Bell, who gave the subject his careful consideration, says that in Ross's first Polar expedition, a Hudson's Bay lemming (_Myodes_) was exposed in its summer coat to a temperature of 30 degrees below zero. Next morning the fur on the cheeks and a patch on each shoulder had become perfectly white; at the end of the week the winter change was complete, with the exception of a dark band across the shoulder and a dorsal stripe. Hodgson remarks that the Ermine is common in Thibet, where the skins enter largely into the peltry trade with China. In one year 187,000 skins were imported into England. NO. 184. MUSTELA (VISON: _Gray_) CANIGULA. _The Hoary Red-necked Weasel_. HABITAT.--Nepal hills, Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Pale reddish-brown, scarcely paler beneath; face, chin, throat, sides of neck and chest white; tail half as long as body and head, concolorous with the back; feet whitish. Sometimes chest brown and white mottled, according to Gray. Hodgson, who discovered the animal, writes: "Colour throughout cinnamon red without black tip to the tail, but the chaffron and entire head and neck below hoary." SIZE.--15-1/2 inches; tail without hair 7-1/2 inches, with hair 9-1/2 inches. NO. 185. MUSTELA STOLICZKANA. HABITAT.--Yarkand. DESCRIPTION.--Colour pale sandy brown above; hairs light at base, white below; tail concolorous with back; small white spot close to anterior angle of each eye; a sandy spot behind the gape; feet whitish. SIZE.--Head and body, 12.2; tail, 3 inches, including hair. NO. 186. MUSTELA (VISON) SIBIRICA. HABITAT.--Himalayas (Thibet?); Afghanistan (Candahar). DESCRIPTION.--Pale brown; head blackish, varied; spot on each side of nose, on upper and lower lips and front of chin, white; tail end pale brown like back, varies; throat more or less white. This Weasel, described first by Pallas ('Specil Zool.' xiv. t. 4, f. 1.) was obtained in Candahar by Captain T. Hutton, who describes it in the 'Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal,' vol. xiv. pp. 346 to 352. NO. 187. MUSTELA ALPINA. _The Alpine Weasel_. HABITAT.--Said to be found in Thibet, otherwise an inhabitant of the Altai mountains. DESCRIPTION.--Pale yellow brown; upper lip, chin, and underneath yellowish-white; head varied with black-tipped hairs; tail cylindrical, unicolour, not so long as head and body.--_Gray_. NO. 188. MUSTELA HODGSONI. HABITAT.--Himalaya, Afghanistan. DESCRIPTION.--Fur yellowish-brown, paler beneath; upper part and side of head much darker; face, chin, and throat varied with white; tail long, and bushy towards the end. NO. 189. MUSTELA (VISON) HORSFIELDI. HABITAT.--Bhotan. DESCRIPTION.--Uniform dark blackish-brown, very little paler beneath; middle of front of chin and lower lip white; whiskers black; tail slender, blackish at tip, half the length of head and body. NO. 190. MUSTELA (GYMNOPUS) NUDIPES. _Gymnopus leucocephalus_ of Gray. HABITAT.--Borneo, Sumatra, Java, but possibly Tenasserim. DESCRIPTION.--Golden fulvous with white head. As so many Malayan animals are found on the confines of Burmah, and even extending into Assam, it is probable that this species may be discovered in Tenasserim. _GENUS PUTORIUS--THE POLE-CAT_. This is a larger animal than the weasel, and in form more resembles the marten, except in the shortness of its tail; the body is stouter and the neck shorter than in _Mustela_; the head is short and ovate; the feet generally hairy, and the space between the pads very much so; the under side of the body is blackish; the fur is made up of two kinds, the shorter is woolly and lighter coloured than the longer, which is dark and shining. The disgusting smell of the common Pole-cat (_Putorius foetidus_) is well known, and has become proverbial. In my county, as well as in many parts of England, the popular name is "foumart," which is said to be derived from "foul marten." The foumart is the special abhorrence of the game-keeper; it does more damage amongst game and poultry than any of the other _Mustelidae_, and consequently greater pains are taken to trap and shoot it, in fact, so much so that I wonder that the animal is not now extinct in the British Isles. Professor Parker writes: "It has been known to kill as many as sixteen turkeys in a single night; and indeed it seems to be a point of honour with this bloodthirsty little creature to kill everything it can overpower, and to leave no survivors on its battle-fields." According to Bell, a female Pole-cat, which was tracked to her nest, was found to have laid up in a side hole a store of food consisting of forty frogs and two toads, all bitten through the brain, so that, though capable of living for some time, they were deprived of the power of escape. Now, this is a most wonderful instance of instinct bordering upon reason. Only the Reptilia can exist for any length of time after injury to the brain; to any of the smaller mammalia such a process as that adopted by the Pole-cat, would have resulted in instant death and speedy decomposition. The Ferret (_Putorius furo_) is a domesticated variety of the Pole-cat, reputed to be of African origin. Certain it is that it cannot stand extreme cold like its wild cousin, and an English winter is fatal to it if not properly looked after. It inter-breeds with the Pole-cat. Ferrets are not safe pets in houses where there are young children. Cases have been known of their attacking infants in the cradle, and severely lacerating them. They are chiefly used for killing rats and driving rabbits out of burrows; in the latter case they are muzzled. As pets they are stupid, and show but little attachment. Forbearance as regards making its teeth meet in your fingers is, I think, the utmost you can expect in return for kindness to a ferret, and that is something, considering what a sanguinary little beast it is. NO. 191. PUTORIUS LARVATUS _vel_ TIBETANUS. _Black-faced Thibetan Pole-cat_. HABITAT.--Utsang in Thibet, also Ladakh. DESCRIPTION.--"Tail one-third of entire length; soles clad; fur long; above and laterally sordid fulvous, deeply shaded on the back with black; below from throat backwards, with the whole limbs and tail, black; head pale, with a dark mask over the face."--_Hodgson_. SIZE.--Head and body, 14 inches; tail, 6 inches, with hair 7 inches; palma, 1-3/4; planta, 2-3/8. This animal, according to Gray, is synonymous with the Siberian _Putorius Eversmannii_, although the sudden contraction of the brain case in front, behind the orbit, mentioned of this species, is not perceptible in the illustration given by Hodgson of the skull of this Thibetan specimen. Horsfield, in his catalogue, states that the second specimen obtained by Captain R. Strachey in Ladakh, north of Kumaon, agreed in external character. In some respects it is similar to the European Pole-cat, but as yet little is known of its habits. NO. 192. PUTORIUS DAVIDIANUS. HABITAT.--Moupin in Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Uniform fulvous brown, yellower under the throat; upper lip and round nostrils to corner of the eye white, darker on nose and forehead. SIZE.--Head and body about 11-1/2 inches; tail, 6-1/2 inches. This is one of the specimens collected by the Abbe David, after whom it is named. A fuller description of it will be found in Milne-Edwards's 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes,' page 343. There is also a plate of the animal in the volume of illustrations. NO. 193. PUTORIUS ASTUTUS. HABITAT.--Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--About the size of Ermine, but with a longer tail. Colour brown, the white of the chest tinted with yellow; tail uniform in colour, darker on head. SIZE.--Head and body, 10 inches; tail, 4-1/5 inches. This is also described and figured by Milne-Edwards. NO. 194. PUTORIUS MOUPINENSIS. HABITAT.--Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Reddish-brown, white under the chin, and then again a patch on the chest. _LUTRIDAE--THE OTTERS_. We now come to the third group of the musteline animals, the most aquatic of all the Fissipedia--the _Lutridae_ or Otters--of which there are two great divisions, the common Otters (_Lutra_) and the Sea-Otters, (_Enhydra_). With the latter, a most interesting animal in all its ways, as well as most valuable on account of its fur, we have nothing to do. I am not aware that it is found in the tropics, but is a denizen of the North Pacific. Of _Lutra_ we have several species in two genera. Dr. Gray has divided the Otters into no less than nine genera on three characteristics, the tail, feet, and muzzle, but these have been held open to objection. The classification most to be depended upon is the division of the tribe into long-clawed Otters (_Lutra_), and short or rudimentary-clawed Otters (_Aonyx_). The characteristics of the skulls confirm this arrangement, as the short-clawed Otters are distinguishable from the others by a shorter and more globose cranium and larger molars, and, as Dr. Anderson says, "the inner portion of the last molar being the largest part of the tooth, while in _Lutra_ the outer exceeds the inner half; the almost general absence of the first upper premolar; and the rudimentary claws, which are associated with much more feebly-developed finger and toe bones, which are much tapered to a point, while in _Lutra_ these bones are strong and well developed." Gray has separated a genus, which he called _Pteronura_, on account of a flattened tail arising from a longitudinal ridge on each side, but this flattening of the tail is common to all the genera more or less. All the Otters, though active on land, are still only thoroughly at home in the water, and they are therefore specially constituted for such a mode of life. They have an elongated flattened form; webbed feet with short claws; compressed and tapering tail; dense fur of two kinds, one of long brown shining hairs; the under fur short and fine, impervious to wet, and well adapted for keeping an equality of temperature; the skull is peculiar, the brain case being very long, and compressed from above downwards; the facial portion forms only about one-fourth of the extreme length; the teeth are strong and sharp; the upper flesh tooth very large. [Illustration: Otter's skull (side and under view).] Dental formula: Inc., 3--3/3--3; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 4--4/3--3; molars, 1--1/2--2. Jerdon states that the otter has a nictitating membrane or additional semi-transparent eyelid, similar to that in the eyes of birds, which he supposes is a defence to them under water; but I have not noticed this myself, and have failed to discover it in the writings of others. I should think that the vision of the animal under water would not require obscuring by a semi-transparent membrane, which none of the marine carnivora possess, though their eyes are somewhat formed for seeing better under water than when exposed to the full light above. Some idea of the rapidity of these animals in the water may be conceived when we think that their food is almost exclusively fish, of which they sometimes kill more than they can eat. They reside in burrows, making the entrance under water, and working upwards, making a small hole for the ventilation of their chamber. The female has about four or five young ones at a time, after a period of gestation of about nine weeks, and the mother very soon drives them forth to shift for themselves in the water. For a pretty picture of young otters at play in the water, nothing could be better than the following description from Kingsley's 'Water Babies':-- "Suddenly Tom heard the strangest noise up the stream--cooing, grunting, and whining, and squeaking, as if you had put into a bag two stock-doves, nine mice, three guinea-pigs, and a blind puppy, and left them there to settle themselves and make music. He looked up the water, and there he saw a sight as strange as the noise: a great ball rolling over and over down the stream, seeming one moment of soft brown fur; and the next of shining glass, and yet it was not a ball, for sometimes it broke up and streamed away in pieces, and then it joined again; and all the while the noise came out of it louder and louder. Tom asked the dragon-fly, what it could be: but of course with his short sight he could not even see it, though it was not ten yards away. So he took the neatest little header into the water, and started off to see for himself; and when he came near, the ball turned out to be four or five beautiful creatures, many times larger than Tom, who were swimming about, and rolling, and diving, and twisting, and wrestling, and cuddling, and kissing, and biting, and scratching, in the most charming fashion that ever was seen. And if you don't believe me you may go to the Zoological Gardens (for I am afraid you won't see it nearer, unless, perhaps, you get up at five in the morning, and go down to Cordery's Moor, and watch by the great withy pollard which hangs over the back-water, where the otters breed sometimes), and then say if otters at play in the water are not the merriest, lithest, gracefullest creatures you ever saw." Professor Parker, who also notices Kingsley's description,[9] states that the Canadian otter has a peculiar habit in winter of sliding down ridges of snow, apparently for amusement. It, with its companions, scrambles up a high ridge, and then, lying down flat, glides head-foremost down the declivity, sometimes for a distance of twenty yards. "This sport they continue apparently with the keenest enjoyment, until fatigue or hunger induces them to desist." [Footnote 9: In fact it was his quotation that induced me to buy a copy of that most charming little book, which I recommend every one to read.--R. A. S.] The following are the Indian species; _Lutra nair_, _L. simung vel monticola_, _L. Ellioti_, and _L. aurobrunnea_ of the long-clawed family, and _Aonyx leptonyx_ of the short-clawed. _GENUS LUTRA_. NO. 195. LUTRA NAIR. _The Common Indian Otter_ (_Jerdon's No. 100_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Ud_ or _Ood_, _Ood-bilao_, _Panikutta_, Hindi; _Nir-nai_, Canarese; _Neeru-kuka_, Telegu; _Jal-manjer_, Mahratti. HABITAT.--India generally, Burmah and Ceylon. [Illustration: _Lutra nair_.] DESCRIPTION.--Hair more or less brown above, sometimes with a chestnut hue, sometimes grizzled, or with a tinge of dun; yellowish-white, or with a fulvescent tinged white below; the throat, upper lip, and sides of head are nearly white; the line of separation of upper and lower parts not very distinctly marked. Some have whitish paws. SIZE.--Head and body, 29 to 30 inches; tail about 17 inches. This otter, which is synonymous with _L. Indica_, _L. Chinensis_ and Hodgson's _L. Tarayensis_, is well known throughout India, and indeed far beyond Indian limits. They are generally found in secluded spots, in parties of about half a dozen hunting in concert. The young ones are easily tamed, and become greatly attached if kindly treated. I had one for some time. Jerdon tells a curious story of one he had, and which used to follow him in his walks. He says: "As it grew older it took to going about by itself, and one day found its way to the bazaar and seized a large fish from a moplah. When resisted, it showed such fight that the rightful owner was fain to drop it. Afterwards it took regularly to this highway style of living, and I had on several occasions to pay for my pet's dinner rather more than was necessary, so I resolved to get rid of it. I put it in a closed box, and, having kept it without food for some time, I conveyed it myself in a boat some seven or eight miles off, up some of the numerous back-waters on this coast. I then liberated it, and, when it had wandered out of sight in some inundated paddy-fields, I returned by boat by a different route. That same evening, about nine whilst in the town about one and a-half miles from my own house, witnessing some of the ceremonials connected with the Mohurrum festival, the otter entered the temporary shed, walked across the floor, and came and lay down at my feet!" It is to be hoped Dr. Jerdon did not turn him adrift again; such wonderful sagacity and attachment one could only expect in a dog. McMaster gives the following interesting account of otters hunting on the Chilka Lake: "Late one morning I saw a party, at least six in number, leave an island on the Chilka Lake and swim out, apparently to fish their way to another island, or the mainland, either at least two miles off. I followed them for more than half the distance in a small canoe. They worked most systematically in a semicircle, with intervals of about fifty yards between each, having, I suppose, a large shoal of fish in the centre, for every now and then an otter would disappear, and generally, when it was again seen, it was well inside the semicircle with a fish in its jaws, caught more for pleasure than for profit, as the fish, as far as I could see, were always left behind untouched beyond a single bite. I picked up several of these fish, which, as far as I can recollect, were all mullet." Kingsley notices this. The old otter tells Tom: "We catch them, but we disdain to eat them all; we just bite out their soft throats and suck their sweet juice--oh, so good!" (and she licked her wicked lips)--"and then throw them away, and go and catch another." General McMaster also quotes from a letter by "W. C. R." in the _Field_ about the end of 1868, which gives a very curious incident of a crocodile stealing up to a pack of otters fishing, and got within thirty yards; "but no sooner was the water broken by the hideous head of the reptile, than an otter, which evidently was stationed on the opposite bank as a sentinel, sounded the alarm by a whistling sort of sound. In an instant those in the water rushed to the bank and disappeared among the jungle, no doubt much to the disgust of the _mugger_." I have not heard any one allude to the offensive glands of the Indian otter, but I remember once dissecting one and incautiously cutting into one of these glands, situated, I think, near the tail. It is now over twenty years ago, so I cannot speak with authority, but I remember the abominable smell, which quite put a stop to my researches at the time. This otter is trained in some parts of India, in the Jessore district and Sunderbunds of Bengal, to drive fish into nets. In China a species there is driven into the water with a cord round its waist, which is hauled in when the animal has caught a fish. NO. 196. LUTRA MONTICOLA _vel_ SIMUNG. (_Jerdon's No. 101_). HABITAT.--Nepal, Sumatra, and Borneo. DESCRIPTION.--"The colour is more rufous umber-brown than _L. nair_, and does not exhibit any tendency to grizzling, and the under surface is only somewhat hoary, well washed with brownish; the chin and edge of the lips are whitish; and the silvery hoary on the sides of the head, on the throat, and on the under surface of the neck and of the chest is marked; the tail above and below is concolorous with the trunk. The length of the skeleton of an adult female, measured from the tip of the premaxillaries to the end of the sacral vertebrae, is 23.25, and the tail measures 17.75 inches" (_Anderson_). Of the Sumatran specimen the first notice was published in 1785 in the first edition of Marsden's 'History of Sumatra.' This otter is larger than the common Indian one, the skull of a female, as given by Dr. Anderson, exceeding in all points that of male of _Lutra nair_. Jerdon has this as _Lutra vulgaris_, which is the common English otter, but there is a difference in the skull. NO. 197. LUTRA ELLIOTI. HABITAT.--Southern Mahratta country. DESCRIPTION.--The colouring is the same as the last, only a little darker; the distribution of the silvery white is the same; the muzzle is however more depressed than in the last species, and it differs from _L. nair_ by a broader, more arched head, and shorter muzzle. Dr. Anderson, who distinguishes it by the feature of its skull from the two preceding species, says: "It may be that this otter has a north-westerly distribution, and that it is the species which occurs in the lake at Mount Abu in Rajputana, and also in Sindh and in the Indus." NO. 198. LUTRA AUROBRUNNEA. HABITAT.--Nepal. DESCRIPTION.--Fur of a rich ferruginous brown colour, the upper surface of the head being a deeper brown than the back; the nose is bare; the ears are small and pointed posteriorily. All the strong bristles of the moustache, eyes, cheeks, and chin, are dark brown; claws as in _Lutra_ (_Anderson_). Hodgson says it has a more vermiform body than the rest of Indian otters; tail less than two thirds of the body; nails and toes feebly developed (whence it is classed by Gray in the next genus); fur long and rough, rich chestnut-brown above, golden red below and on the extremities. SIZE.--Head and body, 20 to 22 inches; tail, 12 to 13 inches. _GENUS AONYX--CLAWLESS OTTERS_. Muzzle bald, oblong; skull broad, depressed, shorter and more globose than in _Lutra_; the molars larger than in the last genus; flesh tooth larger, and with a large internal lobe; first upper premolar generally absent; feet oblong, elongate; toes slender and tapering; claws rudimentary. NO. 199. AONYX LEPTONYX. _The Clawless Otter_ (_Jerdon's No. 102_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Chusam_, Bhotia; _Suriam_, Lepcha. HABITAT.--Throughout the Himalayas, also in Lower Bengal and in Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--"Above earthy brown or chestnut brown; lips, sides of head, chin, throat, and upper part of breast white, tinged with yellowish-grey. In young individuals the white of the lower parts is less distinct, sometimes very pale brownish."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 24 Inches; tail, 13. Mason speaks of this species as common in Burmah, and McMaster mentions his having seen in the Sitang River a colony of white-throated otters smaller than _L. nair_, though larger than _L. aurobrunnea_, but he did not secure specimens. AELUROIDEA. This section includes the Cat family (_Felidae_); the Hyaenas (_Hyaenidae_); two families unknown in India, viz. the _Cryptoproctidae_ and the _Protelidae_; and the Civet family (_Viverridae_). _FELIDAE--THE CAT FAMILY_. This family contains the typical carnivores. There is in them combined the greatest power of destruction, accompanied by the simplest mechanism for producing it. All complications of dentition and digestion disappear. Here are the few scissor-like teeth with the enormous canines, the latter for holding and piercing the life out of their prey, the former for chopping up the flesh into suitable morsels for swallowing. Then the stomach is a simple sac, undivided into compartments, and the intestine is short, not more than three times the length of the body, instead of being some twenty times longer, as in some herbivores. This family has the smallest number of molars, a class of tooth which would indeed be useless, for the construction of the feline jaw precludes the possibility of grinding, and therefore a flat-crowned tuberculous tooth would be out of place. As I have before described it, the jaw of a tiger is incapable of lateral motion. The condyle of the lower jaw is so broad, and fits so accurately into its socket, the glenoid cavity, that there can be no departure from the up and down scissor-like action. The true Cats have, therefore, only one molar on each side of each jaw; those in the upper jaw being merely rudimentary, and placed almost at right angles to the rest of the teeth, and seem apparently of little use; those of the lower jaw are large and trenchant, cutting against the edge of the third upper premolar. [Illustration: Skull of Tiger (side view).] It may interest my readers to know which are premolars and which are molars. This can be decided only by dissection of the jaw of a young animal. True molars only appear as the animal approaches the adult stage. They are never shed, as are all the rest of the teeth, commonly called milk teeth. The deciduous or milk teeth are the incisors, canines, and premolars; they drop out and are replaced, and behind the last premolar comes up the permanent molar. Another peculiar feature of the Cat family is the power of sheathing their talons. Claws to a cat are of as great importance to him in the securing of his prey as are his teeth. The badger is a digger, Hodge, who carries his mattock on his shoulder; but the feline is the free-lance whose sword must be kept keen in its scabbard, so by a peculiar arrangement of muscles the points of the claws are kept off the ground, while the animal treads noiselessly on soft pads. Otherwise by constant abrasion they would get so blunted as to fail in their penetrating and seizing power. I give here an illustration of the mechanism of the feline claw. In the upper sketch the claw is retracted or sheathed; in the lower it is protruded as in the act of striking. [Illustration: Tendons of Tiger's toe.] [Illustration: Tiger's auditory apparatus.] The senses of hearing and smell are much developed, and the bulb of the ear (_bulla tympani_) is here found of the largest dimensions. I have once before alluded to this in writing of the bears, in whom this arrangement is deficient. I give here a section of the auditory apparatus. I do not know whether the engraver has effectually rendered my attempt at conveying an idea, based as it is on dissections by Professor Flower; but if he has failed I think the fault lies in the shakiness of my hand in attempting the fine shading after nearly breaking a saw and losing my temper over a very tough old skull which I divided before commencing my illustration. The great cavity is the _bulla tympani_ or bulb of the ear; _a m_ is the _auditory meatus_ or external hole of the ear. On looking into a dry skull the passage seems to be of no great depth, nor can an instrument be passed directly from the outside into the great tympanic cavity, the hindrance being a wall of bone, _s_, the _septum_ which divides the _bulla_ into two distinct chambers, the reason for which is not very clear, except that one may suppose it to be in some measure for acoustic purposes, as all animals with this development are quick of hearing. The communication between the two chambers lies in a narrow slit over the _septum_, the Eustachian tube, _e_, being on the outside of the _septum_ and between it and the tympanum or ear drum, _t_. The above are the chief characteristics of the family. For the rest we may notice that they have but a rudimentary clavicle imbedded among the muscles; the limbs are comparatively short, but immensely muscular; the body lithe and active; the foot-fall noiseless; the tongue armed with rough papillae, which enables them to rasp the flesh off bones, and their vision is adapted for both night and day. None of them are gregarious, as in the case of dogs and wolves. One hears sometimes of a limited number of lions and tigers being seen together, but in most cases they belong to one family, of which the junior members have not been "turned off on their own hook" as yet. _GENUS FELIS_. NO. 200. FELIS LEO. _The Lion_ (_Jerdon's No. 103_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Sher-babbar_, _Singh_, _Unthia-bagh_. HABITAT.--Guzerat and Central India. [Illustration: _Felis leo_ (Indian variety).] DESCRIPTION.--The lion is almost too well known to need description, and there is little difference between the Asiatic and African animal. It may, however, be generally described as being distinguished from other Cats by its uniform tawny colour, flatter skull, which gives it a more dog-like appearance, the shaggy mane of the male, and by the tufted tail of both sexes. SIZE.--From nose to insertion of tail, 6 to 6-1/2 feet; tail, 2-1/2 to 3 feet; height, 3-1/2 feet. The weight of one measured by Captain Smee, 8 feet 9-1/2 inches, was (excluding the entrails) thirty-five stone. This must be the one alluded to by Jerdon, but he does not state the extraction of the viscera, which would add somewhat to the weight. Young lions when born are invariably spotted; and Professor Parker states that there were in the Zoological Gardens in 1877 three lions which were born in the menagerie about ten years previously, and which showed "indistinct, though perfectly evident, spots of a slightly darker tawny than the general ground-tint on the belly and flanks." He adds: "This is also the case with the puma, and it looks very much as if all the great Cats were descended from a spotted ancestor." The more dog-like head of the lion is well known to all who have studied the physiognomy of the Cats, and I have not only noticed it in drawing the animal, but have seen it alluded to in the writings of others. It was not, however, till lately that I had an opportunity of comparing the skulls of the lion and tiger in the Calcutta Museum, and I am indebted to Mr. Cockburn of the museum, not only for the trouble he took in getting out the various skulls, but for his assistance in pointing out certain peculiarities known to him, but of which I was at the time ignorant. That the skull of the lion is flatter than, and wants the bold curve of, those of the tiger, leopard and jaguar, is a well-known fact, but what Mr. Cockburn pointed out to me was the difference in the maxillary and nasal sutures of the face. A glance at two skulls placed side by side would show at once what I mean. It would be seen that the nasal bones of the tiger run up higher than those of the lion, the apices of whose nasal and maxillary sutures are on a level. On leaving the museum I compared the tiger skulls in my possession with accurate anatomical drawings which I have of the osteology of the lion, and the result was the same. It is said that there is also a difference in the infra-orbital foramen of the two animals, but this I have failed to detect as yet, though asserted by De Blainville in his magnificent work on osteology ('Osteographie'). From all that has been written of the African and Indian lions I should say that the tiger was the more formidable of the two, as he is, I believe, superior in size. About twenty-two years ago my attention was drawn to this subject by the perusal of Mr. Blyth's article on the _Felidae_ in the old _India Sporting Review_ of 1856-57. If I am not mistaken there was at that time (1861) a fine skeleton of a lion in the museum, as well as those of several tigers, which I measured. I had afterwards opportunities of observing and comparing skeletons of the two animals in various museums in Europe, though not in my own country, for my stay in England on each occasion of furlough was brief, and in almost every instance I found the tiger the larger of the two. The book in which I recorded my observations, and which also contained a number of microscopic drawings of marine infusoria, collected during a five months' voyage, was afterwards lost, so I cannot now refer to my notes. I believe there was once a case of a fair fight between a well-matched lion and tiger in a menagerie (Edmonds's, I think). The two, by the breaking of a partition, got together, and could not be separated. The duel resulted in the victory of the tiger, who killed his opponent. The lion seems to be dying out in India, and it is now probably confined only to Guzerat and Cutch. I have not been an attentive reader of sporting magazines of late years, and therefore I cannot call to mind any recent accounts of lion-killing in India, if any such have been recorded. At the commencement of this century lions were to be found in the North-West and in Central India, including the tract of country now termed the Central Provinces. In 1847 or 1848 a lioness was killed by a native shikari in the Dumoh district. Dr. Spry, in his 'Modern India,' states that, when at Saugor in the Central Provinces in 1837, the skin of a full-grown male lion was brought to him, which had been shot by natives in the neighbourhood. He also mentions another lioness shot at Rhylee in the Dumoh district in 1834, of which he saw the skin. Jerdon says that tolerably authentic intelligence was received of the presence of lions near Saugor in 1856; and whilst at Seonee, within the years 1857 to 1864, I frequently heard the native shikaris speak of having seen a tiger _without stripes_, which may have been of the present species. The indistinct spots on the lion's skin (especially of young lions), to which I have before alluded, were noticed in the skin of the lioness shot at Dumoh in 1847. The writer says: "when you place it in the sun and look sideways at it, some very faint spots (the size of a shilling or so) are to be seen along the belly." Lions pair off at each season, and for the time they are together they show great attachment to each other, but the male has to fight for his spouse, who bestows herself on the victor. They then live together till the young are able to shift for themselves. The lioness goes with young about fifteen or sixteen weeks, and produces from two to six at a litter. But there is great mortality among young lions, especially about the time when they are developing their canine teeth. This has been noticed in menageries, confirming a common Arab assertion. In the London Zoological Gardens, during the last twenty years, there has been much mortality among the lion cubs by a malformation of the palate. It is a curious fact that lions breed more readily in travelling menageries than in stationary ones. NO. 201. FELIS TIGRIS. _The Tiger_ (_Jerdon's No. 104_). NATIVE NAME.--_Bagh_, _Sher_, Hindi; _Sela-vagh_, _Go-vagh_, Bengali; _Wuhag_, Mahrathi; _Nahar_ in Bundelkund and Central India; _Tut_ of the hill people of Bhagulpore; _Nongya-chor_ in Gorukpore; _Puli_ in Telegu and Tamil; also _Pedda-pulli_ in Telegu; _Parain-pulli_ in Malabar; _Huli_ in Caranese; _Tagh_ in Tibet; _Suhtong_ in Lepcha; _Tukh_ in Bhotia. These names are according to Jerdon. _Bagh_ and _Sher_ all Indian sportsmen are familiar with. The Gonds of the Central Provinces call it _Pullial_, which has an affinity with the southern dialects. HABITAT.--The tiger, as far as we are concerned, is known throughout the Indian peninsula and away down the eastern countries to the Malayan archipelago. In Ceylon it is not found, but it extends to the Himalayas, and ranges up to heights of 6000 to 8000 feet. Generally speaking it is confined to Asia, but in that continent it has a wide distribution. It has been found as far north as the island of Saghalien, which is bisected by N. L. 50 degrees. This is its extreme north-eastern limit, the Caspian Sea being its westerly boundary. From parallel 50 degrees downwards it is found in many parts of the highlands of central Asia. [Illustration: Head of Tiger.] DESCRIPTION.--A large heavy bodied Cat, much developed in the fore-quarters, with short, close hair of a bright rufous ground tint from every shade of pale yellow ochre to burnt sienna, with black stripes arranged irregularly and seldom in two individuals alike, the stripes being also irregular in form, from single streaks to loops and broad bands. In some the brows and cheeks are white, and in all the chin, throat, breast, and belly are pure white. All parts, however, whether white or rufous, are equally pervaded by the black stripes. The males have prolonged hairs extending from the ears round the cheeks, forming a ruff, or whiskers as they are sometimes called, although the true whiskers are the labial bristles. The pupil of the tiger's eye is round, and not vertical, as stated by Jerdon. SIZE.--Here we come to a much-vexed question, on which there is much divergence of opinion, and the controversy will never be decided until sportsmen have adopted a more correct system of measurement. At present the universal plan is to measure the animal as it lies on the ground, taking the tape from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail. I will undertake that no two men will measure the same tiger with equal results if the body be at all disturbed between the two operations. If care be not taken to raise the head so as to bring the plane of the skull in a line with the vertebrae, the downward deflection will cause increased measurement. Let any one try this on the next opportunity, or on the dead body of a cat. Care should be taken in measuring that the head be raised, so that the top of the skull be as much as possible in a line with the vertebrae. A stake should be then driven in at the nose and another close in at the root of the tail, and the measurement taken between the two stakes, and not round the curves. The tail, which is an unimportant matter, but which in the present system of measurement is a considerable factor, should be measured and noted separately. I am not a believer in tails (or tales), and have always considered that they should be excluded from measurements except as an addition. I spoke of this in 'Seonee' in the following terms: "If all tigers were measured honestly, a twelve-foot animal would never be heard of. All your big fellows are measured from stretched skins, and are as exaggerated as are the accounts of the dangers incurred in killing them--at least in many cases. But even the true method of measuring the unskinned animal is faulty; it is an apparent fact that a tail has very little to do with the worthiness of a creature, otherwise our bull-dogs would have their caudal appendages left in peace. Now every shikari knows that there may be a heavy tiger with a short tail and a light bodied one with a long tail. Yet the measurement of each would be equal, and give no criterion as to the size of the brute. Here's this tiger of yours; I call him a heavy one, twenty-eight inches round the fore-arm, and big in every way, yet his measurement does not sound large (it was 9 feet 10 inches), and had he six inches more tail he would gain immensely by it in reputation. The biggest panther I ever shot had a stump only six inches long; and according to the usual system of measuring he would have read as being a very small creature indeed." Tails do vary. Sir Walter Elliot was a very careful observer, and in his comparison of the two largest males and two largest females, killed between 1829 and 1833, out of 70 to 80 specimens, it will be seen that the largest animal in each sex had the shortest tail:-- --------------------------------------------------------------- | Adult Male. | Adult Female. ------------------------+-------------------+------------------ | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. Length of head and body | 6 2 | 5 6 | 5 3-1/2 | 5 2 | | | | Length of tail | 3 1-1/2 | 3 3 | 2 11 | 3 2 |---------+---------|---------|-------- | 9 3-1/2 | 8 9 | 8 2-1/2 | 8 4 --------------------------------------------------------------- Campbell, in his notes to 'The Old Forest-Ranger,' gives the dimensions of a tiger of 9 ft. 5 in. of which the tail was only 2 ft. 10 in. From the other detailed measurements it must have been an enormous tiger. The number of caudal vertebrae in the tiger and lion should be twenty-six. I now regret that I did not carefully examine the osteology of all short-tailed tigers which I have come across, to see whether they had the full complement of vertebrae. The big tiger in the museum is short by the six terminal joints = three inches. This may have occurred during life, as in the case of the above-quoted panther; anyhow the tail should, I think, be thrown out of the calculation. Now as to the measurement of the head and body, I quite acknowledge that there must be a different standard for the sportsman and for the scientific naturalist. For the latter the only reliable data are derived from the bones. Bones cannot err. Except in very few abnormal conditions the whole skeleton is in _accurate_ proportion, and it has lately struck me that from a certain measurement of the skull a true estimate might be formed of the length of the skeleton, and approximately the size of the animal over the muscles. I at first thought of taking the length of the skull by a craniometer, and seeing what portion of the total length to the posterior edge of the sacrum it would be, but I soon discarded the idea on account of the variation in the supra-occipital process. [Illustration: Tiger's skull (under part).] I then took the palatal measurement, from the outer edge of the border in which the incisors are set to the anterior inside edge of the brain-hole, or foramen magnum, and I find that this standard is sufficiently accurate, and is 5.50 of the length taken from the tip of the premaxillaries to the end of the sacrum. Therefore the length of this portion of any tiger's skull multiplied by 5.50 will give the measurement of the head and body of the skeleton. For the purpose of working out these figures I applied to all my sporting friends for measurements of their largest skulls, with a view to settling the question about tigers exceeding eleven feet. The museum possesses the skeleton of a tiger which was considered one of the largest known, the cranial measurement of whose skull is 14.50 inches, but the Maharajah of Cooch Behar showed me one of his skulls which exceeded it, being 15 inches. Amongst others I wrote to Mr. J. Shillingford of Purneah, and he most kindly not only drew up for me a tabular statement of the dimensions of the finest skulls out of his magnificent collection, but sent down two for my inspection. Now in the long-waged war of opinion regarding the size of tigers I have always kept a reserved attitude, for if I have never myself killed, or have seen killed by others, a tiger exceeding ten feet, I felt that to be no reason for doubting the existence of tigers of eleven feet in length vouched for by men of equal and in some cases greater experience, although at the same time I did not approve of a system of measurement which left so much to conjecture. There is much to be said on both sides, and, as much yet remains to be investigated, it is to be hoped that the search after the truth will be carried on in a judicial spirit. I have hitherto been ranged on the side of the moderate party; still I was bound to respect the opinion of Sir Joseph Fayrer, who, as not only as a sportsman but as an anatomist, was entitled to attention; and from my long personal acquaintance I should implicitly accept any statement made by him. Dr. Jerdon, whom I knew intimately, was not, I may safely assert, a great tiger shikari, and he based his opinion on evidence and with great caution. Mr. J. Shillingford, from whom I have received the greatest assistance in my recent investigations, and who has furnished me with much valuable information, is on the other hand the strenuous assertor of the existence of the eleven-foot tiger, and with the magnificent skulls before me, which he has sent down from Purneah, I cannot any longer doubt the size of the Bengal tiger, and that the animals to which they belonged were eleven feet, _measured sportsman fashion_--that is round the curves. The larger of the two skulls measures 15.25 inches taken between two squares, placed one at each end; a tape taken from the edge of the premaxillaries over the curve of the head gives 17.37 inches; the width across the zygomatic arches, 10.50.[10] The palatal measurement, which is the test I proposed for ascertaining the length of the skeleton, is 12.25, which would give 5 feet 7.37 inches; about 3-3/4 inches larger than the big skeleton in the Museum. This may seem very small for the body of an animal which is supposed to measure eleven feet, but I must remind my readers that the bones of the biggest tiger look very small when denuded of the muscles; and the present difficulty I have to contend with is how to strike the average rate for the allowance to be added to skeleton for muscles, the chief stumbling block being the system which has hitherto included the tail in the measurement. It all tigers had been measured as most other animals (except felines) are--i.e. head and body together, and then the tail separately--I might have had some more reliable data to go upon; but I hope in time to get some from such sportsmen as are interested in the subject. I have shown that the tail is not trustworthy as a proportional part of the total length; but from such calculations as I have been able to make from the very meagre materials on which I have to base them, I should allow one 2.50th part of the total length of skeleton for curves and muscles. [Footnote 10: At Mr. Shillingford's request, I made over this skull to the Calcutta Museum.] In addition to a careful study of De Blainville's 'Osteographie,' where the bones are figured in large size to scale, I have made many careful measurements of skulls belonging to myself and friends, and also of the skulls and skeletons in the Calcutta Museum (for most willing and valuable assistance in which I am indebted to Mr. J. Cockburn, who, in order to test my calculations, went twice over the ground); and I have adopted the following formula as a tentative measure. I quite expect to be criticised, but if the crude idea can be improved on by others I shall be glad. I now give a tabular statement of four out of many calculations made, but I must state that in fixing an arbitrary standard of 36 inches for tail, I have understated the mark, for the tails of most tigers exceed that by an inch or two, though, on the other hand, some are less. _Formula_.--Measure from the tip of the premaxillaries or outer insertion of the front teeth (incisors) along the palate to the nearest inner edge of the foramen magnum. Multiply the result by 5.50. This will give the length of the skeleton, excluding the tail. Divide this result by 2.50, and add the quotient to the length for the proportionate amount of muscles and gain in curves. Add 36 inches for tail. ---------------------------------------------------------------- | Palatal | Add one | | | measure- | 2.50th | | | ment | part of | | | multi- | last for | | | plied | curves | | | by | and | | Total. | 5.50. | muscles. | Tail. | inches ft. in. -------------------+----------+----------+-------+-------------- Mr. Shillingford's | 67.37 | 26.94 | 36.00 | 130.31 10 10 tiger | | | | | | | | Big tiger in | 63.52 | 25.40 | 36.00 | 124.92 10 4-3/4 museum | | | | | | | | Maharajah of Cooch | 66.00 | 26.40 | 36.00 | 128.40 10 8.4 Behar's tiger | | | | | | | | A medium-sized one | 55.75 | 23.10 | 36.00 | 116.85 9 8-3/4 of my own | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------- Remarks: Mr. Shillingford's tiger's tail was over 3 ft. 2 in., which would make it 11 ft. The Maharajah writes to me that his measured on the ground 9 ft. 11 in. See further on. ---------------------------------------------------------------- It will be seen that my calculation is considerably out in the Cooch Behar tiger, so I asked the Maharajah to tell me, from the appearance of the skull, whether the animal was young or old. He sent it over to me, and I have no hesitation in saying that it was that of a young tiger, who, in another year, might have put on the extra nine inches; the parietal sutures, which in the old tiger (as in Mr. Shillingford's specimens) are completely obliterated, are in this one almost open. It must be remembered that the bones of the skull do not grow in the same ratio to the others, and that they attain their full size before those of the rest of the body. Therefore it is only in the case of the adult that accurate results can be calculated upon. Probably I have not done wisely in selecting a portion of the skull as a standard--a bone of the body, such as a femur or humerus might be more reliable--but I was driven to it by circumstances. Sportsmen, as a rule, do not keep anything but the skull, and for general purposes it would have been of no use my giving as a test what no one could get hold of except in a museum. I have always understood that the tiger of the plains grew to a greater size, that is in length, than the tiger of hilly country. I have never shot a tiger in Lower Bengal, therefore I cannot judge of the form of the beast, whether he be more lanky or not. If an eleven-foot Bengal tiger be anything like as robust in proportion as our Central Indian ones, I should say he was an enormous creature, but I believe the Central and Southern tiger to be the heavier one, and this is borne out by an illustration given by Mr. Shillingford in one of his able letters, which have called forth so much hostile criticism. He compares one of his largest with the measurement of a Southern India tiger:-- -------------------------------------------------------- Locality of Tiger. | Purneah | Southern India Length. | 11 ft. 0 in. | 10 ft. 2 in. Girth of Chest. | 4 ft. 6 in. | 6 ft. 1 in. Girth of Head. | 2 ft. 10 in. | 3 ft. 5 in. Tail. | 3 ft. 4 in. | 3 ft. 1 in. Round Fore-arm. | 2 ft. 2 in. | 2 ft. 10 in. Height. | 3 ft. 7 in. | 3 ft. 9 in. Total of ft. and in. | 27 ft. 5 in. | 29 ft. 4 in. -------------------------------------------------------- The shorter tiger has an advantage of nearly two feet in all-round measurement. Sir Joseph Fayrer has also been called in question for his belief in twelve feet tigers, but what he says is reasonable enough. "The tiger should be measured from the nose along the spine to the tip of the tail, as he lies dead on the spot where he fell, before the skin is removed. _One that is ten feet by this measurement is large, and the full-grown male does not often exceed this_, though no doubt larger individuals (males) are occasionally seen, and I have been informed by Indian sportsmen of reliability that they have seen and killed tigers over twelve feet in length." ('Royal Tiger of Bengal,' p. 29). Sir Joseph Fayrer in a letter to _Nature_, June 27, 1878, brings forward the following evidence of large tigers shot by sportsmen whose names are well known in India. Lieutenant-Colonel Boileau killed a tiger at Muteara in Oude, in 1861, over 12 feet; the skin when removed measured 13 feet 5 inches. Sir George Yule has heard once of a 12-foot tiger fairly measured, but 11 feet odd inches is the largest he has killed, _and that twice or thrice_. Colonel Ramsay (Commissioner) killed in Kumaon a tiger measuring 12 feet. Sir Joseph Fayrer has seen and killed tigers over 10 feet, and one in Purneah 10 feet 8 inches, in 1869. Colonel J. Sleeman does not remember having killed a tiger _over_ 10 feet 6 inches in the skin. Colonel J. MacDonald has killed one 10 feet 4 inches. The Honourable R. Drummond, C.S., killed a tiger 11 feet 9 inches, measured before being skinned. Colonel Shakespeare killed one 11 feet 8 inches. However, conceding that all this proves that tigers do reach occasionally to eleven and even twelve feet, it does not take away from the fact that the average length is between nine and ten feet, and anything up to eleven feet is rare, and up to twelve feet still more so.[11] [Footnote 11: Since writing the above I have to thank "Meade Shell" for the measurements of the skull of a tiger 11 ft. 6 in. The palatal measurement is 12 inches, which, according to my formula, would give only 10 ft. 8 in.; but it must be remembered that I have allowed only 3 ft. for the tail, whereas such a tiger would probably have been from 3-1/2 to 4 ft., which would quite bring it up to the length vouched for. The tail of a skeleton of a much smaller tiger in the museum measures 3 ft. 3-1/2 in., which with skin and hair would certainly have been 3-1/2 ft. Until sportsmen begin to measure bodies and tails separately it will, I fear, be a difficult matter to fix on any correct formula.--R. A. S. See Appendix _C_.] VARIETIES OF THE TIGER.--It is universally acknowledged that there is but one species of tiger. There are, however, several marked varieties. The distinction between the Central Asian and the Indian tiger is unmistakable. The coat of the Indian animal is of smooth, short hair; that of the Northern one of a deep furry pelage, of a much richer appearance. There is an idea which is also to be found stated as a fact in some works on natural history, that the Northern tiger is of a pale colour with few stripes, which arises from Swinhoe having so described some specimens from Northern China; but I have not found this to be confirmed in those skins from Central Asia which I have seen. Shortly before leaving London, in 1878, Mr. Charles Reuss, furrier, in Bond Street, showed me a beautiful skin with deep soft hair, abundantly striped on a rich burnt sienna ground, admirably relieved by the pure white of the lower parts. That light-coloured specimens are found is true, but I doubt whether they are more common than the others. Of the varieties in India it is more difficult to speak. Most sportsmen recognise two (some three)--the stout thick-set tiger of hilly country, and the long-bodied lankier one of the grass jungles in the plains. Such a division is in consonance with the ordinary laws of nature, which we also see carried out in the thick-set muscular forms of the human species in mountain tracts. Some writers, however, go further, and attempt subdivisions more or less doubtful. I knew the late Captain J. Forsyth most intimately for years. We were in the same house for some time. I took an interest in his writings, and helped to illustrate his last work, and I can bear testimony to the general accuracy of his observations and the value of his book on the Highlands of Central India; but in some things he formed erroneous ideas, and his three divisions, based on the habits of the tiger, is, I think, open to objection, as tending to create an idea of at least two distinct varieties. Native shikaris, he says, recognise two kinds--the _Lodhia Bagh_ and the _Oontia Bagh_ (which last I may remind my readers is one of the names of the lion). The former is the _game-killing_ tiger, retired in his habits, living chiefly among the hills, retreating readily from man. "He is a light-made beast, very active and enduring, and from this, as well as his shyness, generally difficult to bring to bag." I grant his shyness and comparative harmlessness (I once met one almost face to face)--and the nature of the ground he inhabits increases the difficulty in securing him--but I do not think he physically differs from his brother in the cattle districts. Mr. Sanderson says one of the largest tigers he had killed was a pure game-killer. "The cattle-lifter again," says Forsyth, "is usually an older and heavier animal (called _Oontia Bagh_, from his faintly striped coat, resembling the colour of a camel), very fleshy and indisposed to severe exertion." His third division is the man-eater. However, this is merely a classification on the habits of the same animal. I think most Central India sportsmen will agree with me when I say that many a young tiger is a cattle-eater, with a rich coloured hide, although it often happens that an old tiger of the first division, when he finds his powers for game failing by reason of age or increased bulk, transfers himself from the borders of the forest to the vicinity of grazing lands and villages, and he ultimately may come into the third division by becoming a man-eater. So that the _Lodhia_ becomes the _Oontia_ (for very old tigers become lighter in colour), and may end by being an _Adam-khor_, or man-eater. Tigers roam a great deal at times, and if in their wanderings they come to a suitable locality with convenience of food and water, they abide there, provided there be no occupant with a prior claim and sufficient power to dispute the intrusion. We had ample proof of this at Seonee. Close to the station, that is, within a short ride, were several groups of hills which commanded the pasture lands of the town. Many a tiger has been killed there, the place of the slain one being occupied ere long by another. On the other hand, if a tiger be accommodated with lodgings to his liking, he will stay there for years, roaming a certain radius, but returning to his home; and it is the knowledge of this that so often enables the hunter to compass his destruction. As long therefore as there are human habitations, with their usual adjuncts of herds and flocks, within a dozen miles of the jungle tiger's haunts, so long there will always be the transition from the game-killer to the cattle-lifter and the man-eater. Colour and striping must also be thrown out of the question, for no two individuals of any variety agree, and the characteristics of shade and marking are common to all kinds. The only reliable data therefore are derived from measurements, and from these it may be proved that the grass-jungle tiger of Bengal, though the longer animal, is yet inferior in all round measurement and probably in weight to the tiger of hilly country--see Mr. Shillingford's comparison quoted by me above. Let also any one compare the following measurements of one given by Colonel Walter Campbell with a tiger of equal length shot in the grassy plains of Bengal:-- ft. in. Length from point of nose to end of tail . . . . . 9 5 Ditto of tail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 10 Height from heel to shoulder . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 Extreme length from shoulder to point of toe . . . 3 11 From elbow to point of toe . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 Girth of body just behind the shoulder . . . . . . 5 3 Ditto of forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 Ditto of neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0 Circumference of head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 This is a remarkably short-tailed tiger. If the concurrence of evidence establishes the difference beyond doubt, then we may say that there are two varieties in India--the hill tiger, _Felis tigris, var. montanus_; and the other, inhabiting the alluvial plains of great rivers, _Felis tigris, var. fluviatilis_. Dr. Anderson says he has examined skulls and skins of those inhabiting the hill ranges of Yunnan, and can detect no difference from the ordinary Indian species. The tigress goes with young for about fifteen weeks, and produces from two to five at a birth. I remember once seeing four perfectly formed cubs, which would have been born in a day or two, cut from a tigress shot by my brother-in-law Col. W. B. Thomson in the hills adjoining the station of Seonee. I had got off an elephant, and, running up the glen on hearing the shots, came unpleasantly close to her in her dying throes. When about to bring forth, the tigress avoids the male, and hides her young from him. The native shikaris say that the tiger kills the young ones if he finds them. The mother is a most affectionate parent as a rule, and sometimes exhibits strange fits of jealousy at interference with her young. I heard an instance of this some years ago from my brother, Mr. H. B. Sterndale, who, as one of the Municipal Commissioners of Delhi, took a great interest in the collection of animals in the Queen's Gardens there. Both tiger and leopard cubs had been born in the gardens, and the mother of the latter shewed no uneasiness at her offspring being handled by strangers as they crept through the bars and strayed about; but one day, a tiger cub having done the same, the tigress exhibited great restlessness, and, on the little one's return, in a sudden accession of jealous fury she dashed her paw on it and killed it. I am indebted to Mr. Shillingford for a long list of tigresses with cubs killed during the years 1866 to 1880. Out of 53 cubs (18 mothers) 29 were males and 22 females, the sex of two cubs not being given. This tends to prove that there are an equal number of each sex born--in fact here the advantage is on the side of the males. I have heard it asserted that tigresses are more common, and native shikaris account for it by saying that the male tiger kills the cubs of his own sex; but I have not seen anything to justify this assertion, or the fact of there being a preponderance of females. Mr. Sanderson, however, writes: "Male and female cubs appear to be in about equal proportions. How it is that amongst mature animals tigresses predominate so markedly I am unable to say." Tigresses have young at all seasons of the year, and they breed apparently only once in three years, which is about the time the cubs remain with their mother. For the following interesting memorandum I have to thank Mr. Shillingford:-- Feet. "Cubs one year old measure . . . . . . Males 4-1/2 to 5-1/2 Females 4 to 5 Ditto two years old . . . . . . . . . Males 5-1/2 to 7 Females 5 to 6-1/2 Ditto three years old . . . . . . . . Males 7 to 8-1/2 Females 6-1/2 to 7-1/2 "When they reach three years of age they lose their 'milk' canines, which are replaced by the permanent fangs, and at this period the mother leaves them to cater for themselves." The cubs are interesting pets if taken from the mother very young. I have reared several, but only kept one for any length of time. I have given a full description of Zalim and his ways in 'Seonee.' He was found by my camp followers with another in a nullah, and brought to me. The other cub died, but Zalim lived to grow up into a very fine tiger, and was sent to England. I never allowed him to taste raw flesh. He had a little cooked meat every day, and as much milk as he liked to drink, and he throve well on this diet. When he was too large to be allowed to roam about unconfined I had a stout buffalo-leather collar made for his neck, and he was chained to a stump near the cook-room door. With grown-up people he was perfectly tame, but I noticed he got restless when children approached him, and so made up my mind to part with him before he did any mischief. I know nothing of the habits of the tiger of the grass plains, but those of the hill tiger are very interesting, the cattle lifter especially, as he is better known to men. Each individual has his special idiosyncrasy. I wrote of this once before as follows: "Strange though it may seem to the English reader that a tiger should have any special character beyond the general one for cruelty and cunning, it is nevertheless a fact that each animal has certain peculiarities of temperament which are well known to the villagers in the neighbourhood. They will tell you that such a one is daring and rash; another is cunning and not to be taken by any artifice; that one is savage and morose; another is mild and harmless. There are few villages in the wilder parts of the Seonee and Mandla districts without an attendant tiger, which undoubtedly does great damage in the way of destroying cattle, but which avoids the human inhabitants of the place. So accustomed do the people get to their unwelcome visitor that we have known the boys of a village turn a tiger out of quarters which were reckoned too close, and pelt him with stones. On one occasion two of the juvenile assailants were killed by the animal they had approached too near. Herdsmen in the same way get callous to the danger of meddling with so dreadful a creature, and frequently rush to the rescue of their cattle when seized. On a certain occasion one out of a herd of cattle was attacked close to our camp, and rescued single-handed by it's owner, who laid his heavy iron-bound staff across the tiger's back; and, on our rushing out to see what was the matter, we found the man coolly dressing the wounds of his cow, muttering to himself: 'The robber, the robber! My last cow, and I had five of them!' He did not seem to think he had done anything wonderful, and seemed rather surprised that we should suppose that he was going to let his last heifer go the way of all the others. "It is fortunate for these dwellers in the backwoods that but a small percentage of tigers are man-eaters, perhaps not five per cent., otherwise village after village would be depopulated; as it is the yearly tale of lives lost is a heavy one."[12] [Footnote 12: 'Seonee.'] Tigers are also eccentric in their ways, showing differences in disposition under different circumstances. I believe that many a shikari passes at times within a few yards of a tiger without knowing it, the tendency of the animal being to crouch and hide until the strange-looking two-legged beast has passed. The narrowest escape I ever had is an instance. I had hunted a large tiger, well known for the savageness of his disposition, on foot from ravine to ravine on the banks of the Pench, one hot day in June, and, giving him no rest, made sure of getting him about three o'clock in the afternoon. He had been seen to slip into a large nullah, bordered on one side by open country, a small water-course draining into it from the fields; here was one large _beyr_ bush, behind which I wished to place myself, but was persuaded by an old shikari of great local reputation to move farther on. Hardly had we done so when our friend bounded from under the bush and disappeared in a thicket, where we lost him. Ten days after this he was killed by a friend and myself, and he sustained his savage reputation by attacking the elephant without provocation--a thing a tiger seldom does. I had hunted this animal several times, and on one occasion saw him swim the Pench river at one of its broadest reaches. It was the only time I had seen a tiger swim, and it was interesting to watch him powerfully breasting the stream with his head well up. Tigers swim readily, as is well known. I believe it is not uncommon to see them take to the water in the Sunderbunds; and a recent case may be remembered when two of them escaped from the King of Oude's Menagerie, and one swam across the Hooghly to the Botanical Gardens. There has been some controversy about the way in which tigers kill their prey. I am afraid I cannot speak definitely on the subject, although I have on several occasions seen tigers kill oxen and ponies. I do not think they have a uniform way of doing it, so much depends upon circumstance--certain it is that they cannot smash in the head of a buffalo with a stroke, as some writers make out, but yet I have known them make strokes at the head, in a running fight, for instance, between a buffalo and a tiger--in which the former got off--and in the case of human beings. Of two men killed by the same tiger, one had his skull fractured by a blow; the other, who was killed as we were endeavouring to drive the tiger out of the village, was seized by the loins. He died immediately; the man with the fractured skull lingered some hours longer. Another case of a stroke at the head happened once when I had tied out a pony for a tiger that would not look at cows, over which I had sat for several successive nights. A tiger and tigress came out, and the former made a rush at the _tattu_, who met him with such a kick on the nose that he drew back much astonished; the tigress then dashed at the pony, and I, wishing if possible to save the plucky little animal's life, fired two barrels into her, rolling her over just as she struck at his head. But it was too late; the pony dropped at the blow and died--not from concussion, however, but from loss of blood, for the jugular vein had been cut open as though it had been done with a knife. So much for the head stroke, which is, I may say, exceptional. As a general rule I think the tiger bears down his victim by sheer weight, and then, by some means which I should hesitate to define, although I have seen it, the head is wrenched back, so as to dislocate the vertebrae. One evening two cows were killed before me. I was going to say the tiger sprang at one, but correct myself--it is not a spring, but a rush on to the back of the animal; he seldom springs all fours off the ground at once. I have never seen a tiger get off his hind legs except in bounding over a fallen tree, or in and out of a ravine. In this case he rushed on to the cow and bore it to the ground; there was a violent struggle, and in the dusky light I could not tell whether he used his mouth or paws in wrenching back the head, which went with a crack. The thing was done in a minute, when he sprang once more to his feet, and the second cow was hurled to the ground in like manner. As his back was turned to me I fired somewhat hastily, thinking to save the cow, but only wounded the tiger, which I lost. Both the cows, however, had their necks completely broken. I cannot now remember the position of the fang-marks in the throat. On another occasion I came across five out of a herd that had been killed, probably by young tigers; every one had the neck broken. Mr. Sanderson says that herdsmen have described to him how they have noticed the operation: "Clutching the bullock's fore-quarters with his paws, one being generally over the shoulder, he seizes the throat in his jaws from underneath and turns it upwards and over, sometimes springing to the far side in doing so, to throw the bullock over and give the wrench which dislocates its neck. This is frequently done so quickly that the tiger, if timid, is in retreat again almost before the herdsmen can turn round." This account seems reliable. A tiger may seize by the nape in order to get a temporary purchase, but it would be awkward for him to pull the head back far enough to snap the vertebral column. Now for a few remarks in conclusion. I have written more on the subject than I intended. That tigers are carrion feeders is well known, but that sometimes they prefer high meat to fresh I had only proof of once. A tiger killed a mare and foal, on which he feasted for three days; on the fourth nothing remaining but a very offensive leg; we tied out a fine young buffalo calf for him within a yard or two of the savoury joint. The tiger came during the night and took away the leg, without touching the calf; and, devouring it, fell asleep, in which condition we, having tracked him up the nullah, found and killed him. The tiger is not always monarch over all the beasts of the field. He is positively afraid of the wild dog (_Cuon rutilans_), which readily attacks him in packs. Then he often finds his match in the wild boar. I have myself seen an instance of this, in which the tiger was not only ripped to death, but had his chest-bone gnawed and crushed, evidently after life was extinct. Buffalos in herds hesitate not in attacking a tiger; and I saw one instance of their saving their herdsman from a man-eater. My camp was pitched on the banks of a stream under some tall trees. I had made a _detour_ in order to try and kill this man-eater, and had sent on a hill tent the night before. I was met in the morning by the _khalasi_ in charge, with a wonderful story of the tiger having rushed at him, but as the man was a romancer I disbelieved him. On the other side of the stream was a gentle slope of turf and bushes, rising gradually to a rocky hill. The slope was dotted with grazing herds, and here and there a group of buffalos. Late in the afternoon I heard some piercing cries from my people of "_Bagh! Bagh!_" The cows stampeded, as they always do. A struggle was going on in the bush, with loud cries of a human voice. The buffalos threw up their heads, and, grunting loudly, charged down on the spot, and then in a body went charging on through the brushwood. Other herdsmen and villagers ran up, and a charpoy was sent for and the man brought into the village. He was badly scratched, but had escaped any serious fang wounds from his having, as he said, seen the tiger coming at him, and stuffed his blanket into his open mouth, whilst he belaboured him with his axe. Anyhow but for his buffalos he would have been a dead man in three minutes more. THE PARDS OR PANTHERS. To these are commonly assigned the name of Leopard, which ought properly to be restricted to the hunting leopard (_Felis jubata_), to which we have also misappropriated the Indian name _Chita_, which applies to all spotted cats, _Chita-bagh_ being spotted tiger. The same term, derived from the adjective _chhita_, spotted or sprinkled, applies in various forms to the other creatures, such as _Chital_, the spotted deer (_Axis_), _Chita-bora_, a kind of speckled snake, &c. _Leopardus_ or lion-panther was, without doubt, the name given by the ancients to the hunting leopard, which was well known to them from its extending into Africa and Arabia. Assuredly the prophet Habakkuk spoke of the hunting chita when he said of the Chaldaeans: "That bitter and hasty nation . . . their horses also are swifter than the leopards," for the pard is not a swift animal, whereas the speed of the other is well known. The name was given to it by the ancients on the supposition that it was a cross between the lion and the pard, from a fancied resemblance to the former on account of the mane or ruff of hair possessed by the hunting leopard. Apparently this animal must have been more familiar to our remote ancestors than the pard, for the name has been attached for centuries to the larger spotted Cats indiscriminately. I have not time just now to attempt to trace the species of the leopard which formerly graced the arms of the English kings, but I should not be surprised if it were the guepard or chita. The old representations were certainly attenuated enough; and the animal must have been familiar to the crusaders, as we know it was before them to the Romans. Mr. Blyth, who speculated on the origin of the name, in one of his able articles on the felines of India in the _India Sporting Review_ of April 1856, makes no allusion to the above nor to the probable confusion that may have arisen in the middle ages over the spotted Cats. Although the term leopard, as applied to panthers, has the sanction of almost immemorable custom, I do not see why, in writing on the subject, we should perpetuate the misnomer, especially as most naturalists and sportsmen are now inclined to make the proper distinction. I have always avoided the use of the term leopard, except when speaking of the hunting chita, preferring to call the others panthers. Then again we come on disputed ground. Of panthers how many have we, and how should they be designated? I am not going farther afield than India in this discussion beyond alluding to the fact that the jaguar of Brazil is almost identical with our pard as far as marking goes, but is a stouter, shorter-tailed animal, which justifies his being classed as a species; therefore we must not take superficial colouring as a test, but class the black and common pards together; the former, which some naturalists have endeavoured to made into a separate species (_Felis melas_), being merely a variety of the latter. They present the same characteristics, although Jerdon states that the black is the smaller animal. They have been found in Java to inhabit the same den, according to Professor Reinwardt and M. Kuhl, and they inter-breed, as has been proved by the fact that a female black pard has produced a black and a fulvous cub at the same birth. This is noticed by Mr. Sanderson in his book, and he got the information from the director of the Zoological Society's Menagerie at Amsterdam. "Old Fogy," a constant contributor to the old _India Sporting Review_, a good sportsman and naturalist, with whom Blyth kept up a correspondence, wrote in October 1857 that, "in a litter of four leopard cubs one was quite black; they all died, but both the parents were of the ordinary colour and marking; they were both watched at their cave, and at last shot, one with an arrow through the heart. Near a hill village a black male leopard was often seen and known to consort with an ordinary female. I have observed them myself once, if not twice." An observant sportsman, "Hawkeye," in one of his letters to the _South of India Observer_, remarks that "on one occasion a gentleman saw an old leopard accompanied by two of her offspring, one red, the other black." He also says he has never known "of two black leopards in company," but black pards have bred in zoological gardens. I am told that cubs have been born in the Calcutta Garden, but they did not live. General MacMaster, in his notes on Jerdon, makes the pertinent remark: "If however black panthers are only accidental, it is odd that no one has yet come on a black specimen of one of the larger cats, _F. leo tigris_." I see no reason why such should not yet be discovered; he was perhaps not aware that the jaguar of Brazil, which comes next to the tiger, has been found black (_Felis nigra_ of Erxleben). A black tiger would be a prize. General MacMaster relates that he once watched a fine black cat basking in the sun, and noticed that in particular lights the animal exhibited most plainly the regular brindled markings of the ordinary gray wild or semi-wild cat. These markings were as black or blacker than the rest of his hair. His mother was a half-wild gray brindle. I think we have sufficient evidence that the black pard is merely a variety of the common one, but now we come to the pards themselves, and the question as to whether there are two distinct species or two varieties; Blyth, Jerdon and other able naturalists, although fully recognizing the differences, have yet hesitated to separate them, and they still remain in the unsatisfactory relation to each other of varieties. I feel convinced in my own mind that they are sufficiently distinct to warrant their being classed, and specifically named apart. It is not as I said before, that we should go upon peculiarities of marking and colour, although these are sufficiently obvious, but on their osteology and also the question of interbreeding and production. Grant their relative sizes, one so much bigger than the other, and the difference in colour and marking, has it ever been known that out of a litter of several cubs by a female of the larger kind, one of the smaller sort has been produced, or _vice versa_? This is a question that yet remains for investigation. My old district had both kinds in abundance, and I have had scores of cubs, of both sorts, brought to me--cubs which could be distinguished at a glance as to which kind they belonged to, but I never remember any mixture of the two. As regards the difference in appearance of the adults there can be no question. The one is a higher, longer animal, with smooth shiny hair of a light golden fulvous, the spots being clear and well defined, but, as is remarked by Sir Walter Elliot, the strongest difference of character is in the skulls, those of the larger pard being longer and more pointed, with a ridge running along the occiput, much developed for the attachment of the muscles, whereas the smaller pard has not only a rougher coat, the spots being more blurred, but it is comparatively a more squat built animal, with a rounder skull without the decided occipital ridge. There is a mass of evidence on the point of distinctness--Sir Walter Elliot, Horsfield, Hodgson, Sir Samuel Baker, Johnson (author of 'Field Sports in India'), "Mountaineer," a writer in the _Bengal Sporting Review_, even Blyth and Jerdon, all speak to the difference, and yet no decided separation has been made. There is in fact too much confusion and too many names. For the larger animal _Felis pardus_ is appropriate, and the _leopardus_ of Temminck, Schreber and others is not. Therefore that remains; but what is the smaller one to be called? I should say _Felis panthera_ which, being common to Asia and Africa, was probably the panther of the Romans and Greeks. Jerdon gives as a synonym _F. longicaudata_ (Valenciennes), but I find on examination of the skulls of various species that _F. longicaudata_ has a complete bony orbit which places it in Gray's genus _Catolynx_, and it is too small for our panther. We might then say that we have the pard, the panther, and the leopard in India, and then we should be strictly correct. Some sportsmen speak of a smaller panther which Kinloch calls the third (second?) sort of panther, but this differs in no respect from the ordinary one, save in size, and it is well known that this species varies very much in this respect. I am not singular in the views I now express. Years ago Colonel Sykes, who was a well known naturalist, said of the pard: "It is a taller, stronger, and slighter built animal than the next species, which I consider the _panther_." The skull of the pard in some degree resembles that of the jaguar, which again is nearest the tiger, whereas that of the panther appears to have some affinity to the restricted cats. In disposition all the pards and panthers are alike sanguinary, fierce and incapable of attachment. The tiger is tameable, the panther not so. I have had some experience of the young of both, and have seen many others in the possession of friends; and though they may, for a time, when young, be amusing pets, their innate savageness sooner or later breaks out. They are not even to be trusted with their own kind. I have known one to turn on a comrade in a cage, kill and devour him, and some of my readers may possibly remember an instance of this in the Zoological Gardens at Lahore, when, in 1868, a pard one night killed a panther which inhabited the same den, and ate a goodly portion of him before dawn. They all show more ferocity than the tiger when wounded, and a man-eating pard is far more to be dreaded than any other man-eater, as will be seen farther on from the history of one I knew. NO. 202. FELIS PARDUS. _The Pard_ (_Jerdon's No. 105_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Tendua_, _Chita_ or _Chita-bagh_, _Adnara_; Hindi, _Honiga_; Canarese, _Asnea_; Mahratti, _Chinna puli_; Telegu, _Burkal_; Gondi, _Bay-heera_; and _Tahr-hay_ in the Himalayas. HABITAT.--Throughout India, Burmah, and Ceylon, and extending to the Malayan Archipelago. DESCRIPTION.--A clean, long limbed, though compact body; hair close and short; colour pale fulvous yellow, with clearly defined spots in rosettes; the head more tiger-like than the next species; the skull is longer and more pointed, with a much developed occipital ridge. SIZE.--Head and body from 4-1/2 to 5-1/2 feet; tail from 30 to 38 inches. This is a powerful animal and very fierce as a rule, though in the case of a noted man-eater I have known it exhibit a curious mixture of ferocity and abject cowardice. It is stated to be of a more retiring disposition than the next species, but this I doubt, for I have frequently come across it in the neighbourhood of villages to which it was probably attracted by cattle. It may not have the fearlessness or impudence of the panther, which will walk through the streets of a town and seize and devour its prey in a garden surrounded by houses, as I once remember, in the case of a pony at Seonee, but it is nevertheless sufficiently bold to hang about the outskirts of villages. Those who have seen this animal once would never afterwards confuse it with what I would call the panther. There is a sleekness about it quite foreign to the other, and a brilliancy of skin with a distinctness of spots which the longer, looser hair does not admit of. But with all these external differences I am aware that there will be objection to classifying it as a separate species, unless the osteological divergences can be satisfactorily determined, and for this purpose it would be necessary to examine a large series of authenticated skulls of the two kinds. The concurrence of evidence as to the habits of this species is that it is chiefly found in hilly jungles preying on wild animals, wild pigs, and monkeys, but not unfrequently, as I know, haunting the outskirts of villages for the sake of stray ponies and cattle. The largest pard I have ever seen was shot by one of my own shikaris in the act of stalking a pony near a village. I was mahseer-fishing close by at the time, and had sent on the man, a little before dusk, to a village a few miles off, to arrange for beating up a tiger early next day. Jerdon says this is the kind most common in Bengal, but he does not say in what parts of Bengal, and on what authority. I have no doubt it abounds in Sontalia and Assam, and many other hilly parts. At Colgong, Mr. Barnes informed him that many cases of human beings killed by pards were known in the Bhaugulpore district. At Seonee we had one which devastated a tract of country extending to about 18 miles in diameter. He began his work in 1857 by carrying off a follower of the Thakur of Gurwarra, on whom we were keeping a watch during the troublous times of the mutiny. My brother-in-law, Colonel Thomson and I, went after him under the supposition that it was a tiger that had killed the man, and it was not till we found the body at the bottom of a rocky ravine that we discovered it was a pard. During the beat he came out before us, went on, and was turned back by an elephant and came out again a third time before us; but we refrained from firing as we expected a man-eating tiger. I left Seonee for two years to join the Irregular Corps to which I had been posted, and after the end of the campaign, returned again to district work, and found that the most dreaded man-eater in the district was the pard whose life we had spared. There was a curious legend in connection with him, like the superstitious stories of Wehr wolves in Northern Europe. I have dealt fully with it in "Seonee," and Forsyth has also given a version of it in the 'Highlands of Central India,' as he came to the district soon after the animal was destroyed. Some of the aborigines of the Satpura Range are reputed to have the power of changing themselves into animals at will, and back again into the human form. The story runs, that one day one of these men, accompanied by his wife, came to a glade in the jungle where some nilgai were feeding. The woman expressed a wish for some meat, on which the husband gave her a root to hold, and to give him to smell on his return. He changed himself into a pard, killed one of the nilgai, and came bounding back for the root; but the terrified woman lost her nerve, flung away the charm, and rushed from the place. The husband hunted about wildly for the root, but in vain; and then inflamed with rage he pursued her, and tore her to pieces and continued to wreak his vengeance on the human race. Such was the history of the man-eating panther of Kahani, as related in the popular traditions of the country, and certainly everything in the career of this extraordinary animal tended to foster the unearthly reputation he had gained. Ranging over a circle, the radius of which may be put at eighteen miles, no one knew when and where he might be found. He seemed to kill for killing's sake, for often his victims--at times three in a single night--would be found untouched, save for the fatal wound in the throat. The watcher on the high machaun, the sleeper on his cot in the midst of a populous village, were alike his prey. The country was demoralized; the bravest hunters refused to go after him; wild pigs and deer ravaged the fields; none would dare to watch the growing crops. If it had been an ordinary panther who would have cared? Had not each village its Shikari? men who could boast of many an encounter with tiger and bear, and would they shrink from following up a mere animal? Certainly not; but they knew the tradition of Chinta Gond, and they believed it. What could they do? On the morning of the second day, after leaving Amodagurh, the two sportsmen neared Sulema, a little village not far from Kahani, out of which it was reported the panther had taken no less than forty people within three years. There was not a house that had not mourned the loss of father, or mother, or brother, or sister, or wife or child, from within this little hamlet. Piteous indeed were the tales told as our friends halted to gather news, and the scars of the few who were fortunate enough to have escaped with life after a struggle with the enemy, were looked at with interest; but the most touching of all were the stories artlessly told by a couple of children, one of whom witnessed the death of a sister, and the other of a brother, both carried off in broad daylight, for the fell destroyer went boldly to work, knowing that they were but weak opponents."[13] I was out several times after this diabolical creature, but without success; as I sat out night after night I could hear the villagers calling from house to house hourly, "_Jagte ho bhiya! jagte ho!_" "Are you awake, brothers? are you awake!" All day long I scoured the country with my elephant, all night long I watched and waited. My camp was guarded by great fires, my servants and followers were made to sleep inside tents, whilst sentries with musket and bayonet were placed at the doors; but all to no purpose. The heated imagination of one sentry saw him glowering at him across the blazing fire. A frantic camp-follower spoilt my breakfast next morning ere I had taken a second mouthful, by declaring he saw him in an adjoining field. Then would come in a tale of a victim five miles off during the night, and then another, and sometimes a third. I have alluded before to his cowardice; in many cases a single man or boy would frighten him from his prey. On one occasion, in my rounds after him, I came upon a poor woman bitterly crying in a field; beside her lay the dead body of her husband. He had been seized by the throat and dragged across the fire made at the entrance of their little wigwam in which they had spent the night, watching their crops. The woman caught hold of her husband's legs, and, exerting her strength against the man-eater's, shrieked aloud. He dropped the body and fled, making no attempt to molest her or her little child of about four years of age. This man was the third he had attacked that night. [Footnote 13: 'Seonee.'] He was at last killed, by accident, by a native shikari who, in the dusk, took him for a pig or some such animal, and made a lucky shot; but the tale of his victims had swelled over two hundred during the three years of his reign of terror. NO. 203. FELIS PANTHERA. _The Panther_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Chita_, _Gorbacha_, Hindi; _Beebeea-bagh_, Mahrathi; _Bibla_, of the Chita-catchers; _Ghur-hay_ or _Dheer-hay_ of the hill tribes; _Kerkal_, Canarese. HABITAT.--India generally, Burmah and Ceylon, extending also into the Malayan countries. [Illustration: _FELIS PANTHERA_ (_From a fine specimen in the Regent's Park Gardens_.)] DESCRIPTION.--Much smaller than the last, with comparatively shorter legs and rounder head; the fur is less bright; the ground-work often darker in colour, and the rosettes are more indistinct which is caused by the longer hairs intermingling and breaking into the edges of the spots; tail long and furry at the end. According to Temminck the tail is longer than that of the last species, having 28 caudal vertebrae against 22 of the other; if this be found to be the normal state, there will be additional grounds for separating the two. SIZE.--Head and body, 3 to 3-1/2 feet; tail, 2-1/2 feet; height from 1-1/2 to 2 feet. This animal is more common than the pard, and it is more impudent in venturing into inhabited places. This is fortunate, for it is seldom a man-eater, although perhaps children may occasionally be carried off. I have before mentioned one which killed and partially devoured a pony in the heart of a populous town, and many are the instances of dogs being carried off out of the verandahs of Europeans' houses. A friend of mine one night being awoke by a piteous howl from a dog, chained to the centre pole of his tent, saw the head and shoulders of one peering in at the door; it retreated but had the audacity to return in a few minutes. Jerdon and other writers have adduced similar instances. It is this bold and reckless disposition which renders it easier to trap and shoot. The tiger is suspicious to a degree, and always apprehensive of a snare, but the panther never seems to trouble his head about the matter, but walks into a trap or resumes his feast on a previously killed carcase, though it may have been moved and handled. There is another thing, too, which shows the different nature of the beast. There is little difficulty in shooting a panther on a dark night. All that is necessary is to suspend, some little distance off, a common earthen _gharra_ or water pot, with an oil light inside, the mouth covered lightly with a sod, and a small hole knocked in the side in such a way as to allow a ray of light to fall on the carcase. No tiger would come near such an arrangement, but the panther boldly sets to his dinner without suspicion, probably from his familiarity with the lights in the huts of villages. I may here digress a little on the subject of night shooting. Every one who has tried it knows the extreme difficulty in seeing the sights of the rifle in a dark night. The common native method is to attach a fluff of cotton wool. On a moonlight night a bit of wax, with powdered mica scattered on it, will sometimes answer. I have seen diamond sights suggested, but all are practically useless. My plan was to carry a small phial of phosphorescent oil, about one grain to a drachm of oil dissolved in a bath of warm water. A small dab of this, applied to the fore and hind sights, will produce two luminous spots which will glow for about 40 or 50 seconds or a minute. Dr. Sal Muller says of this species that it is occasionally found sleeping stretched across the forked branch of a tree, which is not the case with either the tiger or the pard. According to Sir Stamford Raffles, the _Rimau-dahan_ or clouded panther (miscalled tiger) _Felis macrocelis_, has the same habit. I would remark in conclusion that in the attempt to define clearly the position of these two animals the following points should be investigated by all who are interested in the subject and have the opportunity. First the characteristics of the skull:-- _viz_.--Length, and breadth as compared with length of each, with presence or absence of the occipital ridge. _2ndly_.--Number of caudal vertebrae in the tails of each. _3rdly_.--Whether in a litter, from one female, cubs of each sort have been found. NO. 204. FELIS UNCIA. _The Ounce or Snow Panther_ (_Jerdon's No. 106_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Iker_, Tibetan; _Sah_, Bhotia; _Phale_, Lepcha; _Burrel-hay_, Simla hillmen; _Thurwag_ in Kunawur. _The Snow-Leopard_ of European sportsmen. HABITAT.--Throughout the Himalayas, and the highland regions of Central Asia. [Illustration: _Felis uncia_.] DESCRIPTION.--Pale yellowish or whitish isabelline, with small spots on the head and neck, but large blotchy rings and crescents, irregularly dispersed on the shoulders, sides and haunches; from middle of back to root of tail a medium irregular dark band closely bordered by a chain of oblong rings; lower parts dingy white, with some few dark spots about middle of abdomen; limbs with small spots; ears externally black; tail bushy with broad black rings. SIZE.--Head and body about 4 feet 4 inches; tail, 3 feet; height, about 2 feet. I have only seen skins of this animal, which is said to frequent rocky ground, and to kill _Barhel_, _Thar_, sheep, goats, and dogs, but not to molest man. This species is distinguishable from all the preceding felines by the shortness and breadth of the face and the sudden elevation of the forehead--_Gray_. Pupil round--_Hodgson_. NO. 205. FELIS DIARDII _vel_ MACROCELIS. _The Clouded Panther_ (_Jerdon's No. 107_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Tungmar_, Lepcha; _Zik_, Bhotia; _Lamchitta_, of the Khas tribe (_Jerdon_). _Rimau dahan_ of Sumatra. HABITAT.--Nepal, Sikim, Assam, Burmah, and down the Malayan Peninsula to Sumatra, Java and Borneo. [Illustration: _Felis Diardii_.] DESCRIPTION.--A short-legged long-bodied animal, with a very elongated skull; the upper canines are the longest in comparison of all living felines, and in this respect it comes nearest to the extinct species _Felis smilodon_. The ground-work of the colouring is a pale buff, with large, irregular, cloud-like patches of black. Blyth remarks that the markings are exceedingly beautiful, but most difficult to describe, as they not only vary in different specimens, but also in the two sides of one individual. Jerdon's description is as follows: "Ground colour variable, usually pale greenish brown or dull clay brown, changing to pale tawny on the lower parts, and limbs internally, almost white however in some. In many specimens the fulvous or tawny hue is the prevalent one; a double line of small chain-like stripes from the ears, diverging on the nape to give room to an inner and smaller series; large irregular clouded spots or patches on the back and sides edged very dark and crowded together; loins, sides of belly and belly marked with irregular small patches and spots; some black lines on the cheeks and sides of neck, and a black band across the throat; tail with dark rings, thickly furred, long; limbs bulky, and body heavy and stout; claws very powerful." Hodgson stated that the pupil of the eye is round, but Mr. Bartlett, whose opportunities of observation have been much more frequent, is positive that it is oval. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/2 feet; tail, 3 feet, but Jerdon states it grows to a larger size. This is one of the most beautiful of all the cat family. It is not, however, one of the most elegant in form and motion, but its colouring is exquisite; it is quite an arboreal feline, and is found only in forests, frequently sleeping or lying in wait across the forked branches of trees, from which habit it acquires its Malayan name, _dahan_, signifying the forked branch of a tree. The young seem to be easily tamed, according to Sir Stamford Raffles, who describes two which he had in confinement. Dr. Jerdon also states the same, he having procured a young one in the neighbourhood of Darjeeling. In the Zoological Gardens in London there was a very fine specimen about four years ago. Professor Parker says of it: "It was not always to be seen, as it was kept during the day fastened up in one of the sleeping apartments at the back of a cage in the lion-house, and was left out only for about half an hour before the gardens closed. It was well worth stopping to see. As soon as the iron door of its cell was raised, it would come out into the large cage with a peculiar sailor-like slouch, for owing to the shortness of its legs, its gait was quite different to that of an ordinary cat, and altogether less elegant. The expression of the face, too, was neither savage nor majestic nor intelligent, but rather dull and stupid. It was fond of assuming all sorts of queer attitudes." Brehm describes one as lying prone on a thick branch placed in its cage, with all four legs hanging down straight, two on each side of the branch--certainly a remarkable position for an animal to assume of its own free will. The type of this animal constitutes the genus _Neofelis_ of Gray, containing two species, this and the _Neofelis_ (_leopardus_) _brachyurus_ of Formosa. NO. 206. FELIS VIVERRINA. _The Large Tiger-Cat_ (_Jerdon's No. 108_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Mach-bagral_, _Bagh-dasha_, Bengali; _Bunbiral_, _Khupya-bagh_, Hindi; _Handoon-deeva_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--India generally, Burmah, the Malay countries, and Ceylon. Jerdon says he has not heard of it in Central India nor in the Carnatic, nor farther west of Nepal. I have been, however, informed that a wild cat was killed lately at Jeypore in the act of carrying off an infant of four months old. I know of no cat, save this species, capable of such a proceeding. The child was rescued alive. [Illustration: Skull of _Felis viverrina_.] DESCRIPTION.--"Of a mouse gray colour, more or less deep and sometimes tinged with tawny, with large dark spots, more or less numerous, oblong on the back and neck and in lines, more or less rounded elsewhere, and broken or coalescing" (but never ocellate: _Blyth_); "cheeks white; a black face stripe; beneath dull white; chest with five or six dark bands; belly spotted," (whence the name _celidogaster_ applied by Temminck) "tail with six or seven dark bands and a black tip" (sometimes spots only); "feet unspotted."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body 30 to 34 inches; tail only 10 to 13; height about 15 or 16; weight according to Hodgson and Jerdon, about 17 lbs. The frontal and jugal bones in old specimens of this species are united by a bar which forms a complete bony orbit--a peculiarity possessed, as I have before observed, by _F. longicaudata_, but by few other felines. _Felis rubiginosa_, _F. planiceps_, and _F. Ellioti_ are also cats of this type, which Gray has separated into the genus _Viverriceps_. This large cat is not uncommon near Calcutta, and is reputed to live much on fish and fresh-water shells, but also I should say on larger game. According to some authors (Buchanan-Hamilton, for instance), it is fierce and untameable, but Blyth states that he had several big toms, quite tame, and in the Surrey Zoological Gardens there was many years ago a very fine male which he had frequently handled and had even on his lap. He relates, however, in another part, that a newly caught male of this species killed a tame young leopardess of twice its own size, having broken through the partition of a cage, but he did not eat any portion of her. The Prince of Wales took home a very fine specimen of this cat among his collection of living animals. Mr. Rainey writes of the ferocity of this cat in the following terms: "I can testify to the existence of the above qualities in this animal (_Felis viverrina_, Bennett), which is rather abundant in these parts, generally taking up its quarters in low, swampy jungle, where it often carries off calves, for which the leopard (_F. leopardus_, Linn.), undeservedly gets credit. Lately, a couple of months ago, a pair of them at night broke into a matted house, and went off with a brace of ewes, which had half-a-dozen lambs between them, born only a short time before their mothers met with their bloody end. I have caught this species in traps, and when let loose in an indigo vat with a miscellaneous pack of dogs, they have invariably fought hard, and at times proved too much for their canine adversaries, so that I have had to go to their rescue, and put an end to the fight, by a spear-thrust, or a heavy whack on the back of the head with a stout club. Some years ago one got into my fowl-house at night, and just as I opened the door to enter inside, it made a fierce jump at me from a perch on the opposite side. I had just time to put the barrel of my gun forward, on the muzzle of which it fell, and had its chest blown to atoms, as I pulled the trigger instantly it alighted there." NO. 207. FELIS MARMORATA. _The Marbled Tiger-Cat_ (_Jerdon's No. 109_). HABITAT.--The Sikim Himalayas, Assam, Burmah, and the Malayan countries. [Illustration: _Felis marmorata_.] DESCRIPTION.--"Size of a domestic cat, but with stouter limbs and a much longer and thicker tail, of uniform thickness throughout and reaching back to the occiput when reflected; the upper canines are not remarkably elongated as in _F. macroceloides_ (_macrocelis_); ears rather small and obtusely angulated, with a conspicuous white spot on their hinder surface" (_Blyth_). "Ground colour dingy-fulvous, occasionally yellowish grey; the body with numerous elongate wavy black spots, somewhat clouded or marbled; the head and nape with some narrow blackish lines, coalescing into a dorsal interrupted band; the thighs and part of the sides with black round spots; the tail black, spotted, and with the tip black; belly yellowish white."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 18 to 24 inches; tail, 14 to 16. This beautiful little cat is almost a miniature of the clouded panther, and Blyth confuses the Malayan name of the latter, and applies it to this species, which probably arose from his quoting as a synonym, _F. diardii_, which, however, in the same paper he repudiates, as the description of the size of _F. diardii_ clearly proved a much larger animal. This is the type of Grey's genus _Catolynx_, the other species in India being _F. charltoni_. The genus is peculiar from the resemblance of the nasal bones to those of the lynx, and from the complete or nearly complete bony orbit; the skull differs, however, greatly from the _viverriceps_ form, being much more spherical with very short nasal bones. There is an admirable illustration in De Blainville's 'Osteographie' of it under the name of _F. longicaudata_. Very little is known as yet of the habits of this cat. NO. 208. FELIS BENGALENSIS. _The Leopard-Cat_ (_Jerdon's No. 110_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Bun Beral_, Bengali; _Jungli Bilao_, _Chhita Bilao_, Hindi; _Theet-kyoung_ in Arakan; _Lhan-rahn-manjur_, Mahrathi; _Wagati_, Mahratti of the Ghats. HABITAT.--India generally, in hilly parts; Assam, Burmah, and the Malay countries: also Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--About the size of the domestic cat, but with extremely variable colouring and a short, thick, cylindrical tail reaching, when turned back, above half way up the spine. Blyth says of it: "In general the ground hue is pale fulvous, with under parts of the purest white, richly marked with deep black; black lines on the crown and nape; angular spots on the body wholly or partially black, or, _en rosette_, with deeper fulvous within and round; black spots on the limbs and tail; sometimes the body markings unite more or less into longitudinal streaks and rarely a marbled appearance is assumed on the upper parts." SIZE.--Head and body, 24 to 26 inches; tail 11 to 12. It is useless to lay down, as in Jerdon, a very accurate description of the markings of this cat, for it varies to such an extent as to have given rise to at least sixteen synonymous names, if not more. You will find the same cat repeated over and over again in Gray's catalogue, and a different name in almost every book of natural history; it figures at large as _Felis Bengalensis_, _undata_, _Javanensis_, _Sumatrana_, _minuta_, _torquata Nipalensis_, _wagati_, _pardochrous_, _undulata_, _Ellioti_, _Horsfieldi_, _inconspicua_, _Chinensis_, _Reevesii_, and _Diardii_. Blyth pertinently remarks: "The varieties of this handsome little cat are endless, and nominal species may be made of it, _ad libitum_, if not rather _ad nauseam_." This is a very savage animal, and not tameable. Jerdon and Blyth both agree in this from specimens they kept alive. Hutton also writes: "I have a beautiful specimen alive, so savage that I dare not touch her." I should like to possess a young one, having been successful with many so-called savage animals. I had a wild-cat once which was very savage at first, but which ultimately got so tame as to lie in my lap whilst I was at work in office or writing, but she would never allow me to touch or stroke her; she would come and go of her own sweet will, and used to come daily, but she would spit and snarl if I attempted a caress. Blyth says that in confinement it never paces its cage, but constantly remains crouched in a corner, though awake and vigilant; but I have always found that the confinement of a cage operates greatly against the chance of taming any wild animal. Sir Walter Elliot says that the Shikaris attribute to it the same habit as that which used erroneously to be ascribed to the glutton, viz., that of dropping from trees on to its prey and eating its way into the neck. It preys chiefly on small game--poultry, hares, and is said to destroy small deer. McMaster relates he "saw one carry off a fowl nearly as large as itself, shaking it savagely meanwhile, and making a successful retreat in spite of the abuse, uproar, and missiles which the theft caused." Dr. Anderson says it is essentially arboreal, and the natives assert it lives on birds and small mammals, such as _Squirrels_ and _Tupaiae_. According to Hutton it breeds in May, producing three or four young in caves or beneath masses of rock. NO. 209. FELIS JERDONI. _The Lesser Leopard-Cat_ (_Jerdon's No. 111_). HABITAT.--Peninsula of India, probably also Assam and Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--"Very like _F. Bengalensis_; but smaller, the ground colour of the upper part grey, untinged with fulvous" (_Blyth_). A few small distinct black spots; spots of sides of legs round, long in the centre of the back; tail and feet dark greyish brown, but slightly spotted, if at all; chin, throat, and under parts white, with black spots. NO. 210. FELIS AURATA. _The Bay Cat_ (_Jerdon's No. 112_). HABITAT.--The Nepal and Sikim Himalayas, probably also Assam; and as it occurs in the Malayan islands, it should be found in Burmah. It is likewise an African species, Gold Coast. [Illustration: _Felis aurata_.] DESCRIPTION.--Deep bay red above, paler below; a few indistinct dark spots on the hind legs and sides; throat white; inside of ears black; the head beautifully striped with black, white and orange; the cheeks are yellowish, with two black streaks; a pale black edged line over the eyes; whiskers black, with white tips; claws black; Jerdon says that the lower surface in some is reddish white, with large and small maroon spots. SIZE.--Head and body, 31 inches and over; tail, 19. There is a fine illustration of this cat in Cassell's 'Natural History,' edited by Professor Martin Duncan, vol. ii., page 58. Very little is known of the habits of this cat. Mr. Hodgson's first specimen "was caught in a tree by some hunters in the midst of an exceedingly dense forest. Though only just taken it bore confinement very tranquilly, and gave evident signs of a tractable disposition, but manifested high courage, for the approach of a huge Bhotea dog to its cage excited in it symptoms of wrath only, none of fear." That it is found in Burmah is extremely probable, as it inhabits the Malay countries, and the Rev. J. Mason speaks of a tiger cat in Tenasserim, "which the Karens call the _Fire Tiger_ from the colour of its skin, which is of an uniform red." NO. 211. FELIS RUBIGINOSA. _The Rusty-spotted Cat_ (_Jerdon's No. 113_). NATIVE NAME.--_Namali pelli_, Tamil.--_Jerdon_. HABITAT.--Southern India and Ceylon. Jerdon says he never saw or heard of it in Central India, or on the Malabar Coast, but I got it at Seonee in the Central Provinces. DESCRIPTION.--Size of a small domestic cat, with a tail half the length of the body; colour greyish with a rufous tinge, or greenish grey tinged with rufous; the under parts white, with large rufous spots; ears small; four well defined dark brown or black lines along the forehead and nape, and three along the back, the latter being interrupted into longish spots; a series of rusty coloured spots on the sides; fur very short; tail uniform in colour, more rufous than the body, sometimes indistinctly spotted; insides of limbs with large brown spots; feet reddish grey above with black soles, whiskers long and white. SIZE.--Head and body, 16 to 18 inches; tail, 9-1/2. Jerdon says: "This very pretty little cat frequents grass in the dry beds of tanks, brushwood, and occasionally drains in the open country and near villages, and it is said not to be a denizen of the jungles. I had a kitten brought to me when very young, in 1846, and it became quite tame, and was the delight and admiration of all who saw it. Its activity was quite marvellous, and it was very playful and elegant in its motions. When it was about eight months old I introduced it into a room where there was a small fawn of the gazelle, and the little creature flew at it the moment it saw it, seized it by the nape, and was with difficulty taken off. I lost it shortly after this. It would occasionally find its way to the rafters of bungalows and hunt for squirrels." Jerdon doubted the existence of this cat in Central India, but, in 1859 or 1860, I had two kittens brought to me by a Gond in the Seonee district, and I kept them for many months. They became perfectly tame, so much so that, although for nine months of the year I was out in camp, they never left the tents, although allowed to roam about unconfined. The grace and agility of their motions was most striking. I have seen one of them balance itself on the back of a chair, and when one of the pair died it was ludicrous to see the attempts of a little gray village cat, which I got to be a companion to the survivor, to emulate the gymnastics of its wild comrade. At night the little cats were put into a basket, and went on with the spare tents to my next halting place; and on my arrival next morning I would find them frisking about the tent roof between the two canvasses, or scrambling up the trees under which we were pitched. Whilst I was at work I usually had one in my lap and the other cuddled behind my back on the chair. One day one of them, which had been exploring the hollows of an old tree close by, rushed into my tent and fell down in convulsions at my feet. I did everything in my power for the poor little creature, but in vain, it died in two or three minutes, having evidently been bitten by a snake. The survivor was inconsolable, refused food, and went mewing all over the place and kept rolling at my feet, rubbing itself against them as though to beg for the restoration of its brother. At last I sent into a village and procured a common kitten, which I put into the basket with the other. There was a great deal of spitting and growling at first, but in time they became great friends, but the villager was no match for the forester. It was amusing to see the wild one dart like a squirrel up the walls of the tent on to the roof; the other would try to follow, scramble up a few feet, and then, hanging by its claws, look round piteously before it dropped to the ground. NO. 212. FELIS TORQUATA. _The Spotted Wild-Cat_ (_Jerdon's No. 114_). NATIVE NAME.--_Lhan-rahn-manjur_, Mahrathi. HABITAT.--North-Western, Central, and Southern India. DESCRIPTION.--Ground colour pale greyish fulvous or cat-grey, with numerous round black spots, smaller on the head, nape, and shoulders; longitudinal lines on the occiput; cheek striped; breast spotted, but belly free from spots; on the limbs distinct cross bands; within the arms one or two broad black streaks; tail tapering more or less, and marked with a series of well-defined rings and a black tip; smallish ears; as in the domestic cat, reddish outside with a small dusky tuft at tip; paws black underneath. SIZE.--Head and body, from 16 to 24 inches; tail, about half the length. Blyth first obtained this from Hansi, where it was stated to frequent open sandy plains, living on field rats. Jerdon at Hissar and in the Central Provinces. At Hissar he found it among low sand-hills, where it appeared to feed on the jerboa-rat (_Gerbillus Indicus_), which is common there. Sykes seems to have confused this species with a domestic variety run wild, as the habits differ from the present species. NO. 213. FELIS MANUL. _The Black-chested Wild-Cat_. HABITAT.--Tibet, Central and Northern Asia. DESCRIPTION.--Rufescent pale grey; chest and front of neck and part of belly sooty black, "terminating forward near the ears horn-wise or crescent-wise; on the crown of the head several series of black dots are disposed more or less linearly and length-wise. On the cheeks, from eyes to articulation of jaws, are two sub-parallel zig-zag lines of jet black; five to seven straighter lines, less deep in hue, cross the lower back and blend gradually with the caudal rings, which, including the black tip, are about nine in number. These rings of the tail are narrow, with large intervals, diminishing towards its tip, as the interstices of the dorsal bars do towards the base of the tail; the black caudal rings are perfect, save the two basal, which are deficient below, whilst the two apical on the contrary are rather wider below and nearly or quite connected there. Outside the arms and sides are two or three transverse black bars, more or less freckled with the grey hairs of the body; ears outside grey, like the back, but paler, small and much rounded. The young show the marks more clearly" (_Blyth_, abridged from _Hodgson_). SIZE.--Head and body, 22 to 24 inches; tail, 10 to 11 inches. This animal which is allied to the European wild-cat, was first discovered by Pallas, who, however, has left little on record concerning its habits beyond that it is found in woody rocky countries preying on the smaller quadrupeds. NO. 214. FELIS SCRIPTA. HABITAT.--Thibet.[14] [Footnote 14: Milne-Edwards describes this animal in his 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes,' page 341.] NO. 215. FELIS SHAWIANA. _The Yarkand Spotted Wild-Cat_. NATIVE NAME.--_Molun_, Turki. HABITAT.--Turkistan, Yarkand. DESCRIPTION.--"General colour pale greyish fulvous above, the back rather darker than the sides; under parts white; the body marked throughout with rather small black spots which are largest on the abdomen, smaller and closer together on the shoulders and thighs, tending to form cross lines on the latter, and indistinct on the middle of the back; anterior portion of the face and muzzle whitish; cheek stripes of rusty red and black; hairs mixed; ears rather more rufous outside, especially towards the tip, which is blackish brown and pointed; the hairs at the end scarcely lengthened; interior of ears white; there are some faint rufous spots at the side of the neck; breast very faintly rufous, with one narrow brownish band across; inside of limbs mostly white; a black band inside the forearm, and a very black spot behind the tarsus; tail dusky above near the base, with five or six black bars above on the posterior half, none below, the dark bars closer together towards the tip; fur soft, moderately long, purplish grey towards the base." SIZE.--Apparently exceeds that of the common cat, and equals _F. chaus_; the tail about half the length of the body. I have taken the above description from Mr. W. T. Blanford ('Report on the Second Yarkand Mission: Mammalia') who has first described and named this new species. There is also an excellent plate in the same portion of the report, which unfortunately is published at an almost prohibitive price, and to be obtained at the Government Press. The black spots on the belly have been inadvertently left out; otherwise the plate is excellent, as are all the others, especially the osteological ones. NO. 216. FELIS CHAUS. _The Common Jungle-Cat_ (_Jerdon's No. 115_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Kutas_ (according to Jerdon, but I have always found this applied to the _Paradoxurus_), _Jangli-billi_, _Ban-bilao_, Hindi; _Ban beral_, Bengali; _Birka_, Bhagalpor Hill Tribes; _Maut-bek_, Canarese; _Kada-bek_ or _Bella-bek_ of Waddars; _Mota lahn manjur_, Mahrathi; _Bhaoga_, Mahrathi of the Ghats; _Jinki-pilli_, Telegu; _Cheru-pali_, Malabarese (_Jerdon_); _Khyoung-Tsek-koon_ in Arakan. HABITAT.--Common all over India from 7,000 or 8,000 feet of elevation in the Himalayas, down to Cape Comorin and the Island of Ceylon. It is also found in Assam and Burmah. This species appears to have a wide range, as it has been found also in Persia, on the borders of the Caspian and in Egypt. DESCRIPTION.--Larger somewhat, and more lanky than the domestic cat. The general appearance of the fur a rusty or grizzly grey; the hairs being pale fulvous brown with dark tips; more rufous on the sides of the abdomen and neck, the lower parts being white; faint transverse stripes, occasionally broken into spots on the sides, but these markings disappear with old age, and are more difficult to trace in the deeper furred specimens from cold countries; the markings are darker on the limbs, and there is a distinct black bar on the forearm near the elbow; inside are two or three dark stripes; the feet are blackish underneath; often a dark bar across the chest, and sometimes faint spots on the belly; rufous stripes on the cheek; a dark stripe ascends from the eye, especially in the young animal, and it has sometimes faint stripes on the nape mingling on the forehead; the ears are slightly tufted, dark externally, white within; the tail, which is short, is more or less ringed from the middle to the tip, which is black. Melanoid specimens have been found. SIZE.--Head and body, about 26 inches; tail, nine to ten; height at shoulder, 14 to 15 inches. This rather common cat is, in some degree, related to the lynxes, sufficiently distinct, yet resembling the latter in its tufted ears, short tail, long limbs, and some few peculiarities of the skull. Jerdon says of it: "It frequents alike jungles and the open country, and is very partial to long grass and reeds, sugar-cane fields, corn fields, &c. It does much damage to game of all kinds--hares, partridges, &c., and quite recently I shot a pea fowl at the edge of a sugar-cane field when one of these cats sprang out, seized the pea fowl, and after a short struggle (for the bird was not dead) carried it off before my astonished eyes, and in spite of my running up, made good his escape with his booty. It must have been stalking these birds, so immediately did its spring follow my shot." Blyth writes: "In India the _chaus_ does not shun, but even affects populous neighbourhoods, and is a terrible depredator among the tame ducks and poultry, killing as many as it can get at, but I have not known him to attack geese, of which I long kept a flock out day and night, about a tank where ducks could not be left out at night on account of these animals. A pair of them bred underneath my house, and I frequently observed them, and have been surprised at the most extraordinary humming sound which they sometimes uttered of an evening. Their other cries were distinguishable from those of the domestic cat." This species will, however, interbreed with the domestic cat. According to Hodgson it breeds twice a year in the woods, producing three or four kittens at a birth. It is said to be untameable, but in 1859, at Sasseram, one of the men of my Levy caught a very young kitten, which was evidently of this species. I wrote at the time to a friend about a young mongoose which I had just got, and added, "It is great fun to see my last acquisition and a little jungle cat (_Felis chaus_) playing together. They are just like two children in their manner, romping and rolling over each other, till one gets angry, when there is a quarrel and a fight, which, however, is soon made up, the kitten generally making the first advances towards a reconciliation, and then they go on as merrily as ever. The cat is a very playful, good tempered little thing; the colour is a reddish-yellow with darker red stripes like a tiger, and slightly spotted; the ears and eyes are very large; the orbits of the last bony and prominent. What is it? _Chaus_ or _Bengalensis_?[15] I am not as yet learned in cats when very young. If it be a real jungle cat--which my shikaris declare it to be--it strangely belies the savage nature of its kind, as Thomson says:-- 'The tiger darting fierce Impetuous on the prey his glance has doom'd The lively shining leopard speckled o'er With many a spot the beauty of the waste And scorning all the taming arts of man.' "Poets are not always correct. Tigers have often been tamed, though they are not to be depended on." [Footnote 15: Both reputed to be untameable.] Now we come to the true Lynxes, which are cats with very short tails, long limbs, tufted ears, the cheeks whiskered almost as long as Dundreary's, and feet the pads of which are overgrown with hair. Some naturalists would separate them from the other cats, but the connection is supplied by the last species which, though possessing certain features of the lynx, yet interbreeds with the true cats. The lynx was well known to the ancients, and was one of the animals used in the arena from its savage disposition, and its sight was considered so piercing as to be able to penetrate even stone walls! There are no true lynxes in India proper; we must look to the colder Trans-Himalayan countries for them. The following is from Thibet:-- NO. 217. FELIS ISABELLINA. _The Thibetan Lynx_. HABITAT.--Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--"Pale isabella-brown, with scarcely a trace of markings, but in some the spots come out even conspicuously in summer _pelage_, especially on the limbs and belly, and the crown and middle of the back are generally more or less infuscated, occasionally very much so; in some the face is almost white, with traces of frontal streaks, and there is always (the same as in the European lynx) a short, narrow, dark streak on each side of the nose towards its tip."--_Blyth_. This species is similar in some respects to the European animal, but the principal difference lies in the feet, the pads of which in the Thibetan species are prominent and bare, with short, close fur between them, whereas in the European lynx the long fur completely conceals the pads, and the latter is the larger animal. There is a very good photograph of _F. isabellina_ in Kinloch's 'Large Game Shooting in Thibet and the North-West,' taken from a carefully stuffed specimen. The author says: "On the 4th of July 1866, I was hunting _Oves Ammon_ on the high ground between Hanle and Nyima, when I suddenly came upon a female lynx with two young cubs. I shot the mother, and as the cubs concealed themselves among some rocks, I barricaded them in, and went on with my hunting. On arriving in camp I sent men back to try and catch the cubs; in this they succeeded, and brought them to me. They were about the size of half grown cats, and more spiteful vicious little devils cannot be imagined; they were, however, very handsome, with immense heads and paws. For two or three days they refused all food; but at the end of that time they fed quite ravenously from the hand. They soon became very tame and playful, though always ready to set their backs up if at all teased, or if a dog came near them." The next species differs from the typical lynx in wanting the ruff of hair round the face, and also in having the pads of the feet bald. The skull is that of a lynx, but the processes of the frontals and intermaxillae are not quite so much produced, and they do not entirely separate the nasal from the maxillae. There is a good illustration to be found in De Blainville's 'Osteographie.' NO. 218. FELIS CARACAL. _The Red Lynx_ (_Jerdon's No. 116_). NATIVE NAME.--_Siagosh_, Persian, i.e., black ear. HABITAT.--Scattered throughout India generally, Assam (Burmah and Ceylon?), but it has also a much wider range, being found throughout Africa, Syria, and Arabia, and also in Persia. [Illustration: _Felis caracal_.] DESCRIPTION.--Colour sandy fulvous, varying somewhat in individuals; paler beneath, in some almost white; tail the same colour as the body, with a black tip; the lower parts with some obscure spots, more or less distinct on the belly, flanks and insides of limbs; ears black externally, with a long dark ear tuft, white inside; a small blackish spot on the upper lip, and another above the eye, also a line down each side of the nose. In some individuals faint bars and caudal rings are discernible, and the chest is obscurely banded. SIZE.--Head and body, 26 to 30 inches; tail, 9 or 10; height, 16 to 18 inches. This handsome lynx is found, though not very common, in most parts of the Indian Peninsula, although Jerdon states that it is unknown in the Himalayas, Bengal, and the eastern countries. In those parts where it abounds it is very destructive to small game, such as gazelles, the smaller deer and hares. It also catches such birds as pea-fowl, florican, cranes, &c., frequently springing at them from the ground as they fly over. They are easily tamed. I had a young one at Seonee, and the natives of some parts are said to train them for sporting purposes in the manner in which the hunting leopard is trained. Blyth says a brace of siagosh are often pitted against each other by the natives who keep them, a heavy wager pending as to which of the two will disable the greater number out of a flock of tame pigeons feeding, before the mass of them can rise out of reach, and ten or a dozen birds are commonly struck down right and left. "It is a most sanguinary creature, yet the keepers manage them with facility, and slip the hood over their eyes with extreme dexterity, while they are engaged with their prey. In general they become quite tame to persons they know, and often sufficiently so to bear handling by a stranger. Much as I have seen of them I never heard one utter a sound, except hissing and growling." With regard to this last assertion of Mr. Blyth's I may say that the caracal differs very much from the European lynx, who, according to Tschudi, betrays his presence by horrible howlings audible at a great distance. Professor Kitchen Parker writes that the specimen now in the Zoological Gardens is a most cantankerous beast.[16] "If the American lynx, who is unfortunate enough to live in the same cage with him, dares to come betwixt the wind and his nobility, or even if he, in the course of his peregrinations, should, by chance, get sufficiently near his companion to be annoyed with the sight of so vulgar a beast, he immediately arches his back, lays back his ears, uncovers his great canines, and swears in a most fearful manner until the other unlucky animal is quite cowed, and looks as meek as its feline nature will allow it, evidently deprecating the anger of my lord; and although not conscious of having done wrong, quite ready to promise faithfully never to do it again." [Footnote 16: I can bear witness to this, having lately made his acquaintance.] * * * * * We now take up the last member of the Cat family; one differing so much in certain respects as to have been classed by some authors as a separate genus, to which Wagner gave the name of _Cynaelurus_, or dog-cat, which, however, is not appropriate, as the animal, though having the slender form of the greyhound, and in having the claws of its middle front toes but imperfectly retractile, is, in its anatomy and all osteological features, a true cat. As I have before remarked it is to this animal alone that the name leopard should be applied, the peculiar ruff or shagginess of hair on the neck having given rise to the ancient superstition that this animal was a cross between the lion and the pard, whence its name Leo-Pardus. There are three varieties found in Africa and India--one, the maneless leopard, is confined to Africa, where also is found in the south a woolly variety with light brown spots. The maned leopard is found all over South-West Asia, including India. NO. 219. FELIS JUBATA. _The Hunting Leopard_ (_Jerdon's No. 117_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Chita_, Hindi; _Yuz_ of the Chita-catchers; _Kendua-bagh_, Bengali; _Laggar_ in some parts; _Chita Puli_, Telegu; _Chircha_ and _Sivungi_, Canarese. HABITAT.--Central or Southern India, and in the North-West from Kandeish, through Scinde and Rajpootana, to the Punjab. It is also found in all Africa, with Syria and Arabia, and throughout Asia Minor. In India the places where it is most common are Jeypur in Upper India, and Hyderabad in Southern India. [Illustration: _Felis jubata_.] DESCRIPTION.--A tall, slim animal, with body much drawn in at the flanks like a greyhound; purely cat-like head with short round ears; long tail, much compressed at the end; in colour a bright rufous fawn, more or less deep, sometimes what Blyth calls a bright _nankeen_, dotted with numerous small black spots which are single, and not in rosettes, as in the pards; a black streak from the corner of the eye down the face; ears black at base externally, the rest whitish; the tail spotted, but having three or four black rings at the tip: the extreme tip is always white; the hair of the belly is lengthened with a shaggy fringe-like appearance; the fur generally is coarse; the nozzle is black, whereas in the tiger it is pink, and in a pard dusky pink; the pupils of the eye contract circularly. [Illustration: Skull of _Felis jubata_.] SIZE.--Head and body, about 4-1/2 feet; tail, 2-1/2; height, 2-1/2 to 2-3/4 feet. This animal is one of the most interesting of all the felines, both as regards its appearance, disposition, habits, and the uses to which it can be put. Throughout India it is in much request as a necessary appanage to regal state; and, therefore, a class of men devote themselves to the trapping of this creature which, when trained, finds a ready sale at the courts of Indian nobles. For this purpose the adult animal is always caught, it being considered by the chita-catchers that a young leopard would never turn out well for the purposes of the chase. A similar idea prevails amongst the falconers of Hindustan regarding nestlings, and it is surprising how soon a large adult and apparently savage animal can be reduced to a state of comparative slavery and obedient to the orders of his keepers. Dr. Jerdon describes one which he brought up from its earliest infancy; his bungalow was next to the one I inhabited for a time at Kampti, and consequently I saw a good deal of Billy, as the leopard was named. At my first interview I found him in the stables amongst the dogs and horses, and, as I sat down on his charpoy, he jumped up alongside of me, and laid down to be scratched, playing and purring and licking my hands with a very rough tongue. He sometimes used to go out with his master, and was gradually getting into the way of running down antelope, when Dr. Jerdon was ordered off on field service. The mode of hunting with the chita is so well known, and has been so frequently described, that I think I need not attempt a description. Its habits in a state of nature, and the mode of capture, are more to the purport of this work. It is said by shikarees to feed only once every third day, when, after gorging itself, it retires to its den for the other two. On the morning of the third day he visits some particular tree, which the animals of his species in the neighbourhood are in the habit of frequenting. Such trees are easily to be recognised by the scoring of the bark on which he whets his claws. Here, after having relieved himself in various ways and played about with such of his comrades as may be there, they go off on a hunting expedition. There is an interesting letter from "Deccanee Bear" in _The Asian_ of the 22nd of July, 1880, giving a description of the snaring of some of these animals, and the remarks he makes about their rendezvous at a particular tree, corroborates what has been asserted by other writers. He says: "Arrived at the spot the bullocks were soon relieved of their burden, and then work commenced. The nooses were of the same kind as those used for snaring antelope, made from the dried sinews of the antelope. These were pegged down in all directions, and at all angles, to a distance of 25 to 30 feet from the tree. The carts and bullocks were sent off into a road about a mile away. An ambush was made of bushes and branches some fifty or sixty yards away, and here, when the time came, I and three Vardis ensconced ourselves. I have sat near some dirty fellows in my life, but the stench of those three men baffles description; you could cut it with a knife. I could not smoke, so had to put up with the several smells until I was nearly sick. At last the sun commenced to sink, and the men who were looking round in all directions, suddenly pointed in the direction of the north. Sure enough there were four cheetahs skying away and playing together about 400 yards off; they came closer and closer, when they stopped about 100 yards off, looking about as if they suspected danger. However, they became reassured, and all raced away as hard as they could in the direction of the tree. Two were large and the other two smaller; the larger had the best of the race, and were entangled by all four feet before they knew where they were. The Vardis made a rush. I did the same, but in a second was flat on the ground, having caught my feet in the nooses. One of the men came and released me from my undignified position, and I could then see how the cheetahs were secured. A country blanket was thrown over the heads of the animal, and the two fore or hind legs tied together. The carts had come up by this time; a leather hood was substituted for the blanket--a rather ticklish operation, during which one man was badly bitten in the hand. The cheetahs know how to use their teeth and claws. Having been securely fastened on the carts, and the nooses collected, we started for camp, which we reached about eight in the evening. I was much pleased with what I had seen and learnt, but it took me a long time to get the smell of the Vardis out of my head. The next morning I went to see the cheetahs and found that they had been tied spread-eagle fashion on the carts, and with their hoods firmly tied. They were a pair, and in all probability the parents of the two smaller ones. Women and children are told off to sit all day long close to the animals, and keep up a conversation, so that they should get accustomed to the human voice. The female was snarling a good deal, the male being much quieter; they go through various gradations of education, and I was told they would be ready to be unhooded and worked in about six months' time. The man who had his hand bitten was suffering from considerable inflammation. I had him attended to, and, after rewarding them with 'baksheesh,' I let them proceed on their way rejoicing." Chita kittens are very pretty little things, quite grey, without any spots whatever, but they can always be recognised by the black stripe down the nose, and on cutting off a little bit of the soft hair I noticed that the spots were quite distinct in the under fur. I have not seen this fact alluded to by others. As a rule the young of all cats, even the large one-coloured species, such as the lion and puma, are spotted, but the hunting leopard is externally an exception, although the spots are there lying hid. I had several of them at Seonee. HYAENIDAE--THE HYAENAS. The second family of the AEluroidea contains only one genus, the _Hyaena_, which, though somewhat resembling the dog in outward appearance, connects the cat with the civet. The differences between the _Felidae_ and the _Viverridae_, setting aside minor details, are in the teeth, and the possession by the latter of a caudal pouch. My readers are now familiar with the simple cutting form of the feline teeth, which are thirty in number. The civets have no less than forty, and the grinders, instead of having cutting scissor-like edges, are cuspidate, or crowned with tubercles. Now the hyaena comes in as an intermediate form. He has four more premolars than the typical cat, and the large grinding teeth are conical, blunt and very powerful, the base of the cone being belted by a strong ridge, and the general structure is one adapted for crushing rather than cutting. Professor Owen relates that an eminent engineer, to whom he showed a hyaena's jaw, remarked that the strong conical tooth, with its basal ridge, was a perfect model of a hammer for breaking stones. Of course, such a formation would be useless without a commensurate motive power, and we may, therefore, look to the skull for certain signs of the enormous development of muscles, which this animal possesses. In shape it somewhat resembles the cat's skull, though not so short, nor yet so long as that of the civet or dog. The zygomatic arches are greatly developed, also the bony ridges for the attachment of the muscles, especially the sagittal or great longitudinal crest on the top of the head, which is in comparison far larger than that of even the tiger, and to which are attached the enormous muscles of the cheek working the powerful jaws, which are capable of crushing the thigh-bone of a bullock. Captain Baldwin, in his book, says he remembers once, when watching over a kill, seeing a hyaena, only some twelve feet below where he sat, snap with a single effort through the rib of a buffalo. [Illustration: Skull of Hyaena.] The hyaena also possesses the sub-caudal pouch of the civets, which gave rise amongst the ancients to various conjectures as to the dual character of its sex. The _bulla tympani_ or bulb of the ear is large as in the cats, but it is not divided into two compartments by a bony partition (which in the dogs is reduced to a low wall), but the paroccipital process or bony clamp on the external posterior surface is closely applied to the bulb as in the cats, and not separated by a groove as in the dogs. The cervical vertebrae sometimes become anchylosed, from whence, in former times, arose the superstition that this animal had but one bone in the neck. In its internal anatomy, digestive as well as generative, the hyaena is nearer to the cat than the dog, but it possesses the _caecum_, or blind gut, which is so large in the canidae, small in the felines, and totally absent in the bears. The tongue is rough, with a circular collection of retroflected spines. The hind legs are much shorter than the front, and the feet have only four toes with blunt worn claws, not retractile, but like those of the dog. The hair is coarse and bristly, and usually prolonged into a sort of crest or mane along the neck and shoulders, and to a slighter degree down the back; the tail is bushy. Dental formula: Inc., 3--3/3--3; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 4--4/3--3; molars, 1--1/1--1. There are only three known species of hyaena, of which one, our common Indian animal, belongs to Asia, and two, _H. crocuta_ and _H. brunnea_, to Africa. _GENUS HYAENA_ NO. 220. HYAENA STRIATA. _The Striped Hyaena_ (_Jerdon's No. 118_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Taras_, _Hundar_, _Jhirak_ (in Hurriana); _Lakhar-baghar_, _Lokra-bagh_, Hindi; _Naukra-bagh_, Bengali; _Rerha_ in Central India; _Kirba_ and _Kat-Kirba_, Canarese; _Korna-gandu_, Telegu. HABITAT.--All over India; but as far as I can gather not in Burmah nor in Ceylon; it is not mentioned in Blyth's and Kellaart's catalogues. It is also found in Northern Africa and throughout Asia Minor and Persia; it is common in Palestine. [Illustration: _Hyaena striata_.] DESCRIPTION.--Pale yellowish-grey, with transverse tawny or blackish bands which encircle the body, and extend downwards on to the legs. The neck and back are maned. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/2 feet; tail, about 1-1/2 feet. This repulsive and cowardly creature is yet a useful beast in its way. Living almost exclusively on carrion, it is an excellent scavenger. Most wild animals are too active for it, but it feeds on the remains left by the larger felines, and such creatures as die of disease, and can, on a pinch, starve for a considerable time. The African spotted hyaena is said to commit great havoc in the sheep-fold. The Indian one is very destructive to dogs, and constantly carries off pariahs from the outskirts of villages. The natives declare that the hyaena tempts the dogs out by its unearthly cries, and then falls upon them. Dr. Jerdon relates a story of a small dog belonging to an officer of the 33rd M. N. I. (the regiment he was with when I first knew him) being carried off by a hyaena whose den was known. Some of the sepoys went after it, entered the cave, killed the hyaena, and recovered the dog alive, and with but little damage done to it. The hyaena is of a timorous nature, seldom, if ever, showing fight. Two of them nearly ran over me once as I was squatting on a deer run waiting for sambar, which were being beaten out of a hill. I flung my hat in the face of the leading one, on which both turned tail and fled. The Arabs have a proverb, "As cowardly as a hyaena." The _Cryptoprocta ferox_ is not an inhabitant of India, being found only in the interior of Madagascar. The genus contains only one species, a most savage little animal; it is the most perfect link between the cats and the civets, having retractile claws, one more premolar in each jaw; five toes, and semi-plantigrade feet. It should properly come before the hyaenas, to which the next in order is the South African Aard-wolf (_Proteles Lalandii_), which forms the connection between the hyaena and the civet, though more resembling the former. It is placed in a family by itself, which contains but one genus and species. It has the sloping back of the hyaena, the hind legs being lower than the fore, and it might almost, from its shape and colouring, be taken for that animal when young. The skull however is prolonged, and the teeth are civet-like. It is nocturnal and gregarious, several living in the same burrow. Like the hyaena it lives on carrion. It has a fifth toe on the fore feet. VIVERRIDAE--THE CIVET FAMILY. The Civets are confined to the Old World; they are mostly animals with long bodies, sharp muzzle, short legs, long tapering tail and coarse fur; they are semi-plantigrade, walking on their toes, but keeping the wrist and ankle nearer to the ground than do the cats; the claws are only partially retractile; the skull is longer in the snout than that of felines, and, altogether narrower, the zygomatic arches not being so broad, the base of the skull is much the same, and the _bulla tympani_ shews little difference; the teeth, however, are decidedly different. There are four premolars and two molars on each side of each jaw, which, with the normal number of canines and incisors, give forty teeth in all; the canines are moderate in size, and sharp; the premolars conical, and the molars cuspidate, which gives them a grinding surface instead of the trenchant character of the cats; the tongue is rough, the papillae being directed backwards; the pupils are circular. The most striking characteristics of the family is, however, the sub-caudal pouch, which in most produces an odorous substance, and in the typical civet the perfume of that name. [Illustration: Dentition of Civet.] Dental formula: inc., 3--3/3--3; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 4--4/3--3; molars, 2--2/3--3. The family contains the Civet, Genette, Linsang, Suricate, Binturong and Mongoose, though this last is separated by Jerdon, who follows Blyth. _GENUS VIVERRA_. Anal pouch large, and divided into two sacs secreting the _civet_ perfume of commerce; pupil vertical and oblong; fur spotted and coarse, lengthened into an erectile mane on the back; diet mixed carnivorous and vegetivorous. NO. 221. VIVERRA ZIBETHA. _The Large Civet Cat_ (_Jerdon's No. 119_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Katas_, Hindi; _Mach-bhondar_, Bengali, also _Bagdos_ and _Pudo-gaula_ in some parts; _Bhran_ in the Nepal Terai; _Nit-biralu_, Nepalese; _Kung_, Bhotia; _Saphiong_, Lepcha, (_Jerdon_); _Khyoung-myen_, Aracanese. HABITAT.--According to Jerdon this species inhabits Bengal, extending northwards in Nepal and Sikhim, and into Cuttack, Orissa, and Central India on the south, but is replaced in Malabar by the next species; it is also found in Assam and Burmah, but apparently not in Ceylon, where _V. Malaccensis_ represents the family. [Illustration: _Viverra zibetha_.] DESCRIPTION.--Hoary or yellowish grey, generally spotted and striped with black; some specimens are marked with wavy bands, others are almost free from marks; throat white, with a transverse black band, another on each side of the neck; under-parts white; tail with six black rings; limbs dark. SIZE.--Head and body, 33 to 36 inches; tail 13 to 20. "This animal frequents brushwood and grass, and the thorny scrub that usually covers the bunds of tanks. It is very carnivorous and destructive to poultry, game, &c., but will also, it is said, eat fish, crabs and insects. It breeds in May and June, and has usually four or five young. Hounds, and indeed all dogs, are greatly excited by the scent of this civet, and will leave any other scent for it. It will readily take to water if hard pressed."--_Jerdon_. The drug civet is usually collected from the glands of this and other species, which are confined for the purpose in cages in which they can hardly turn round, and it is scraped from the pouch with a spoon. Sometimes the animal rubs off the secretion on the walls and bars of its cage, which are then scraped; but the highest price is given for the pouch cut from the civet when killed. In the London Zoological Gardens the collection of the perfume, which is rubbed off against the walls of the cage, is a valued perquisite of the keeper. Cuvier says of a civet which was kept in captivity in Paris: "Its musky odour was always perceptible, but stronger than usual when the animal was irritated; at such times little lumps of odoriferous matter fell from its pouch. These masses were also produced when the animal was left to itself, but only at intervals of fifteen to twenty days." NO. 222. VIVERRA CIVETTINA. _The Malabar Civet-Cat_ (_Jerdon's No. 120_). HABITAT.--Throughout the Malabar coast, abundant in Travancore, and found occasionally in the uplands of Wynaad and Coorg. DESCRIPTION.--Hair long, coarse, and of a dusky or brownish-grey, and marked with interrupted transverse bands or spots in rows, two obliquely transverse black lines on the neck; the snout, throat, and neck are white; the tail tinged with black. From the shoulders along the back a mane or crest of lengthened hair. SIZE.--Same as last species. This species closely resembles the African civet--only that in the latter the mane begins on the occiput. Jerdon supposes that it may be found in Ceylon, but it is not mentioned by Kellaart. It is found chiefly in forests and richly-wooded lowlands, and is stated to be very destructive to poultry. The young may, however, be reared on farinaceous food, with the addition of a little fish and raw meat; when older on flesh alone. NO. 223. VIVERRA MEGASPILA. NATIVE NAME.--_Khyoung-myen_. HABITAT.--Burmah, also Malayan peninsula and archipelago (?) [Illustration: _VIVERRA MEGASPILA_.] DESCRIPTION.--The body markings larger, blacker and fewer in number than in last species. SIZE.--Same as last. Blyth states that this is nearly allied to the last species, but differs from _V. tangalunga_ of Sumatra (with which some consider it synonymous) as the latter is smaller, with a more cat-like tail, and more numerous spots. Gray says that _V. tangalunga_ has the tail black above and ringed on the lower side. * * * * * The next species is smaller and more vermiform, with acute compressed claws, a shorter tail, and no crest, and of more scansorial habits. It forms the sub-genus _Viverricula_ of Hodgson, but it is not desirable to perpetuate the sub-division. NO. 224. VIVERRA MALACCENSIS. _The Lesser Civet-Cat_ (_Jerdon's No. 121_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Mushak-billi_, _Katas_, _Kasturi_, Hindi; _Gando-gaula_, _Gandha-gokul_, Bengali; _Jowadi-manjur_, Mahrathi; _Punagin-bek_, Canarese; _Punagu-pilli_, Telegu; _Sayer_, _Bug-nyul_, Nepalese; _Wa-young-kyoung-bank_, Aracanese; _Kyoung-ka-do_, Burmese; _Ooralawa_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--India generally, with Assam, Burmah, and Ceylon. It extends also to the Malayan countries, Java and China. [Illustration: _Viverra Malaccensis_.] DESCRIPTION.--General colour greyish-brown, spotted black; the dorsal spots elongated, and forming longitudinal interrupted streaks or stripes on the back and croup; the sides and limbs have also spots in lines; a long black streak from ear to shoulder, and some transverse lines on the sides of the neck. Abdomen nearly spotless; feet and part of legs dusky-brown; tail long and tapering, marked with eight or nine black rings. SIZE.--Head and body, 22 to 24 inches; tail, 16 to 17 inches. According to Jerdon, "it lives in holes in the ground or in banks, occasionally under rocks or in dense thickets, now and then taking shelter in drains and out-houses." Hodgson says: "These animals dwell in forests or detached woods and copses, whence they wander freely into the open country by day (occasionally at least) as well as by night. They are solitary and single wanderers, even the pair seldom being seen together, and they feed promiscuously upon small animals, birds' eggs, snakes, frogs, insects, besides some fruits or roots. In the Terai a low caste of woodmen, called Mushahirs, eat the flesh." Mr. Swinhoe affirms that the Chinese also eat its flesh, and adds: "but a portion that I had cooked was so affected with the civet odour that I could not palate it." The fur is valued in China as a lining for coats, and is bought by those who cannot afford the more expensive skins. Jerdon had one which was perfectly tame; it caught rats and squirrels at times, as also sparrows and other birds. It is kept alive by the natives in India and Ceylon for the sake of the secretion. Kellaart says it is a great destroyer of poultry, and that it will enter a yard in daylight and carry off a fowl or a duck. It is much dreaded by the Chinese for the havoc it commits in the hen-roost. _GENUS PRIONODON_. Between the last genus and this should come the _Genets_, which are not found in India, but chiefly in Africa, and one species is common in the south of Europe, where in some parts it is domesticated for the purpose of catching mice. It has rudimentary pouches only, which do not yield the musky secretion of the civets. The Linsang or _Prionodon_ is a very cat-like animal, which was once classed with the Felidae; the body is long and slender; the limbs very short; fur soft, close and erect, very richly coloured and spotted with black; the grinders are tubercular; claws retractile; soles furred; tail long, cylindrical, and ringed with black; no sub-caudal pouch. The female has two pectoral and two inguinal mammae. Teeth, 38; molars, 5--5/6--6. NO. 225. PRIONODON PARDICOLOR. _The Tiger Civet or Linsang_ (_Jerdon's No. 122_). NATIVE NAME.--_Zik-chum_, Bhotia; _Suliyu_, Lepcha. HABITAT.--Nepal, Sikim. DESCRIPTION.--"Rich orange buff or fulvous, spotted with black; the neck above with four irregular lines; the body above and on the sides with large, entire elliptic or squarish marks, eight in transverse, and seven in longitudinal series, diminishing in size on the dorsal ridge, which has an interrupted dark line, and extending outside the limbs to the digits; below entirely unspotted; tail with eight or nine nearly perfect and equal rings" (_Jerdon_). "Skull elongate; nose rather short, compressed; brain-case narrow in front, swollen over the ears, and contracted and produced behind; orbits, not defined behind, confluent with the temporal cavity; zygomatic arch slender; palate contracted behind" (_Gray_). Jerdon's description is a very good one, but it must not be taken as an accurate one, spot for spot, for the animal varies somewhat in colour. Take, for instance, a description from Gray: "Pale _whitish grey_; back of neck and shoulders with _three_ streaks diverging from the vertebral line; back with two series of large square spots; the shoulders, sides, and legs with round black spots; an elongated spot on the middle of the front part of the back, between the square spots on the sides of the body." SIZE.--Head and body, 16 inches; tail, 14 inches; height, 6 inches. Our Indian animal is closely allied to the Malayan species, which was first described as _Felis_ and afterwards _Prionodon gracilis_. It is mentioned in the English translation of Cuvier as the delundung, "a rare Javanese animal, of which there is only one species," but another was subsequently found by Mr. Hodgson in Nepal, and now a third has been discovered in Tenasserim. They are beautiful little creatures, with all the agility of cats, climbing and springing from branch to branch in pursuit of small mammals and birds, and I have no doubt it is a great enemy of the _Tupaiae_ and squirrels. It breeds in the hollows of trees. It is capable of being tamed, and according to several authors becomes very gentle and fond of being noticed. Hodgson says it never utters any kind of sound. He fed his on raw meat. NO. 226. PRIONODON MACULOSUS. _The Spotted Linsang_. HABITAT.--Tenasserim. [Illustration: _Prionodon maculosus_.] DESCRIPTION.--"Upper part brownish-black, broken up by greyish-white bands, lower parts white; tail brownish-black, with seven white rings; tips whitish; two broad black bands run down each side of the upper part of the neck, between them is a narrow greyish-white band with a faint mesial dark streak somewhat interrupted, and passing into two bands of elongate spots between the shoulders. The two broad dark bands pass into the dark patches on the back; on each side of these bands is a white rather wavy stripe, commencing at the ear, and continued along the neck above the shoulder and down the side to the thighs, becoming more irregular behind; below this again is a dark band somewhat broken up into spots in front, passing over the shoulder and continued as a line of large spots along the side. The back is chiefly brownish-black, crossed by six narrow transverse whitish bands, the first five equidistant, the foremost communicating with the mesial neck band, and the hinder all uniting with the white band on the side, so as to break up the dark colour into large spots. There are small spots on the fore neck, lower portion of the sides, and outside of the limbs, the spots in the neck forming an imperfect gorget. The white rings on the tail are not much more than half the breadth of the dark rings; the last ring near the tip and the first white ring are narrower than the others; nose dark brown mixed with grey; a dark ring round each orbit, with a streak running back to below the ear, and another passing up to the crown; forehead between and behind the eyes and in front of the ears and cheeks pale grey; ears rounded and clad with blackish hairs outside and near the margin inside, a few long pale hairs on the inner surface of the ear conch; whiskers long, extending to behind the ears, the upper brown, the lower entirely white; soles, except the pads, which are naked, covered with fine hair." The above careful description is by Mr. W. T. Blanford on specimens collected by Mr. Davison in Burmah. Mr. Davison lately showed me a beautiful specimen, which I should describe by a reverse process to Mr. Blanford's, taking the light colour as the ground work, and stating it to be of a yellowish-white or pale buff, with broad black bands and blotches as above described, or in general terms broad black patches over the back, two longitudinal interrupted black bands along the neck and sides, with two lines of elongated spots above and below the lower band, and numerous small spots on the throat, chest and limbs. SIZE.--Head and body, 18-1/4 inches; tail, 16 inches without the hair, 16-3/4 with it. This is a larger animal than _P. pardicolor_, and is distinguished from it by its larger marking. The fur is beautifully soft and close. From the richness of its colouring, the elegance of its shape, and the agility of its movements, it is one of the most beautiful and interesting of our smaller mammals. NO. 227. PRIONODON GRACILIS. _The Malayan Linsang_. HABITAT.--Malacca, Siam, Sumatra, and Tenasserim. DESCRIPTION.--Fur white, back with broad black cross-bands, sides of neck with a broad black streak continued along the sides of the body, confluent with the bands of the neck; back of neck with five parallel black streaks; tail with seven black and white streaks; a second streak, broken into spots, from the side of the neck to the haunches; legs with small black spots. Very similar to the last, only somewhat smaller. * * * * * Between _Prionodon_ and the next comes a genus _Hemigalea_, which contains one species, _H. Hardwickii_, inhabiting the Malay countries. It is a perfect link between _Prionodon_ and _Paradoxurus_. _GENUS PARADOXURUS--THE MUSANGS_. _Paradoxurus_ is a misnomer, signifying _queer-tailed_, which originated in an abnormal twist in the tail of the specimen first described and named by M. F. Cuvier. I do not think that it is even occasional, as stated by some naturalists, but is of comparatively rare occurrence; and such deformities are by no means confined to this genus only. The tail can be rolled up towards the end, and the hair is occasionally worn off, and some have a habit of curling it sideways; but I have never seen one as described by Kellaart when speaking of the genus: "The extreme or more distant half being, when extended, turned over so that the lower side is uppermost, and the animal can roll it up spirally from above downwards, and from the extremity to the base." In general appearance the musang resembles the civet, and it has in some species a sub-caudal glandular fold which contains a secretion, but without the musky odour of civet. The dentition is singularly like that of the dog, save that the flesh tooth is proportionally much stouter. The feet are five-toed, webbed; pads bald; claws semi-retractile; tail very long, with from thirty-six to thirty-eight vertebrae; the pupil of the eye is linear and erect. NO. 228. PARADOXURUS MUSANGA. _The Common Musang_ (_Jerdon's No. 123_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Khatas_, _Menuri_ (in Southern India), Lakati; _Jharka-kutta_, Hindi; _Bhonar_, Bengali; _Ud_, Mahrathi; _Kera-bek_, Canarese; _Manupilli_, Telegu; _Marra-pilli_, Malayan (toddy-cat and tree-cat of Europeans); _Sakrala_, _Khoonla_. HABITAT.--Throughout India, Burmah and Ceylon, extending to the Malay countries. DESCRIPTION.--It is difficult to lay down any precise rule for the colour of this animal, for it varies much. In general it is a fulvous grey, marked or clouded with black, or with black longitudinal stripes. No two naturalists describe it exactly alike. The limbs are, however, always dark, and there is usually a dark stripe down from the top of head to the centre of the nose. I will quote a few descriptions by various authors: "General colour brownish-black, with some dingy yellowish stripes on each side, more or less distinct, and sometimes not noticeable. A white spot above and below each eye, and the forehead with a whitish band in some; a black line from the top of the head down the centre of the nose is generally observable. In many individuals the ground colour appears to be fulvous, with black pencilling or mixed fulvous and black; the longitudinal stripes then show dark; limbs always dark brown; some appear almost black throughout, and the young are said to be nearly all black" (_Jerdon_). "General colour fulvous grey, washed with black; face darker coloured, with four white spots, one above and one below each eye, the latter more conspicuous; from three to five--more or less interrupted--black lines run from shoulder to root of tail, the central one broader and more distinct than the lateral lines; some indistinct black spots on the sides and upper parts of limbs; tail nearly all black; feet black, soles bald to the heel, flesh-coloured" (_Kellaart_). "Nose brown in the centre, with the brown colour extending under the eyes; the spot under the eye is small and indistinct" (_Gray_). The last remark is reverse of what Kellaart says. The muzzle of the young animal is flesh coloured; they are said to lose their black hairs when kept long in confinement, and become generally lighter coloured. SIZE.--Head and body about 20 to 25 inches; tail from 19 to 21 inches. This is a very common animal in India, frequently to be found in the neighbourhood of houses, attracted no doubt by poultry, rats, mice, &c. It abounds in the suburbs of Calcutta, taking up its abode sometimes in out-houses or in secluded parts of the main building. During the years 1865-66 a pair inhabited a wooden staircase in the Lieutenant-Governor's house at Alipore (Belvedere). We used to hear them daily, and once or twice I saw them in the dusk, but failed in all my attempts to trap them. That part of the building has since been altered, so I have no doubt the confiding pair have betaken themselves to other quarters. In a large banyan-tree in my brother's garden at Alipore there is a family at the present time, the junior members of which have lately fallen victims to a greyhound, who is often on the look-out for them. As yet the old ones have had the wisdom to keep out of his way. They are very easily tamed. I had one for a time at Seonee which had been shot at and wounded, and I was astonished to find how soon it got accustomed to my surgical operations. Whilst under treatment I fed it on eggs. In confinement it is better to accustom it to live partly on vegetable food, rice, and milk, &c., with raw meat occasionally. Its habits are nocturnal. I cannot affirm from my own experience that it is partial to the juice of the palm tree, for _toddy_ (or _tari_) is unknown in the Central Provinces, and I have had no specimens alive since I have been in Bengal, but it has the character of being a toddy-drinker in those parts of India where the toddy-palms grow; and Kellaart confirms the report. It is arboreal in its habits, and climbs with great agility. NO. 229. PARADOXURUS (PAGUMA _of Gray_) GRAYII. _The Hill Musang_ (_Jerdon's No. 124_). HABITAT.--South-east Himalayas and Burmah, from Nepal to Arakan. DESCRIPTION.--"Colour above light unspotted fulvous brown, showing in certain lights a strong cinereous tinge, owing to the black tips of many of the hairs; beneath lighter and more cinereous; limbs ash-coloured, deeper in intensity towards the feet, which are black; tail of the same colour as the body, the end dark, white-tipped; ears rounded, hairy, black; face black, except the forehead; a longitudinal streak down the middle of the nose, and a short oblique band under each of the eyes, which are gray or whitish."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 30 inches; tail, 20 inches. According to Hodgson, this species keeps to the forests and mountains, feeding on small animals and birds, and also vegetable food. "One shot had only seeds, leaves, and unhusked rice in its stomach. A caged animal was fed on boiled rice and fruits, which it preferred to animal food. When set at liberty it would lie waiting in the grass for mynas and sparrows, springing upon them from the cover like a cat, and when sparrows, as it frequently happened, ventured into its cage to steal the boiled rice, it would feign sleep, retire into a corner, and dart on them with unerring aim. It preferred birds, thus taken by itself, to all other food. "This animal was very cleanly, nor did its body usually emit any unpleasant odour, though when it was irritated it exhaled a most foetid stench, caused by the discharge of a thin yellow fluid from four pores, two of which are placed on each side of the intestinal aperture." NO. 230. PARADOXURUS BONDAR. _The Terai Musang_ (_Jerdon's No. 125_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Chinghar_, Hindi; _Bondar_, _Baum_, Bengali; _Mach-abba_ and _Malwa_ in the Nepal Terai. HABITAT.--Nepal, North Behar and Terai. DESCRIPTION.--Clear yellow, tipped with black, the fur coarse and harsh; under fur soft and woolly; legs blackish-brown outside; body without marks, but the bridge of the nose, upper lip, whiskers, broad cheek-band, ears, chin, lower jaw, and the terminal third of the tail blackish-brown; pale yellow round the eyes; snout and feet flesh-grey; nails sharp and curved. The female smaller and paler. SIZE.--Head and body, about 22 inches; tail, 20 to 22; skull of one 4-1/5 inches, less ventricose than that of _P. Grayii_. This species is found, like _P. Musanga_, in the vicinity of houses; it lives in hollow trees, where it also breeds. Its habits are in great measure those of the common musang, though it is probably more carnivorous; it will, however, eat fruit. Jerdon says: "It sleeps rolled up like a ball, and when angered spits like a cat. It is naturally very ferocious and unruly, but capable of domestication, if taken young. It has a keen sense of smell, but less acute hearing and vision by day than the mungooses." NO. 231. PARADOXURUS TRIVIRGATUS. _The Three-striped Musang_. NATIVE NAME.--_Kyoung-na-ga_, in Arakan. HABITAT.--Tenasserim and the Malay countries; also Assam. [Illustration: _Paradoxurus trivirgatus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Fur blackish-brown, slightly silvered with pale tips; three narrow black streaks down the back; under parts dirty white; head, feet, and tail black or blackish-brown. This animal forms a separate genus of Gray, following Professor Peters' _Arctogale_, on account of the smallness of the teeth and the protraction of the palate. I had a specimen of this Paradoxurus given to me early in the cold season of 1881 by Dr. W. Forsyth. I brought it home to England with me, and it is now in the Zoological Society's Gardens in Regent's Park. It was very tame when Dr. Forsyth brought it, but it became more so afterwards, and we made a great pet of it. It used to sleep nearly all day on a bookshelf in my study, and would, if called, lazily look up, yawn, and then come down to be petted, after which it would spring up again into its retreat. At night it was very active, especially in bounding from branch to branch of a tree which I had cut down and placed in the room in which it was locked up every evening. Its wonderful agility on ropes was greatly noticed on board ship. Its favourite food was plantains, and it was also very fond of milk. At night I used to give it a little meat, but not much; but most kinds of fruit it seemed to like. Its temper was a little uncertain, and it seemed to dislike natives, who at times got bitten; but it never bit any of my family, although one of my little girls used to catch hold of it by the forepaws and dance it about like a kitten. Its carnivorous nature showed itself one day by its pouncing upon a tame pigeon. The bird was rescued, and is alive still, but it was severely mauled before I could rescue it, having been seized by the neck. NO. 232. PARADOXURUS LEUCOTIS. _The White-eared Musang_. NATIVE NAME.--_Na-zwet-phyoo_, Arakanese. HABITAT.--Burmah and Assam. DESCRIPTION.--Fur longish, soft, and silky; upper parts tawny; reddish-brown on back and sides; thighs, legs, throat, and belly lighter; tail long, deep chestnut brown; nose with a central white line; ears yellowish. NO. 233. PARADOXURUS ZEYLANICUS. _The Golden Musang_. NATIVE NAME.--_Coolla-weddah_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--A golden-brown colour arising from the longer hairs having a bright golden tint; the shorter hairs brown, paler beneath; head and legs dark brown; muzzle and lips blackish; whiskers white or yellowish; ears small, dark brown externally, almost naked internally; tail sub-cylindrical, long; sometimes with a single pale sub-terminal band; tip rounded, paler than the body. According to Kellaart, three inconspicuous brown dorsal streaks diverging and terminating on the crupper, and some very indistinct spots seen only in some lights. Gray says these animals differ in the intensity of the colour of the fur--some are bright golden and others much more brown. The latter is _P. fuscus_ of Kellaart. SIZE.--Head and body, 19 inches; tail, 15 to 16 inches. Kellaart writes of this species: "The golden paradoxure appears to be a more frugivorous animal than the palm-cat (_Paradoxurus typus_[17]). Their habits are alike nocturnal and arboreal. In all the individuals of the former species examined at Newera-Ellia the stomach contained Cape gooseberries (_Physalis Peruviana_[18]), which grow there now in great abundance; and only one had the remains of animal matter in the stomach. When young they are tolerably docile, but as they grow up their natural ferocity returns." This seems strange, as they appear to be less carnivorous than the others. [Footnote 17: Cuvier's name for _P. musanga_.--R. A. S.] [Footnote 18: The _Tipari_ of Bengal.--R. A. S.] NO. 234. PARADOXURUS (PAGUMA) LANIGER. HABITAT.--Thibet. This requires further investigation. Gray says: "This species is only known from a skin without any skull, and in a very bad state." _P. strictus_, _quadriscriptus_ and _prehensilis_ are three species alluded to by Gray as requiring further examination, but probably Jerdon is right in considering them as varieties of _P. musanga_. A specimen with very large canines has been reported from the Andaman Islands (_P. Tytleri_?) in addition to these. Gray enumerates as an Indian species _P. nigrifrons_, which is likely to be a variety of _P. musanga_; it was described from a single specimen. The dorsal streaks and spots were absent, but then he says the animal had been in confinement, and, as I have said before, this tends to make the dark parts disappear. GENUS ARCTICTIS. This is a very curious animal, which, like the panda and the linsang, at first misled naturalists in assigning it a place. It was formerly classed with the racoons, which it superficially resembles; and, as Jerdon remarks, it may be considered as a sort of link between the plantigrade and digitigrade carnivora. The skeleton however is similar to that of the musangs as regards the great number (thirty-four) of the caudal vertebrae, but the bones of the feet have a more plantigrade character; the skull resembles that of a badger; the head is conical, with a large brain-case and acute turned-up nose; the orbit of the skull is imperfect, only defined by a prominence above; the ears are pencilled or tufted; the tail is very long, muscular and prehensile--although this was doubted by F. Cuvier, but it is now a well-known fact--and in climbing trees it is much assisted by the tail; the teeth are thirty-six in all; canines stout, upper ones long; grinders small and far apart; of the false grinders, the first and second are conical, the third compressed; the flesh-tooth is triangular, and as broad as long; the tubercular grinders are smaller than the flesh-tooth, the first triangular, the hinder cylindrical and smaller still; toes five in each foot, with powerful semi-retractile claws. NO. 235. ARCTICTIS BINTURONG. _The Binturong_ (_Jerdon's No. 126_). HABITAT.--Assam, Nepal, Simla hills, also Tenasserim, Arakan, and the Malayan countries. [Illustration: _Arctictis binturong_.] DESCRIPTION.--Long body, short legs, long prehensile tail, very thick at the base, and gradually tapering to a point, clad with very long bristling hair; the hair of the body very coarse; general colour, deep black, with a white border to the ears, a few brown hairs on the head and anterior surface of fore-legs. Some of the Malayan specimens are slightly sprinkled with brown, and have the head, face, and throat grizzled. It has a large sub-caudal gland, secreting an oily fluid. SIZE.--Head and body 28 to 30 inches; tail about the same. Jerdon gives 28 to 33 inches; tail 26 to 27 inches. According to Jerdon it is nocturnal, arboreal, and omnivorous, eating small animals, birds, insects, fruit and plants; more wild than viverrine animals in general, but easily tamed. Its howl is loud. In an illustration I have of one of these animals, it is drawn with white patches over the eyes. Cantor says the young are marked with eye spots. I have added the Simla hills to the list of places it inhabits, as Mr. Hume possesses the skin of one which I have lately examined, and which was procured in this neighbourhood. HERPESTIDAE--THE ICHNEUMON OR MUNGOOSE FAMILY. A well-defined genus of animals, with long vermiform bodies, clad with long, harsh grizzled hair, long muscular tails, thick at the base, and tapering to a fine point; semi-plantigrade feet with five toes, and partially retractile claws; the eyes are small, but glittering and snakelike; the tongue rough like a cat's. Dr. Gray has divided this family into two groups, _Herpestina_ and _Cynictidina_, the former containing thirteen genera, the latter one, which is separated on account of its having four toes only. Of the thirteen genera in Herpestina, we have only to do with _Herpestes_, _Calogale_, _Calictis_, _Urva_, _Taeniogale_, and _Onychogale_, which six are by most naturalists treated under _Herpestes_, and I will continue to do so, as the differences are hardly sufficient to warrant so much subdivision. _GENUS HERPESTES_. Long vermiform body; short legs with five semi-palmated toes with short compressed claws; eyes small, with linear erect pupils; long skull with forty teeth; the orbit complete in many cases, or only slightly imperfect; the hairs are long, rigid, and ringed like the quill of a porcupine, which gives the grizzled appearance peculiar to these animals. The female has only four mammae. They are very active and sanguinary, chiefly hunting along the ground, but can climb with facility. There are several species found within the limits of British India, and many more in Africa. NO. 236. HERPESTES PALLIDUS _vel_ GRISEUS. _The Common Grey Mungoose_ (_Jerdon's Nos. 127 and 128_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Mungus_, _Newul_, _Newra_, _Nyul_, Hindi; _Mungli_, Canarese; _Yentawa_, Telegu; _Koral_, Gondi; _Moogatea_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--India generally and Ceylon, but apparently not in Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Light iron grey with a yellowish tint, some more rufous, the hairs being ringed with brown and grey or yellowish-white; muzzle and feet brown; irides light brown. SIZE.--Head and body, 16 to 20 inches; tail, 14 to 16-1/2 inches. Jerdon calls this the Madras mungoose, and separates it from the next species, but they are apparently the same. Dr. Anderson prefers the specific name _pallidus_ to either _griseus_ or _Malaccensis_, as _griseus_ originally included an African species, and the latter name is geographically misleading. Hodgson's name _H. nyula_ is objectionable, as _nyul_ or _newul_ is applied by natives to all mungooses generally. Jerdon's Nos. 127 and 128 differ only in colour and size; according to him the lighter and larger, _griseus_, being the Southern India mungoose, and the browner and smaller, _Malaccensis_, the Bengal and the Northern India one. But at Sasseram in Behar, I some years ago obtained a very large specimen of the lighter species, and have lately seen a skin from the North-west Provinces. This animal is familiar to most English residents in the Mofussil; it is, if unmolested, fearless of man, and will, even in its wild state, enter the verandahs and rooms of houses. In one house I know a pair of old ones would not only boldly lift the bamboo chicks and walk in, but in time were accompanied by a young family. When domesticated they are capable of showing as much attachment as a dog. One that I had constantly with me for three years died of grief during a temporary separation, having refused food from the time I left. I got it whilst on active service during the Indian Mutiny, when it was a wee thing, smaller than a rat. It travelled with me on horseback in an empty holster, or in a pocket, or up my sleeve; and afterwards, when my duties as a settlement officer took me out into camp, "Pips" was my constant companion. He knew perfectly well when I was going to shoot a bird for him. He would stand up on his hind legs when he saw me present the gun, and rush for the bird when it fell; he had, however, no notion of retrieving, but would scamper off with his prey to devour it at leisure. He was a most fearless little fellow, and once attacked a big greyhound, who beat a retreat. In a rage his body would swell to nearly twice its size from the erection of the hair, yet I had him under such perfect subjection that I had only to hold up my finger to him when he was about to attack anything, and he would desist. I heard a great noise one day outside my room and found Master "Pips," attacking a fine male specimen I had of the great bustard, _Eupodotis Edwardsii_, and had just seized it by the throat. I rescued the bird, but it died of its injuries. Through the carelessness of one of my servants he was lost one day in a heavy brushwood jungle some miles from my camp, and I quite gave up all hopes of recovering my pet. Next day, however, in tracking some antelope, we happened to cross the route taken by my servants, when we heard a familiar little yelp, and down from a tree we were under rushed "Pips." He went to England with me after that, and was the delight of all the sailors on board, for his accomplishments were varied; he could sit on a chair with a cap on his head, shoulder arms; ready, present, fire!--turn somersaults, jump, and do various other little tricks. From watching him I observed many little habits belonging to these animals. He was excessively clean, and after eating would pick his teeth with his claws in a most absurd manner. I do not know whether a mungoose in a wild state will eat carrion, but he would not touch anything tainted, and, though very fond of freshly-cooked game, would turn up his nose at high partridge or grouse. He was very fond of eggs, and, holding them in his fore-paws, would crack a little hole at the small end, out of which he would suck the contents. He was a very good ratter, and also killed many snakes against which I pitted him. His way seemed to be to tease the snake into darting at him, when, with inconceivable rapidity, he would pounce on the reptile's head. He seemed to know instinctively which were the poisonous ones, and acted with corresponding caution. I tried him once with some sea-snakes (_Hydrophis palamoides_), which are poisonous, but he could get no fight out of them, and crunched their heads off one after the other. I do not believe in the mungoose being proof against snake poison, or in the antidote theory. Their extreme agility prevents their being bitten, and the stiff rigid hair, which is excited at such times, and a thick loose skin, are an additional protection. I think it has been proved that if the poison of a snake is injected into the veins of a mungoose it proves fatal. The female produces from three to four young at a time. The cry of the mungoose is a grating mew, varied occasionally by a little querulous yelp, which seems to be given in an interrogative sort of way when searching for anything. When angry it growls most audibly for such a small beast, and this is generally accompanied by a bristling of the hair, especially of the tail. NO. 237. HERPESTES JERDONI _vel_ MONTICOLUS. _The Long-tailed Mungoose_ (_Jerdon's No. 129_). HABITAT.--Indian peninsula, it having been found in the extreme south as well as Kashmir in the north and Singbhoom in the centre. DESCRIPTION.--Colour like the last, but more yellow in general tone; tail long, tipped with maroon and black, very hairy; feet dark reddish-brown; muzzle slightly tinged with red; under fur pale yellowish, the long hairs being broadly tipped with brown, darkest at the tip, paler at the base, then a white band; then three brown bands separated by white, the base of the hair being broadly white; the skull is distinguishable by the breadth of the frontal region across the post-orbital processes, and between the anterior margins of the orbit. Dr. Anderson considers this as identical with the Kashmir _H. thysanurus_, which has also been found by Mr. Ball in Singbhoom. Dr. Gray says it is very like the African _H. ichneumon_, only paler. Dr. Jerdon had only obtained it from the Eastern Ghats inland from Nellore, where it inhabits forests among the hills. SIZE.--Head and body, 20 inches; tail, 19 inches. NO. 238. HERPESTES SMITHII. _The Ruddy Mungoose_ (_Jerdon's No. 130_). NATIVE NAME.--_Deeto_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Southern India and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Reddish ferruginous brown, long hair, well grizzled, more red on the head and outer part Of limbs; hairs annulated dark and white, with reddish tips; muzzle long and flesh-coloured; feet black; tip of tail black. SIZE.--Head and body, 15 inches; tail, 12 to 13 inches. This is the same as _H. Ellioti_ of Blyth, and _H. rubiginosus_ of Kellaart, and _Calictis Smithii_ of Gray. NO. 239. HERPESTES AUROPUNCTATUS. _The Gold-speckled Mungoose_ (_Jerdon's No. 131_). HABITAT.--The plains near the hills from Afghanistan to Bengal, also Assam and Burmah, and on into the Malayan peninsula. DESCRIPTION.--General colour olive brown with a golden hue, or finely speckled with golden yellow, due to the fine annulation of the hair; the sides of the body slightly paler, and not so yellow; under parts dirty yellowish-white; limbs the same colour as the body; the under fur is purplish-brown in its lower two-thirds, and pale yellow in its terminal third; the long hair is smooth, fine, short, and adpressed; the tips are dark brown, then yellow, then brown, twice repeated; occasionally a yellow band at the base; in the tail there are generally eight bands, with the terminal dark brown; the skull is remarkable for the narrow and elongated character of its facial portion; the orbit is perfect in the adult. Length of skull about 1-5/12 inches; width at the zygoma, 1-1/4. SIZE.--Head and body, 12 to 13 inches; tail, 9 to 10 inches. This and _H. persicus_ are the smallest of the genus; it is included in Gray's genus _Calogale_, and he gives the specific name followed by Jerdon, _Nipalensis_, which is geographically misleading. I have therefore followed Dr. Anderson in retaining the more appropriate title. _H. persicus_ is closely allied, but the nasal portion of the palate is narrower. NO. 240. HERPESTES FUSCUS. _The Nilgherry Brown Mungoose_ (_Jerdon's No. 132_). HABITAT.--Madras Presidency, Neilgherries. DESCRIPTION.--General colour, brown; hair ringed black and yellow, tawny at the base; throat dusky yellowish.--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 18 inches; tail, with hair, 17 inches. NO. 241. HERPESTES (ONYCHOGALE _of Gray_) MACCARTHIAE. HABITAT.--Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Reddish-brown; elongate, flaccid, pale brown, with a broad thick sub-terminal band and a long whitish-brown tip; fur of hands and face shorter; feet blackish brown; hair white-tipped; tail redder; hair elongate, one coloured red; ears rounded, hairy.--_Gray_. NO. 242. HERPESTES FERRUGINEUS. HABITAT.--Sind. DESCRIPTION.--Resembles rufous specimens of _H. pallidus_, but the skull shows differences in the greater breadth of the post-orbital contraction of the frontals, and a shorter, broader muzzle, more particularly with posterior or nasal part of the palate. * * * * * The next species, which is included in Gray's genus _Taeniogale_, has the bony orbit always perfect, and the molars are 6--6/7--7. NO. 243. HERPESTES VITTICOLLIS. _The Stripe-necked Mungoose_ (_Jerdon's No. 133_). NATIVE NAME.--_Loco-moogatea_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Southern India, Ceylon, Burmah? DESCRIPTION.--Grizzled grey, more or less ferruginous, especially on the rump and tail; a dark stripe from the ear to the shoulder; tail rufous black at the tip; skull characteristics: large, with flattened and expanded frontal region, projected narrow muzzle and powerful teeth, larger than other Asiatic _Herpestes_, the last molar being proportionately greater. SIZE.--Head and body 21 inches; tail 15 inches. I have put Burmah in the list of places where this mungoose is found, having lately been shown by Mr. Davison the skin of a stripe-necked mungoose obtained by him in Burmah, which seemed to be of this species. * * * * * The next has been formed into a separate genus, _Urva_; the teeth are blunter than in _Herpestes_. NO. 244. URVA CANCRIVORA. _The Crab-eating Mungoose_ (_Jerdon's No. 134_). HABITAT.--South-east Himalayas, Assam, and Burmah. [Illustration: _Urva cancrivora_.] DESCRIPTION.--"General colour fulvous iron-grey, inner fur woolly, outer of long straggling lax hairs, generally ringed with black, white, and fulvous; in some the coat has a variegated aspect; in others a uniform tawny tint prevails, and in a few dark rusty brown mixed with grey is the prevalent hue; abdomen brown; limbs blackish-brown; a white stripe on either side of the neck from the ear to the shoulder; tail rufous or brown, with the terminal half rufous" (_Jerdon_). Gray's account is: "black grizzled hairs with a very broad white sub-terminal ring; a white streak on the side of the neck; legs and feet black; tail ashy red at the end." SIZE.--Head and body, 18 inches; tail, 11 inches. Somewhat aquatic in its habits, living on frogs and crabs. It has two anal glands, from which it can squirt a foetid secretion. It is the only mungoose mentioned in Blyth's 'Catalogue of the Mammals of Burmah,' but there are at least two more, and probably some of the Malayan species are yet to be found in Tenasserim. CYNOIDEA. This is the next and last section in the order I have adopted, of the land Carnivora, and contains the typical family _Canis_. All the animals that we shall have to deal with might and would be by some authors brought into this one genus, the only others recognised by them being the two African genera, _Megalotis_ and _Lycaon_, the long-eared fox and the hyaena-dog, and the _Nyctereutes_ or racoon-dog of Northern China and Amoorland. But although all our Indian species might be treated of under the one genus _Canis_, it will be better to keep to the separation adopted by Jerdon, and classify the wolves and jackals under _Canis_, and the foxes under _Vulpes_. As regards the wild dog of India, its dentition might warrant its being placed in a separate genus, but after all the name chosen for it is but merely a difference in sound, the two being the same thing in Latin and Greek. But although this group contains the smallest number of forms, the varieties of the domestic dog are endless, and no part of the world is without a species of the genus, except certain islands, such as the West Indies, Madagascar, the Polynesian isles, New Zealand and the Malayan archipelago; in these territories there is no indigenous dog. I speak of dogs in its broad sense of _Canis_, including wolves and foxes. The proper position of the _Cynoidea_ should be between the bears and the cats, as in their dentition they approximate to the former, and in their digitigrade character to the latter; but, with a view to make this work concurrent with that of Jerdon's, I have accepted the position assigned by him, though it be a little out of place. The general form of the skeleton of a dog resembles that of a feline, though the limbs may be to a certain extent longer; they also walk on the tips of their toes, but their claws are not retractile, although the ligament by which the process of retraction in the cat is effected is present in a rudimentary form, but is permanently overpowered by the greater flexor muscles. A dog's paw is therefore by no means such a wonderful piece of mechanism and example of power as that of the cat, but is feeble in comparison, and is never used as a weapon of offence, as in the case of felines, the prey being always seized by the teeth. The skull partakes of the characteristics of both cat and bear. It departs from the simple cutting dentition of the former by the addition of two tuberculated molars in each upper jaw, or one more than the rudimentary molar in the cat, whilst the lower jaw has two extra molars on each side; the premolars are also in excess, being four in number on each side of the upper and lower jaws, whereas in the feline there are three above and two below. There is also a difference in the lower carnassial or first molar, which impinges on the upper carnassial or fourth premolar; it has a protuberance behind, termed the heel, which is prominently marked, but it is in the molars in which the greatest deviation from the specially carnivorous dentition occurs. The incisors are somewhat larger than, but the canines and premolars approximate to, those of the felines; the crown of the incisors is cuspidate, and the premolars increase gradually in size, with the exception of the fourth in the upper jaw, the carnassial, which is treble the size of the one next to it. But it is in the molars that we find the similarity to the semi-herbivorous bears. The last two molars on each side of the upper and lower jaws are true grinders, divided into four cusps, which suits the dog to a mixed diet. Of course the increased number of teeth (the dog has forty-two against thirty of the cat) necessitates a prolonged muzzle, and therefore the skull has more of the bear than the cat shape. The nasal bones are long, the zygomatic arch smaller, but it has the ear-bulb or _bulla tympani_, so conspicuous in the cat and wanting in the bear, yet the character of the aperture of the ear or _auditory meatus_ approaches that of the latter, as the margins of its outer aperture are somewhat prolonged into a short tube or spout, instead of being flush, as in the felines. Then the bony clamp or par-occipital process, which in the cats is fixed against the hinder end of the bulla, is in the dogs separated by a decided groove. The intestinal peculiarities of this section consist of a very large caecum or blind gut, which is small in the cats and wholly absent in the bears, and in the very long intestines. Some have a sub-caudal gland secreting a pungent whey-like matter. _GENUS CANIS--THE DOG_. Muzzle obtuse; tail short; no caudal gland. Dental formula: inc., 6/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolar, 4--4/4--4; molar, 2--2/3--3. [Illustration: Dentition of Wolf.] This genus contains the wolf and the jackal, as well as the dog proper. The origin of the domestic dog (_Canis familiaris_) is involved in obscurity; it is mentioned in its domestic state and in an infinity of varieties in records of remote ages. Job talks of "the dogs of my flock," and in the Assyrian monuments, as far back as 3400 years before Christ, various forms are represented; and in Egypt not only representations of known varieties, easy to be recognised, are found, but numerous mummies have been exhumed, the animal having been held in special veneration. There is a preponderance of opinion strongly in favour of the theory that the domestic dog sprang from the wolf, and much argument has been advanced in support of this idea. The principal objection made to this by those who hold opposite views is the fact that no dog in a wild state barks, but only howls. Now for the evidence adduced in support of the former assertion; some domesticated species of dog closely resembling the wild wolf. Sir John Richardson says of the Eskimo dog that it is not only extremely like the North American wolf (_Canis lupus_), both in form, colour, and nearly in size, but that the howl of both animals "is prolonged so exactly in the same key that even the practised ear of an Indian fails at times to discriminate them." He adds of the dog of the Hare Indians, a distinct breed, that it is almost the same as the prairie wolf (_Canis latrans_), the skull of the dog appeared to him a little smaller, otherwise he could detect no difference in form, nor fineness of fur, nor the arrangement of spots of colour. Professor Kitchen Parker writes: "Another observer remarks that, except in the matter of barking, there is no difference whatever between the black wolf-dog of the Indians of Florida and the wolves of the same country. The dogs also breed readily with the wild animals they so closely resemble. The Indians often cross their dogs with wolves to improve the breed, and in South America the same process is resorted to between the domesticated and the wild dogs." He then goes on to allude to many varieties of dogs closely resembling wolves--the shepherd dog of Hungary, which is so like that a Hungarian has been known to mistake a wolf for one of his own dogs. Some Indian pariahs, and some dogs of Egypt, both now and in the condition of mummies, closely resemble the wolf of their country. The domestic dogs of Nubia and certain mummified forms are closely related to jackals. The Bosjesman's dog is very like the black-backed jackal (_Canis mesomelas_). Domestic dogs which have run wild do in some measure, though not entirely, revert to the wolf type. The dingo of Australia is thought to be derived from some imported variety of dog. The wolf is easily tamed, and even in its wild state has some of the peculiarities of the dog; for instance, a young wolf, when surprised and threatened by the hunter, will crouch and fawn like a spaniel. Mr. Bell tells of a she-wolf in the Regent's Park Zoological Gardens which would bring her cubs to the bars of the cage, that they might be caressed by the visitors; and there is a most interesting account, too long for insertion here, in the third volume of the old _India Sporting Review_ (new series) chiefly taken from Major Lloyd's 'Scandinavian Adventures,' of the tameability of wolves, giving an instance of two cubs out of a litter of three becoming as faithfully attached as any dog. The period of gestation (sixty-three days) is the same in both animals, and they will interbreed freely, the progeny being also fertile. There only now remains the question of the bark, which, singularly enough, is peculiar to the domesticated dog only, and may have arisen in imitation of the gruffer tones of the human voice. The domestic dog run wild will in a few generations lose the power of barking. This happened on the island of Juan Fernandez; the dogs left there quite lost their bark in thirty-three years, and it is said that a few caught and removed after that period reacquired it very slowly. We may then, I think, accept Darwin's opinion that "it is highly probable that the domestic dogs of the world have descended from two good species of wolf (_C. lupus_ and _C. latrans_), and from two or three other doubtful species of wolves (namely, the European, Indian, and North African forms), from at least one or two South American canine species, and from several races or species of the jackal." NO. 245. CANIS PALLIPES. _The Indian Wolf_ (_Jerdon's No. 135_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Bheria_, _Bhera_, North and Central India; _Landagh_, South India; _Nekra_, in some parts; _Bighana_, _Hunder_, or _Hurar_, in Bundelkund; _Tola_, Canarese; _Toralu_, Telegu. HABITAT.--Throughout the whole of India, though Hodgson says he has not found it in the Himalayas, nor can I find any notice of it in Burmah, and it is likewise absent in Ceylon. [Illustration: _Canis pallipes_.] DESCRIPTION.--"Hoary fulvous or dirty reddish-white, some of the hairs tipped with black, which gives it a grizzled appearance; somewhat reddish on the face and limbs, the latter paler than the body; lower parts dingy white; tail thinly bushy, slightly black-tipped; ears rather small" (_Jerdon_). But, as a matter of fact, wolves vary greatly in colour. Every one who has seen much of them will bear testimony to this. Sir Walter Elliot says: "Several adults that I shot differed in their colours and general character." The late Brigadier-General McMaster, in his notes on Jerdon, wrote: "Wolves vary a good deal in colour and length of hair, probably with season and climate. I have seen some of light reddish-grey, and others much darker than any jackal;" and he speaks of another "nearly as red as an Irish setter." SIZE.--Head and body, about 3 feet; tail, 16 to 18 inches; height at shoulder, 26 inches. The Indian wolf is somewhat inferior in size to the European one, and is probably less ferocious, or at all events its ferocity is not called out by the severity of the climate, as in the case of _C. lupus_. We never hear of them attacking bodies of men and overwhelming them by numbers. In 1812 twenty-four French soldiers were surrounded by an immense troop of wolves; and though, it is said, the men killed two or three hundred of their assailants, they had to succumb at last to numbers, and were all devoured. This was doubtless an extreme case, but in the severe winters of the north, when these animals band together and roam abroad in search of food, they will attack anything that comes in their way, although a single wolf will hardly ever dare to meddle with a man. In India one seldom hears of their attacking grown-up men. I remember an instance in which an old woman was a victim; but hundreds of children are carried off annually, especially in Central India and the North-west provinces. Stories have been related of wolves sparing and suckling young infants so carried off, which, if properly authenticated, will bring the history of Romulus and Remus within the bounds of probability. I have not by me just now the details of the case of the "Boy-Wolf" of Lucknow, which was, I believe, a case vouched for by credible witnesses. It was that of a boy found in a wolf's lair, who had no power of speech, crawled about on his hands and knees, ate raw flesh, and who showed great wildness in captivity. I think he died soon after being caught. The story of the nursing is not improbable, for well-known instances have been recorded of the _ferae_, when deprived of their young, adopting young animals, even of those on whom they usually prey. Cats have been known to suckle young leverets. The wolf in its wild state is particularly partial to dog as an article of diet, yet in confinement it will attach itself to its domesticated canine companions, and interbreed with them. A writer in the _India Sporting Review_, vol. vi. of 1847, page 252, quoted by McMaster, says he received from Dr. Jameson, Superintendent of the Botanical Gardens at Saharunpore, a hybrid, the produce of a tame female wolf and a pointer dog. This hybrid died when twenty months old, and is said to have been mild and gentle; its howl seems to have had more of the bark in it than the cry of the hybrid jackal, and to have been more dog-like. "It exactly resembled the coarse black pariah to be seen about Loodhiana and Ferozepore," the black colour doubtless coming from the pointer sire. As General McMaster remarks, it would be interesting to know what the colours of the rest of the litter were. Wolves do, I think, get light-coloured with great age. I remember once having one brought into my camp for the usual reward by a couple of small boys, the elder not more than ten or twelve years of age, I should think. The beast was old and emaciated, and very light coloured, and, doubtless impelled by hunger, attacked the children, as they were herding cattle, with a view to dining off them; but the elder boy had a small axe, such as is commonly carried by the Gonds, and, manfully standing his ground, split the wolf's skull with a blow--a feat of which he was justly proud. Sir Walter Elliot's description of the manner in which wolves hunt has been quoted by Jerdon and others, but, as it is interesting, I reproduce it here:-- "The wolves of the southern Mahratta country generally hunt in packs, and I have seen them in full chase after the goat antelope _Gazella Arabica_ (_Bennettii_ ?). They likewise steal round the herd of _Antilope cervicapra_ and conceal themselves on different sides till an opportunity offers of seizing one of them unawares as they approach, while grazing, to one or other of their hidden assailants. On one occasion three wolves were seen to chase a herd of gazelle across a ravine in which two others were lying in wait. They succeeded in seizing a female gazelle, which was taken from them. They have frequently been seen to course, and run down hares and foxes; and it is a common belief of the ryots that in the open plains, where there is no cover or concealment, they scrape a hole in the earth, in which one of the pack lies down and remains hid, while the others drive the herd of antelope over him. Their chief prey, however, is sheep; and the shepherds say that part of the pack attack, and keep the dogs in play, while others carry off their prey, and that, if pursued, they follow the same plan, part turning and checking the dogs, while the rest drag away the carcase, till they evade pursuit. Instances are not uncommon of their attacking man. In 1824 upwards of thirty children were devoured by wolves in one pergunnah alone. Sometimes a large wolf is seen to seek his prey singly; these are called _Won-tola_, and are reckoned particularly fierce." McMaster corroborates the account of wolves hiding themselves by scratching holes in the ground whilst antelope were quietly walking up to the ambush; and there is a most amusing account given by Major Lloyd, in his 'Scandinavian Adventures,' of the wiles of a tame wolf in her efforts to get young pigs within her reach. He says: "When she saw a pig in the vicinity of her kennel, she evidently, with the purpose of putting him off his guard, would throw herself on her side or back, wag her tail most lovingly, and look innocence personified; and this amicable demeanour would continue until the grunter was beguiled within reach of her tether, when, in the twinkling of an eye, 'Richard was himself again!'" Major Lloyd asserts that but for this _penchant_ for his neighbours' pigs he would have trained this wolf as a pointer. Jerdon states that he has known wolves turn on dogs that were running at their heels, and pursue them smartly till close up to his horse. He adds: "A wolf once joined with my greyhounds in pursuit of a fox, which was luckily killed almost immediately afterwards, or the wolf might have seized one of the dogs instead of the fox. He sat down on his haunches, about sixty yards off, whilst the dogs were worrying the fox, looking on with great apparent interest, and was with difficulty driven away." NO. 246. CANIS LANIGER (LUPUS CHANCO _of Gray_). _The Thibetan Wolf_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Chanko_, _Changu_. HABITAT.--Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Yellowish-grey, with long soft hairs (_Kinloch_). Long sharp face, elevated brows, broad head, large pointed ears, thick woolly pelage, and very full brush of medial length; above dull earth-brown; below, with the entire face and limbs, yellowish-white; no marks on limbs; tail concolourous with the body, that is brown above and yellowish below, and no dark tip (_Hodgson_). SIZE.--Length, 4 feet; tail, 20 inches; height, 30 inches. Hodgson says this animal is common all over Thibet, and is a terrible depredator among the flocks, or, as Kinloch writes: "apparently preferring the slaughter of tame animals to the harder task of circumventing wild ones." The great Bhotea mastiff is chiefly employed to guard against it. According to Hodgson the chanko has a long, sharp face, with the muzzle or nude space round the nostrils produced considerably beyond the teeth, and furnished with an unusually large lateral process, by which the nostrils are much overshadowed sideways and nearly closed. The eye is small and placed nearer to the ear than to the nose; the brows are considerably elevated by the large size of the frontal sinuses; the ears are large and gradually tapered to a point from their broad bases, and they have the ordinary fissure towards their posteal base; the head is broad; the teeth large and strong; the body long and lank, the limbs elevated and very powerful; the brush extends to half-way between the mid-flexure (_os calcis_) of the hind limbs and their pads, and is as full as that of a fox. The fur or pelage is remarkable for its extreme woolliness, the hairy piles being few and sparely scattered amongst the woolliness, which is most abundant; the head as far as the ears, the ears, and the limbs are clad in close ordinary hair; the belly is thinly covered with longer hairs; but all the rest of the animal is clothed in a thick sheep-like coat, which is most abundant on the neck above and below. Gray ('P. Z. S.,' 1863, p. 94) says: "The skull is very much like, and has the same teeth as the European wolf (_C. lupus_)," but in this I think he is mistaken, as the upper carnassial in _C. lupus_ is much larger than in any of the Asiatic wolves, and in this particular _C. laniger_ is affined to _C. pallipes_. There is a black variety of the chanko, as there is of the European wolf, and by some he is considered a distinct species, but is really a melanoid variety, though Kinloch writes: "The black chanko is rather larger than the grey one; he is of a beautiful glossy black, with a small white star on the chest and a few grey hairs about the muzzle." He was fortunate enough to secure two cubs of this variety. "They fed ravenously on raw meat, and before long became pretty tame." After accompanying him for two months he left them at the hill station of Kussowlie, fearing that the heat at Meerut might prove too great for them; at the end of 2-1/2 months they were sent down. "By this time they had immensely increased in size, but, although they had not seen me for so long, they recognised me, and also my greyhound, of which they had previously been very fond. They soon became much attached to me, and would fawn on me like dogs, licking my face and hands; they were always, however, ready to growl and snap at a stranger. I took them to Agra at the time of the great Durbar there, and used to let them loose in camp with my dogs, so tame had they become." He eventually presented them to the Zoological Gardens in Regent's Park, and their portraits appeared in the _Illustrated London News_ of November 21st, 1868. Whether the skins purchased at Kashgar by the Yarkand Mission were of _C. laniger_ or _lupus_ is doubtful, as no skulls were procured. In some particulars they seem to agree with the chanko in being rather larger (i.e., larger than _pallipes_); the hair long, and the under fur ash-grey and _woolly_, but the black line down the forelegs is like _C. lupus_. It is not stated whether the tail was dark-tipped or not, the absence of this dark tip, common to most other wolves, is a point noticed by Hodgson in speaking of _C. laniger_. Mr. Blanford describes another skin which was purchased at Kashgar, and which he supposes may belong to a new species, but there was no skull with it--it is that of a smaller canine, midway between a wolf and a jackal, the prevailing tint being black, mixed with pale rufous, and white along the back and upper surface of the tail; pale rufous on the flanks, limbs, anterior portion of the abdomen and under the tail; a distinct black line down the front of each foreleg; upper part of head rufous, mixed with whitish and black, the forehead being greyer, owing to the white tips to the hairs; the tip of the tail is quite black, and the tail itself is short, as in the jackal, but more bushy, the feet larger than the common jackal--a short, bushy tail agrees with _Cuon_, so also does the large foot. NO. 247. CANIS LUPUS. _The European Wolf_. HABITAT.--All over Europe and Northern Asia, in Turkestan and Yarkand(?) DESCRIPTION.--Fur long and coarse, dark yellowish-grey, sometimes almost black, but there is a good deal of variation in both colour and texture of the hair according to the country, whether cold or warm, from which the animal comes; a dark streak on the forelegs; the carnassial tooth is however the chief point of distinction between this and the Indian and Thibetan species; it is very much larger in the European animal, approximating to, and sometimes exceeding in size, the two molars together, which is not the case with the others. Mr. Blanford, in his report on the Mammalia of Yarkand published by Government in the 'Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand Mission,' quotes from Professor Jeitteles, of Vienna, the opinion that none of the larger domestic dogs could have descended from the European wolf, because of the relative proportions of their teeth, but that all must have been derived from the Indian wolf or from allied forms. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/2 to 4 feet; tail, 20 inches; height, about 30 to 32 inches. Mr. Blanford supposes, and with some degree of reason, that the flat skins purchased at Kashgar were those of this species; but unfortunately the absence of the skulls must for the present leave this in doubt, as variations in colour and texture of fur are frequent and dependent on climatic conditions. NO. 248. CANIS AUREUS. _The Jackal_ (_Jerdon's No. 136_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Srigala_, Sanscrit; _Geedhur_, Hindi; _Shial_, _Sial_, _Siar_ and _Shialu_, Bengali; _Kola_, Mahrathi; _Nari_, Canarese; _Nakka_, Telegu; _Nerka_, Gondi; _Shingal_ or _Sjekal_, Persia; _Amu_, Bhotia; _Myae-khawae_, Burmese; _Nareeah_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Throughout India, Burmah, and Ceylon; it is found over a great part of Asia, Southern Europe, and Northern Africa. DESCRIPTION.--"Fur dusky yellowish or rufous grey, the hairs being mottled black, grey, and brown, with the under fur brownish yellow; lower parts yellowish-grey; the tail reddish-brown, ending in a darkish tuft; more or less rufous on the muzzle and limbs; tail moderately hairy."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 28 to 30 inches; tail, 10 or 11 inches; height, 16 to 18 inches. The jackal is one of our best-known animals, both as a prowler and scavenger, in which capacity he is useful, and as a disturber of our midnight rest by his diabolical yells, in which peculiarity he is to be looked upon as an unmitigated nuisance. He is mischievous too occasionally, and will commit havoc amongst poultry and young kids and lambs, but, as a general rule, he is a harmless, timid creature, and when animal food fails he will take readily to vegetables. Indian corn seems to be one of the things chiefly affected by him; the fruit of the wild behr-tree (_Zizyphus jujuba_) is another, as I have personally witnessed. In Ceylon he is said to devour large quantities of ripe coffee-berries, the seeds, which pass through entire, are carefully gathered by the coolies, who get an extra fee for the labour, and are found to be the best for germination, as the animal picks the finest fruit. According to Sykes he devastates the vineyards in the west of India, and is said to be partial to sugar-cane. The jackal is credited with digging corpses out of the shallow graves, and devouring bodies. I once came across the body of a child in the vicinity of a jungle village which had been unearthed by one. At Seonee we had, at one time, a plague of mad jackals, which did much damage. Sir Emerson Tennent writes of a curious horn or excrescence which grows on the head of the jackal occasionally, which is regarded by the Singhalese as a potent charm, by the instrumentality of which every wish can be realised, and stolen property will return of its own accord! This horn, which is called _Nari-comboo_, is said to grow only on the head of the leader of the pack. The domestic dog is supposed to owe its origin to this species, as well as to the wolf, but all conjecture on this point can be but pure speculation. Certain it is that the pariahs about villages are strikingly like jackals, at least in many cases, and they will freely interbreed. The writer in the _India Sporting Review_ alluded to by me in writing of the wolf, mentions some experiments made in crossing dogs with jackals. "First cross, hybrid between a female jackal and Scotch terrier dog, or half jackal and half dog; second cross, between the hybrid jackal and terrier, or quarter jackal and three-quarters dog; third cross between the quarter jackal and terrier, or seven-eighths dog and one-eighth jackal. Of the five pups comprising the litter, of which the last was one, two were fawn-coloured and very like pariahs, while three had the precise livery of the jackal; noses sharp and pointed; ears large and erect; head and muzzle like the jackal. This cross, he remarks, appears to have gone back a generation, and to have resembled the jackal much more than their mother, whose appearance, with the exception of the very sharp muzzle, although she had so much jackal blood, was that of a sleek, well-fed pariah dog, colour yellow fawn, but her gait and gallop were precisely that of the jackal."--_McMaster_. _GENUS CUON_. Dentition as in restricted _Canis_, but wanting the second grinder behind the flesh-tooth in the lower jaw; the nose is short; skull arched; the forehead broad, convex, and gradually shelving from the nose line; nasals long, produced behind the hinder upper edge of the maxillaries. NO. 249. CANIS (CUON) RUTILANS. _The Indian Wild Dog_ (_Jerdon's No. 137_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Jungli-kutta_; _Son-kutta_; _Ban-kutta_, _Ram-kutta_, Hindi; _Kolsun_, _Kolusna_, _Kolsa_ and _Kolasra_, Mahrathi; _Reza-kutta_, _Adavi-kutta_, Telegu; _Shen-nai_, Malabarese; _Eram-naiko_, Gondi; _Sakki-sarai_, at Hyderabad; _Ram-hun_ in Kashmir; _Siddaki_, Thibetan, in Ladakh; _Suhu-tum_, Lepcha; _Paoho_, Bhotea; _Bhaosa_, _Bhoonsa_, _Buansu_ in the Himalayas, generally from Simla to Nepal (_Jerdon_); _Tao-khwae_, Burmese; _Assoo-adjakh_, _Assoo-kikkee_, Javanese; _Oesoeng-esang_, Sundese; _An-jing Utan_, Malay; _Hazzee_, Thibetan. HABITAT.--The whole of India and down the Burmese country to the Malayan archipelago, but not in Ceylon, although Jerdon asserts that it is common there. I however cannot find any authority for this, and both Kellaart and Sir Emerson Tennent affirm that there are no wild dogs in Ceylon. [Illustration: _Cuon rutilans_.] DESCRIPTION.--General colour bright rusty or red, somewhat paler beneath; ears large and erect, round at the tips; large, hairy-soled feet; very bushy, straight tail, reaching half-way from the hough to the sole, with a dark tip. It stands lower in front than behind; and, though somewhat resembling a jackal, has an unmistakable canine physiognomy; the eye is fuller and better placed, and forehead broader, and the muzzle less pointed. SIZE.--Head and body, 32 to 36 inches; tail, 16 inches; height 17 to 20 inches. It has been supposed that there were two or three species of wild dog to be found within the limits of British India, but it is now, I think, conclusively settled that the Malayan and Indian species are one, and that those from Darjeeling and other hills, which showed variation, are the same, with slight differences caused by climate. They are certainly not canine in disposition; the wolf and jackal are much more so, for in confinement they are as ill-conditioned brutes as it is possible to conceive. Those in the Regent's Park Gardens are active, snappy, snarly, wild-looking creatures. Hodgson writes of them: "Those I kept in confinement, when their den was approached, rushed into the remotest corner of it; huddled one upon another, with their heads concealed as much as possible. I never dared to lay hands on them, but if poked with a stick they would retreat from it as long as they could, and then crush themselves into a corner, growling low, and sometimes, but rarely, seizing the stick and biting it with vehemence. After ten months' confinement they were as wild and shy as the first hour I got them. Their eyes emitted a strong light in the dark, and their bodies had the peculiar foetid odour of the fox and jackal in all its rankness." McMaster sent one to the People's Park, at Madras, which he obtained in Burmah, and says of her: "'Evangeline,' as she is named, is certainly though an interesting and rare creature to have in a museum or wild-beast show, the most snarling, ill-mannered, and detestable beast I have ever owned." "Hawkeye," whose most interesting paper on the wild dog appeared in the _South of India Observer_, of January 7th, 1869, alludes to "Evangeline" in the following terms:--"I saw the beast at the People's Park, and a more untameable wretch I never met with; and why so fair a name for such a savage de'il, I know not." It is strange that the most dog-like of the wild canines should refuse domestication when even the savage European wolf has become so attached as to pine during the absence of his master. Jesse, in his 'History of the British Dog,' relates that a lady near Geneva had a tame wolf, which was so attached that when, on one occasion, she left home for a while he refused food and pined. On her return, when he heard her voice, he flew to meet her in an ecstasy of delight; springing up, he placed a paw on each of her shoulders, and the next moment fell backwards and expired. The wild dog, however, refuses all endearments, and keeps his savage nature to the last. I have never heard of their attacking men, but few four-footed beasts, even of large size, escape them. Fortunately they are not as common as jackals, otherwise little game would be left in the country. During my residence in the Seonee district from 1857 to 1864, I only came across them two or three times. Their mode of hunting has been described by various writers--Hodgson, Elliot, Jerdon, and others of less reliability--but one of the best descriptions, which I regret I have not space for _in extenso_, is that to which I have already alluded as written by "Hawkeye," and which may be found in the paper above mentioned, and also in McMaster's notes on Jerdon; but I give a few extracts:-- "Generally speaking, however, the wild dog has not been known to be the aggressor against mankind; and, though not displaying much dread of man, has hitherto refrained from actual attack, for I have never heard of any case proving it otherwise; at the same time it is well known and an established fact that the tiger and leopard are often driven away by these dogs. It is uncertain whether they really attack with intent to kill either the one or the other, but that they have been repeatedly seen following both there is no question. The wild dog in appearance bears much similitude to the English fox; he is however larger, and stands some inches higher, and has no white tip to his tail, which, with his muzzle, is perfectly black. The muscular development all over the body is extraordinary. One that I shot, when skinned, was a most perfect specimen of thews and sinews I ever beheld." He describes various hunts by packs of these dogs, in one of which, witnessed by a brother sportsman, the dogs, five in number, in pressing a Sambar stag, spread themselves out like a fan, which he considers a matter of instinct, so that in case of a flank movement the outer dogs would have a chance; in this case however the stag kept straight on, and, the ground being precipitous, he managed to escape. The evidence produced tends to confirm the opinion that the wild dog endeavours to seize the quarry by the flanks and tear out the entrails. According to Hodgson the _buansu_, as it is called in Nepal, runs in a long, lobbing canter, unapt at the double, and considers it inferior in speed to the jackal and fox. It hunts chiefly by day. Six or eight, or more, unite to hunt down their victim, maintaining the chase more by power of smell than by the eye, and usually overcome by force and perseverance, though occasionally mixing stratagem with direct violence. He asserts that in hunting they bark like hounds, but their barking is in such a voice as no language can express. "Hawkeye," however, states that the wild dog does not throw his tongue when in chase; he has heard them make a kind of tremulous whimper. The stories of their attacking and killing tigers must be received with caution, though it is certain they will harass both tigers and leopards. I wrote some time back, in 'Seonee': "The natives in all parts of India declare that even tigers are attacked by them; and we once heard a very circumstantial account given of a fight, which took place near the station of Seonee, between a tiger and a pack of these dogs, in which the latter were victors. They followed him about cautiously, avoiding too close a contact, and worried him for three successive days--a statement which should be received with caution. We have, however, heard of them annoying a tiger to such an extent as to make him surrender to them the prey which he had killed for himself." I agree with Jerdon in disbelieving the native superstition that the wild dog sheds a pungent secretion on his tail, and whisks it in the eyes of the animals it attacks, or covers the leaves of the bushes through which the victim graze, and then takes advantage of the temporary blindness thus caused; but it is a curious fact that the idea is prevalent in all parts of India, north and south, and has been accepted by many writers on Indian sports. The wild dog dwells and breeds in holes and caves in rocks. The breeding season is from January to March, and about six whelps are born at a time. The mammae are more numerous than in any other canine--from twelve to fourteen. Jerdon notices that Mr. Wilson at Simla discovered a breeding-place in holes under some rocks, where evidently several females were breeding together. At such times they endeavour to hunt their game towards their den, and kill it as near to it as possible. _GENUS VULPES_. The foxes form a distinct group of the Canidae; their bodies are long, with short legs, the muzzle more lengthened in comparison and much sharper, and the pupil of the eye contracts vertically instead of circularly; the tail is very bushy, with a gland at the base secreting a strong odorous substance. The female has six mammae. There are two types in India--the desert fox or fox of the plains, _Cynalopex_ of Hamilton Smith; and the hill fox, which approximates to the European species. The former has longer ears and longer and more slender limbs. NO. 250. VULPES BENGALENSIS. _The Indian Fox_ (_Jerdon's No. 138_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Lomri_, _Lokri_, _Lokeria_, Hindi; _Kokri_, Mahrathi; _Khekar_ and _Khikir_ in Behar; _Khek-sial_, Bengali; _Konk_, _Kemp-nari_, _Chanaak-nari_, Canarese; _Konka-nakka_ or _Gunta-nakka_, _Poti-nara_, Telegu.--_Jerdon_. HABITAT.--Throughout India; probably Ceylon, as Kellaart mentions having heard of a fox there, but I cannot trace it, or any other, in Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--"Reddish-grey; rufous on the legs and muzzle; reddish white beneath; ears long dark brown externally; tail long bushy, with a broad black tip; muzzle very acute; chin and throat whitish."--_Jerdon_. Here is Colonel Sykes's description of it in Southern India:-- "It is a very pretty animal, but smaller than the European fox; head short; muzzle very sharp; eyes oblique; irides nut-brown; legs very slender; tail trailing on the ground, very bushy; along the back and on the forehead fawn colour, with hair having a white ring to its tip; back, neck, between the eyes, along the sides, and half way down the tail reddish-grey; each hair banded black and reddish-white; all the legs reddish outside, reddish-white inside; chin and throat dirty white; along the belly reddish-white; ears externally dark brown, and with the fur so short as to be scarcely discoverable; edges of eyelids black; muzzle red brown." The colour however varies a good deal, according to season and locality. It becomes more grey in the cold season. McMaster writes that he once killed one silvery grey, almost white. SIZE.--Head and body, 20 to 21 inches; tail, 12 to 14 inches; weight, 5-1/2 lbs. This fox is common, not only in open country, but even in cantonments and suburbs of cities. Hardly a night passes without its familiar little chattering bark in the Dalhousie Square gardens, or on the Maidan, being heard; and few passengers running up and down our railway lines, who are on the look-out for birds and animals as the train whirls along, fail to see in the early morning our little grey friend sneaking home with his brush trailing behind him. Jerdon says of the manner in which he carries this that he trails it when going slowly or hunting for food; holds it out horizontal when running; and raises it almost erect when making a sudden turn. It also, like the jackal; will eat fruit, such as melons, ber, &c., and herbs. It breeds in the spring, from February to April, and has four cubs. Jerdon says the cubs are seldom to be seen outside their earth till nearly full grown. It is much coursed with greyhounds, and gives most amusing sport, doubling constantly till it gets near an earth; but it has little or no smell, so its scent does not lie. Sir Walter Elliot wrote of it in the Madras _Journal of Literature and Science_ (vol. x. p. 102): "Its principal food is rats, land-crabs, grasshoppers, beetles, &c. On one occasion a half-devoured mango was found in the stomach. It always burrows in open plains, runs with great speed, doubling like a hare; but instead of stretching out at first like that animal, and trusting to its turns as a last resource, the fox turns more at first; and, if it can fatigue the dogs, it then goes straight away." It is easily tamed if taken young, and is very playful, but Jerdon, in repeating the assertion that tame foxes sooner or later go mad, says he has known one or two instances where they have done so; but McMaster throws doubt on this, and puts the supposed madness down to excitement at the amorous season. He gives an interesting account of a pair kept by a friend, which lived on amicable terms with his greyhounds. The owner writes: "I sometimes took them on to the parade ground, and slipped a couple of greyhounds after them. They never ran far, as when tired they lay down on their backs, and were at once recognised by the dogs. On one occasion one fox was tired before the other, and after he had made friends with the dogs he joined them in the chase after the other." NO. 251. VULPES LEUCOPUS. _The Desert Fox_ (_Jerdon's No. 139_). HABITAT.--Northern India, and also on the Western Coast about Cutch. DESCRIPTION.--"Light fulvous on the face, middle of back and upper part of tail; cheeks, sides of neck and body, inner side, and most of the fore parts of the limbs, white; shoulder and haunch, and outside of the limbs nearly to the middle joint, mixed black and white; tail darker at the base above, largely tipped with white; lower parts nigrescent; ears black posteriorly; fur soft and fine as in _V. montanus_, altogether dissimilar from that of _V. Bengalensis_. The skull with the muzzle distinctly narrower, and the lower jaw weaker. One I killed at Hissar had the upper parts fulvous, the hair black-tipped; sides paler; whole lower parts from the chin, including the inside of the arm and thigh, blackish; feet white on the inner side anteriorly, with a blackish border on the anterior limbs; legs fulvous externally; all feet white; tail always with a white tip."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 20 inches; tail, 14 inches; weight, 5-1/2 lbs. According to Mountstuart Elphinstone the backs of the foxes in Hurriana are of the same colour as the common fox, but in one part of the desert their legs and belly, up to a certain height, are black, and in another white--the one seems to have been wading up to the belly in ink, and the other in whitewash. This fox lives chiefly on the jerboa-rat (_Gerbillus Indicus_) common on sandy plains. Jerdon thinks it more speedy than the common Indian fox. NO. 252. VULPES FERRILATUS. _The Thibetan Grey Fox_. NATIVE NAME.--_Iger_, Thibetan. HABITAT.--Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Pale fulvous, with grizzled white or iron-grey sides; shorter ears than in the Indian fox. * * * * * We now come to the true foxes, with shorter legs and moderate ears. NO. 253. VULPES MONTANUS. _The Hill Fox_ (_Jerdon's No. 140_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Loh_, Kashmiri; _Lomri_, Hindi, at Simla; _Wamu_, Nepalese. HABITAT.--Throughout the Himalayas. DESCRIPTION.--Pale fulvous, with a dark brownish or deep chestnut streak down the back; sides deeper fulvous; the haunches a steely grey, mixed with yellowish hairs; tail grey and very bushy, largely tipped with white; ears deep black on outside; cheeks and jowl greyish-white; moustaches black; legs chestnut in front, paling off behind. SIZE.--Head and body, 30 inches; tail, 19 inches; weight, 14 lbs. Not at all unlike an English fox, only more variegated. The foregoing description is taken chiefly from a very fine specimen shot in the garden of the house in which I stayed at Simla; but it is subject to great variation, and is in its chief beauty in its winter dress. Several specimens which I have seen are all more or less different in colour. I have never seen a handsomer fox; the fur is extremely rich, the longer hairs exceeding two inches, and the inner fur is fine and dense. It is said to breed in April and May, the female usually having three to four cubs. NO. 254. VULPES PUSILLUS. _The Punjab Fox_ (_Jerdon's No. 141_). HABITAT.--Punjab Salt Range. DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the last, but much smaller, being about the size of the Indian fox. Jerdon suggests that it may be a variety of the last species, dwarfed by a warmer climate, but Blyth and others keep it apart. NO. 255. VULPES FLAVESCENS. _The Persian Fox_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Tulke_, at Yarkand; _Wamu_, Nepalese. HABITAT.--Eastern Turkestan, Ladakh, Persia, and, according to Gray, Indian Salt Range; Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Fulvous, darker on back, very similar to _V. montanus_, only more generally rufous and paler, with longer hair and larger teeth; face, outer side of fore-legs and base of tail pale fulvous; spot on side of face, chin, front of fore-legs, and a round spot on upper part of hind foot blackish; hairs of tail tipped black; ears externally black; tail tipped largely with white. The skull of one mentioned by Mr. Blanford had larger auditory bullae than either the European fox or _V. montanus_. NO. 256. VULPES GRIFFITHII. _The Afghanistan Fox_. This was at first reckoned by Blyth as synonymous with the last, but was afterwards separated and renamed. It is stated by Hutton to be common about Candahar, where the skins are made into _reemchas_ and _poshteens_, the price in 1845 being about six annas a skin. MARINE CARNIVORA. We disposed of the land Carnivora in the last article, and now, before proceeding to the Cetacea, I will give a slight sketch of the marine Carnivora, of which, however, no examples are to be found on the Indian coasts. The Pinnipedia or Pinnigrada are amphibious in their habits, living chiefly in the water, but resorting occasionally to the land. There are some examples of the land Carnivora which do the same--the polar bear and otter, and more especially the sea-otter, _Enhydra lutris_, which is almost exclusively aquatic, but these are all decidedly of the quadrupedal type, whereas in the amphibia we see the approach to the fish form necessary for their mode of life. The skeleton reveals the ordinary characteristics of the quadruped with somewhat distorted limbs. The bones of the forelimbs are very powerful and short, a broad scapula, short humerus and the ulna and radius are stout, parallel to each other, and the latter much broader at the base; often in old animals the two are ankylosed at the joint, which is also the case with the tibia and fibula. The hip-bones are narrow and much compressed, the femur remarkably short, the shank-bones and the bones of the feet very long. In walking on land the feet are, in the case of the _Otaria_ or eared seals placed flat on the full sole; the common seals never use their hind limbs on the shore. The dentition is essentially carnivorous, but varies considerably in the different families, and even in the _Phocidae_ themselves. The stomach is simple, but the intestines are considerably longer than in the _Felidae_, averaging about fifteen times the length of the body; the digestion is rapid. The bones are light and spongy, and the spine particularly flexible, from the amount of cartilage between the bones. They have a large venous cavity in the liver, and the lungs are capacious, the two combining to assist them in keeping under water; the blood is dark and abundant. The brain is large, and in quantity and amount of convolution exceeds that of the land Carnivores. Their hearing is acute, but their sight out of water is defective. Their external features are an elongated pisciform body, the toes joined by a membrane converting the feet into broad flippers or fins, the two hind ones being so close as to act like the caudal fin of a fish. The head is flattish and elongated, or more or less rounded, but in comparison with the body it is small. Except in the _Otaridae_ there are no perceptible ears, and in them the ear is very small. The fur is of two kinds, one long and coarse, but the other, or under fur, is beautifully soft and close, and is the ordinary sealskin of commerce. The roots of the coarse hair go deeper into the skin than those of the under fur, so the furrier takes advantage of this by thinning the skin down to the coarse roots, cutting them free, and then the hairs are easily removed, leaving the soft fur attached to the skin. The Pinnigrada are divided into three families--the _Trichechidae_, or walruses; the _Otaridae_, or sea-lions or eared seals; and the _Phocidae_, or ordinary seals. As none of these animals have been as yet observed in the Indian seas, being chiefly denizens of cold zones, I will not attempt any further description of species, having merely alluded to them _en passant_ as forming an important link in the chain of animal creation. We must now pass on to the next order, a still more aquatic one. ORDER CETACEA--THE WHALES. These curious creatures have nothing of the fish about them, save the form, and frequently the name. In other respects they are warm-blooded, viviparous mammals, destitute of hinder limbs, and with very short fore-limbs completely enclosed in skin, but having the usual number of bones, though very much shortened, forming a kind of fin. The fin on the back is horizontal, and not rayed and upright like that of a fish; the tail resembles that of a fish in form, the caudal vertebrae running through the middle of it. The immense muscular power of this tail, with its broad flanges, arises from the flesh of the body, terminating in long cords of tendon, running to the tip. The vertebral column is often ankylosed in the fore-part, but is extremely elastic, owing to the cartilaginous cushion between each bone in the latter half. Thus, whilst the fore-part is rigid, the hinder is flexible in the extreme. The brain is large and much convoluted; the heart is very large, and the blood-vessels extremely full and numerous, with extensive ramifications, which, being filled with oxygenated blood, assist in supporting life whilst submerged. The lungs are also very large. The laryngeal and nasal passages are peculiar. The following description is by Dr. Murie: "In front of the larynx of man we all know that there is an elastic lid, the epiglottis, which folds over and protects the air passage as food is swallowed. The side cartilages constitute the walls of the organ of voice and protect the vocal chords. Now, in the comparatively voiceless whale, the cartilages, including the epiglottis, form a long rigid cylindrical tube, which is thrust up the passage at the back of the palate in continuity with the blow-hole. It is there held in place by a muscular ring. With the larynx thus retained bolt upright, and the blow-hole being meanwhile compressed or closed, the cetacean is enabled to swallow food under water without the latter entering the lungs." The stomach is peculiar, being composed of several sacs or chambers with narrow passages between; the intestines are long, glandular and, according to Dr. Murie, full of little pouches. There is no gall bladder; the gullet is very narrow in some and wider in others. Some have teeth, others are without. The eyes are small; the ears deficient externally, though the interior small ear-bones of ordinary mammals are in these massive and exceedingly dense, so much so, as Murie observes, as to be frequently preserved fossil when other osseous structures are destroyed. The cetacea have been divided into the _Denticete_, or Toothed Whales, and the _Mysticete_, or Whalebone Whales. The former contains the river dolphins, the ziphoid whales, the gigantic sperm whale, the sea dolphins, and the narwhal or sea unicorn. The latter contains the baleen whales. _DENTICETE--THE TOOTHED WHALES_. None of the larger species are found on these coasts, or in the Indian Ocean, the two most interesting of which are the gigantic sperm whales (_Physeter macrocephalus_), and the curious narwhal or sea unicorn (_Monodon monoceros_). The latter is an inhabitant of the northern seas only, but the sperm abounds in warmer waters, being frequently found in the sub-tropical oceans. I have occasionally seen them in the South Atlantic, though they are said to have diminished there of late years. It is a wonder that the species does not get scarce in many localities, so great is the chase after them. During the last forty years the Americans alone have taken at the rate of 10,000 barrels of sperm oil per annum, or upwards of four million barrels since 1835. The sperm whale, though of such enormous bulk and courage, yet has enemies besides man. The thrasher and the killer whale both attack it, and sailors assert that the sword-fish and thrasher combine against it, the latter stabbing from below, whilst the former leaps on it with stunning blows. I think by sword-fish (_Xiphias_), which is also a large but not so very sanguinary a fish, they mean the saw-fish (_Pristis_), which is allied to the sharks, and which attacks the largest whales. The sword-fish has however the character of being pugnacious. The old sperms, especially males, will show fight at times, but the younger ones are easily alarmed, and on being molested rush off in various directions, each looking out for himself. The sperm whale is known from the others by the way in which it spouts, the jet being thrown up obliquely forwards, and it blows at regular intervals. Although the old "bulls" show a certain amount of ferocity at times, their savageness is considerably exaggerated by the whalers, who love to spin yarns about them. Having watched the habits of these and the baleen whales with curiosity, I tried to get as much information about them as I could, from the whalers, but, with the exception of the officers of whaling ships, there was much that was unreliable in Jack's notions about the sperm. On one occasion I was just too late to see one killed. The boats, under full sail, were towing the carcase towards the ship. I would have given a good deal to have seen the encounter. The food of the sperm consists greatly of the huge rock squid or cuttle-fish, which they swallow in large lumps. I have heard whalers assert that a wounded sperm in the death agony will vomit immense pieces of squid. In this respect it differs much from the baleen whales, which have a narrow gullet. According to Professor Flower there is no sufficient evidence of the existence of more than one species of sperm whales, but an allied species, _Physeter_ (_Euphysetes_) _simus_, is found on the Madras coast, and to this I will allude further on. FAMILY DELPHINIDAE--THE DOLPHINS OR PORPOISES. _GENUS PLATANISTA--THE RIVER DOLPHINS_. A globular head with a long, compressed and, towards the end, spoon-shaped rostrum or snout; flippers short, broad and triangular; a long body of moderate girth; no back fin, but a slight elevation which takes its place. There is a decided depression between the head and body on the region of the neck; the eye is remarkably small, so much so as to be hardly perceptible; in an adult of eight feet long the whole eye-ball is no bigger than a pea, and the orifice of the ear is like a pin-hole. The skull has peculiar features. "The apparently rounded skull behind the snout has broad, thick zygomatic arches, and above and in front of these the cheek-bones (_maxillae_) each send forwards and inwards a great roughened sheet of bone or crest, which forms a kind of open helmet. In the large hollow between these bony plates, and somewhat behind, are situated the nasal orifices, which are slightly awry" (_Murie_).[19] Professor Flower's notice of the skull ('Osteology of the Mammalia') is thus worded: "The orbit is extremely small, the temporal fossa large, and the zygomatic processes of the squamosal are greatly developed. From the outer edge of the ascending plates of the maxillae, which lie over the frontals, great crests of bone, smooth externally, but reticulated and laminated on their inner surface, rise upwards, and, curving inwards, nearly meet in the middle line above the upper part of the face." [Footnote 19: See Appendix B for illustration.] The dentition is also curious, the upper and lower jaws being provided with a number of teeth, pointed and conical in front, and smaller and more flattened behind. They vary in number. In an example quoted by Dr. Murie the total was 117, viz., 27--28/30--32, but in a specimen examined by Dr. Anderson, who has most exhaustively described these animals, the total number of teeth amounted to 128, i.e. 33--32/32--31. (See Appendix B, p. 525.) The cervical vertebrae are movable, and not ankylosed, as in many of the cetacea; the caecum is small; the blow-hole is a narrow slit, not transverse as in other whales, but longitudinal. I have somewhat gone out of order in Jerdon's numbering in bringing in this genus here instead of letting it follow Delphinus, as he has done. These river Dolphins naturally come after the extinct Phocodontia or seal-toothed whales, and bear considerable resemblance in the dentition to the extinct genus Squalodon. NO. 257. PLATANISTA GANGETICA. _The Gangetic Porpoise_ (_Jerdon's Nos. 144 and 145_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Soonse_, _Soosoo_, _Soosa_, Hindi; _Susak_, _Shishuk_, Bengali; _Sisumar_, Sanscrit; _Bulhan_ or _Sunsar_, on the Indus; _Hihoo_, _Siho_; Assamese; _Huhh_ in Cachar and Sylhet. HABITAT.--In the larger rivers connected with the Ganges nearly up to the hills; also in the Brahmaputra and in the Indus, but in fresh water; only it does not go out to sea. [Illustration: _Platanista Gangetica_.] DESCRIPTION.--"A long compressed snout with a formidable array of teeth; a vaulted compressed forehead; longitudinal blow-hole; scarcely perceptible eye; distinct neck; broad and abruptly truncated pectoral fins, and small dorsal fin; and the male, a smaller but heavier-built animal than the female, with a shorter snout" (_Anderson_). The colour is from a dark lead to a sooty black; according to Jerdon "when old with some lighter spots here and there; shining pearl-grey when dry." SIZE.--From six to eight feet. This animal, though not often captured, at all events in the vicinity of Calcutta, is familiar to most people who have travelled on the larger Indian rivers. It is common enough in the Hooghly. I have frequently observed it in the river abreast of the Fort whilst we were slowly driving down the Course. I am largely indebted to Dr. Anderson for information concerning it, for he has not only most carefully watched the habits of this curious animal, but has most exhaustively described its anatomy in his 'Anatomical and Zoological Researches.' It is found in the Hooghly, chiefly in the cold weather, migrating during the hot and rainy season; at least so it was supposed, and Dr. Cantor conjectured that at such times it visited the sea, but this has been proved to be not the case. The _soosoo_ never leaves fresh water; and it is in the river during the rains, for fishermen catch it in their nets, but it is hardly ever seen at that time. It rises so as to expose the blow-hole only, and the rush of the swollen waters prevents the peculiar sound of respiration being heard. But in the cold weather, when the river is calm, the ear is attracted at once by the hissing puff of expiration, and the animal may be seen to bound almost out of the water. Dr. Anderson had one alive in captivity for ten days, and carefully watched its respirations. "The blow-hole opened whenever it reached the surface of the water. The characteristic expiratory sound was produced, and so rapid was the inspiration that the blow-hole seemed to close immediately after the expiratory act." He states that "the respirations were tolerably frequent, occurring at intervals of about one-half or three-quarters of a minute, and the whole act did not take more than a few seconds for its fulfilment." But it is probable that in a free state and in perfect health the animal remains longer under water. It has certainly been longer on several occasions when I have watched for the reappearance of one in the river. The food of the Gangetic dolphin consists chiefly of fish and crustacea; occasionally grains of rice and remains of insects are found in the stomach, but these are doubtless, as Dr. Anderson conjectures, in the fish swallowed by the dolphin. The period of gestation is said to be eight to nine months, and usually only one at a time is born, between April and July. The young are sometimes caught with their mothers, and are said to cling by holding on by the mouth to the base of the parent's pectoral fins. "The flesh and blubber are occasionally eaten by many of the low caste Hindus of India, such as the Gurhwals, the Domes of Jessore and Dacca districts, the Harrees, Bourees, Bunos, Bunpurs, Tekas, Tollahas, the Domes of Burdwan and Bhagulpore, who compare it to venison; also by the Teewars and Machooas of Patna, the Mussahars of Shahabad, the Gourhs and Teers of Tirhoot, and the Mullahs of Sarun. In the North-west Provinces about Allahabad, the Chumars, Passees, Kooras, Khewuts or Mullahs, have rather a high estimate of the flesh, which they assert resembles turtle. The Koonths of Benares, Phunkeahs, Natehmurrahs, and Buahoas of Moradabad, and also such gipsy tribes as the Sainsees, Kunjars and Hubbossahs, in the neighbourhood of Meerut, do not despise it. In the Punjab we find the Choorahs, Dhapels, Sainsees, Budous, and Burars eating the flesh; and in Sind the Kehuls. The Moras, a tribe of Mahomedan boatmen who lead a wandering life on the streams in the Punjab and in Sind, subsist on the dolphin when by good chance they catch one; this is also the case with the Cacharies and the Nagas of Assam. The Sansee women on the Indus eat the flesh under the idea that it makes them prolific. All along the Ganges, Brahmahputra, and Indus, the oil is universally considered as of great value as an embrocation in rheumatism and for giving much strength when rubbed on the back and loins. But many other animal oils, such as those of various species of turtle, the crocodile, and the pelican, have a similar reputation. It is said to be of a very penetrating nature, and, owing to this property, it is highly prized for preserving leather, such as harness, &c. The illuminating powers of this oil are said to be very high." (Anderson's 'Anatomical and Zoological Researches.') Jerdon gives, on the authority of Blyth, another species, _Platanista Indi_, or the Indus porpoise, but Dr. Anderson has conclusively proved that this is identical with the Gangetic dolphin. The dentition of the _soosoo_ is most curious. The perfect tooth in the young animal is sharp and pointed, but as the creature advances in age the fangs get broader, and the point wears down, till in old age the crown is so worn as to leave but a bony lump in its place. _GENUS ORCELLA--THE ROUND-HEADED RIVER DOLPHINS_. The generic characteristics of these dolphins are, according to Dr. Anderson, as follows: "Head globular; dorsal fin low, situated behind the middle of the body; pectoral fins oval, about one-sixth the length of the animal; teeth conical, large, and fewer in the lower than in the upper jaw, thirteen to seventeen teeth in the upper and twelve to fourteen teeth in the lower jaw; skull beaked; beak broad at the base, anteriorly pointed; premaxillary not much laterally dilated, bearing one tooth; vertebrae sixty-two to sixty-three; first two cervical vertebrae ankylosed; lumbar transverse process moderately long; vertebrae ribs twelve to thirteen, with one or two free ribs; pelvic bones opposite thirty-fifth and thirty-sixth vertebrae." These are the dolphins which were procured by Mr. Blyth in the Hooghly, and were supposed by him to be the young of the ca'ing whale (_Globicephalus_), which idea has also been adopted by Jerdon; but it has been since proved that the skeletons prepared from these supposed young whales are those of adults fully matured, and not of young animals, which have certain resemblances to _Globicephalus_ as well as to the killer whales, _Orca_, from which the generic name has been derived, but yet was undoubtedly distinct. The killer whales have a very high dorsal fin in the middle of the back, with very large pectoral flippers as broad as long; in _Orcella_ the back fin is low and behind the middle of the body, and the pectoral fin is only half as broad as long. In the ca'ing whale the back fin is more towards the shoulders, and the flippers are long and narrow; the genus _Orcella_ in fact seems to be intermediate between the dolphin and the ca'ing whale, combining the head of _Globicephalus_ with the body of _Delphinus_. Dr. Anderson, however, points out further differences than the external ones I have above alluded to. _Orca_, he says, is distinguished by a "more powerfully built skeleton, with considerably fewer vertebrae, there being only a maximum of fifty-three in it to a maximum of sixty-three in _Orcella_." In _Orca_ generally four or five cervical vertebrae are ankylosed as in the cachelots, but in the two species of _Orcella_ only the atlas and axis are joined. "In the killers and ca'ing whales the ribs are transferred to the transverse processes at the seventh dorsal, whilst in _Orcella_ the transference does not take place until the eighth." The skull resembles that of _Orca_ in the breadth of the upper jaw being produced by the maxillaries, whereas in _Globicephalus_ this effect is caused by the premaxillaries. The teeth resemble the killer's. As I have said so much about the killer whale, I may digress a little to explain what it is, though it is not a denizen of the Indian seas. It is to the Cetacea what the shark is to fishes--a voracious tyrant with a capacious mouth, armed with formidable teeth. It hesitates not to attack the largest sperm and Greenland whales, and the smaller whales, porpoises and seals will spring out of water and strand themselves on shore in terror at its approach. It ranges from twenty to thirty feet in length, and is of so gluttonous a character that in one recorded case a killer had been found choked in the attempt to swallow a _fifteenth_ seal, the other fourteen, with thirteen porpoises, being found in its stomach! According to Scammon three or four of them do not hesitate to grapple with the largest baleen whale; and, as described by Dr. Murie, "the latter often, paralysed through fear, lie helpless and at their mercy. The killers, like a pack of hounds, cluster about the animal's head, breach over it, seize it by the lips, and haul the bleeding monster underwater; and, should the victim open its mouth, they eat its tongue." In one instance he relates that a Californian grey whale and the young one were assaulted; the _Orcas_ killed the latter, and sprang on the mother, tearing away large pieces of flesh, which they greedily devoured. "These brutes have been known to attack a white-painted herring boat, mistaking it for a beluga; and it is stated that occasionally they will boldly lay siege to whales killed by the whalers, almost dragging them perforce under water. Near some of the Pacific sealing grounds they continually swim about, and swoop off the unwary young; even the large male sea-lions hastily retreat ashore and give these monsters a wide berth. The walrus also, with his powerful tusks, cannot keep the killers at bay, especially if young morses are in the herd. The cubs on such occasions will mount upon the mother's back for refuge, clinging for dear life, but the _Orca_, diving, comes suddenly up with a spiteful thud, and the cub, losing its balance, falls into the water, when in an instant it is seized by the remorseless whales." The speed of the killer whale is immense, as may be supposed when it can overtake the swift dolphins, which it catches and swallows alive. It has also been seen chasing salmon up the mouths of rivers. The genus _Orcella_ seems to come in between the sea and river dolphins, although _Orcella fluminalis_ of Dr. Anderson is a purely fluviatile animal, which apparently never goes out to sea. NO. 258. ORCELLA BREVIROSTRIS. _The Short-nosed Round-headed River Dolphin_. HABITAT.--The estuaries of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. DESCRIPTION.--"The head is convex from the blow-hole to the upper lip, but its sides immediately below the angle of the mouth are somewhat anteriorly convergent, but rounded; the gape posteriorly has a long upward curve; the eye, which is well developed, is near the angle at the gape, and in the adult is placed about one inch above it, with a slightly downward slope; the ear is nearly on the same level as the angle of the mouth, but is extremely small, crescentic, and not measuring more than 0.12 inch in diameter. The posterior margin of the blow-hole is immediately behind the anterior angle of the eye; the blow-hole is crescentic and unsymmetrical, being more to the left than to the right side; there are two slight eminences about one inch behind the blow-hole; the construction of the neck occurs below the ear and slightly behind it" (Anderson's 'Anatomical and Zoological Researches,' p. 370). The other characteristics are triangular flippers half as broad as long. The back fin rises behind the centre of the back; it is comparatively small, falcate, curved over the top to a blunt point, and concave behind. The line of the back is sharp from this fin down to the tail. The ventral line is the same for some inches behind the anus. The colour is dark slaty-blue above, almost black, a little paler below, without any streaks or marks, such as in _O. fluminalis_ and Risso's grampus. SIZE.--From snout to caudal notch, about 7 feet. I cannot find much on record concerning the habits of this dolphin, and my own acquaintance with it is too limited for me to afford much original information. NO. 259. ORCELLA FLUMINALIS (_Anderson_). _The Fresh-water Round-headed Dolphin_. HABITAT.--The Irrawaddy river; Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--This differs from the last in a "rather smaller, lower, and more falcate dorsal fin, its more pointed and less anteriorly bulging head, and rather shorter and broader pectoral fins" (_Anderson_). The colour is a pale bluish above, and white underneath, with numerous streaks, as in Risso's grampus. SIZE.--From 7 to 7-1/2 feet from snout to fork of tail. Dr. Anderson, who has fully described this species, says that he has "never observed it in tidal waters, so that it is even more strictly fluviatile than the Gangetic dolphin. From a little below Prome to as far up as Bhamo, which is about 550 miles, as the crow flies, from the sea, these animals abound. It is asserted by the Shans of Upper Burmah that these dolphins are not to be found beyond a point thirty miles above Bhamo, where the course of the river is interrupted by rocks, and which they style _Labine_ or Dolphin Point, from the circumstance that, according to them, it is the residence of certain _Nats_, who there impose so heavy a toll on dolphins as to deter them from proceeding upwards." This dolphin is somewhat like its marine cousins, being fond of gambolling round the river steamers. Solitary ones are seldom met with, usually two or three being together. When they rise to breathe the blow-hole is first seen; then, after respiration, the head goes down, and the back as far as the dorsal fin is seen, but rarely the tail flippers. They rise to breathe every 70 to 150 seconds, and the respiratory act is so rapid that it requires a very expert marksman to take aim and fire before the animal disappears. Dr. Anderson says: "I have observed some of them disporting themselves in a way that has never yet been recorded of _Cetacea_, as far as I am aware. They swam with a rolling motion near the surface, with their heads half out of the water, and every now and then nearly fully exposed, when they ejected great volumes of water out of their mouths--generally straight before them; but sometimes nearly vertically. The sight of this curious habit at once recalled to me an incident in my voyage up the river, when I had been quite baffled to explain an exactly similar appearance seen at a distance, so that this remarkable habit would appear to be not uncommonly manifested. On one occasion I noticed an individual standing upright in the water, so much so that one-half of its pectoral fins was exposed, producing the appearance against the background as if the animal was supported on its flippers. It suddenly disappeared, and again, a little in advance of its former position, it bobbed up in the same attitude, and this it frequently repeated. The Shan boatmen who were with me seemed to connect these curious movements with the season--spring--in which the dolphins breed." A similar thing has been noticed in the case of marine dolphins off the coast of Ceylon by Mr. E. W. H. Holdsworth, whose observations confirm the opinion of the Shan boatmen. (See 'P. Z. S.' 1872, p. 586.) "The food of the Irrawady dolphin is apparently exclusively fish. The fishermen believe that the dolphin purposely draws fish to their nets, and each fishing village has its particular guardian dolphin, which receives a name common to all the fellows of his school, and it is this supposition that makes it so difficult to obtain specimens of this cetacean. Colonel Sladen has told me that suits are not unfrequently brought into the native courts to recover a share in the capture of fish in which a plaintiff's dolphin has been held to have filled the nets of a rival fisherman" (_Anderson_). This reminds me that in the surveying voyage of the _Herald_, as related by Mr. H. Lee, the natives of Moreton Bay entreated the seamen not to shoot their tame porpoises, which helped them in their fishing. _GENUS DELPHINUS--THE MARINE DOLPHINS_. These are characterised by a convex forehead, with a protruding muzzle which forms a sort of beak; they have teeth in both jaws, numerous and conical, broad and high cranium, nasal passages vertical, no caecum. They are gregarious in habit, carnivorous and extremely swift, but they must not be confounded with the dolphin of sailors, which is a true fish (_Coryphaena hipparis_) of great velocity and brilliant colours, which change like rainbow tints when the fish is dying. I have several times in vain tried to catch the fleeting shades with both oil and water-colours, but without success; for within a few minutes they change from the most vivid of greens and blues to a pale silvery grey. The true dolphin, of which we are treating, is the dolphin of the ancients, represented in all the old pictures and sculptures. They have a medium dorsal fin, and the pectoral flippers are about two-thirds longer than the breadth. [Illustration: 1. Gangetic Dolphin--_Platanista Gangetica_. 2. Round-headed River Dolphin--_Orcella brevirostris_. 3. Gadamu Dolphin--_Delphinus Gadamu_. 4. Freckled Dolphin--_Delphinus lentiginosus_. 5. Black Dolphin--_Delphinus pomeegra_.] NO. 260. DELPHINUS PERNIGER. _The Black Dolphin_ (_Jerdon's No. 142_). HABITAT.--Bay of Bengal. DESCRIPTION.--"Twenty-six teeth on each side above and below, obtuse, slightly curved inwards; of a uniform shining black above, beneath blackish."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Total length, 5 feet 4 inches. This species was taken in the Bay of Bengal and sent to the Asiatic Society's Museum by Sir Walter Elliot, but it does not appear to be mentioned by Professor Owen in his notice of the Indian Cetacea collected by Sir Walter Elliot. NO. 261. DELPHINUS PLUMBEUS. _The Lead-coloured Dolphin_ (_Jerdon's No. 143_). HABITAT.--Malabar coast. DESCRIPTION.--Thirty-six teeth in each side in the upper jaw and thirty-two in the lower jaw; of a uniform leaden colour, with the lower jaw white. SIZE.--About 8 feet. Whether this be the same as or a different species to the next I am unable to say, as the description is meagre, and the number of teeth vary so much in the same species that no definite rule can be laid down on them. * * * * * The following are the species named by Professor Owen and collected by Sir Walter Elliot. NO. 262. DELPHINUS GADAMU. NATIVE NAME.--_Gadamu_. HABITAT.--Madras coast. DESCRIPTION.-Body fusiform, gaining its greatest diameter at the fore-part of the dorsal fin, decreasing forward to the head by straight converging lines, and with a gentle convex curve to the eyes and blow-hole; the forehead descends with a bold convex curve; the sides of the head converge from the eyes to the base of the snout, which is divided from the forehead by a transverse groove extending almost horizontally to the angles of the mouth, and it equals in length the distance from the base to the eyes, which is five inches and a-half; the lower jaw projects a little beyond the upper; the blow-hole is crescentic, in a line with the eyes, exactly in the middle of the head, with the horns of the crescent pointing towards the snout; the pectoral and dorsal fins are falcate and about equal in size; the colour is a dark plumbeous grey, almost black upon the fins, especially at their fore-part; the body below being of a pinkish ashy-grey, with a few small irregular patches of light plumbeous grey. The dentition varies from 24--24/24--24 = 96, to 23--23/27--28 = 101, and 27--27/27--27 = 108. SIZE.--About seven feet from snout to fork of tail; girth about 3 feet 9 inches. NO. 263. DELPHINUS LENTIGINOSUS. _The Freckled Dolphin_. NATIVE NAME.--_Bolla Gadimi_, Telegu. HABITAT.--Madras coast. DESCRIPTION.--Body fusiform, as in the last, but with smaller pectoral and dorsal but larger caudal fin; the back is straighter and not so much rounded on the shoulders, and the colour is bluish-cinerous or slaty, freckled with small irregular spots of brown or plumbeous, and longitudinal streaks of the same flecked with white; the under parts a shade lighter than rest of the body. The snout is six inches in length. Dentition: 32--32/32--33 = 129. SIZE.--Seven to eight feet; girth four feet. NO. 264. DELPHINUS MACULIVENTER. _Spot-bellied Dolphin_. NATIVE NAME.--_Suvva_. HABITAT.--Madras coast. DESCRIPTION.--Forehead more convex than even _D. gadamu_, and head proportionately larger and body deeper. A deep shining plumbeous black on the upper part, becoming paler near the belly, which from the underpart of the jaw to the perineum is ashy-grey, with irregular spots and blotches. Dentition: 27--27/30--30 = 114. SIZE.--About seven feet. NO. 265. DELPHINUS FUSIFORMIS. _The Spindle-shaped Dolphin_. HABITAT.--Madras coast. DESCRIPTION.--More slender in proportion to its length; a less elevated and less convex forehead than the last species; a proportionally thicker, broader, and more obtusely terminated snout; a deeper mandible or under jaw especially posteriorly, and smaller dorsal and pectoral fins, especially the latter. The greatest girth is in middle or fore-part of the dorsal fin, from which the body tapers to both ends, presenting the true spindle form. Colour plumbeous, lighter below, darkest on the fins and snout. Dentition: 22--22/21--21 = 86 teeth. SIZE.--About six feet. NO. 266. DELPHINUS POMEEGRA. _The Black or Pomeegra Dolphin_. NATIVE NAME.--_Pomeegra_. HABITAT.--Madras coast. DESCRIPTION.--More slender than any of the foregoing species; longish snout, with 173 teeth, viz. 41--41/45--46. It is well to note the irregularity here, not only an odd number, but the lower jaw has the greater number, whereas it is generally the other way. Colour almost black, lighter beneath. Professor Owen's description is not so full as in other cases, but from the illustration it seems that the flukes of the caudal fin are longer, and the posterior edge of the dorsal straighter than in the others. NO. 267. DELPHINUS LONGIROSTRIS. _The Long-snouted Dolphin_. HABITAT.--Indian Ocean; coast of Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the last, but with a longer and more slender snout. NO. 268. DELPHINUS VELOX. This is also given by Dr. Kellaart as a species found on the coast of Ceylon. Sir Walter Elliot mentions another species of dolphin, of which he had lost the drawing, about thirty-two inches long, of a uniform black colour, small mouth, and no dorsal fin, called by the Tamil fishermen _Molagan_. _GENUS PHOCAENA--THE PORPOISES_. No beak or rostrum; snout short and convex; numerous teeth in both jaws. Kellaart testifies to the existence of a true porpoise on the coasts of Ceylon--which he identifies with _Phocaena communis_--of a blackish colour above and whitish beneath. _GENUS GLOBICEPHALUS--THE CA'ING OR PILOT WHALE_. Head globular in front; teeth few in number; the dorsal fin is high, situated nearer to the head than to the tail; the flippers very long and narrow; the fingers possessing an unusually large number of bones. NO. 269. GLOBICEPHALUS INDICUS. _The Indian Ca'ing Whale_ (_Jerdon's No. 146_). HABITAT.--Bay of Bengal. DESCRIPTION.--Body cylindrical, tapering to the tail; dorsal fin high, falcate, and placed about the middle of the body proper, excluding the tail portion; the forehead with a prominent boss over the snout, which is short; pectoral fins long and narrow; colour uniform leaden black, paler beneath. SIZE.--Fourteen feet, flippers 2 feet; dorsal fin, 2-1/4 feet long, 11 inches high; tail flukes, 3 feet broad. Blyth's specimens were procured in the Salt Lakes near Calcutta. It was for the young of this that he mistook _Orcella brevirostris_. PHYSETERIDAE--THE CACHELOTS OR SPERM WHALES. _GENUS EUPHYSETES_. NO. 270. PHYSETER _or_ EUPHYSETES SIMUS. _The Snub-nosed Cachelot_. NATIVE NAME.--_Wonga_, Telugu. HABITAT.--Bay of Bengal. DESCRIPTION.--The general form of this animal resembles the porpoise, but the position of the mouth at once distinguishes it. It is small and situated, like that of the shark, considerably under the blunt rostrum, so much so as to lead one to conjecture whether or not it turns on its back in seizing its prey, as do the sharks. The blow hole is crescentic, but eccentrically placed to the left of the middle line of the head, and the horns of the crescent are turned diagonally backwards--that is to say, the lower limb points to the back whilst the upper one touches the middle line and points across; the eye is small; the pectoral fins are triangular, about one foot in length and four and a-half inches broad in the male, and four inches in the female; the dorsal fin is sub-falcate, standing about a foot high, and is nine to ten inches broad at the base, the male being the broader; the colour is a shining black above, paler and pinkish below. Dentition: 1--1/9--9 = 20. SIZE.--Six to seven feet. The peculiarity of this cetacean is the preponderance of the cranial over the rostral part, more so, as Professor Owen remarks, than in any other species. The asymmetry of the bones too is remarkable, although this is characteristic of all the catodon whales, especially as regards the bones of the anterior narial passages, the left of which is very much larger than the right. This is also the case in the large sperm whale, but in _Euphysetes_ the disproportion is still greater. In a notice on a New Zealand species (_E. Pottsii_), by Dr. Julius Haast, he gives the difference as fifteen times the size of the right aperture; the mouth is also peculiar from its position and small size, being very much overshot by the snout. It may, as Dr. Haast supposes, be a ground feeder, existing on the smaller hydroid zoophytes, otherwise it must, I think, turn on its side in seizing its prey. MYSTICETE--WHALEBONE OR BALEEN WHALES. _GENUS BALAENA--THE RIGHT WHALES_. They are distinguished from the last group by their enormous heads, with more symmetrical skulls, the facial portion of which is greatly in excess of the cranial. The bones of the lower jaw are not united at the symphysis, but are held together by strong fibrous bands; the two rami are very much rounded and arched outwards; there are no teeth. The maxillary and premaxillary bones are much produced, forming a rostrum tapering, narrow, compressed and much arched in the right whales. From this depends the mass of whalebone, which grows from a fleshy substance "similar," as is aptly described by Dr. Murie, "to the roots of our finger-nails. It grows continuously from the roots like the latter, and in many respects corresponds, save that the free end is always fringed. Baleen, therefore, though varying from a few inches to a number of feet long, in fact approximates to a series of, so to say, mouth nail-plates, which laminae have a somewhat transverse position to the cavity of the mouth, and thus their inner split edges and lower free ends cause the mouth to appear as a great hairy archway, shallower in front and deeper behind" (Cassell's Natural History). The object of this vast amount of whalebone is to strain from the huge gulps of water the mollusca, &c., on which this animal feeds. The tongue of these whales is very large, filling up the space between the lower jaws. The gullet is small in comparison. The nasal aperture differs from the _Denticete_ in being symmetrical, that is, having the double aperture, and in being directed forwards as in most mammals, instead of upwards and backwards as in the dolphins. The whale produces generally one at a birth, which it suckles for some length of time. The mammae are pudendal. The right whales have no fin on the back; those that have form a separate genus, Balaenoptera, i.e. fin-whales. They are the most valuable of the cetacea, except perhaps the cachelot or sperm whale, as producing the greatest amount of oil and whalebone. Of the various species the most sought after is the Greenland or right whale (_Balaena mysticetus_), which ordinarily attains a length of fifty to sixty feet. An average whale between forty and fifty feet in length will yield from sixty to eighty barrels of oil and a thousand pounds of baleen. [Illustration: Skull of Baleen Whale. Br, brain cavity; J J*, upper and lower jawbones; the arrows indicate narial passages; S, spout-hole; W, whalebone; _t_, tongue in dotted line; _n_, nerve aperture in lower jaw; _bo_, bone sawed through.] Formerly all whaling vessels were sailers, but now powerful steamships are used, and the harpoon often gives way to the harpoon gun. A whale, when struck, will sometimes run out a mile of line before it comes up again, which is generally in about half an hour. The whalers judge as best they can, from the position of the line, in which direction he will rise, and get as near as possible so as to use the lance or drive in another harpoon. When killed, the animal is towed to the vessel and fastened on the port side, belly uppermost, and head towards the stern; it is then stripped of its blubber, the body being canted by tackles till all parts are cleared. The baleen is then cut out, and the carcase abandoned to the sharks, killer whales, and sea birds. The baleen whales are not found in the intertropical seas. Of the known species there are the Greenland whale (_B. mysticetus_), the Biscay whale (_B. Biscayensis_), the Japan whale (_B. Japonica_), the Cape whale (_B. australis_), and the South Pacific whale (_B. antipodarum_). _GENUS BALAENOPTERA--FINBACK WHALES OR RORQUALS_. Are distinguished by their longer and narrower bodies, smaller heads, being one-fourth instead of one-third the length of the body, smaller mouths, shorter baleen, plaited throats, and smaller flippers; they have a dorsal fin behind the middle of the back, and the root of the tail is compressed laterally. They also present certain osteological differences from the right whales; the latter have the whole of the seven cervical vertebrae anchylosed, that is to say generally, for sometimes the seventh is free. In the finbacks the cervical vertebrae are, as a rule, all distinct and free, although occasionally anchylosis may take place between two or more of them. The sternum of the _Balaena_ consists of a broad, flattened, heart-shaped or oval presternum. "In the fin whales (_Balaenoptera_) it is transversely oval or trilobate, with a projecting backward xiphoid process" (_Professor Flower_). The ulna and radius in the rorquals are also comparatively longer than in the baleen whales. In the skull, the supraorbital processes of the frontals are broader in the rorquals than in others, and the olfactory fossa is less elongated. They are more muscular and active animals than the right whales, and have a less amount of blubber and much shorter whalebone, consequently are not so much sought after by whalers, as the risk in attacking them is not compensated for by the commercial results. Many of them grow to enormous size, far exceeding any of the baleen whales. The common rorqual, razorback, or pike-whale of the English coasts (_B. musculus_) attains a length of seventy feet; it is black above and pure white below. The sulphur-bottom whale (_B. sulfureus_) is known by its yellowish belly, and with Sibbald's whale (_B. Sibbaldii_) grows to a length of one hundred feet, to which size our Indian species also approaches. NO. 271. BALAENOPTERA INDICA. _The Indian Rorqual_ (_Jerdon's No. 147_). HABITAT.--The Indian Ocean. [Illustration: Rorqual.] DESCRIPTION.--External characteristics those of the genus, but from Mr. Blyth's observations the lower jaw of this species is more slender in proportion to its size than that of any other rorqual or even right whale. SIZE.--Up to 90 and possibly 100 feet. There is a most interesting article on the great rorqual of the Indian Ocean by Mr. Blyth in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society' for 1859, p. 481. He notices that the existence of great whales was known to and recorded by the ancients. Nearchus, the commander of Alexander's fleet, which sailed from the Indus to the Persian Gulf in B.C. 327, mentions having met with them, and that on the coast of Mekran the people constructed houses of the bones of stranded whales. In modern times an occasional one gets on shore, as was the case with one at Chittagong in 1842, another on the Arakan coast in 1851. In 1858 one of 90 feet was stranded at Quilon on the west coast, as reported by the Rev. H. Baker of Aleppi, who also mentions that one, said to be 100 feet long, was cast ashore some years previously. He writes to Mr. Blyth: "Whales are very common on the coast. American ships, and occasionally a Swedish one, call at Cochin for stores during their cruises for them; but no English whalers ever come here that I have heard of." I wonder at any whaling vessel coming out of their way after this species, for I have always heard from whalers that the finback is not worth hunting. It is possible that in cruising after sperms they may go a little out of their way to take a finback or two. However, to return to Blyth's remarks. Of the whale stranded on the Arakan coast a few bones were sent to the Society's Museum in Calcutta; they consisted of the two rami of the lower jaw, measuring 20 feet 10 inches, a right rib, the left radius, and five vertebrae, which are now to be seen at the Indian Museum. He writes as follows on them: "The proportional length of the radius indicates the animal to have been a Balaenoptera or rorqual, while the remarkable slenderness of the lower jaw suffices to prove it a distinct species from any hitherto-described rorqual." The finback does not confine itself entirely, or even chiefly, as stated by Blyth, to a diet of _Cephalapoda_, but is a fish-eater to boot, doing great damage to shoals of such fish as cod, herrings, &c., as many as six to eight hundred fish having been found in the stomach of one. They are not particularly shy, and will sometimes follow a vessel closely for days. I read not very long ago an account in one of the Indian newspapers of a steamer running over one of these animals, and nearly cutting it in two; the agony of the poor brute as he struggled in the water, vainly trying to sound, was graphically described. A similar adventure occurred some years ago to the B.I.S.N. Company's steamer _Euphrates_, on a voyage from Kurrachee to Bombay, when about sixty miles from the latter place. The captain writes: "It appears that the animal had for about half an hour amused itself by crossing and recrossing the bow, and then at last suddenly turned and came straight for the vessel, striking us about ten feet from the stem. It struck with such force as to send a considerable quantity of spray on deck. The only other instance that has occurred here lately was in the case of the S.S. _Dalhousie_, when about twelve miles from Kurrachee; it was in September of last year, and the Bombay papers had a full account of it at the time." I am indebted to my friend Mr. M. C. Turner for this and some other interesting letters on this subject. Captain A. Stiffe, of the late Indian Navy, writes regarding the drowning of a whale by entanglement with a submarine cable, off the coast of Mekran: "The telegraph cable was broken, and a dead whale hove up to the surface, with three turns of cable round the neck of his tail, by which he was drowned. I had the three turns in my office at Kurrachee, and there they are now I dare say. I don't remember any more details. There are always shoals of whales about that part, and it is supposed a 'bight' of the cable lying off the ground got wound up like a rope round a screw." I myself was in a sailing vessel going about five or six knots, when a whale played about for a time, and then rose and spouted just under the bow, covering the forecastle with spray. The captain, who was standing by me, quite expected a shock, and exclaimed--"Look out! hold on!" SIRENIA--THE MANATEES. This group contains the _phytophagous_ or _herbivorous_ cetacea. Their teeth have flat crowns, and they live on aquatic vegetation, though, according to Cuvier, they sometimes leave the water for pasture on shore, but this has not been authenticated, and is probably a mistake. The other characteristics of the group are pectoral mammae and hairy moustaches. The anterior narial aperture in the skull opens upwards, but the orifices of the nostrils are placed at the end of the muzzle. The stomach is complex, being divided into four sacs, and they have a large caecum. The flippers are broad, and the animal uses them with some dexterity in supporting its young in the act of suckling. As at such times they frequently raise the upper part of the body out of water, they have given rise to the ancient fables regarding mermaids and sirens. There is something human-like, although repulsive, in the aspect of these creatures, especially in the erect attitude just alluded to. No wonder the ancient mariners, with their restricted knowledge and inclination to the marvellous, should have created the fabulous mermaid, half-fish and half-woman, and have peopled the rocks and seas of Ceylon with seductive sirens with imaginary flowing tresses and sweet ensnaring voices. As regards the latter it may be that the strange phenomena related by Sir Emerson Tennent, of musical sounds ascending from the bottom of the sea, and ascribed by him to certain shell-fish, gave rise to the mermaid's song. Sir Emerson's account has in itself a touch of the romantic and marvellous. He says: "On coming to the point mentioned I distinctly heard the sounds in question. They came up from the water like the gentle thrills of a musical chord, or the faint vibrations of a wineglass when its rim is rubbed by a moistened finger. It was not one sustained note, but a multitude of tiny sounds, each clear and distinct in itself, the sweetest treble mingling with the lowest bass. On applying the ear to the wood-work of the boat the vibration was greatly increased in volume." Similar sounds have been heard elsewhere in the Indian seas, and doubtless the ancients connected this mysterious music of the ocean with the animals round which they had thrown such a halo of romance. But to return to the prose of the subject. The Sirenia consists of the Manatees (_Manatus_), the Dugongs (_Halicore_), and the Stellerines (_Rhytina_); the latter is almost extinct; it used to be found in numbers in Behring Straits, but was exterminated by sailors and others, who found it very good eating. The Manatee inhabits the African and American coasts, along the west coast of the former continent, and in the bays, inlets, and rivers of tropical America, but the one with which we have to do is the dugong or halicore, of which the distribution is rather widespread, from the Red Sea and East African coasts to the west coast of Australia. The latter country possesses an organised dugong fishery, which bids fair to exterminate this harmless animal. They are prized for the excellent quality of the oil they yield, which is clear and free from objectionable smell. _GENUS HALICORE--THE DUGONG_. Have grinders of two cones laterally united. The premaxillary region is elongated and bent downwards, overlapping the very deep lower jaw, which is similarly bent down. They have ordinarily two incisors in the upper jaw, none in the lower. No canines, and molars 3--3/3--3, total fourteen teeth. The incisor tusks in the bent-down upper jaw are longer in the male, and sometimes project beyond the thick fleshy lips, but in the female they are small. The head is round, the lips thick and bristled with moustaches, the body is elongated, and the tail terminated by a crescent-shaped flapper. NO. 272. HALICORE DUGONG. _The Dugong_. (_Jerdon's No. 240_). NATIVE NAME.--_Mooda Oora_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Indian Ocean off Ceylon. [Illustration: _Halicore dugong_.] DESCRIPTION.--Body pisciform, terminated by a horizontal fin with two lobes; colour slaty brown above, sometimes bluish black, whitish below. SIZE.--From 5 to 7 feet long usually, but said to reach 10. Dr. Kellaart says that at an early age this animal has as many as 32 teeth, viz. inc. 4/8, and molars 5--5/5--5, but when adult there are only 14, as mentioned above. The molars, according to Dr. Murie, succeed each other, the fore ones dropping out, and others from behind taking their places. It feeds on fucus and other seaweeds, and the flesh is considered good eating, and not unlike veal or, some say, pork. They are lethargic in disposition, and in those countries where they have been unmolested they are so fearless of man as to allow themselves to be handled--a confidence somewhat betrayed by the natives, who on such occasions manage to abstract the fattest calves, which are considered a delicacy. ORDER RODENTIA. THE GNAWERS. This order, GLIRES of Linnaeus and his followers, is composed of animals, chiefly of small size, which differ from all others by the peculiarity of their teeth. No one, even though he be most ignorant of comparative anatomy, could mistake the rat or rabbit-like skull of a rodent for that of any other creature. The peculiar pincer-like form of the jaws, with their curved chisel-shaped teeth in front, mark the order at a glance. There is no complexity in their dentition. There are the cutters or incisors, and the grinders; and of the cutters there are never more than two in each jaw, that is to say efficient and visible teeth, for there are in some species rudimentary incisors, especially in the young, but these either disappear or take no part in work. Between the grinders and incisors are toothless gaps. The formation and growth of the teeth are peculiar; and it is strange that the gigantic elephant should be the nearest approach to these small creatures in this respect. The teeth--in most cases the grinders, but always the incisors--grow continuously from a persistent pulp, and therefore loss from attrition is kept constantly supplied by growth from behind. The incisors are planted in a socket which is the segment of a circle. These segments are not equal in both jaws. The lower one is a small segment of a large circle, the upper one is the reverse, being a larger segment of a smaller circle. The angle at which they meet is always the same. Some curious malformations are occasionally found which illustrate the growth of these teeth. Should by any chance, accident or design, one of these incisors get diverted from its proper angle and not meet with the friction which is necessary to keep it in its normal condition, it goes on growing and growing, following its natural curve till it forms a ring, or by penetrating the mouth interferes with the animal's feeding. A case is recorded by Blyth of a rat which had an eye destroyed by a tooth growing into it. Here again occurs a similarity to the elephant, whose tusks grow in the same manner, and if abnormally deflected will occasion, as in the case of one lately described to me, serious hindrance to the movement of the trunk. The incisors of rodents are composed of dentine coated in front with a layer of hard enamel, the other surfaces being without this protection, except in the case of some, amongst which are the hares and rabbits, which have a thin coating as well all over. These forms are those with rudimentary incisors, and constitute the links connecting the other mammalia with the Gnawers. The molars are much alike in structure, and can hardly be divided, as they are by some naturalists, into molars and premolars. They take the three hindmost as molars, regarding the others as premolars. Sometimes these grinders have roots, but are more commonly open at the end and grow from a permanent pulp. They are composed of tubular and convoluted portions of enamel filed up with dentine, and their worn surfaces show a variety of patterns, as in the case of the Proboscidea. These enamelled eminences are always transverse, and according to Cuvier those genera in which these eminences are simple lines, and the crown is very flat, are more exclusively frugivorous; others, in which the teeth are divided into blunt tubercles, are omnivorous; whilst some few, which have no points, more readily attack either animals, and approximate somewhat to the Carnivora. The head is small in proportion to the body, the skull being long and flat above; the nasal bones are elongated; the premaxillaries very large on account of the size of the incisor teeth, and the maxillaries are, therefore, pushed back; the zygomatic arch is well developed in most, but is in general weak; the orbit of the eye is never closed behind; the tympanic bulla is very large; the jaw is articulated in a singular manner; instead of the lateral and semi-rotary action of the Herbivora, or the vertical cutting one of the flesh-eating mammals, the rodent has a longitudinal motion given by the arrangement of the lower jaw, the condyle of which is not transverse, but parallel with the median line of the skull, and the glenoid fossa, or cavity into which it fits, and which is situated on the under side of the posterior root of the zygoma, is so open in front as to allow of a backwards and forwards sliding action. The vertebral column is remarkable for the great transverse processes directed downwards, forwards, and widening at the ends. In the hare these processes are largely developed; the metapophyses or larger projections on each side of the central spinous process are very long, projecting upwards and forwards; the anapophyses or smaller projection in rear of the above are small; and the hypapophyses or downward processes are remarkably long, single and compressed; according to Professor Flower these latter are not found in the Rodentia generally. The tail varies greatly, being in some very small indeed, whilst in others it exceeds the length of the body; the sternum or breast-bone is narrow and long, and collar-bones are to be found in most of the genera; the pelvis is long and narrow. In most cases the hind limbs are longer and more powerful than the fore-limbs; in some, as in the jerboas (_Dipus_) and the Cape jumping hare (_Pedetes caffer_), attaining as disproportionate a length as in the kangaroos, their mode of progression being the same; the tibia and fibula are anchylosed; the forelimbs in the majority of this order are short, and are used as hands in holding the food to the mouth, the radius and ulna being distinct, and capable of rotatory motion. The feet have usually five toes, but in some the hind feet have only four, and even three. In point of intelligence, the rodents do not come up to other mammals, being as a rule timid and stupid; the brain is small and remarkably free from convolution. The cerebellum is distinctly separated from and not overlapped by the hemispheres of the cerebrum; the organs of smell, sight and hearing are usually well developed; the stomach is simple or in two sacs; the intestinal canal and caecum long. The latter is wanting in one family. Rodents have been divided in various ways by different authors. Jerdon separates his into four groups, viz. "_Sciuridae_, squirrels; _Muridae_, rats; _Hystricidae_, porcupines; and _Leporidae_, hares; which indeed are considered by some to embrace the whole of the order; to which has recently been added the _Saccomyidae_, or pouched rats, whilst many systematists make separate families of the dormice, _Myoxidae_; jerboas, Dipodidae; voles, _Arvidolidae_; mole-rats, _Aspalacidae_ and _Bathyergidae_; all included in the MURIDAE; and the _Caviadae_, _Octodontidae_, and _Hydrochoeridae_, belonging to the HYSTRICIDAE" ('Mammals of India,' p. 164). However, the system that most commends itself is that of Mr. E. R. Alston, proposed in the 'Proceedings' of the Zoological Society, and founded on the original scheme of Professor Gervais, by which the order is subdivided into two on the character of the incisor teeth. Those which have never more than two incisors, coated only in front with enamel are termed SIMPLICIDENTATA, or _Simple-toothed Rodents_. The other sub-order, the genera of which have rudimentary incisors, as in the case of hares, rabbits, &c., and in which the enamel is spread more or less over all the surface, is termed DUPLICIDENTATA or _Double-toothed Rodents_, and this is the system I propose to follow. SUB-ORDER SIMPLICIDENTATA. SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS. These, as I before observed, are those of the order which never have more than two incisors in the upper jaw, and the enamel on these is restricted to the front of the tooth. They have also a well-developed bony palate, which in the Duplicidentata is imperfect, forming in fact but a narrow bridge from one jaw to the other. In the latter also the fibula, which is anchylosed to the end of the tibia, articulates with the calcaneum or heel-bone, which is not the case with the simple-toothed rodents. We now come to the subdivisions of the Simplicidentata. The order GLIRES has always been a puzzling one to naturalists, from the immense variety of forms, with their intricate affinities, and there is not much help to be gained from extinct forms, for such as have been found are mostly referable to existing families. The classification which I have adopted is, as I said before, that elaborated by Mr. E. R. Alston, F.G.S., F.Z.S., and reported in the 'Proceedings' of the Zoological Society for 1876. I said that he had founded it on Professor Gervais' scheme, but I see that the groundwork of the system was laid down in 1839 by Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, then curator of the Zoological Society, and it was afterwards, in 1848, taken up by Professor Gervais, and subsequently added to by Professor Brandt in 1855, and Lilljeborg in 1866. About ten years later Mr. Alston, working on the data supplied by the above, and also by Milne-Edwards, Gray, Gunther, Leidy, Coues, and Dr. Peters, produced a complete system of classification, which seems to be all that is to be desired. We have already divided the rodents into two sub-orders, to which, however, Mr. Alston adds a third, viz., _Hebetidentati_, or Blunt-toothed Rodents, which contains only the _Mesotherium_, a fossil form. We have now to subdivide the two. The Double-toothed Rodents are easily disposed of in two families--_Leporidae_ and _Lagomyidae_. The Simple-toothed Rodents are more numerous, and consist of about eighteen families arranged under three sections, which are _Sciuromorpha_, or Squirrel-like Rodents, _Myomorpha_ or Rat-like Rodents, and _Hystricomorpha_, or Porcupine-like Rodents. It would perhaps render it clear to the reader were I to tabulate the differences chiefly noticeable in these three sections:-- SECTION I.--SCIUROMORPHA, OR SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS. Molar dentition 4--4/4--4 or 5--5/4--4. In the latter case the foremost upper molar is small; the fibula is distinct, and never united, except in some cases where it is attached to the extremity of the tibia; the zygomatic arch is formed chiefly by the malar, which is not supported beneath by a continuation of the zygomatic process of the maxillary; collar-bones perfect; upper lip cleft; the muffle small and naked; tail cylindrical and hairy (except in _Castoridae_). Five families. SECTION II.--MYOMORPHA, OR RAT-LIKE RODENTS. Molar dentition from 3--3/3--3 to 6--6/6--6, the former being the usual number; the tibia and fibula are united for at least a third of their length. The zygomatic arch is slender, and the malar process rarely extends so far forward as in the preceding section, and is generally supported below by a continuation of the maxillary zygomatic process; collar bones are perfect (except in _Lophiomyidae_); upper lip and muffle as in the last; tail cylindrical, sometimes hairy, but commonly covered with scales arranged in rings. Seven families. SECTION III.--HYSTRICOMORPHA, OR PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS. With one exception (_Ctenodactylus_) have four molars in each upper and lower jaw; the tibia and fibula are distinct in young and old; the zygomatic arch is stout, and the malar does not advance far forward, nor is it supported by the maxillary zygomatic process; collar-bones perfect in some; the upper lip is rarely cleft; the muffle clad with fine hair; tail hairy, sub-naked or scaly. SECTION I.--SCIUROMORPHA. Contains the following families, those that are not Indian being in italics;-- (1) _Anomaluridae_; (2) Sciuridae; (3) _Ischyromyidae_, a fossil genus; (4) _Haplodontidae_; (5) _Castoridae_. The Anomalures are African animals resembling our flying squirrels, to which they were at first thought to belong, but were separated and named by Mr. Waterhouse, the chief peculiarity being the tail, which is long and well covered with hair, though not bushy as in the squirrels, and which has, at its basal portion, a double series of projecting horny scales, which probably help it in climbing trees. There are several other peculiarities, which I need not dwell on here, which have justified its separation from the true squirrels. The flying membrane, which is quite as large as that of the flying squirrels, extends from the elbow to the heel instead of from the wrist, and it is held out by a strong cartilaginous spur starting from the elbow. Of the Sciuridae we have many examples in India, which will be noticed further on. The _Ischyromyidae_ is founded on a single North American fossil genus (_Ischyromys typus_), which is nearly allied to the Sciuridae, but also shows some affinity to the beavers. The _Haplodontidae_ is also an American family, founded on one genus, but an existing and not a fossil animal. The _Haplodon rufus_ is a small burrowing rodent, valued by the Indians both for its flesh and its skin, of which from twenty to thirty are sewn together to form a robe; the teeth are rootless, simple, and prismatic, the surface of each being surrounded by a mere border of enamel. The _Castoridae_ is the beaver family, which is also unknown in India. Unlike as this animal is externally to the squirrels, its anatomy warrants its position in the Sciuromorpha, otherwise one would feel inclined to include it in the next section. We see that of the five families, of which this section is composed, only the second has its representatives in India. SCIURIDAE--THE SQUIRRELS. This family contains the true squirrels, including the flying ones, and the marmots. The distinctive characteristics of the former are as follows: The gnawing teeth are smooth, compressed. The grinding teeth are 5--5/4--4 or 4--4/4--4; in the former case the first upper premolar is small, and sometimes deciduous; they are tubercular, at least in youth, and rooted. Skull with distinct post-orbital processes; infra-orbital opening small, usually placed in front of the maxillary zygomatic process; palate broad and flat; twelve or thirteen pairs of ribs; tail cylindrical and bushy; feet either pentadactylous or with a tubercle in place of a thumb on the fore-feet. Mostly quite arboreal. _GENUS SCIURUS_. Premolars, 2--2/1--1; molars, 3--3/3--3; gnawing teeth smooth, orange-coloured, or brown; no cheek pouches; mammae three or four pairs; first upper premolar soon lost in many cases; limbs free; form agile; tail long and very bushy. Jerdon states that "there are three well marked groups in India distinguished by size, coloration and habits," by which he means the large forest squirrels, the medium size grizzled ones, and the little striped squirrels, to which however I must add one more form, which is found out of the geographical limits assigned to his work--the _Rhinosciurus_, or long-snouted squirrel, an animal singularly like a Tupaia. The squirrels, as a whole, form a natural and well-defined group, with a remarkable uniformity of dentition and skull, but of infinite variation in colour. In fact, it is most puzzling and misleading to find so great a diversity of pelage as is exhibited by a single species. I was shown by a friend a few months ago a fine range of colours in skins of a single species from Burmah--_S. caniceps_. I cannot attempt to describe them from memory, but the diversity was so marked that I believe they would have been taken by unscientific observers for so many different species. Now in domesticated animals there is great variation in colouring, but not in the majority of wild species. What the causes are that operate in the painting of the skin of an animal no one can say, any more than one can say how particular spots are arranged on the petal of a flower or the wing of a butterfly. That specific liveries have been designed by an all-wise Creator for purposes of recognition I have no doubt, as well as for purposes of deception and protection--in the former case to keep certain breeds pure, and in the latter to protect animals from attack by enabling them better to hide themselves, as we see in the case of those birds and quadrupeds which inhabit exposed cold countries turning white in winter, and in the mottled skin of the Galeopithicus, which is hardly discernible from the rough bark of the tree to which it clings. I have hardly ever noticed such varied hues in any wild animals, although the _Viverridae_ are somewhat erratic in colouring, as in the Indian squirrels, and it is doubtful whether several recorded species are not so nearly allied as to be in fact properly but one and the same. There is much in common in at least five species of Burmese squirrels, and it is open to question whether _S. caniceps_ and _S. Blanfordii_ are not the same. Dr. Anderson writes: "I have examined a very extensive series of squirrels belonging to the various forms above described, viz., _S. pygerythrus_, _S. caniceps_, _S. Phayrei_ and _S. Blanfordii_, and of others which appears to indicate at least, if not to prove, that all of them are in some way related to each other." In another place he says: "The skull of an adult male, _S. caniceps_, which had the bright red golden colour of the back well developed, presents so strong a resemblance to the skull of _S. Blanfordii_, that it is extremely difficult to seize on any point wherein they differ." After comparison of the above with skulls of _S. griseimanus_ and _S. Phayrei_, he adds: "such facts taken in conjunction with those mentioned under _S. Blanfordii_, suggest that there is a very intimate connection between all of these forms, if they do not ultimately prove to be identical" ('Anat. and Zool. Researches,' pp. 229, 231). [Illustration: Skull of _Pteromys_ (Flying Squirrel).] Blyth also, speaking of the larger squirrels, says: "It is difficult to conceive of the whole series as other than permanent varieties of one species; and the same remark applies to the races of _Pteromys_, and at least to some of those of _Sciuropterus_, as also to various named _Sciuri_" ('Cat. Mam.,' p. 98). The large forest squirrels come first on our list. They inhabit lofty tree jungle, making their nests on the tops of the tallest trees. They are most active in their habits, and are strictly arboreal, being awkward on the ground. When kept as pets they become very tame, though some are crotchety tempered, and bite severely. NO. 273. SCIURUS INDICUS. _The Bombay Squirrel of Pennant_ (_Sciurus Malabaricus and S. Elphinstonei in Jerdon, Nos. 148 and 150_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Jangli-gilheri_, Hindi; _Shekra_, Mahrathi; _Kesannalu_, Canarese of the Halapyks. HABITAT.--The dense forests of the Western Ghats, but extending easterly as far as Midnapore and Cuttack. DESCRIPTION.--Upper surface of body dark maroon red, lower part of back and rump and upper portions of limbs and the whole of the tail black, the latter ending in a broad brownish-yellow tip; the outside of the hind-legs and half-way down the outside of the fore-legs a uniform rich maroon red; the under parts from chin to vent, inside of limbs, lower part of fore-legs, the inter-aural region and the cheeks bright orange yellow; forehead and nose reddish-brown, with white hairs interspersed; ears small and tufted; a narrow maroon line from the anterior angle of the ear extends downwards to the side of the neck, with a yellow line behind it; whiskers and bristles black. Dr. Anderson also remarks on the skull of this species that it is considerably smaller than that of _S. maximus_, and has a narrower and less concave inter-orbital space; the nasals are also broader posteriorly, and less dilated anteriorly, the upper dental line being also shorter. SIZE.--Head and body, 20 inches; tail, 15-1/4 inches. Jerdon's description of this animal is taken _verbatim_ from Sykes, who named it after the Honourable Mountstuart Elphinstone, under the impression that it was a new species, but it is apparently the same as _S. Indicus_ of Erxleben and _S. Malabaricus_ of Schinz. NO. 274. SCIURUS MAXIMUS. _The Central Indian Red Squirrel_ (_Jerdon's No. 149_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Kat-berral_, Bengali; _Karat_, Hindi; _Rasu_ and _Ratuphar_ at Monghyr, according to Hamilton; _Kondeng_ of the Coles; _Per-warsti_, Gondi; _Bet-udata_, Telegu; _Shekra_, Mahrathi. HABITAT.--Malabar coast, Central India, and, according to Dr. F. B. Hamilton, the hills about Monghyr, whence doubtless the Calcutta market is supplied. Hodgson records it from the Himalayan Terai. [Illustration: _Sciurus maximus_.] DESCRIPTION.--"The upper surface and the sides of the neck, the shoulders, and the outside of the fore-limbs, the lumbar and sacral regions, the outside of the thighs and the tail are black, the black of the hind-quarters being prolonged forwards along the mesial line towards the black of the shoulders; a large dark maroon spot on the vertex, separated from the maroon of the nape by yellowish inter-aural area, which extends downwards and forwards to the cheeks; a maroon-coloured line passes downward from the front of the ear, with a yellow area behind it. The sides of the face and muzzle are pale yellowish, the latter being flesh-coloured; the other portions of the trunk and the lower half of the tibial portion of the hind limbs are maroon. The tail is either black or maroon black, sometimes tipped with yellowish brown. The whole of the under-parts and inside of the limbs and the hands and feet are rich yellowish; the ears strongly maroon and tufted" (_Dr. Anderson_). Jerdon's description of this animal is very meagre and doubtful. SIZE.--About the same as the last. This squirrel was tolerably common in the forests of Seonee, and we had one or two in confinement. One belonging to my brother-in-law was so tame as to allow of any amount of bullying by his children, who used to pull it about as though it were a puppy or kitten, but I have known others to bite severely and resent any freedom. NO. 275. SCIURUS MACROURUS. _The Long-tailed Forest Squirrel_ (_Jerdon's No. 152_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Rookeeah_ or _Dandoleyna_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Ceylon, Southern India, i.e. Malabar, Travancore, Mysore, Neilgherries. DESCRIPTION.--"Fur of the upper parts coarse and slightly waved; above, the colour varies from maroon-black to rufous brown; hairs sometimes grizzled and tipped white or pale yellow, particularly on the croup, sides, and upper parts of limbs; crown of the head darker in most specimens than other parts; cheeks, under-parts, and lower two-thirds of limbs of a fulvous white; occiput of a deeper fulvous, sometimes yellow or ferruginous brown; an indistinct dark spot on the cheek, which is sometimes absent; two-thirds or more of the basal portion of the tail black or brown; the rest grizzled grey or fulvous. In some the hairs of the whole tail are tipped white, and in others grizzled white throughout. In the young there is very little of brown or black; the whole tail is more or less formed of grey hairs, and the terminal third is nearly white. Grey is also the prevailing colour on the posterior half of the body; toes in all black or blackish brown; ears hairy, only slightly tufted in adults."--_Kellaart_. SIZE.--Head and body, 13-1/2 inches; tail, 11 inches. This squirrel also varies greatly in colouring, and has led several naturalists astray. Kellaart, in his 'Prodromus Faunae Zeylanicae,' says he has seen them in a transition state from dark brown to grizzled grey. NO. 276. SCIURUS GIGANTEUS. _The Black Hill Squirrel_ (_Sciurus macrouroides in Jerdon, No. 151_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Shingsham_, Bhotia; _Le-hyuk_, Lepcha; _Jelarang_, Javanese; _Chingkrawah-etam_, Malay; _Leng-thet_, in Arakan; _Sheu_, in Tenasserim. HABITAT.--North-west Himalayas to Assam, the Garo hills, Sylhet, and Cachar, spreading from Northern Assam across to Yunnan, and through Arakan and Tenasserim on to the Malayan peninsula and Borneo. DESCRIPTION.--"This species has well-tufted ears; the upper surface is either wholly black or reddish-brown, without any trace of white; the tail is generally jet black, also the outside of the fore and hind limbs, and the upper surface of the feet; an elongated black spot is almost invariably found below the eye from beyond the moustache, and the eye is encircled with black. There are generally two black spots on the under surface of the chin; the under parts and the inside of the limbs vary from pale yellowish-white to a rich rufous orange; the basal portion of the hairs of the under-parts is dark brown or black, and the ventral area has frequently a dull hue where the yellow tips are sparse; the coats of these squirrels are generally sleek, glossy and deep black, and while in this condition the under surface is most brilliant, especially at its line of junction with the black, along the sides of the body and limbs, tending to form a kind of bright band. "In some the upper parts have a brownish hue, but this is not characteristic of any particular locality, as two individuals, one from Nepal and the other from Borneo, are equally brown. While the fur is of this colour it is long and coarse, and the under-parts are less brilliant. These phases are probably seasonal, and connected with the breeding period."--_Anderson_. SIZE.--Head and body, about 15 inches; tail, about 16 inches. * * * * * The next group consists of squirrels of medium size with grizzled fur, as Jerdon remarks of the two species he mentions; but with the rich fields of Burmah and Assam we can swell our list to over a dozen. It is doubtful whether one or two of the named species are not varieties of one and the same, so nearly are they allied, but this remains to be proved. NO. 277. SCIURUS LOKRIAH. _The Orange-bellied Grey Squirrel_ (_Jerdon's No. 153_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Lokriah_, Nepalese; _Zhamo_, Bhotia, _Killi_, or _Kalli-tingdong_, Lepcha (_Jerdon_). HABITAT.--Nepal, Sikim, Assam (Khasia Hills), and Burmah (Arakan). DESCRIPTION.--A deep ferruginous olive-brown, the hairs tipped with orange, soft and silky; the under-parts from chin to vent and the outside of the thighs a rich orange; the tail is shorter than that of the next species, concolorous with the body above, but the banding of the hair is coarser, the apical black band being very broad, tipped with orange or white, generally the latter, the general hue being blackish washed with orange or white. In some the general hue is orange brown with obscure annuli; the arrangement of the hair is distichous or in two rows. SIZE.--Head and body, about 8 inches; tail, 6-1/2 to 8 inches, including hair. There is some confusion between this and the next species, _S. lokroides_, and the distinctive characteristics quoted by Jerdon and others, founded on colouring alone, are not to be depended upon, for colouring varies, but there is considerable difference in the skulls of the two, _S. lokriah_ having a smaller skull, with distinct peculiarities. The inter-orbital portion of the skull is narrower anteriorly and posteriorly, and the muzzle is narrow at the base, and of nearly equal breadth throughout. The nasals are long and narrow, and reach further back than in _S. lokroides_. These points, which are brought forward by Dr. Anderson, are sufficient to indicate that they are quite distinct species. As regards colouring _S. lokriah_ has normally red thighs, but even this is absent at times. Dr. Anderson says: "It is much more richly coloured than _S. lokroides_, with no rufous even on the thighs, and with generally a tuft of pure white hair behind the ear, by which it can be recognised, as it occurs in twenty instances out of twenty-five, and even when absent the hairs in that locality have a paler colour. As this whitish tuft lies backwards, it is only seen when the ear is carefully examined." NO. 278. SCIURUS LOKROIDES. _The Hoary-bellied Grey Squirrel_ (_Jerdon's No. 154_). HABITAT.--In the lower ranges of the South-eastern Himalayas, Nepal, Sikim, Assam, Tipperah and Arakan. DESCRIPTION.--This is a most difficult species to describe. Dr. Anderson writes: "I have before me sixty-two examples of various squirrels which have been referred to _S. lokroides_, _S. Assamensis_ and _S. Blythii_ by Hodgson, M'Clelland and Tytler, also the types of _S. similis_ (Gray), which were forwarded to the British Museum as _S. lokroides_ by Hodgson. After a careful consideration of these materials, they appear to me to be referable to one species. Hodgson, who first described it, referred to it all those Himalayan squirrels slightly larger than _S. lokriah_, and which had the ventral surface either pale whitish or slightly washed with rufous, the sides also being sometimes suffused with this tinge especially on the anterior half of the thigh, which in many is bright orange red; but this colour is variable, and many squirrels have this portion of the body white, of which _S. Blythii_ is an example; and others similar to it are before me from Bhutan and Assam which do not differ from _S. lokroides_ except in the presence of this white area, which is evidently only a variation on the red area, and probably a seasonal change, as many show merely a faint rufous tinge in the inguinal region, that colour being entirely absent on the outside of the thigh. "It is, however, worthy of note that those squirrels which have a rufous tinge in the inguinal region rarely, if ever, have the outside of the thigh bright red, and that the squirrels distinguished by white on their thighs are from Bhutan, Assam, and the Garo hills. But I do not see that these latter differ in any other respect from the squirrels sent by Hodgson as specimens of _S. lokroides_, with and without red thighs. Moreover, one of Hodgson's specimens of _S. lokroides_ shows a tendency in the thigh to become white" ('Anat. and Zool. Researches,' pp. 247, 248). The difficulty in laying down precise rules for colouring is here evident, but in general I may say that the upper parts are rufescent olive brown, the hair being grizzled or banded black and yellow, commencing with greyish-black at the base, then yellow, black, yellow with a dark brown or black tip; the lower parts are rufous hoary or grey, tinged with rufous, or the latter shade may be restricted to the groin or inguinal parts. The fur is coarser and more broadly ringed than in _S. lokriah_, and the ventral surface is never tinged with orange, as in that species; the tail is concolorous with the back; the hair more coarsely annulated; there is no white tuft behind the ears, as in the last species. SIZE.--About the same as the last, or Dr. Anderson says: "In the form referable to _S. Blythii_, a white spot occurs on the inguinal region of the thigh in the position in which the rufous of the so-called red-legged squirrels is developed. The groin in some of these squirrels shows also a decided rufous tinge, while the remainder of the belly is sullied grey white. If these forms were without the white thigh-spot, they would exactly conform to the type of _S. Assamensis_. A squirrel in the British Museum, labelled _S. Tytleri_ (Verreau, 'Indes Orientales'), agrees with _S. Blythii_" ('A. and Z. Res.', p. 249). Blyth has seen a squirrel of this species renewing its coat, and assuming a variegated appearance during its transition to the breeding dress. A jet-black squirrel of the same proportion occurs in Sylhet and Cachar, which Dr. Anderson is inclined to think belongs also to this species. We may, therefore, regard the following as being the same as _S. lokroides_, viz., _S. Assamensis_, _S. Blythii_, _S. similis_, and the black one, which has apparently not been named. Jerdon states that these squirrels are mostly seen in the autumn when the chestnuts, of which they are very fond, ripen. NO. 279. SCIURUS PYGERYTHRUS. HABITAT.--Burmah (Lower Pegu, and common in the neighbourhood of Rangoon). DESCRIPTION.--Upper parts dark olive grey; basal third of the tail concolorous with the back, its latter two-thirds ringed olive-yellow and black; the tip black; feet olive grey, sometimes washed with yellowish; under surface and inside of limbs orange yellow, which extends also along the middle of the under part of the tail. Paler varieties occur. The skull of this species is smaller than those of _S. caniceps_, _S. Phayrei_ and _S. Blanfordii_. NO. 280. SCIURUS CANICEPS. _The Golden-backed Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Burmah (Upper Tenasserim and Tavoy). DESCRIPTION.--General colour grey or fulvous above; limbs outside grizzled grey; feet yellowish-grey; in some cases the nape, shoulders, and upper parts of back are vivid light ferruginous or golden fulvous, sometimes extending downwards on to the base of the tail. Some have only a trace of this colouring, others none at all. There is infinite variety of colouring in this species, as I observed in my remarks on the genus, and it is closely allied to the next three, if they do not ultimately prove to be the same. "Out of a large series of specimens referable to _S. caniceps_, the males illustrate three phases of colouring, associated with a difference in the character of the fur. The first is a grey, the second a yellowish, and the third a phase in which the back becomes brilliant yellowish-red."--_Anderson_. NO. 281. SCIURUS PHAYREI. _The Laterally-banded or Phayre's Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Burmah. Common in Martaban; has also been obtained at Tounghu. DESCRIPTION.--Upper parts dark olive grey; lower parts rich orange red; the same colour being more or less continued along the under surface of the tail; the orange colour extends over the inside of the limbs, the front of the thigh and on the feet; the fore-limbs are dusky outside, with pale rufous yellow feet. Its chief distinguishing mark is a brown well-defined dark band on the flanks between the colour of the upper and lower parts. NO. 282. SCIURUS BLANFORDII. _Blanford's Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Upper Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Pale grey above, finely punctulated with black and grey; tail concolorous, with a black tip; under parts pale orange yellow; hands and feet yellow. Dr. Anderson shot a female at Pudeepyo, in the beginning of January, which had a distinct tendency to the formation of a dusky lateral stripe, as in the last species; the under-parts also were much more rich orange than in the type of this species. In the grey phase of _S. caniceps_ that species is so like _S. Blanfordii_ in the colouring of the upper parts and feet that it is almost impossible to distinguish them, but, according to Dr. Anderson, "on examining the under parts it is found that in these phases of _S. caniceps_ they are grey, whereas in _S. Blanfordii_ they are a beautiful rich orange, and the feet are yellow." Before proceeding to the next species, which is a better marked one, I will quote one more passage from Dr. Anderson's careful comparison of the four preceding squirrels. "_S. Phayrei_ corresponds in the colour of the upper fur to the yellow phase of _S. caniceps_, and the tail is the same as in it, having a black tip, which is the character also that that appendage has in _S. pygerythrus_. In some examples of _S. Phayrei_ the dusky or blackish is not confined to the lateral line, but extends over the outside of the fore-limbs, the feet being always yellow in squirrels presenting these characters. Some specimens of _S. pygerythrus_ show a distinct tendency to have yellow feet, and further research will probably prove _S. Phayrei_ to be only a variety of _S. pygerythrus_. When Blyth first encountered this form, he simply regarded it as a variety of _S. pygerythrus_, and I believe his first opinion will be ultimately found to be more in accordance with the real interpretation of the facts than the conclusion he afterwards adopted. In the Paris Museum there is an example of _S. Blanfordii_ from Upper Burmah which distinctly shows a dark lateral streak, so that, taking into consideration the other examples to which I have already referred, there seems to be a presumption that it and _S. Phayrei_ are one and the same species, and that they are probably identical with _S. pygerythrus_; moreover, my impression is that a more extensive series will establish their identity with _S. caniceps_. This view of the question is also supported by a small series of these squirrels in the Leyden Museum from Tounghu in Upper Burmah, presented by the Marquis of Tweeddale. From the characters manifested by these squirrels, and the circumstances that they were all shot in one locality, they are of great interest. One is an adult, and in its upper parts it exactly resembles _S. Blanfordii_, also in its yellow feet and black tip to its tail, but, like _S. Phayrei_, it has a broad blackish-brown lateral stripe. The others are smaller, and resemble the foregoing specimens in all their characters, except that they have no dark lateral streak, and that the feet of two are concolorous with the upper parts, while in the remaining squirrel the feet appear to be changing to yellow, as in the adult. The two former of these, therefore, conform to the type of _S. pygerythrus_, but the fur of the upper parts is greyer and not so richly coloured as in it, but the annulation of the fur has the same character in both. The remaining specimen in its features is distinctly referable to _S. Blanfordii_" ('Anat. and Zool. Researches,' p. 232). NO. 283. SCIURUS ATRODORSALIS. _The Black-backed Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Burmah and the Malayan countries. Common in Martaban. DESCRIPTION.--There are two phases of colouring, in which both old and young of this species are found: with the black on the back, and again without it. In the latter case the upper parts and feet are a yellowish-rufous. The upper surface of the head, as far back as to include the ears, orange red; under parts and inside of limbs more or less chestnut; under surface of neck orange yellow, with a centre line of the same on the chest; tail variable--in the young it has seven alternate orange and black bands, the orange being terminal; but the adults have sometimes only five bands, the apical one so broad as to make a rich orange tail with yellowish-white tipped hair. In those with black backs the colour of the upper fur is less fulvous, and the chestnut of the lower parts is darker; in some the tail has broad orange tipped hairs, whilst in others it is, with the exception of the base, wholly black, and not annulated. These differences in colouring are not sexual, nor due to age. The skull of _S. atrodorsalis_ resembles that of _S. caniceps_, but is broader, with a somewhat shorter muzzle, has smaller teeth, and would appear to be, from comparisons made by Dr. Anderson, smaller. NO. 284. SCIURUS ERYTHRAEUS. _The Assam Red-bellied Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Assam, Garo hills, Munipur. DESCRIPTION.--The upper parts glistening deep reddish-black, minutely grizzled with light fulvous or yellowish-brown, each hair having two annulations; under parts and inside of limbs dark reddish maroon; feet black; tail concolorous with the back from the basal third, then gradually less grizzled; the terminal half black; whiskers black. Pallas describes the black of the tail as passing upwards in a mesial line. SIZE.--Head and body, about 9 to 10 inches; tail with hair, from 11 to 12 inches. NO. 285. SCIURUS GORDONI. _Gordon's Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Upper Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Dr. Anderson, who first named this species, describes it as follows: "_S. Gordoni_ has the upper surface and a narrow line from between the fore-limbs along the middle of the body grizzled olive-brown or greyish, with a variable rufous tint; the annulations are not so fine as in _S. erythraeus_. The chin and sides of the throat are paler grizzled than on the back and the lower part of the throat; the chest, belly, and inside of the limbs are either pale yellow or rich orange-yellow, or passing into pale chestnut in the Assam variety, in which the belly is rarely lineated. The ears are feebly pencilled; the tail has the same proportion as in _S. erythraeus_ and _S. castaneoventris_[20] but it is more persistently and uniformly concolorous with the body than in these species, and is finely ringed with black and yellow, the rings being most distinct on the latter fourth; the tip is generally washed with orange yellow" ('Anat. and Zool. Res.'). [Footnote 20: A Chinese species: Western China, Formosa and Hainau.--R. A. S.] SIZE.--Head and body, 9 inches; tail, 7 inches. NO. 286. SCIURUS HIPPURUS. _The Chestnut-bellied Assam Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Assam; also in the Malayan peninsula. DESCRIPTION.--Upper parts of the body, with base of tail yellowish-rufous, punctulated with yellow and black; the lower parts deep ruddy ferruginous or chestnut; feet, tail (which is bushy) and whiskers black. Dr. Anderson, however, mentions several varieties. He writes: "The specimen in the British Museum referred by Dr. Gray to _S. rufogaster_, var. _Borneoensis_ differs from Malayan specimens in having portions of the upper parts unannulated and of a deep rich chestnut, which embraces the upper surface of the base of the tail, and is concolorous with the chestnut of the under parts. This, however, is evidently not a persistent form, because I have seen a specimen from the same island in which the red portion of the upper parts is grizzled and much of the same tint as Malayan individuals, except in the mesial line of the neck and back, where the colour is rich red-brown extending along the dorsum of the tail for about three inches. "Muller and Schlegel mention a variety that I have not seen, and of which they state that the red colour of the under parts extends to the heel, the forefoot and the toes, while the colour of the upper parts passes into a uniform lustrous black. They also remark, however, that the back not unfrequently assumes a pale yellowish brown tint" ('Anat. and Zool. Res.' p. 242). Horsfield remarks:--"This species is nearly allied to the _S. erythraeus_ of Pallas, but it varies in the depth of the colours both above and underneath." "In the skull the orbit is rather large, and the muzzle is so contracted at its base that the extremity is but little narrower."--_Anderson_. NO. 287. SCIURUS SLADENI. _Sladen's Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Upper Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--After Dr. Anderson ('Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1871, p. 139) who first obtained and named this species: "grizzled, rufous olive above, the annulations fine, and the fur of moderate length; the forehead, face, chin, throat, belly, inside of limbs, front of thighs, lower half of fore-limbs, and the hind-feet rich chestnut red; tail rather bushy, as long as the body without the neck and head, concolorous with the upper surface of the body, but slightly more rufous; with a bright chestnut red tip." SIZE.--Head and body, 10-1/4 inches; tail, including rufous tip, 8 inches. This handsome squirrel is figured in the volume of plates belonging to Dr. Anderson's work on the Zoology of the Yunnan Expedition. Speaking of the skull he says: "The skull of _S. Sladeni_ has a rather short muzzle, with considerable breadth across its base superiorly, and it is a shorter and broader skull than the skulls of squirrels referred to _S. Blanfordii_. Compared with the skull of the red-headed specimen of _S. erythraeus_ from Bhutan, there is a decided resemblance between the two, the chief distinction being the less breadth of the base of the muzzle of the latter, but the teeth of this specimen show it to be young, while the teeth of _S. Sladeni_ are much worn by use."--'A. and Z. Res.' p. 243. NO. 288. SCIURUS FERRUGINEUS. _The Rusty-coloured Squirrel_. HABITAT.--From Assam to Burmah and Siam, and the adjacent islands of Pulo Condor and Sichang. DESCRIPTION.--Colouring most diverse, no less than ten named species being referable to this one, viz., _S. Finlaysoni_, _S. ferrugineus_, _S. Keraudrenii_, _S. splendidus_, _S. cinnamomeus_, _S. Siamensis_, _S. splendens_, _S. Germani_, _S. Bocourtii_, _S. leucogaster_; some are rich red, one jet black, and another is white, but apparently most of the varieties come from Siam; the Assam and Burmah specimens being reddish, of which the following description is by Blyth, according to Horsfield's Catalogue, where it is entered as _S. Keraudrenii_: "Entirely of a deep rufo-ferruginous colour, rather darker above than below; the fur of the upper parts somewhat glistening; toes of all the feet blackish, as in the three preceding, and the extreme tip of the tail yellowish-white." * * * * * The following group consists of the striped squirrels, a smaller and more terrestrial species, allied to the ground squirrels (_Tamias_). NO. 289. SCIURUS PALMARUM. _The Common Indian Ground Squirrel_ (_Jerdon's No. 155_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Gilehri_, Hindi; _Beral_, _Lakki_, Bengali; _Kharri_, Mahrathi; _Alalu_, Canarese; _Vodata_, Telegu; _Urta_ of Waddurs (_Jerdon_). HABITAT.--India generally, except in some parts of Malabar and North-eastern Bengal. DESCRIPTION.--The upper parts are dusky greenish-grey, with five yellowish-white dorsal lines, the two outer ones being faint and indistinct; under parts whitish; the hairs of the tail are annulated with red and black; ears round. But the colouring varies; some are much darker than others; one I have is a deep ferruginous brown between the dorsal stripes. SIZE.--Head and body, 6-1/2 to 7 inches; tail, 5-1/2 to 6 inches. This beautiful little animal is well known to almost all who have lived in India, and it is one of the most engaging and cheerful of all the frequenters of our Mofussil bungalows, although I have heard the poor little creature abused by some in unmeasured terms, as a nuisance on account of its piercing voice. I confess to liking even its shrill chatter; but then I am not easily put out by noise, and am rather like the deaf old King of Oude, who sits and reads in his cockatoo house, and looks up smilingly, as half a dozen of them give vent to extra diabolical shrieks, and pleasantly remarks: "Ah: the birds are singing a little this morning!" I am not quite so bad as that; but as I now sit writing, I have a hill myna on one side of me imitating an ungreased cart-wheel and the agonies of an asthmatic _derzie_, and on the other side a small female of the rose-headed parrakeet, which has a most piercing selection of whistles and small talk, to say nothing of two small bipeds of five and seven, who cap all the rest for noise, till I sometimes wish I had the aural afflictions of the old king. I can, however, quite imagine the irritation the sharp chirrup-chirrup of this little squirrel would cause to an invalid, for there is something particularly ear-piercing about it; but their prettiness and familiarity make up in great measure for their noisiness. They are certainly a nuisance in a garden, and I rather doubt whether they are of any use, as McMaster says, "in destroying many insects, especially white ants, beetles, both in their perfect and larval state," &c. He adds: "They are said to destroy the eggs of small birds, but I have never observed this myself." I should also doubt this, were it not that the European squirrel is accused of the same thing. General McMaster, I think, got his idea from a quaint old book, which he quotes at times, Dr. John Fryer's 'Voyage to East India and Bombain,' who, writing on the nests of the weaver bird (_Ploceus baya_), says: "It ties it by so slender a Thread to the Bough of the Tree, that the Squirrel dare not venture his body, though his Mouth water at the eggs and Prey within." McMaster himself writes: "This familiar little pest is accused, but I believe unjustly, of robbing nests; were he guilty of this, it would in the breeding season cause much excitement among the small birds, in whose society he lives on terms of almost perfect friendship." There is much truth in this. Wood and others, however, state that the European squirrel has been detected in the act of carrying off a small bird out of a nest, and that it will devour eggs, insects, &c. Jerdon relates the Indian legend that, when Hanuman was crossing the Ganges, it was bridged over by all the animals; one small gap remained, which was filled by this squirrel, and as Hanuman passed over he put his hand on the squirrel's back, on which the marks of his five fingers have since remained. It is not unlike the chipmunk of America (_Tamias striatus_), but these true ground squirrels have cheeks pouches and live in burrows. Our so-called palm squirrel (though it does not affect palms any more than other trees) builds a ragged sort of nest of any fibrous matter, without much attempt at concealment; and I have known it carry off bits of lace and strips of muslin and skeins of wool from a lady's work-box for its house-building purposes. The skins of this species nicely cured make very pretty slippers. They are very easily tamed, and often fall victims to their temerity, in venturing unknown into their owner's pockets, boxes, boots, &c. One I have now is very fond of a mess of parched rice and milk. It sleeps rolled up in a ball, not on its side, but with its head bent down between its legs. NO. 290. SCIURUS TRISTRIATUS. _The Three-striped Ground-Squirrel_ (_Jerdon's No. 156_). NATIVE NAMES.--As in the last. _Leyna_ in Singhalese. HABITAT.--Ceylon and Southern India; on the Neilgherries. Has been found in Midnapur, and it is stated to range northward to the Himalayas. DESCRIPTION.--Somewhat larger and darker than the last species, manifesting considerable variation in the colour of the dark lines of the back. In some the lines are rufous; in others dark brown or blackish throughout, or black only from the shoulder to the lumbar region. The general tints are rusty red on the head, greyish on the shoulders, blackish in the middle of the back, rusty on the haunches. Three well-defined yellow dorsal lines, not extending the whole length of the back; the tail rusty beneath, darker than _S. palmarum_ on the sides. SIZE.--Head and body, 7-1/2 inches; tail, 7-1/2 inches. This squirrel is more shy than the last, and keeps to the woods, although occasionally it will approach houses. Dr. Jerdon says a pair frequented his house at Tellicherry, but they were less familiar than _S. palmarum_, and endeavoured to shun observation. Kellaart gives a careful description of it, but does not say anything about its habits, at which I wonder, for it is common there, and takes the place of our little Indian friend, though probably its more retiring disposition has prevented so much notice being taken of it. Were it in the habit of frequenting houses in the manner of its Indian cousin, I am sure Sir Emerson Tennent would have devoted a page to it, whereas he does not mention it at all. It had also escaped McMaster's notice, careful observer though he was. Waterhouse, in his description ('Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1839, p. 118), describes some differences in the skull of this and _S. palmarum_, but Dr. Anderson finds no difference whatever. NO. 291. SCIURUS LAYARDI. _Layard's Striped Ground-Squirrel_ (_Jerdon's No. 157_). HABITAT.--Ceylon; in the highlands and the mountains of Travancore in Southern India. DESCRIPTION.--Dark dingy olive, inclining more to ashy than fulvous, except on the head and flanks. Lower parts ferruginous, paler on the breast; middle of back very dark, with a narrow bright fulvous streak in the middle, reaching from between the shoulders to near the tail, and an obscure shorter stripe on either side, barely reaching to the croup; tail ferruginous along the centre, the hairs margined with black, with white tips; a narrower black band near the base of each hair; tip of tail black, forming a pencil tuft three inches long. In some specimens the centre dorsal streak is bright orange, the two intervening bands being jet black. In those in which the streaks are pale, the intervening bands differ only from the surrounding fur in being darker, but are grizzled like it. There is a narrow rufous area round the eye; the whiskers are black; the under-parts and inside of limbs are bright reddish-chestnut, and this colour extends along the under-part of the tail. Jerdon calls this squirrel _the Travancore striped squirrel_, but I see no reason to retain this name, as it is not peculiar to Travancore, but was first found in Ceylon by Mr. E. Layard, after whom Blyth named it. NO. 292. SCIURUS SUBLINEATUS. _The Dusky-striped Ground-Squirrel_ (_Jerdon's No. 158_). HABITAT.--The mountains of Ceylon and Southern India. DESCRIPTION.--Smaller than the palm squirrel; fur soft, dense, grizzled olive brown; base of hairs dusky black; three pale and four dark lines on the back and croup, the lineation being obscure, and reaching only from the shoulder to the sacral region. Under-parts variable, but always dusky, never bright, from grey to dusky brown washed with rufous; tail concolorous with the upper part of the body and obscurely annulated. SIZE.--Head and body, 5 to 6 inches; tail, 4-1/2 to 6 inches. Kellaart calls this _the Newara Elia ground-squirrel_, and Jerdon _the Neilgherry striped squirrel_, but, as it is not peculiar to either one or the other place, I think it better to adopt another popular name. It is common about Newara Elia and Dimboola, but it does not seem to descend lower than 3000 feet. In Southern India it is found in the Neilgherries, Wynaad and Coorg, but only at considerable elevations. NO. 293. SCIURUS MCCLELLANDI. _McClelland's Ground-Squirrel_ (_Jerdon's No. 159_). NATIVE NAME.--_Kalli-gangdin_, Lepcha. HABITAT.--"This species has a wide distribution, ranging from Nepal and Thibet to the east of China and Formosa, and through Assam and Cachar south-eastward to Tenasserim and Siam."--_Anderson_. DESCRIPTION.--General hue olive brown, each hair having a blackish tip, a sub-apical yellow band, and a slaty black base. A pale yellowish band on the side of the nose, passing underneath the eye and ear along the side of the neck, and continued along the side of the back to the base of the tail; its upper margin has a dusky line; a narrow black line from between the shoulders over the vertebrae to the root of the tail; tail grizzled dark above, fulvous beneath; whiskers black; limbs concolorous with the body: ears small, black edged, fulvous white within, and with white pencil tufts. SIZE.--Head and body, 5 inches; tail, 4 inches. Dr. Anderson obtained this species at Ponsee in Burmah, at an elevation of 3500 feet, and Dr. Jerdon, at Darjeeling, at from 4000 to 6000 feet. This species is synonymous with Blyth's _S. Barbei_. NO. 294. SCIURUS BERDMOREI. _Berdmore's Ground-Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Tenasserim and Martaban. DESCRIPTION.--General colour brownish, with a distinct rufous tinge on the middle of the back. It is punctulated with yellowish on the head, sides of face and body and outside of limbs, and with rich rufous on the middle of the back. An obscure narrow black line along the middle of the back from between the shoulders, but only extending half way down the trunk. On the sides of the back a yellow line from shoulder to articulation of femur; this is margined below with a broad black band, and above by an obscure dusky line. There is a broad pale yellow linear area below the former of these two dark bands, the portion of the side below it being concolorous with the thighs and fore-limbs. The rufous area of the back is confined between the two uppermost yellow lines; ears are large; all under-parts white, slightly washed here and there with yellowish; the tail moderately bushy, all the hairs annulated with four alternative orange and black bands, the terminal black band being occasionally tipped with white, and being as broad as the three remaining bands, so that the tail has a decidedly black tint washed with whitish, the orange bands, however, appearing through the black. SIZE.--Head and body, about 7-3/4 inches; tail without hair, 5 inches. NO. 295. SCIURUS QUINQUESTRIATUS. _The Stripe-bellied Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Kakhyen hills, on the Burmo-Chinese frontier. DESCRIPTION.--"Above grizzled olive, brownish-grey, with a distinct rufous tint, deepest on the dorsal surface; annulation fine, as in the grizzled squirrels generally; chin and throat obscurely grizzled greyish, washed with reddish; a rufous grizzled blackish-brown band from the chest along the middle line of the belly to the vent; external of this, on either side, a broad pure white well-defined band from the side to the chest along the belly and prolonged along the inguinal region to the vent; a broad black band from the hollow of the axilla along the side of the belly, expanding on the inside of the thighs, where it is faintly washed with greyish; inside of the fore-limbs blackish, washed with greyish; toes black, with rufous annulations. Tail nearly as long as the body and head, concolorous with body, but the black and rufous annulations much broader and more marked, assuming the form of indistinct rufous and black rings on the posterior third; tip of tail jet black, narrowly terminated with greyish."--_Dr. J. Anderson_ in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1871, p. 142. SIZE.--Head and body, about 9-1/2 inches; tail, 7-1/4 inches. This curious squirrel was first discovered and named by Dr. Anderson, who states that it was common at Ponsee on the Kakhyen range of hills east of Bhamo, at an elevation of from 2000 to 3000 feet, and as yet it has only been found on those hills. There is a coloured plate of it in the 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society' for 1871. * * * * * The next animal forms a curious link in resemblance between the Tupaiidae and the squirrels. I mentioned some time back that the first Tupaia was taken for a squirrel; and certainly, to look at this long-snouted squirrel, one might easily be misled into supposing it to be a Tupaia, till an examination of its dentition proved it to be a rodent. It is supposed to be a Malayan species, but I was shown not long ago a specimen in Mr. Hume's collection which I understood Mr. Davison to say he had procured in Burmah. It has been classed by Dr. Gray in a separate genus, _Rhinosciurus_. NO. 296. SCIURUS (RHINOSCIURUS) TUPAOIDES. _The Long-nosed Squirrel_. HABITAT.--The Malayan peninsula and Borneo, and I believe the Tenasserim provinces. DESCRIPTION.--This animal differs from all other squirrels by the extreme length of its pointed muzzle, with which is associated a long and narrow skull. The coloration varies from light to dark, and almost blackish-brown; the tail is shorter than the body, moderately bushy, narrow at the base, but expanding towards the tip; the hairs are broadly banded with four alternate pale and dark brown bands, the last being the darkest and broadest, with a pale tip; the under-parts are white in some, rich orange yellow in others. SIZE.--Head and body, 7-1/2 inches; tail reaches to the eye. * * * * * The Flying Squirrels next engage our attention. In several groups of animals of strictly arboreal habits, nature has gone beyond the ordinary limits of agility afforded by muscular limbs alone, and has supplemented those limbs with elastic membranes which act like a parachute when the animal takes a leap into space, and gives it a gradual and easy descent. Amongst the lemurs the _Galeopithecus_, the _Pteromys_ in the squirrels, and the _Anomalurus_ in another family of rodents, are all thus provided with the apparatus necessary to enable them to float awhile in the air, for flying is scarcely the proper term for the letting-down easy principle of the mechanism in question. The flying squirrels, with which we have now to deal, are in general details the same as ordinary squirrels, but the skin of the flanks is extended between the fore and hind limbs, which, when spread out, stretches it into a wide parachute, increased in front by means of a bony spur which projects from the wrist. These animals have been subdivided into the large round-tailed flying squirrels, _Pteromys_, and the small flat-tailed flying squirrels, _Sciuropterus_. The distinction was primarily made by F. Cuvier on the character of the teeth, as he considered _Sciuropterus_ to have a less complex system of folds in the enamel of the molars, more like the ordinary squirrels than _Pteromys_; but modern research has proved that this is not a good ground for distinction. Dr. Anderson has lately examined the dentition in eleven species of _Pteromys_ and _Sciuropterus_, and he says: "According to my observations the form of the enamel folds in youth are essentially similar, consisting of a series of tubercular folds which are marked with wavy lines in some, and are smooth in others, but in all there is a marked conformity to a common type. The seemingly more complex character of the folds appears to depend on the extent to which the tubercular ridges are worn by use." He also questions the propriety of the separation according to the distichous arrangement of the hairs of the tail. After a careful examination of the organ in nearly all the members of the series, he writes: "I have failed to detect that it is essentially distinctive of them--that is, that the distichous arrangement of the hairs is always associated with a diminutive species; but at the same time there can be no doubt that it is more prevalent among such." He then goes on to show that the tail is bushy in seventeen species, partially distichous in one, and wholly so in ten, and concludes by saying: "I am therefore disposed to regard the flying squirrels generally as constituting a well-defined generic group, the parallel of the genus _Sciurus_, which consists of an extensive series of specific forms distinguished by a remarkable uniformity of structure, both in their skulls and skeletons, and in the formations of their soft parts." There is a laudable tendency nowadays amongst mammalogists to reduce as far as possible the number of genera and species, and, acting on this principle, I will follow Dr. Anderson, and treat all the Indian flying squirrels under _Pteromys_. _GENUS PTEROMYS_. General anatomy that of the squirrel, except that the skin of the flanks is extended between the limbs in such a manner as to form a parachute when the fore and hind legs are stretched out in the act of springing from tree to tree. NO. 297. PTEROMYS ORAL. _The Brown Flying Squirrel_ (_Pteromys petaurista in Jerdon, No. 160_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Oral_ of the Coles; _Pakya_, Mahrathi; _Parachatea_, Malabarese; _Egala dandoleyna_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--India, wherever there are large forests; Ceylon. [Illustration: _Pteromys oral_.] DESCRIPTION.--Upper parts dusky maroon black grizzled with white; this effect being due to the ends of the hairs being white, tipped with a small black point. The muzzle and around the eyes, and the feet are black; the limbs and side membrane a lighter rufous maroon; the male has an irregular rufous patch on the sides of the neck, according to Elliot, which in the female is a pale fawn colour; the tail is rather longer than the body, and very bushy; its terminal two-thirds or three-fourths are black or blackish--sometimes (rarely) a little white at the extreme tip; the under-parts are dingy brownish-grey or nearly white. The female has six mammae--two pectoral and four ventral. SIZE.--Head and body, 20 inches; tail, 21 inches; breadth of expanse, 21 to 24. This species is nocturnal in its habits as noticed by Mr. Baker ('Journ. As. Soc. Beng.' 1859, vol. xxviii. p. 287), Jerdon and others. Mr. Baker says it makes a noise at night in the depths of the jungle which is alarming to strangers. On the other hand Tickell, who was one of the first to bring it to notice, says its voice is seldom heard, and it is a weak, low, soft monotone quickly repeated, so low that in the same room you require to listen attentively to distinguish it. "It is to the Coles a sound ominous of domestic affliction. When angry the oral seldom bites, but scratches with its fore-claws, grunting at the same time like a guinea-pig." "When taken young it becomes a most engaging pet. It can be reared on goat's or cow's milk,[21] and in about three weeks will begin to nibble fruit of any kind. During the day it sleeps much, either sitting with its back bent into a circle, and its head thrust down to its belly, or lying on its back with the legs and parachute extended--a position it is fond of in sultry weather. During the night time it is incessantly on the move." [Footnote 21: I advise half water in the case of cow's milk, or one quarter water with buffalo milk.--R. A. S.] Jerdon says of it: "It frequents the loftiest trees in the thickest parts of the forest, and is quite nocturnal in its habits, usually making its appearance when quite dusk. The natives discover its whereabouts by noting the droppings beneath the trees it frequents. It is said to keep in holes of trees during the day, and breeds in the same places. In the Wynaad many are killed, and a few captured alive by the Coorumbars, a jungle race of aborigines, who are usually employed to fell the forest trees in clearing for coffee; and I have had several sent to me alive, caught in this way, but could not keep them for any time. It lives chiefly on fruits of various kinds; also on bark, shoots, &c., and, Tickell says, occasionally on beetles and the larvae of insects." Jerdon says he had several times witnessed the flight of this species from tree to tree, and on one occasion he noted a flight of over sixty yards. "Of course it was very close to the ground when it neared the tree, and the last few feet of its flight were slightly upwards, which I have also noticed at other times." I think Wallace has observed the same of the _Galeopithecus_. How this upward motion is accomplished more careful investigation will show; in all probability the depression or elevation of the tail may cause a deviation from a fixed course. According to Elliot it is very gentle, timid, and may be tamed, but from its delicacy is difficult to preserve. The fur is soft, beautiful and much valued. Jerdon gives the localities in which he has found it to be most common: Malabar, Travancore (the Marquis of Tweeddale, according to Dr. Anderson, got a specimen from this locality of a much lighter colour than usual), the Bustar forests in Central India, Vindhian mountains near Mhow, the Northern Circars, and the Midnapore jungles. NO. 298. PTEROMYS CINERACEUS. _The Ashy Flying Squirrel_. NATIVE NAME.--_Shau-byau_ in Arakan. HABITAT.--Assam, Burmah, viz. Arakan, Pegu and Tenasserim provinces. DESCRIPTION.--Very like the last, but with a greyish fur, and almost white tail, with a black tip. The fur generally is a mixture of pale grey and brownish, the hairs of the head and back having a whitish sub-terminal band; the tail consists almost entirely of the greyish hairs; the parachute is reddish brown; the under-parts white. Blyth, however, mentions a specimen from Tenasserim which is unusually rufous, with the tail concolorous with the upper parts. SIZE.--Same as the last. It is open to question whether this is not identical with _Pteromys oral_, merely a local variety. Blyth so termed it; and from what Dr. Anderson has written on the subject, I gather that he, too, inclines to the same opinion, as he says: "The dimensions are the same as those of _P. oral_, Tickell, of which it will probably prove to be a local race." NO. 299. PTEROMYS YUNNANENSIS. _The Yunnan Flying Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Kananzan mountains; Burmo-Chinese frontier. DESCRIPTION.--Dr. Anderson, who discovered and named this species, describes it as follows: "The general colour is a rich dark maroon chestnut on all the upper parts, the head and back in some being finely speckled with white, which is most marked in the young, but is always most profuse on the posterior half of the back, which in some individuals has almost a hoary tinge, from the extent to which the annulation of the hairs is carried. "In the adult, the upper surface of the parachute is of the same colour as the back, and the hairs are not annulated, except along its margin; but in younger specimens they are partially so on the upper surface, as are also the hairs on the first three or six inches of the tail, which are concolorous with the back, but broadly tipped with black, while the remaining portion of the tail is rich glossy black; the sides of the face, below the eye and ear, are yellowish-grey, mixed with chestnut, and the chin is dusky; the paws are rich black, also the margins of the limbs; the under surface is clad with a yellowish-white, rather woolly fur, which in some tends to a chestnut tint in the middle line, and to a darker tint of the same colour at the margin of the parachute. "The basal portion of the fur of the upper parts is a dark greyish-brown, the hairs at their base being wavy; then follows a palish chestnut band, succeeded by a dark maroon chestnut, which either may or may not have a pure white sub-apical band, the tips of the hairs being glossy deep maroon chestnut, in some verging on black. "The ears are large and rounded, and very sparsely covered with black hairs externally, with chestnut-coloured hairs on the anterior, and black on the posterior half of the dorsal surface. "The hairs on the outer side of the tarsus form a rather long and dense brush; the tail is moderately bushy."--'Anat. and Zool. Res.,' p. 282. SIZE.--Dr. Anderson only got skins of this beautiful squirrel, so accurate dimensions cannot be given, but the largest skin measured from muzzle to root of tail 24 inches, the tail being the same. NO. 300. PTEROMYS MELANOPTERUS. _The Black-flanked Flying Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--The back and top of the head are greyish-yellowish, the hairs being leaden grey at the base, passing into yellow, the sub-terminal part being brown, with a minute dark point; the upper surface of the parachute is almost wholly black, with a greyish-white border; under surface yellow; the belly greyish-ashy; feet black; limbs and tail concolorous with the body, the latter very bushy. SIZE.--Head and body, about 19-1/4 inches; tail, 17-1/4 inches. I have included this species, although it does not belong to India proper; still it would be well if travellers and sportsmen exploring our Thibetan frontiers would keep a look-out for this animal. At present all we know of it is from Professor Milne-Edwards's description of animals collected by the Abbe David, to whom we are also indebted for the next species. NO. 301. PTEROMYS ALBORUFUS. _The Red and White Flying Squirrel_. HABITAT.--Thibet; district of Moupin. DESCRIPTION.--I have but a bare note of this species taken long ago from Milne-Edwards's work on the Mammals of Thibet, so I will quote Dr. Anderson's description from the types he examined: "The head, the sides of the neck, the throat and upper part of the chest, variegated with white, through which the rich maroon of the ground colour is partially seen, and it forms a ring around the eye; the hinder part of the back is yellow, and the tail, immediately beyond its base, is also yellowish for a short way, fading into the deep maroon of its latter two-thirds. It has no black tip. The feet are concolorous with the body; the under parts are pale rich orange yellow; the ears are large and moderately pointed."--'Anat. and Zool. Res.,' p. 284. SIZE.--Head and body, about 23 inches; tail, 16 inches. NO. 302. PTEROMYS MAGNIFICUS. _The Red-bellied Flying Squirrel_ (_Jerdon's No. 162_). NATIVE NAME.--_Biyom_, Lepcha. HABITAT.--South-eastern Himalayas, Nepal, Sikim, Bhotan; also in the hill ranges of Assam. DESCRIPTION.--Upper parts dark chestnut or a rich lustrous dark maroon chestnut, with a golden yellow mesial line in some; the hairs are black tipped, the dark portions of the back being finely but obscurely punctulated with dark orange; the shoulders and thighs are golden yellow, and the under-parts are orange fawn or orange red; so is also the margin of the parachute; the ears are large, semi-nude, sparsely clad with pale red hair externally, and bright red posteriorly, the base of the upper surface being clad with long hair; the sides of the face below the eyes are yellowish; there is a black zone round the eyes; the chin and the feet are blackish; the tail is orange red, tipped more or less broadly with black. SIZE.--Head and body, about 16 inches; tail, 22 inches. The young of this species have not the dorsal line, the head and neck are concolorous with the body, as is also the tail at its base; the under parts are pale yellowish-red. According to Dr. Anderson the skulls of _Pteromys magnificus_ and _P. oral_ differ in the shorter muzzle and the more elevated character of the inter-orbital depression of the latter. This animal is occasionally found at Darjeeling, and according to Jerdon it used to be more common there before the station was so denuded of its fine trees. It frequents the zone from 6000 to 9000 feet, and feeds on acorns, chestnuts and other hard fruit; also on young leaves and shoots. There is a coloured plate of this species in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,' vol. xiii. part i. p. 67. NO. 303. PTEROMYS ALBIVENTER. _The White-bellied Flying Squirrel_ (_Pteromys inornatus of Jerdon, No. 161_). NATIVE NAME.--_Rusigugar_, i.e., flying rat, Kashmiri. HABITAT.--From Nepal, along the North-western Himalayas to Kashmir. DESCRIPTION.--Upper parts grizzled reddish-brown or dark grey with a rufous tinge, or a reddish-bay, darker on the upper surface of the parachute, and outside of limbs; head, neck, and breast greyish-rufous; cheeks grey; chin, throat and lower part of breast white, faintly tinged with rufous in the belly; under part of parachute rufous, tinged white, with a greyish posterior margin. Occasionally a dark brown band over the nose and round the eyes; the whiskers and feet blackish. SIZE.--Head and body, 14 inches; tail, 16 inches. This is a common squirrel at Simla. One was killed close to the house in which I was staying in 1880 at the Chota Simla end of the station by a native servant, who threw a stick at it, and knocked it off a bough, and I heard of two living ones being hawked about for sale about the same time--which, to my regret, I failed to secure, some one having bought them. They are common also in Kashmir, where they live in holes made in the bark of dead fir-trees. They are said to hybernate during the season there. A melanoid variety of this species is mentioned by Dr. Anderson as being in the Leyden Museum. It was obtained by Dr. Jerdon in Kashmir, and presented to the Museum by the late Marquis of Tweeddale. NO. 304. PTEROMYS CANICEPS. _The Grey-headed Flying Squirrel_ (_Sciuropterus caniceps of Jerdon, No. 163_). NATIVE NAME.--_Biyom-chimbo_, Lepcha. HABITAT.--Sikim and Nepal. DESCRIPTION.--At first sight this seems to be a grey-headed form of the last species, but with larger ears; the head is iron grey; round the eyes and a patch above and below orange fulvous or chestnut; the base of the ears the same. Regarding this Dr. Anderson, on comparing it with the last, writes: "On a more critical examination of _P. caniceps_ it appears to me, judging from Hodgson's types of the species, that it has larger ears, and if this should prove to be a persistent character, then the grey head and the chestnut speck above and below the eye, and the bright chestnut tuft behind the ears, assume a specific importance which they would not otherwise have." But he adds that his observations are merely from preserved specimens, and that the question of the magnitude of the ears is one yet to be settled by further investigation of the living animal. Jerdon's description is "entire head iron-grey; orbits and base of ears deep orange fulvous; whole body above, with parachute and tail, a mixture of blackish and golden yellow; limbs deep orange ochreous; margin of parachute albescent; beneath the neck whitish; rest of the lower parts pale orange-red; tip of tail black; ears nearly nude; tail sub-distichous." The fur is softer, denser, and longer than in the last two species. SIZE.--Head and body, about 14 inches; tail, 15 to 16 inches. NO. 305. PTEROMYS PEARSONII. _The Hairy-footed Flying Squirrel_ (_Sciuropterus villosus of Jerdon, No. 166_). HABITAT.--Sikim and Upper Assam. DESCRIPTION.--Upper part of head and back rich glossy reddish-brown, grizzled with black; the parachute blackish-brown, sparsely washed with faint reddish brown. "Fur very fine, soft, and rather long, but adpressed, and the hidden portion is almost black, narrowly tipped with the reddish-brown, the sides of the hair being blackish-brown. On the parachute only a few hairs have the reddish band, and these are most numerous towards the margin; the tail is rather bushy and but slightly distichous, and the hidden portion of its fur is pale fawn at the base, passing into pale chestnut brown, washed with dusky brown on the sides and upper surface; the margins of the eyelids are dark brown, and the sides of the face are pale rufous; the ears are moderately large and rounded, rather dark brown towards the tips, and pencilled at the base, anteriorly and posteriorly, with long delicate hairs. There are no true cheek bristles, but the moustachial hairs are very long; the under surface is pale ferruginous, palest on the mesial line, and most rufescent on the outer half of the membrane, the margin of which inferiorly is pale yellowish; the hairs on the membrane have dark slaty--almost black--bases, the ferruginous being confined to the tips; the fur of the under-parts is very soft and dense; the feet are well clad, more especially so those of the hind limbs."--_Anderson_. SIZE.--Head and body, 8 inches; tail, 8 inches. Jerdon says it is found at elevations of 3000 to nearly 6000 feet. NO. 306. PTEROMYS FUSCOCAPILLUS. _The Small Travancore Flying Squirrel_ (_Sciuropterus of Jerdon, No. 167_). HABITAT.--Southern India and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Upper parts rufous chestnut according to Kellaart, who named it _Sciuropterus Layardii_; rufescent fulvous or dark brownish isabelline hue, as Jerdon describes it; the fur dusky blackish colour for three-fourths of its length; the tips coarser and coloured rufous chestnut (_Kellaart_); hairs fuscous with a fulvous tip (_Jerdon_); two-thirds of the base dusky ashy, the remainder reddish-brown with a black tip (_Anderson_); the ears are moderate in size, posteriorly ovate with a long pencil of blackish hairs at the base of the posterior margin and at the external surface of the upper angle; cheek bristles well developed; the cheeks white, washed with yellowish, as also before the ears; the margin round the eyes blackish; the parachute is dark brown above washed with pale brown, and the edge is pale yellow; lower parts yellowish-white; the tail is very bushy, and not distichous in the adult, though partially so in the young; it is sometimes yellowish-brown, sometimes dusky brown, especially in the latter half, the under surface being pale brown at the base, passing into blackish-brown. Kellaart says of the Ceylon specimens: "Tail flat and broad, of a lighter chestnut above, washed with black, and under surface of a deep black, except at tip," but apparently he had only one specimen to go upon, and therefore we cannot accept his observations as conclusive. SIZE.--Head and body, 7-3/4 inches; tail, 6-3/4 inches with hair. NO. 307. PTEROMYS FIMBRIATUS. _The Grey Flying Squirrel_ (_Sciuropterus of Jerdon, No. 164_). HABITAT.--North-west Himalayas. DESCRIPTION.--Fur long, soft greyish, with sometimes a tinge of brown; the hairs are grey at the base, then brown with a black tip; face white; orbits dark brown; chin and under parts white; the tail is broad, bushy, and rather tapering, more or less fulvous washed with black, black towards the tip; the feet are broad, and according to Dr. Gray the outer edges of the hind feet have a broad fringe of hair, whence probably its specific name; but Dr. Anderson is of opinion that this character is unreliable. SIZE.--Head and body, 12 inches; tail, 11 inches. Blyth's _S. Barbei_ was probably the same as this; he had only drawings and assertions to go upon. The species is extremely doubtful. NO. 308. PTEROMYS ALBONIGER. _The Black and White Flying Squirrel_ (_Sciuropterus of Jerdon, No. 165_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Khim_, Lepcha; _Piam-piyu_, Bhotia. HABITAT.--Nepal, Sikim, Bhotan, Assam, Sylhet, Burmah, Western Yunnan and Cambodia. DESCRIPTION.--Dr. Anderson says the name applied to the species is not appropriate, as many individuals have the upper parts more or less yellowish, but it is dark above, blackish, faintly washed with hoary or rufous; white beneath with a slight yellow tinge; the ears and feet flesh-coloured. Jerdon says the young are pure black and white; the teeth are bright orange red. SIZE.--Head and body, 11 inches; tail, 8-1/4 to 9 inches. Jerdon procured it near Darjeeling; it frequents elevations from 3000 to 5000 feet. NO. 309. PTEROMYS SPADICEUS. _The Red Flying Squirrel_. NATIVE NAME.--_Kywet-shoo-byan_, Arakanese. HABITAT.--Arakan. DESCRIPTION.--Upper parts bright ferruginous bay; under parts woolly and dull white; the membrane, limbs, and tail dusky; the terminal third of the tail pale rufous. SIZE.--Head and body, 5 inches; tail, 4-1/4 inches. ARCTOMYDINAE--THE MARMOTS. Stout-bodied, short-tailed animals, with a rudimentary thumb with a flat nail. They are gregarious and terrestrial, living in burrows, where they store provisions against inclement seasons. Some of the genera have cheek pouches, but the true marmots, such as our Indian species, have not. They differ somewhat in dentition from the squirrels in having the first upper molar somewhat larger, and the other molars also differ in having transverse tubercles on the crown. The first upper tooth is smaller than the rest; the ears are short and round, as is also the tail; the hind-feet have five toes, the fore-feet a tubercle in the place of the thumb. _GENUS ARCTOMYS_. Stout body, short tail, large head and eyes, no cheek pouches, mammae ten to twelve. Dental formula: Inc., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 1--1/1--1; molars, 4--4/3--3. NO. 310. ARCTOMYS BOBAC. _The Bobac, or Poland Marmot_ (_Thibet Marmot of Jerdon, No. 168_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Brin_, Kashmiri; _Kadia-piu_, Thibetan; _Chibi_, Bhotia; _Lho_, or _Potsammiong_, Lepcha. HABITAT.--The Himalayan range from Kashmir to Sikim, in Thibet, Ladakh, Yarkand, also throughout Central Asia and Eastern Europe from the south of Poland and Gallicia over the whole of Southern Russia and Siberia, to the Amoor and Kamtchatka. DESCRIPTION.--Above sub-rufescent cat-grey, washed with blackish brown on the back and sides and front of face, rufescent yellow beneath; the hind limbs more rufous; fur close, adpressed, rather harsh; tail with a black tip. The hairs are tinged with three bands of dusky rufescent yellow and blackish-brown, the latter being most intense on the face, forehead, head and back (_see_ 'P. Z. S.' 1871, p. 560). In the plate given in the report by Mr. Blanford on the mammalia collected during the second Yarkand Mission the back is somewhat barred with dark brown, as is also the tail. The sexes are alike, and of nearly equal size. SIZE.--Head and body, about 24 inches; tail, 5 to 6 inches. This animal is seldom found at a lower elevation than 12,000 feet, and from that to 16,000 feet according to Jerdon, but Dr. Stoliczka noticed it in Ladakh at a height of 17,800 feet. "It burrows in the ground, living in small societies, and feeding on roots and vegetables. It lifts its food to its mouth with its fore-feet. It is easily tamed. One was brought alive to Calcutta some years ago, and did not appear, says Mr. Blyth, to be distressed by the heat of that place. It was quite tame and fearless, and used to make a loud chattering cachinnation. It was fond of collecting grass, &c., and carrying it to its den. Travellers and sportsmen often meet with this marmot, and speak of its sitting up in groups, and suddenly disappearing into its burrows. The cured skins form an important item of commerce, and are brought to Nepal, and in great numbers to China" (_Jerdon_). Mr. Blanford, in alluding to the conditions under which marmots are liable to produce permanent varieties, says: "each colony or group being isolated, and frequently at a distance of many miles from the next colony, the two in all probability rarely, if ever, breed with each other." Therefore several which are recorded as distinct species may in time be proved to be merely varieties of one. Mr. Blanford keeps to the specific name _Himalayanus_ of Hodgson in his report. NO. 311. ARCTOMYS CAUDATUS. _The Red Marmot_. NATIVE NAME.--_Drun_, Kashmiri. HABITAT.--The North-western Himalayan range. It is found in Kashmir, the Wurdan Pass, Ladakh, the valley of the Dras river. DESCRIPTION.--General colour rufous-ochreous, darkest above, "the tips of the hairs are washed with black, which is most intense on the back from the occiput to the lumbar region; pale yellow on the shoulders, which have few, if any, black-tipped hairs, and also along the sides, which are nearly free from them; chin, throat, belly, fore-legs and inside of front of lower limbs deep rusty red; the outside of thighs pale rufous yellow, with a few black-tipped hairs; greyish hairs around the lips; cheeks washed with blackish; a large deep black spot on the upper surface of the nose; the rest of the front of the face rufous yellow; tail black, washed more or less with yellowish-grey, the last four inches black; the fur coarse and nearly 2-1/2 inches in length, loose and not adpressed; the black tips are not very long, and the yellow shows through them as a rule, but there are patches where they wholly obscure it; the base of the hair generally is rather rufous dark brown, and is succeeded by a broad rufous yellow band followed by the apical black one. Palm, including nails, 2-4/12 inches; sole, including nails, 3-10/12 inches; the heel is more sparsely clad with hairs along its margin than is the tarsus of _A. bobac_" (_Dr. J. Anderson_, 'P. Z. S.' 1871, pp. 561, 562). Mr. Blanford, who writes of this as _Arctomys caudatus_ of Jacquemont, being of opinion that Hodgson's _A. Hemachalanus_ is a smaller and differently-coloured species, and doubting whether _A. caudatus_ inhabits the Eastern Himalayas, says: "_Arctomys caudatus_ is one of the largest species of marmot, being nearly two feet long exclusive of the tail, which measures with the hairs at the end half as much more. The general colour is yellowish-tawny, more or less washed with black on the back, and with all the under-parts and limbs rusty red. In some specimens (males?) the back is much blacker than in others, the hairs being dusky or black throughout, whilst other specimens have only the tips of the hairs black." I am inclined to think that Mr. Blanford is right, for Jerdon thus describes _A. Hemachalanus_: "General colour dark grey, with a full rufous tinge, which is rusty, and almost ochreous red on the sides of the head, ears, and limbs, especially in summer; the bridge of the nose and the last inch of the tail dusky brown; head and body above strongly mixed with black, which he equals or exceeds the pale one on these parts; claws long; pelage softer and fuller than in the last." SIZE.--Jerdon says of the _drun_: "Head and body, about 13 inches." Now the size given in the 'P. Z. S.' above quoted is, "length, 22 inches from tip of nose to vent; tail, 10-1/2 inches, exclusively of the hair, nearly half the length of the body and head." This agrees better with Mr. Blanford's account. NO. 312. ARCTOMYS HEMACHALANUS. _The Eastern Red Marmot_ (_Jerdon's No. 169_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Sammiong_, Lepcha; _Chipi_, Bhotia. HABITAT.--The Eastern Himalayas, Sikim, Nepal. DESCRIPTION.--As given above by Dr. Jerdon. SIZE.--Head and body, 13 inches; tail, 5-1/2 inches. Hodgson kept some of this species in his garden for some time. They were somnolent by day, active by night, and did not hybernate in Nepal. They were fed on grain and fruit, and would chatter a good deal over their meals, but in general were silent. They slept rolled up into a ball, were tame and gentle usually, but sometimes bit and scratched like rabbits, uttering a similar cry. NO. 313. ARCTOMYS AUREUS. _The Golden Marmot_. HABITAT.--Yarkand, Kaskasee pass, 13,000 feet, on the road from Kashgar to Sarikol and the Pamir. DESCRIPTION.--after Blanford, who described and named this species ('Jour. As. Soc. Beng.' 1875): "General colour tawny to rich brownish-yellow, the dorsal portion conspicuously tinged with black from all the hairs having black tips, but these are far more conspicuous in some specimens (males?) than in others; face grey to blackish, with a rufous tinge covered with black and whitish hairs mixed, about half an inch long on the forehead. The black hairs on the face are more prevalent in those specimens (perhaps males) which have the blackest backs; the middle of the forehead is in some cases more fulvous. On the end of the nose is a blackish-brown patch, and there is a narrow band of black hairs with a few white mixed round the lips; the sides of the nose are paler; whiskers black. Hairs of the back, 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 inches long, much mixed with woolly fibres, dark slaty at the extreme base for about a quarter inch, then pale straw colour, becoming deeper golden yellow towards the extremity, the end black. In the blackest specimens the black tips are wanting on the posterior portion of the back. Tail yellow, the same colour as the rump, except the tip, which is black, from a length varying from an inch to about 2-1/2 inches (in three specimens out of four it does not exceed an inch); hairs of the tail about two inches long, brown at the base. Lower parts rather browner, and sometimes with a rufous wash; the hairs shorter and thinner, chocolate brown at the base without the short woolly under fur, which is very thick on the back. Feet above yellowish-tawny, like the sides" ('Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand Mission': Mammalia). SIZE.--Head and body, 16 to 18 inches; tail, 5 to 6 inches. Though this agrees in size with _A. Hemachalanus_ it differs considerably in colour, and, according to Mr. Blanford, also in the skull. There is a beautifully drawn and coloured plate of this marmot in the work from which I have just quoted; also of _A. Himalayanus_ and _A. caudatus_. NO. 314. ARCTOMYS DICHROUS. HABITAT.--Afghanistan; mountainous country north of Cabul. DESCRIPTION.--Less yellow than the last, without any black on the back, and having the upper parts pale dull tawny, and the lower rufous brown. The tail concolorous with the belly, tinged here and there with rich rufous brown, the tip paling to nearly yellowish-brown. SIZE.--Head and body, 17 inches; tail, 6-1/2 inches.--_Anderson_, 'Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' vol. xvi. 1875. NO. 315. ARCTOMYS ROBUSTUS. Is a Thibetan species, described by Prof. Milne-Edwards, 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes,' p. 309. I have not the work by me just now. SECTION II.--MYOMORPHA--RAT-LIKE RODENTS. The second section of the order GLIRES, containing the following families--those that are not Indian being in italics:-- _Myoxidiae_, _Lophiomyidae_, Muridae, Spalacidae, _Geomyidae_, _Theridomyidae_ (fossil), Dipodidae. The molar dentition is from 3--3/3--3 to 6--6/6--6, the former being the usual number; the tibia and fibula are united for at least a third of their length; the zygomatic arch is slender, and the malar process rarely extends so far forwards as in the preceding section, and is generally supported below by a continuation of the maxillary zygomatic process; the collar-bones are perfect (except in _Lophiomyidae_). Upper lip cleft; the muffle small and naked; tail cylindrical, sometimes hairy, but commonly covered with scales arranged in rings. In all the Indian mammalogy this section is probably the most difficult to write about. Our knowledge of the smaller rodents is extremely imperfect, and is just engaging increased attention. In the meanwhile I feel that, while I make use of such material as is now available, before long much will have to be revised and corrected after the exhaustive inquiries now being made by Dr. Anderson are published. The Indian families with which we have to deal are but three--the _Muridae_, _Spalacidae_, and the _Dipodidae_. The _Arvicolidae_ of Jerdon's work is merely a sub-family of _Muridae_. Of these the _Muridae_ take the first place, as containing the greater number of genera. It is estimated that the total number of species known of this family throughout the world exceed 330, of which probably not more than one-fourth or fifth are to be found in India and adjacent countries. FAMILY MURIDAE. CHARACTER.--"Lower incisors compressed; no premolars; molars rooted or rootless, tuberculate or with angular enamel folds; frontals contracted; infra-orbital opening in typical forms high, perpendicular, wide above and narrowed below, with the lower root of the maxillary zygomatic process more or less flattened into a perpendicular plate; very rarely the opening is either large and oval, or small and sub-triangular. Malar short and slender, generally reduced to a splint between the maxillary and squamosal processes; external characters very variable; pollex rudimentary, but often with a small nail; tail generally sub-naked and scaly, rarely densely haired."--_Alston_, 'P. Z. S.' 1876. This family is divided into about ten sub-families, of which the Indian ones are as follows: _Platacanthyominae_; _Gerbillinae_; _Phlaeomyinae_; _Murinae_; _Arvicolinae_; _Cricetinae_. The other four are _Sminthinae_, _Hydromyinae_, _Dendromyinae_, and _Siphneinae_, none of which are found within our limits. _GENUS PLATACANTHOMYS_. CHARACTER.--Molars 3/3, divided into transverse laminae; infra-orbital opening as in typical _Muridae_; incisive foramina and auditory bullae small; form _myoxine_ (or dormouse-like); fur mixed with flat spines; tail densely hairy. The general resemblance of this animal to the dormouse (_Myoxus_) is striking, to which its hairy tail and its habits conduce, but on closer examination its small eyes, thin ears, short thumb of the fore-foot bring it into the murine family. The genus was first noted and named by Blyth, who seemed inclined to class it as a dormouse, but this has not been upheld for the reasons given above, and also that _Platacanthomys_ has the normal _murine_ number of molars, viz.: 3--3/3--3, whereas _Myoxus_ has an additional premolar above and below. These points were first brought to notice by Prof. Peters of Berlin (_see_ 'P. Z. S.' 1865, p. 397). There is a coloured plate of the animal in the same volume, but it is not so well executed as most of the illustrations in the Society's works. NO. 316. PLATACANTHOMYS LASIURUS. _The Long-tailed Spiny Mouse_ (_Jerdon's No. 198_). HABITAT.--Southern India. DESCRIPTION.--Light rufescent brown; the under fur paler, more rufous on the forehead and crown; whiskers black; under parts dull white; the hairs on the tail, which are arranged distichously, are darker than those of the body, infuscated except at the tip of the tail, where they are whitish; the muzzle is acute; ears moderate and naked; the fur above is mixed densely with sharp flat spines; the under coat is delicate and fine; the few spines on the lower parts are smaller and finer; the thumb is without a nail. SIZE.--Head and body, 6 inches; tail, 3-1/2, or five inches including the hair; planta, 1 inch. This species was discovered by the Rev. Mr. Baker in the Western Ghats of Malabar, and in Cochin and Travancore, at an elevation of about 3000 feet. He writes of it: "It lives in clefts in the rocks and hollow trees, and is said to hoard ears of grain and roots, seldom comes into the native huts, and in that particular neighbourhood the hillmen told me they are very numerous. I know they are to be found in the rocky mountains of Travancore, but I have never met with them on the plains." In another place he adds: "I have been spending the last three weeks in the Ghats, and, amongst other things, had a great hunt for the new spiny dormice. They are most abundant, I find, in the elevated vales and ravines, living only in the magnificent old trees there, in which they hollow out little cavities, filling them with leaves and moss. The hill people call them the 'pepper-rat,' from their destroying large quantities of ripe pepper (_Piper nigrum_). Angely and jackfruit (_Artocarpus ovalifolia_ and _integrifolia_) are much subject to their ravages. Large numbers of the _shunda_ palm (_Caryota_) are found in these hills, and toddy is collected from them. These dormice eat through the covering of the pot as suspended, and enjoy themselves. Two were brought to me in the pots half drowned. I procured in one morning sixteen specimens. The method employed in obtaining them was to tie long bamboos (with thin little branches left on them to climb by) to the trees; and, when the hole was reached, the man cut the entrance large enough to admit his hand, and took out the nest with the animals rolled up in it, put the whole into a bag made of bark, and brought it down. They actually reached the bottom sometimes without being disturbed. It was very wet, cold weather, and they may have been somewhat torpid; but I started a large brown rat at the foot of one of these trees, which ran up the stem into a hole, and four dormice were out in a minute from it, apparently in terror of their large friend. There were no traces of hoarding in any of the holes, but the soft bark of the trees was a good deal gnawed in places. I had two of these dormice alive for some time, but, as they bit and gnawed at everything intended to keep them in durance, I was obliged to kill both. I noticed that when their tails were elevated, the hairs were perfectly erect like a bottle-brush" ('Proc. As. Soc. Beng.' 1859, p. 290). SUB-FAMILY GERBILLINAE. Incisors narrow; molars divided into transverse laminae; pterygoid fossae short; auditory bullae usually large; hind limbs very long; tail long and hairy. _GENUS GERBILLUS_. Form murine, with the exception of the elongated hind-limbs; muzzle pointed; ears moderate and oval; eyes very large and bright; occipital region broad; auditory bullae large; upper incisors grooved; first molar with three laminae, the second with two, and third with one only; hinder tarsus and toes much elongated; the fore-limbs small; tail long and hairy, with a tuft at the end. [Illustration: Dentition of _Gerbillus_ (magnified).] NO. 317. GERBILLUS INDICUS. _The Indian Jerboa-Rat, or Kangaroo-Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 170_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Hirna-mus_, Hindi; _Jhenku-indur_, Sanscrit and Bengali; _Yeri-yelka_ of the Waddurs; _Tel-yelka_ of the Yanadees; _Billa-ilei_, Canarese. HABITAT.--All over India and in Ceylon, but apparently not in Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Light fulvous brown above or fawn colour, paling on the sides; under-parts white; the hairs of the back are ashy at the base, with fulvous tips, a few thin black hairs intermixed chiefly on the side and cheeks. The eyebrow is whitish; whiskers long and black and a few grey; the nose is elongated; the upper jaw projecting nearly half an inch beyond the lower; tail, which is longer than the body, is blackish above and below, pale laterally, and terminates with a black tufted tip; the ears are large and nearly naked; the eye is particularly large and lustrous, which, with its graceful bounds, have given it its Indian name of "antelope-rat" (_Hirna-mus_). SIZE.--Head and body, about 7 inches; tail, 8-1/2 inches; fore-foot, 5/10 inch; hind-foot, 2 inches. Weight, 6-3/4 ounces. This graceful little creature frequents bare plains and sandy country in general, where it forms extensive burrows. Hardwicke writes of it: "These animals are very numerous about cultivated lands, and particularly destructive to wheat and barley crops, of which they lay up considerable hoards in spacious burrows. A tribe of low-caste Hindus, called Kunjers, go in quest of them at proper seasons to plunder their hoards, and often within the space of twenty yards square find as much corn in the ear as could be crammed in a bushel." Sir Walter Elliot's account of their burrows is most interesting. He says: "The entrances, which are numerous, are small, from which the passage descends with a rapid slope for two or three feet, then runs along horizontally, and sends off branches in different directions. These galleries generally terminate in chambers from half a foot to a foot in width, containing a bed of dried grass. Sometimes one chamber communicates with another furnished in like manner, whilst others appear to be deserted, and the entrances closed with clay. The centre chamber in one burrow was very large, which the Wuddurs attributed to its being the common apartment, and said that the females occupied the smaller ones with their young. They do not hoard their food, but issue from their burrows every evening, and run and hop about, sitting on their hind legs to look round, making astonishing leaps, and on the slightest alarm flying into their holes." This account differs from that of Hardwicke as regards the hoarding of food, and from what I can learn is the more correct. The food of this animal is grain, grass, and roots, but Kellaart mentions certain carnivorous propensities, for one night several of them nearly devoured an albino rat which had been put into the same cage with them. McMaster says of its agility: "I have seen them when released from a trap baffle and elude dogs in the most extraordinary manner by wonderful jumps made over the backs, and apparently into the very teeth of their pursuers." Buchanan-Hamilton's assertion that "these animals live in holes which they dig in the abrupt banks of rivers and ponds" is misleading. They may do so occasionally, but in general they choose sandy plains. The female is prolific, bringing forth from eight to twelve young ones, and Dr. Jerdon states that it is said to have occasionally as many as sixteen to twenty. With regard to Kellaart's accusation of its being carnivorous at times, I may say I have noticed such tendencies amongst several other rodents which are supposed to be purely vegetarians. I have also known ruminants take to flesh-eating when opportunity offered. NO. 318. GERBILLUS HURRIANAE. _The Desert Jerboa-Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 171_). HABITAT.--The sandy deserts west of the Jumna and Hurriana; also in Afghanistan according to Horsfield's Catalogue, and probably in Rajpootana, Sindh, and the Punjab. DESCRIPTION.--Pale rufous or sandy above, with fine dusky lines, the hairs being blackish at the base, the rest fawn coloured, with a blackish tip very minute; sides paler, with fewer dusky lines; under-parts white, tinged more or less with fulvous or fawn on the belly; limbs pale fawn; orbits pale; whiskers whitish, a few of the upper ones dark; tail yellowish-rufous or fawn colour throughout, with a line of dusky brown hairs on the upper surface of the terminal half, gradually increasing in length to the tips. SIZE.--Smaller than the last species. Head and body, 5 inches; tail, 4-1/2. Jerdon says of this rat that it is "exceedingly numerous in the sandy downs and sand-hills of Hurriana, both in jungles and in bare plains, especially in the former, and a colony may be seen at the foot of every large shrub almost. I found that it had been feeding on the kernel of the nut of the common _Salvadora oleifolia_, gnawing through the hard nut and extracting the whole of the kernel. Unlike the last species, this rat, during the cold weather at all events, is very generally seen outside its holes at all hours, scuttling in on the near approach of any one, but soon cautiously popping its head out of its hole and again issuing forth. In the localities it frequents it is far more abundant than I have ever seen _G. Indicus_ in the most favourable spots" ('Mammals of India,' p. 186). NO. 319. GERBILLUS CRYPTORHINUS. _The Lobe-nosed Jerboa-Rat_. HABITAT.--Yarkand. DESCRIPTION.--after Mr. Blanford, who first described and named the species: "Colour above sandy rufescent, some specimens rather more rufous than others; below white, the two colours sharply divided on the sides; cheeks pale; supercilia whitish; feet white; tail above rather more rufous than the back, paler and occasionally whitish below, becoming dark brown or blackish above near the end, and with the slight tuft of longer hairs at the end of the same dark colour; fur soft and glossy, about half an inch long in the middle of the back, all the basal portion being at least three-quarters of the length, dark ashy; the terminal portion pale yellow brown to pale rufous, with numerous longer hairs with black tips mixed; on the under surface the hairs are white throughout; on the tail the hair is rather short, coarse, and close together; there are a very few longer black tips mixed, but scarcely enough to produce an effect in the general colour. "The ears are oval and of moderate length; densely clad with brown hairs on the anterior portion of the outer surface, and with a fringe of longer hairs on the anterior margin; the posterior portion of the external surface is nearly naked, except near the margin, and the anterior portion of the inner surface is completely destitute of hair, but the inner surface is more hairy near the hinder margin. The whiskers are very numerous, the longest slightly exceeding the head; the uppermost behind being black, all the rest white; all are mixed at the base with long hairs, which cover the side of the nose; soles of the fore-feet with scattered white hairs, but nearly naked; those of the hind-feet densely covered with hair everywhere except at the extreme tips of the toes and at the heel. "Mammae, eight--four pectoral and four inguinal, as usual in the genus. "The most remarkable character of these species is the presence at the end of the snout of a semi-circular lobe, which forms a flap completely covering the openings of the nostrils. This lobe can, of course, only be well seen in the specimens preserved in spirit. In the dried skin its presence can sometimes be detected, but not always. In the only spirit specimen, an adult female, the flap measures about 0.3 inch in breadth, and is barely an eighth of an inch long. "It is hairy both outside and inside, the hairs being very short and rather scattered inside; the surface below the nostrils covered by the flap is also hairy. The use of this lobe is evidently to keep out sand and dust from the air passages" (W. T. Blanford's 'Mammalia of the Second Yarkand Mission,' p. 56). SIZE.--Head and body, about 5-1/2 inches; tail, 5 inches; length of fore-foot, 0.5 inch; hind-foot, 1.4 inch. The peculiarity of the lobe, which was first detected by Mr. Oscar Fraser in removing a skull from a spirit specimen, distinguishes this species from the other Asiatic forms. There is also a peculiarity in the skull noticed by Mr. Blanford, which is that the lachrymal process, instead of being anchylosed to the adjoining bones, as in others of the genus, is free, and this species is therefore distinguished from the one most resembling it, _G. unguiculatus_ from Chinese Mongolia, in which the lachrymal process is united to the frontal. NO. 320. GERBILLUS ERYTHRURUS. _The Red-tailed Jerboa-Rat_. HABITAT.--Afghanistan and Persia. DESCRIPTION.--Rufous brown above, with a few long black hairs, more numerous on the rump and thighs; under fur slaty; under-parts white, gradually blending with the colour of the sides; ears much larger than in the last species, hairy outside and near the margin inside; soles of hind feet and toes thickly covered with hair, except on the hinder half of the tarsus; tail very rufous--brown with a black tip, black hairs are scattered along the upper surface, and form a black band towards the end above, finally covering the whole tip. SIZE.--Head and body, about 6 inches; tail, equal. Mr. Blanford, to whose 'Eastern Persia' I am chiefly indebted for the above description, writes: "From _G. Hurrianae_, which Jerdon thought might probably be the same, the present form is distinguished by its much larger ears and by the hind feet, and especially the toes, being more thickly covered with hair beneath; the fur too is longer and the colour browner on the back; the tail is more rufous, and the tip blacker; the skull is larger and broader; the nasal portion more elongate and less concave above, and the hind upper molar has a distinct talon, or rudimentary second transverse ridge, in young specimens, traces of which may be detected in the form of the worn tooth." Its habits are similar to those of the last species. NO. 321. GERBILLUS NANUS. _The Dwarf Jerboa-Rat_. HABITAT.--Baluchistan. DESCRIPTION.--The fur is soft and long, rufous brown or fawn colour above, white below, the colours being less sharply distinguished than in _G. Indicus_; the hairs of the upper parts have no black tips, and the basal two-thirds are slaty grey. There is a broad white supercilium in front, joining the white area of the sides of the face, so that the brown of the nose is reduced to a rather narrow band; ears almost naked, a few short whitish hairs near the edge only; whiskers nearly all white; a few of the upper hairs brown near the base; feet white above, naked beneath, tail light brown above, whitish beneath; towards the end a band of darker brown hairs runs along the upper portion, those at the end lengthened; but there is a less marked tuft than usual, and there are no black hairs at the end (Blanford's 'Eastern Persia,' vol. ii. p. 72, _with plate_). SIZE.--Head and body, 2.6 inches; tail, exclusive of hair, 4.5 inches; hair, 0.55 inches. This curious little animal was first found and named by Mr. W. T. Blanford, who obtained two specimens, with others of _G. Hurrianae_, in a large area of ground that was flooded. He at first supposed them to be the young of _G. Indicus_, but found on subsequent examination that they were full grown. SUB-FAMILY PHLOEMYINAE. Incisors broad; molars divided into transverse laminae; infra-orbital opening typical; claws large. _GENUS NESOKIA_. Muzzle blunt; ears moderate; claws long; fur rather harsh; tail short, scaly, sparsely haired; palate narrow; incisive foramina short; auditory bullae rather small; incisors broad; first molars with three laminae, the rest with only two.--_Alston_. There has been some confusion regarding the species of this genus. Jerdon, in his 'Mammals of India,' gives only two, including _Arvicola Indica_ and _Mus kok_ of Gray, _Mus providens_ of Elliot, and _Mus pyctoris_ of Hodgson, under _Nesokia Indica_, and classifying _Nesokia Huttoni_ with _N. Hardwickii_; but Dr. Anderson, after a most careful examination of specimens from all parts of India, has proved the distinctness of _Mus providens vel kok_ from the species called by Jerdon _Nesokia Indica_, which, being a synonym of _N. Hardwickii_, he has now renamed _Mus (Nesokia) Blythianus_ (_see_ 'Jour. As. Soc. Beng.' 1878, vol. xlvii. pt. ii.), and Mr. Blanford had clearly demonstrated that _N. Huttoni_ is a distinct species from _N. Hardwickii_ ('Zool. of Persia,' vol. ii. p. 59). NO. 322. NESOKIA HARDWICKII. _Hardwick's Field-Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 173_). HABITAT.--North-western India. DESCRIPTION.--General colour sandy brown on the upper parts, paler on the sides, dusky grey, with a tinge of yellowish-rufous on the under-parts; muzzle, feet, and tail flesh-coloured; ears of the same, but rather darker; head short and bluff; muzzle broad and deep; eye moderately large; ears moderate, rounded, clad with minute hairs; fur soft and moderately long, of three kinds, viz. short under-fur, ordinary hairs, and mixed with them, especially on the back and rump, numerous long black hairs which project a good way beyond the fur. SIZE.--Head and body, nearly 8 inches; tail, about 4-1/2 inches. It is probable that this species is identical with _Mus Griffithi_, though the dimensions given by Horsfield ('Cat. Mam. Mus. E. I. Comp.') and the description do not quite agree. He gives the size of head and body at 6-1/2 inches; tail, 3 inches, and says that the teeth are nearly white. NO. 323. NESOKIA HUTTONI. _Hutton's Field-Rat_. HABITAT.--Northern India, Afghanistan and Persia. DESCRIPTION.--Colour above from ferruginous brown to sandy brown, lower parts isabelline, but frequently appear dark in consequence of the fur being thin or worn; the basal portion dark slaty grey both above and below the animal; hairs on the back soft and of moderate length, a very few black hairs being scattered amongst the brown ones; tail naked, and ears almost naked, the latter having only a few extremely short hairs, thinly scattered, and the feet are covered above very sparsely with short whitish hairs (_see_ Blanford's 'Persia,' vol. ii., for description and plate). Nose and feet flesh-coloured; ears and tail darker and brownish; mammae eight, as usual in the genus. According to Dr. A. Barclay (quoted by Dr. Anderson) the holes of this rat do not run deep, but ramify horizontally just below the surface of the ground. It throws out a mound of earth at the exit of the hole. NO. 324. NESOKIA SCULLYI. _Scully's Field-Rat_. NATIVE NAME.--_Mughi_, Turki. HABITAT.--Kashgaria at Sanju, south-east of Yarkand. DESCRIPTION.--Light rufescent brown above, dirty white beneath; fur fine and silky, blackish-grey at the base, and for two-thirds, the last third of the longer hairs being fawn colour; face earthy brown; whiskers black, tipped with white; ears very short, semi-nude; feet and claws flesh-coloured; tail naked, with a few scattered fine short hairs. SIZE.--Head and body, 6.6 inches; tail, 5.2 inches. NO. 325. NESOKIA PROVIDENS. _The Southern India Field-Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 172_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Kok_, Canarese; _Golatta-koku_, Telegu of the Yanadees; _Yea-kwet_ (?) Burmese. HABITAT.--Southern India and Ceylon, probably Burmah, as one species is mentioned there by Blyth. DESCRIPTION.--Head short and truncated, with a deep muzzle; ears nearly round, semi-nude, sparsely covered with minute hairs; eyes moderately large, half-way between snout and ear; feet largish; claws short and stout; tail nearly equalling length of head and body, semi-nude, ringed, and with short brown bristly hairs round the margin of the annuli; whiskers full and long; colour of the fur--which is harsh and long, as in the rest of the genus, and of the usual three kinds--is a brown, mixed with a tinge of fawn; the under-parts are whitish, with a yellowish tinge; the nose, ears, and feet are dark flesh-coloured or brownish, and the feet are covered with short brown hair. The incisors are orange yellow; the claws yellowish. Sir Walter Elliot states that a variety found in red soil is much redder in colour than that inhabiting the black land. The skull is considerably smaller, according to Dr. Anderson, than that of the Bengal _Nesokia_, _N. Blythiana_, of the same age, from which it is also distinguished by its more outwardly arched malar process of the maxillary, by its considerably smaller teeth and long but less open anterior palatine foramina. The brain case is also relatively shorter and more globular than that of _Nesokia Blythiana_. SIZE.--Head and body, about 7 inches; tail, 6-1/2 inches. The habits of this rat are similar to those of the Bengal species, to which I will allude further on, and it has the same way of taking to water when pursued. Jerdon says that this rat is most destructive to tea-trees, biting the roots just below the surface, more, he believes, because they happen to come in the way of their burrows than to feed on them. Sir Walter Elliot writes: "In its habits it is solitary, fierce, living secluded in spacious burrows, in which it stores up large quantities of grain during the harvest, and when that is consumed lives upon the _huryale_ grass and other roots. The female produces from eight to ten at a birth, which she sends out of her burrow as soon as they are able to provide for themselves. When irritated it utters a low grunting cry, like the bandicoot. The race of people known by the name of Wuddurs, or tank-diggers, capture this animal in great numbers as an article of food, and during the harvest they plunder their earths of the grain stored up for their winter consumption, which in favourable localities they find in such quantities as to subsist almost entirely upon it during that season of the year. A single burrow will sometimes yield as much as half a seer (1 lb.) of grain, containing even whole ears of jowaree (_Holchus sorghum_)." Sir Walter Elliot goes on to give a most interesting account of the construction of the burrows of this animal. NO. 326. NESOKIA BLYTHIANA. _The Bengal Field-Rat_. NATIVE NAME.--_Yenkrai_, Bengalee. HABITAT.--From Ghazipur in the North-west to Eastern Bengal and Cachar. Very common about Calcutta. DESCRIPTION.--Fur coarse as in the genus, profusely intermixed with long piles, more numerous on the lumbar and sacral regions, which project a long way beyond the ordinary pelage. The general colour a dark brown with yellowish hairs intermingled, which give a somewhat rufous tinge, paler beneath. Nose, ears, and feet flesh-coloured; tail naked, ringed, and sparsely covered with short bristly hairs at the margin of the rings; feet moderately large; claws short and stout; eyes moderately large, placed a little nearer to the ear than to the snout; ears rounded, semi-nude, covered with a fine down; whiskers black; incisor teeth rich orange, but generally white towards their tips. The female has eight pairs of mammae. SIZE.--Head and body, 8-1/4 inches; tail, 6-1/2 inches. I have already alluded to the distinguishing features of the skull of this species, as compared with _Nesokia providens_. From the skull of _N. Hardwickii_ it differs in its considerably narrower incisors and smaller and more irregularly laminated molars, and by its long and open anterior palatine foramina. It has also a more arched skull (_Anderson_). This animal, which is included in Jerdon's _Nesokia Indica_, is very generally distributed over Lower Bengal. In the neighbourhood of Calcutta, Alipore for instance, it is abundant, and is a great nuisance in gardens. It burrows in tortuous directions, only a few inches below the ground, there being no definite plan, some being more complicated than others--the principal passage leading to a chamber containing a nest of leaves and grass. I have been told by natives that large quantities of grain are stored by these rats. When I first heard of its aquatic powers, I was led to believe that it was a species of vole, and was particularly desirous to get one, not being aware of any true water-rat in India. However, the reports of the natives have been confirmed by what Sir Walter Elliot states regarding the habits of _N. providens_, and by Dr. Anderson, who made several experiments with these rats in captivity. He says: "To test this aquatic power, I had two rats placed in a large wire birdcage, and the cage partially submerged; if the rats, when in those circumstances, were much annoyed, they immediately dived to the bottom of the cage, where they could be observed running about under water. I also had them removed from the cage, and let loose in the large sheet of water in the Zoological Gardens, between the two iron bridges. When let loose at the bank, and an attempt was made to catch them, they immediately dived; and the stronger of the two did not appear at the surface for some time, when it was observed at a considerable distance from the bank making for the opposite side." In confinement these rats are not engaging pets; they show a considerable amount of surliness and ferocity. I have noticed that on approaching the bars of the cage, one would grind its teeth, put back its ears, and fly at you with a grunt. NO. 327. NESOKIA BARCLAYIANA. _Barclay's Field-Rat_. HABITAT.--Northern India, the North-west and some parts of Bengal (Purneah) and Assam. DESCRIPTION.--General colour brownish; under surface silvery grey; feet and muzzle flesh-colour; tail nearly black; claws horny white; a white band from the nose through the eye; muzzle short and bluff; forehead slightly arched; tail exceeding the length of the trunk, but not equal to head and body, ringed, and sparsely clad; fur coarse; piles moderately long. SIZE.--Head and body, about 8-3/4 inches; tail, 7-1/4 inches. This rat was first discovered by Dr. Arthur Barclay at Goona in Central India, and apparently it appears to be identical with specimens collected at Srinagar in Kashmir, in the Purneah district, and in Cachar. * * * * * The next two have usually been classed as true _Mus_, and the latter is to be found in Jerdon; but, from the breadth of the incisors and the lamination of the molars, which are less sinuous and relatively larger than in _Mus_, and from other characteristics of the skull, they are nearer allied to _Nesokia_ than to the true rats. NO. 328. MUS (NESOKIA) ELLIOTANUS. _Elliot's Field-Rat_. HABITAT.--Bengal, Assam, Khasia hills. DESCRIPTION.--This rat is thus described by Dr. Anderson. It is the nearest approach in size to the bandicoot: "Head short and deep; muzzle deep and broad; eye half-way between ear and nose, moderately large; ears not large, rounded, sparsely covered with short hairs; feet large and well developed, with strong claws, and sparsely clad; tail sparsely covered with short bristles on the margins of the annuli, and nearly equalling the length of the body and head. Pelage coarse, with moderately large piles, most numerous on the back; vibrissae moderately long. "General colour, above brown, with intermixed yellowish or pale brown hairs producing much the same colour as in _M. (N.) Blythianus_; paler on the sides, and passing into greyish on the under-parts; nose and feet flesh-coloured; ears dark brown; tail blackish" ('J. A. S. B.' 1878, vol. xlvii; pt. ii. p. 231). NO. 329. MUS (NESOKIA) GIGANTEUS. _The Bandicoot_ (_Jerdon's No. 174_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Indur_, Sanscrit; _Ghunse_, Hindi; _Ikria_, Bengali; _Heggin_, Canarese; _Pandi-koku_, i.e. pig-rat, Telegu; _Oora-meyoo_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Throughout India; also in Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Fur coarse, consisting of the three kinds, of which the coarser piles are very long, and almost hide the general pelage on the lumbar and dorsal regions. These piles are almost absent on the head, neck, and sides; general colour earthy brown, with yellowish hairs intermixed; the piles blackish-brown; under-parts dusky brown, mixed with grey; limbs brownish; nose, inside of ear and feet flesh-coloured; tail black, ringed, and sparsely haired. The female has twelve mammae. SIZE.--Head and body, from 12 to 15 inches; tail, from 11 to 13. Weight, about 3 lbs. This is a well known rat, but it is not common in Calcutta, although supposed to be so. People frequently mistake very large specimens of the common brown house-rat (_Mus decumanus_) for this animal, which, Blyth remarks, is rare here. Jerdon states that it is common in the fort of Madras, where he killed many, some of large size. When assailed it grunts like a pig, hence its Telegu name _Pandi-koku_, from which the word bandicoot is derived. McMaster states that the bandicoot, though so formidable in appearance, does not show so good a fight as an ordinary English rat, being a sluggish and cowardly animal; and though, from its size and weight, it takes a good deal of worrying, it seldom does much in self defence, and any moderately good dog can kill it with ease. It is however a most destructive animal, doing much damage to granaries, gardens, and even poultry-yards. In some parts of the country, as for instance Fort St. George in Madras, Government used to pay a reward of one anna for every bandicoot killed within the walls. SUB-FAMILY CRICETINAE. CHARACTER.--Molars tuberculate; infra-orbital opening sub-typical, not much narrowed below, and the perpendicular plate little developed; large internal cheek pouches.--_Alston_. _GENUS CRICETUS--THE HAMSTERS_. Form thick-set, with short limbs and tail, the latter sparsely haired, not scaly. "Skull with marked but rounded supra-orbital ridges continued into temporal ridges; coronoid process high and falcate" (_Alston_). The incisors are plain; the molars tuberculated when young, but in the old animal the tubercles are worn down and exhibit laminae. They are very nearly related to the true rats, but differ conspicuously in the possession of large cheek pouches--like those of the pouched monkeys, into which they stuff the grain they carry to their burrows. The hind-limbs have five toes, the fore-feet four only, the thumb being represented by a wart. The European hamster is a very destructive little animal, from its numbers and the quantity of grain it stores away in its burrows. They have two sets of burrows for summer and winter, the latter being the deepest and most complicated. They pass the winter in a torpid state, but make up for it by their activity in the summer months. The young are produced twice in the year and in number varying from six to eighteen, and they develop very rapidly. Their eyes open in about a week, and when a fortnight old the parents drive them off to shift for themselves. The European hamster is a most savage little creature, and has been known to attack even a red-hot bar, and hold on in spite of the pain. [Illustration: Dentition of _Cricetus_.] [Illustration: _Cricetus_.] * * * * * The two following are dwarf species--_Cricetulus_ of some authors:--[22] [Footnote 22: Dallas mentions (Cassell's 'Nat. Hist.') a species from Kumaon, _Cricetus songarus_.] NO. 330. CRICETUS PHAEUS. _The Persian Hamster_. HABITAT.--Yarkand, Gilgit, Persia. DESCRIPTION.--Cinereous above, white below; the colour varies from pure ashy grey to grey with an isabelline tinge.--_Blanford_. SIZE.--Head and body, about 4 inches; tail, 1-1/4 inches. NO. 331. CRICETUS FULVUS. _The Sandy Hamster_. HABITAT.--Yarkand, Gilgit. DESCRIPTION.--Colour above light sandy brown to sandy grey; no band down the back; lower parts, feet, and tail white; fur very soft, fully half an inch long in the middle of the back in some specimens. Rather larger than the last species. (_See_ Blanford's 'Second Yarkand Mission,' p. 45.) SIZE.--Head and body about 4-1/2 inches; tail about 1-1/2 inches. SUB-FAMILY MURINAE. CHARACTER.--Molars tuberculate, at least in youth; infra-orbital opening typical; pterygoid fossae lengthened; auditory bullae moderate; cheek pouches absent or very small; tail scaly, more or less naked, cosmopolitan (_Alston_). Three molars in each jaw, the first of which is the largest and the hinder one the least. I think that, with the exception of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, some of the members of this family are known in every quarter of the globe. _GENUS MUS_. "Muzzle pointed; eyes prominent; ears rather large, sub-naked; fur soft (rarely mixed with spines); pollex rudimentary; claws short; tail moderate or long, scaly, with scattered hairs; no cheek pouches; skull elongate, narrow; temporal ridges nearly parallel; palate compressed; incisive foramina long; auditory bullae moderately large; coronoid process high, falcate; incisors rarely grooved; molars with transverse ridges, each composed in youth of three tubercles" (_Alston_). NO. 332. MUS RATTUS. _The Black Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 175_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Kala-mus_, _Kala-chuha_, Hindi; _Kala-meeyo_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Chiefly Europe, but is said to be of south Asian origin; it is stated to occur in towns near the sea-coast in India, and Kellaart obtained it in Trincomalee only. DESCRIPTION.--Greyish-black above, dark ashy beneath, or, as Kellaart describes it, "above blackish-brown, along the dorsal line nearly black; sides paler, some of the hairs with pale fulvous tips; beneath and inside of limbs fur very short, of a uniform sooty ash colour, separated from the colour above by a distinct line of demarcation; ears large, rounded, slightly fulvous externally" ('Prodromus Faunae Zeylanicae,' p. 58). [Illustration: Dentition of Black Rat.] SIZE.--Head and body about 6-1/2 to 7-1/2 inches; tail, 7-1/2 to 8 inches. Jerdon says of this rat that the muzzle is sharper than that of the brown rat; the ears are more oval; it is lighter in its make, and has much longer hair. Whether this rat be, as Jerdon seems to suspect, imported into India in ships or not, it is generally supposed to have had its origin in southern Asia, and is almost identical with the Egyptian rat (_M. Alexandrinus_). It was the common rat of England, and indeed of northern Europe, whence it was expelled by its formidable rival, the brown rat, before which it has gradually receded, and it is seldom found now in England. NO. 333. MUS DECUMANUS. _The Brown Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 176_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Ghur-ka-chuha_, Hindi; _Demsa-indur_, Bengali; _Manei-ilei_, Canarese; _Gaval-meeyo_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Throughout India, Ceylon, and in some parts of Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Fur greyish-brown, mixed with tawny above, with longer piles of a dark colour, almost black; ears round; tail generally longer than head and body, scaly, with short bristles at the margins of the rings. SIZE.--Head and body, from 8 to 10 inches; tail, from 6 to 11 inches. The brown rat of India is identical with that of Europe, most naturalists being now agreed that it originally came from the East. It was supposed by Pallas that the brown rat crossed over into Russia about the year 1727. When frightened by an earthquake, numbers swam over the Volga from countries bordering on the Caspian Sea. It seems to have driven out the black rat before it wherever it made its appearance. In England it was introduced by shipping about the middle of the last century, and has since then increased to such an extent as to swarm over the whole country, and render the old English black rat a comparatively rare animal. From its ferocity and fecundity the brown rat is a veritable pest; if it cannot beat a retreat from an enemy it will show most determined fight, and in large numbers will attack and kill even men. A story is related by Robert Stephenson, the great engineer, that in a coal-pit in which many horses were employed, the rats, allured by the grain, had gathered in large numbers. On the pit being closed for a short time, and the horses being brought up, the first man who descended on the re-opening of the work was killed, and devoured by the starving rats. Similar stories have been told of men in the sewers of Paris. In the horse slaughterhouses at Montfaucon in Paris, the rats swarm in such incredible numbers that the carcases of horses killed during the day would be picked clean to the bone during the night; sometimes upwards of thirty horses would be so devoured. This shows the carnivorous tendencies of these abominable pests. I confess to a general love for all animals, but I draw the line at rats. There is something repulsive about one of these creatures, and a wicked look about his large protruding eye, like a black glistening bead, and his ways are not pleasant; instead of keeping, as he ought, to sweet grain and pleasant roots, he grubs about for all the carrion and animal matter he can get. I find there is no bait so enticing to the brown rat as a piece of chicken or meat of any kind. I have heard stories of their attacking children, and even grown-up people when asleep, but I cannot vouch for the truth of this beyond what once happened to myself. I was then inhabiting a house which swarmed with these creatures, and one night I awoke with a sharp pain in my right arm. Jumping up, I disturbed a rat, who sprang off the bed, and was chased and killed by me. I found he had given me a nip just below the elbow. I once had a most amusing rat-hunt in the house I now occupy. I had then just taken it over on the part of the Government, in 1868. The whole building is floored with polished marble, which, being new, was like looking-glass. I found an enormous rat, which I took for a bandicoot, in one of the bath-rooms, and, shutting him in for a while, I closed the doors of a very large room adjoining, which was quite empty, and then turned my friend in with a small black-and-tan terrier. The scrimmage that ensued was most laughable, as both rat and dog kept slipping and sliding all over the place. At last the former was pinned in a corner, where he made a most determined stand, and left several marks before he died. They seldom now come so high as the third story, but we had two or three last year which dug a hole through a brick wall into my study, and they were surreptitiously disposed of unknown to my eldest little girl, whose passionate love for every living creature made her take even the rats under her protection, and one of them would come out every morning in the verandah to be fed by her with crumbs and grain. This one was spared for a while, but I was not sorry to find one day that it had fallen into a tub of water in a bath-room and was drowned. The brown rat breeds several times in the year, and has from ten to fourteen at a time, and it is to be hoped that there is considerable mortality amongst the infants. I have never kept rats as pets, but have noticed amongst mice a tendency on the part of the mother to devour her offspring. I have no doubt that this also is the case with the brown rat, and aids in keeping down its numbers. It is stated that they will attack, kill, and eat each other. The Rev. J. G. Wood remarks in his Natural History: "From some strange cause the male rats far outnumber the females, the proportion being about eight of the former to three or four of the latter. This disproportion of the sexes may possibly be caused by the cannibalistic habits of the rat, the flesh of the female being more tender than that of the opposite sex. Whatever may be the cause, it is clear that the wider increase of these creatures is greatly checked by the comparative paucity of females." During the late siege of Paris by the Germans, amongst the various articles of food which necessity brought into use, rats held a high place as a delicacy. It is a difficult matter to stop the burrowing of rats; the best plan is to fill the holes with Portland cement mixed with bits of bottle glass broken in small pieces. It is said that quicklime will temporarily prevent rats from entering a hole, as the lime burns their feet. A friend of mine lately told me of some wonderful Japanese bird-lime which he uses. It is spread on a board, and will retain any rat that puts even one foot on it. An albino variety is common, and is sold for pets. Rats are partial to certain scents, and some are consequently used by trappers. In Cooley's 'Cyclopaedia' the following receipts are given:-- 1. Powdered cantharides steeped in French brandy. It is said that rats are so fond of this that if a little be rubbed on the hands they may be handled with impunity. 2. Powdered assafoetida 8 grains, oil of rhodium 2 drams, oil of aniseed 1 dram, oil of lavender 1/2 dram. Mix by agitation. 3. Oil of aniseed 1/2 ounce, tincture assafoetida 1/4 ounce. 4. Oil of aniseed 1/4 ounce, nitrous acid 2 to 3 drops, musk (triturated with a little sugar) 1 grain. These scents are not only rubbed on traps, but a few drops are mixed with the various rat poisons, of which perhaps the most efficacious is phosphorous paste. NO. 334. MUS ANDAMANENSIS. _The Andaman Rat_. HABITAT.--The Andaman and Nicobar islands. DESCRIPTION.--A little darker on the back than _Mus decumanus_, paler on the sides, and dull white below. "The long piles are at once distinguished by their flattened spinous character, which is also slightly the case in _M. rattus_, though much less conspicuously than in the present species. It would appear to be a burrower in the ground" (_Blyth_). Ears round as in the brown rat. SIZE.--Head and body, about 8 inches; tail the same. NO. 335. MUS ROBUSTULUS. _The Burmese Common Rat_. HABITAT.--British Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Dark-brown above, under-parts whitish, stoutly formed, with tail not quite so long as head and body; feet conspicuously white. SIZE.--Head and body, about 6 inches; tail, a little shorter. Mr. Mason remarks of this rat that they are only second to the white ants for the mischief they perpetrate. "They burrow in the gardens, and destroy the sweet potatoes; they make their nests in the roofs by day, and visit our houses and larders by night. They will eat into teak drawers, boxes, and book-cases, and can go up and down anything but glass. In the province of Tonghoo they sometimes appear in immense numbers before harvest, and devour the paddy like locusts. In both 1857 and 1858 the Karens on the mountains west of the city lost all their crops from this pest." They seem to migrate in swarms, and cross rivers by swimming. Mr. Cross captured one out of a pair he observed swimming the Tenasserim river at a place where it is more than a quarter of a mile wide. _M. Berdmorei_ is the same as this species. * * * * * The following three are Burmese rats collected by Dr. Anderson during the Yunnan Expedition, and are new species named by him:-- NO. 336. MUS SLADENI. _Sladen's Rat_. HABITAT.--Kakhyen hills; Ponsee at 3500 feet. DESCRIPTION.--Head rather elongated; snout somewhat elongate; muzzle rather deep; ears large and rounded, sparsely clad with short hairs; feet well developed, hinder ones rather strong; claws moderately long and sharp; the feet pads markedly developed, indicating an arboreal habit of life; tail slightly exceeding length of head and body, coarsely ringed, there being three rings to each one-tenth of an inch; the hairs sparse and brown; general colour of upper surface reddish-brown, more rufous than brownish, palest on the head, many hairs with broad yellow tips; cheeks greyish-rufous; chin, throat, and chest whitish, also the remaining under-parts, but with a tinge of yellowish; ears and tail pale brownish. (Abridged from Anderson's 'Anat. and Zool. Res.' p. 305.) SIZE.--Head and body of one, about 6.30 inches; tail, 7.20 inches. Dr. Anderson says this species is closely allied to Hodgson's _Mus nitidus_, but its skull is less elongated, with a shorter facial portion, with very much shorter nasals, and with a more abruptly defined frontal contraction than either in _M. nitidus_ or _M. rufescens_ so called. He adds that this appears to be both a tree and a house rat. NO. 337. MUS RUBRICOSA. _The Small Red Rat of the Kakhyen Hills_. HABITAT.--Kakhyen hills and the Burma-Chinese frontier at Ponsee, and in the houses of the Shan Chinese at Hotha. DESCRIPTION.--"Snout moderately pointed and long; ears small, and somewhat pointed; hind foot long and narrow; claws moderately long, compressed and sharply pointed; upper surface dark rusty brown, darkest on the middle and back, and palest on the muzzle, head and shoulder; on the sides and lower part of shoulder the reddish brown tends to pass into greyish; feet greyish; the sides of the snout greyish; all the under-parts silvery grey tending to white, without any trace of rufous, or but with a very faint yellowish blush; the tail, dull brown, is somewhat shorter than the body and head, and it is coarsely ringed, 2-1/2 rings to one-tenth of an inch, the hair being short, sparse, and dark brown" ('Anat. and Zool. Res.' p. 306). SIZE.--Head and body, 5.70 inches; tail, 5.15 inches. NO. 338. MUS YUNNANENSIS. _The Common House Rat of Yunnan_. HABITAT.--Yunnan, at Ponsee; Hotha and Teng-yue-chow. DESCRIPTION.--"Muzzle rather short and broad; ear large and rounded, its height considerably exceeding the distance between the inner canthus and the front of the muzzle, sparsely clad with short hairs; feet well developed; hind foot moderately long; pads prominent; claws compressed, strong, curved, and sharp; tail coarsely ringed, three rings to one-tenth of an inch; upper surface dark rich brown, with intermixed pale hairs, with broad brown tips, the sides of the face below the moustachial area, chin, throat, and all the under-parts yellowish washed with rufous; the ears and tail dusky brown; feet pale yellowish, and more or less brownish above; the tail varies in length, but is generally longer than the body and head, although it may occasionally fall short of that length" ('Anat. and Zool. Res.' pp, 306, 307). SIZE.--Head and body, 5.70 inches; tail, 5.65 inches. An adult female had a much longer tail. NO. 339. MUS INFRALINEATUS. _The Striped-bellied Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 178_). HABITAT.--Madras; Bustar forests. DESCRIPTION.--"Above, the fur fulvous, with the shorter hairs lead coloured; throat, breast, and belly pure white, with a central pale fulvous brown streak; tail slightly hairy."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 5-1/2 inches; tail, not quite 5 inches; another about 5 inches; tail, 4-1/4 inches. Jerdon calls this a field rat in his popular name for it, but I think that the term should be restricted to the _Nesokia_ or true field and earth-burrowing rats. He is of opinion that Gray's _Mus fulvescens_ from Nepal is the same, the description tallying to some extent, concluding with: "in one specimen a central yellow streak," i.e. on the belly. NO. 340. MUS BRUNNEUS. _The Tree Rat_ (_Jerdon's. No. 179_). HABITAT.--India and Ceylon. The common house rat of Nepal. DESCRIPTION.--Above rusty brown; below rusty, more or less albescent; extremities pale, almost flesh-coloured; ears rather long; head rather elongated; tail equal to and sometimes exceeding head and body. SIZE.--Head and body, from 8-1/2 to 9-1/2 inches; tail, from 9 to 9-1/2 inches. Jerdon states that this rat, which Dr. Gray considered identical with _M. decumanus_ (_see_ 'Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.' vol. xv. 1845, p. 267), "is to be found throughout India, not habitually living in holes, but coming into houses at night; and, as Blyth remarks, often found resting during the day on the _jhil-mil_ or venetian blinds. It makes a nest in mango-trees or in thick bushes and hedges. Hodgson calls it the common house rat of Nepal, and Kellaart also calls it the small house rat of Trincomalee." It is probable that this is the rat which used to trouble me much on the outskirts of the station of Nagpore. It used to come in at night, evidently from outside, for the house was not one in which even a mouse could have got shelter, with masonry roof, and floors paved with stone flags. Kellaart evidently considered it as distinct from _M. decumanus_, which he stated to be rare in houses in the town of Trincomalee, though abundant in the dockyard. NO. 341. MUS RUFESCENS. _The Rufescent Tree Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 180_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Gachua-indur_, Bengali; _Ghas-meeyo_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--India generally; Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Fur above pale yellowish-brown; under fur lead coloured, mixed with longer piles of stiff, broad, plumbeous black tipped hairs; head long; muzzle narrow; whiskers long and black; ears large, subovate, slightly clad with fine hairs; eyes large; incisor teeth yellow; feet brownish above, but the sides and toes are whitish; tail longer than head and body. SIZE.--Head and body, from 5-1/2 to 7-1/2 inches; tail from 6-1/2 to 8-1/2 inches. This is _M. flavescens_ of Elliot, and is so noticed in Kellaart's 'Prodromus.' He calls it "the white-bellied tree-rat of Ceylon," and he states that it lives on trees or in the ceiling of houses in preference to the lower parts. Sir Walter Elliot observed it chiefly in stables and out-houses at Dharwar. According to Buchanan-Hamilton it makes its nests in cocoanut-trees and bamboos, bringing forth five or six young in August and September. "They eat grains, which they collect in their nests, also young cocoanuts. They enter houses at night, but do not live there." Kellaart's _M. tetragonurus_ is a variety of this, if not identical. NO. 342. MUS NIVEIVENTER. _The White-bellied House Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 181_). HABITAT.--The lower Himalayan ranges. DESCRIPTION.--"Above blackish-brown, shaded with rufous; below entirely pure white, tail and all."--_Blyth_. SIZE.--Head and body, 5-1/4 to 7 inches; tail, 6 to 7-1/2 inches. Hodgson stated this to be a house rat in Nepal, but not very common. Jerdon found it common at Darjeeling. Specimens have been received from Mussoorie. NO. 343. MUS NITIDUS. _The Shining Brown Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 182_). HABITAT.--Nepal; Darjeeling. DESCRIPTION.--Dusky brown above, dusky hoary below. According to Hodgson it is "distinguished for its smooth coat or pelage, wherein the long hairy piles are almost wanting. It is a house rat, like _M. niveiventer_, but much rarer, and frequents the mountains rather than the valleys." The long hairs are 11/16 inch in length, horny at the base, with black tip, the short fur ashy, with rufous tips. SIZE.--Head and body, 6-1/2 inches; tail 7-1/4 inches. Blyth writes of this species ('J. A. S. B.' vol. xxxii. 1863, p. 343): "We have several specimens of what I take to be this rat from Darjeeling. They are especially distinguished by the fineness and softness of the fur. One specimen only, of eight from Darjeeling, which I refer to this species, has the lower parts pure white, abruptly defined." There is a smaller rat, only four inches in length, which agrees exactly with the above, which Hodgson named _M. horietes_. It is not mentioned in Blyth's Catalogue, but it has not been overlooked by Blyth, as Jerdon's remarks would lead one to suppose, for in the 'Memoir on the Rats and Mice in India,' by the former, in the 'J. A. S. B.' vol. xxxii. for 1863, it is entered with a quotation from Hodgson. NO. 344. MUS CAUDATIOR. _The Chestnut Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 183_). HABITAT.--The lower Eastern Himalayas, i.e., Nepal, Darjeeling, &c.; also in Burmah, Lower Pegu, and Martaban. DESCRIPTION.--"Above a fine bright cinnamon colour, with inconspicuous black tips; the under-parts white, which is abruptly divided from the cinnamon hue above" (_Blyth_). Sometimes yellowish-white (_Jerdon_). Muzzle sharp; ears and tail long. SIZE.--Head and body, about six inches; tail, 7-3/4 inches. According to Blyth the Nepal specimens are darker than those from Burmah, which he says "differs only from the Nepalese animal of Mr. Hodgson by having the upper parts entirely of a bright cinnamon colour." NO. 345. MUS CONCOLOR. _The Common Thatch Rat of Pegu_. HABITAT.--Upper and Lower Burmah, Malayan peninsula. DESCRIPTION.--I have been unable to trace any accurate description of this rat, which Blyth says "conducts from the long-tailed arboreal rats to the ordinary house mice." In his 'Catalogue of the Mammals of Burmah,' published in the 'Jour. Asiatic Soc. Beng.' for 1875, he remarks that "it requires to be critically examined in the fresh state." In the 'J. A. S. B.,' vol. xxviii. p. 295, he describes a young one as dark greyish mouse colour; but this is not reliable, as the young rats and mice change colour as they attain full growth.[23] [Footnote 23: Since writing the above, Dr. Anderson has kindly allowed me to examine the specimens of _Mus concolor_ in the museum, and in the adult state they are considerably more rufescent. In one specimen, allowing for the effects of the spirit, the fur was a bright rufescent brown; but, whatever be the tint of the prevailing colour, it pervades the whole body, being but slightly paler on the under-parts. Size, about 4 inches; tail, about 4-1/2 inches.--R. A. S.] NO. 346. MUS PALMARUM. _The Nicobar Tree Rat_. HABITAT.--Nicobar Islands. NO. 347. MUS CEYLONUS. HABITAT.--Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Fur soft, lead colour; hair of upper parts tipped with dark fawn and black; ears large, naked; whiskers long, black; tail longer than the head and body, scaly. SIZE.--Head and body, 4-3/4 inches; tail, 6 inches. "This small rat is found in out-houses in the cinnamon gardens at Colombo. I have no reason to think it to be the young of the former species (_M. decumanus_); the teeth were well developed; the darker colour and long tail will easily distinguish the species from other Colombo rats" (_Kellaart_). The character of the molar teeth is all that can be depended on in the foregoing description, and this may require further investigation. The young of rats and mice are always darker than the adults, and the tail is longer in proportion. * * * * * The following are doubtful species:-- NO. 348. MUS PLURIMAMMIS. _Jerdon's No. 177_. This, which Blyth considered a good species, is, I am informed, referable with _M. Taraiyensis_ and _M. Morungensis_ to Gray's _Nesokia Bengalensis_. The type and drawing of it are in the British Museum. NO. 349. MUS AEQUICAUDALIS. of Hodgson, described in Horsfield's Catalogue as pure dark brown above, with a very slight cast of rufescent in a certain aspect; underneath from the chin to the vent, with interior of thighs, yellowish-white; ears nearly an inch long; head proportionately long ('Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.' new series, iii. p. 203). This, with Blyth's _M. nemoralis_, seems identical with _M. brunneus_. _Mus arboreus_ of Horsfield's Catalogue is _Mus rufescens_. It remains to be seen whether there is sufficient difference between _M. rufescens_ and _M. niveiventer_ to warrant the separation of the latter as a distinct species. * * * * * The following species lead on to the mice--beginning with the long-tailed arboreal species, _Vandeleuria_ of Gray, which connect the arboreal rats with the house mice. The characteristics of _Vandeleuria_ are: upper incisors triangular, grooved in front; ears hairy; fur soft, with long bristles interspersed; long tail, sparsely haired; hind feet very long, slender; soles bald beneath; toes .45 long, slender, compressed, the pads much more strongly developed than in ground mice; the inner and outer toes with a small flattened nail. NO. 350. MUS OLERACEUS. _The Long-tailed Tree Mouse_ (_Jerdon's No. 184_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Marad-ilei_, Canarese; _Meina-yelka_, Telegu of the Yanadees (_Jerdon_). HABITAT.--Throughout India from north to south, but has not been reported from Ceylon. In Burmah Dr. Anderson found it in the valley of the Nampoung, a frontier stream dividing Burmah from China. DESCRIPTION.--Upper surface rich rufous or chestnut red, paling to brown on the ears and muzzle before the eyes; under-parts white, with a yellowish tinge; feet pale brown, shading off into white on the toes; under surface of feet yellowish; tail brownish or dusky with grey hairs; it tapers to a point, finely ringed; sparsely haired between the rings, the hairs more numerous and longer towards the tips. The length of the head, according to Dr. Anderson, whose description ('Anat. and Zool. Res.' p. 313) is more complete than Jerdon's, is about one-third the length of the body; the muzzle is moderately long and slightly contracted behind the moustachial area; eyes large; ears ovate, sparsely clad. SIZE.--Head and body, from 2-1/2 to 3 inches; tail one-half longer than the combined length of body and head. Jerdon says of this pretty little mouse that "it is most abundant in the south of India, where it frequents trees, and very commonly palm-trees, on which it is said to make its nest generally. It, however, occasionally places its nest in the thatch of houses, on beams, &c. It is very active, and from its habits difficult to procure" ('Mammals of India,' p. 202). According to Sykes it constructs its nest of oleraceous herbs in the fields, and Hodgson states it to tenant woods and coppices in Nepal. NO. 351. MUS NILAGIRICUS. _The Neilgherry Tree Mouse_ (_Jerdon's No. 185_). HABITAT.--Ootacamund. DESCRIPTION.--"Above deep but bright chestnut brown, beneath bright fawn yellow, with a distinct line of demarcation between the two colours; head rather elongated; ears long, oval; tail somewhat hairy."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/2 inches; tail, 5 inches. This tree mouse was discovered and named by Dr. Jerdon. He says: "The first I observed was brought into the house by a cat. I afterwards, on two or three occasions, found the nest, a mass of leaves and grass, on shrubs and low trees, from four to five feet from the ground, and on one occasion it was occupied by at least eight or ten apparently full-grown mice." NO. 352. MUS BADIUS. _The Bay Tree Mouse_. HABITAT.--The valley of the Sittang, Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--"Similar to _M. oleraceus_, but with the eye fully twice as large, and black whiskers; colour of the upper parts a more rufous chestnut or cinnamon hue, of the lower parts white, almost pure."--_Blyth_. SIZE.--Head and body, 3 inches; tail, 4-3/8 inches. NO. 353. MUS GLIROIDES. _The Cherrapoonjee Tree Mouse_. HABITAT.--Khasia hills. DESCRIPTION.--Fur exceedingly dense and fine, of a light brown, tinged with fawn; the basal two-thirds of the piles are dusky ash coloured; the lower parts are white, very faintly tinged with fawn; the white purest about the lips and chin; whiskers long; feet large and sparsely clad with white hairs; a distinct brown mark on each hind foot reaching almost to the division of the toes; ears smallish, ovoid, naked. SIZE.--Head and body, 2 inches; tail (?) mutilated. Blyth says this animal has much of the aspect of the European dormouse (_Myoxus avellanarius_), but nothing is said about its dentition, which would at once settle the question whether the young specimen with its imperfect tail were a true _Mus_ or a species of _Myoxus_.[24] [Footnote 24: See Appendix A for description and dentition of _Myoxus_.] NO. 354. MUS PEGUENSIS. _The Pegu Tree Mouse_. HABITAT.--The Sittang valley, Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Fulvescent olive brown on the upper parts, yellowish-white below; whiskers remarkably long; the tail very long and conspicuously haired towards the tip; more so, Blyth remarks, than any other mouse, especially when held up to the light. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/8 inches; tail, 3-7/8; in one specimen, 4-1/2 inches. * * * * * We now come to the terrestrial or house mice. NO. 355. MUS URBANUS. _The Common Indian Mouse_ (_Jerdon's No. 186_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Lengtia-indur_, Bengali; _Mesuri_, _Musi_, _Chuhi_, Hindi. HABITAT.--Throughout India and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Somewhat resembling the English mouse, but with very much longer, coarser tail, larger eyes, and smaller ears; dusky reddish-brown above, somewhat paler below; the feet paler still, whitish in some; the tail nude, thick at base, longer by an inch than the head and body, and of a dark brown colour. The young are more dusky. SIZE.--Head and body, about 2 to 3 inches; tail, 3 to 4 inches. I have kept these mice in confinement for considerable periods, and have had many opportunities of studying their habits of late. During many years' residence in the Currency Office, I never once found a mouse in my private quarters on the third story, although I frequently observed them in the vaults and strong rooms on the ground floor. During my absence at Simla in 1880 my quarters were unoccupied, as the Public Works Department were giving the building a thorough repair. It was then, I suppose, a few of the mice from the ground floor were driven upstairs, and, being unmolested by us, as we liked to see the little things playing about, they increased to a most uncomfortable extent within eight months. I failed to discover their breeding places, though I suspect they made much use of a large doll's-house for the purpose, for on taking out the front staircase, under which the bells of the establishment were hung, I found a nest of torn paper, and I caught two young ones in one of the rooms. Some of them came out every night whilst we were at dinner, and paid a visit to a rose-headed parraquet (_Palaeornis rosa_), mounting up on Polly's perch, and sitting down to supper in the tin receptacles for food at each end. She generally treated them with silent contempt, or gave a snappish little peck if they were too familiar; sometimes, when they were too sky-larky, she retreated to her ring above, where she swung and looked down at them from a coign of vantage. Their agility in running up and down the wires of a cage is marvellous. They have also an extraordinary faculty for running up a perpendicular board, and the height from which they can jump is astounding. One day, in my study, I chased one of these mice on to the top of a book-case. Standing on some steps, I was about to put my hand over him, when he jumped on to the marble floor and ran off. I measured the height, and have since measured it again, 8 feet 9-1/2 inches. I consider this species the most muscular of all mice of the same size. I have had at the same time in confinement an English mouse (albino), a Bengal field mouse, and house mice from Simla of another species, and none of them could show equal activity. I use, for the purpose of taming mice, a glass fish-globe, out of which none of the other mice could get, but I have repeatedly seen specimens of _M. urbanus_ jump clear out of the opening at the top. They would look up, gather their hind quarters together, and then go in for a high leap. They are much more voracious than the Simla or other mice. The allowance of food given would be devoured in less than half the time taken by the others, and they are more given to gnawing. What sort of mothers they are in freedom I know not, but one which produced four young ones in one of my cages devoured her offspring before they were a week old. I have two before me just now as I write, and they have had a quarrel about the highest place on a little grated window. The larger one got the advantage, so the other seized hold of her tail, and gave it a good nip. * * * * * Now we come to some doubtful species, doubtful in the sense that they should not be separated, but considered as one to be named afterwards, according to priority of discovery. Dr. Anderson is at present investigating the matter, and we must await his decision, but from such external observations as I have been able to make, it appears probable that the following will prove identical:-- _Mus homourus_; _Mus Darjeelingensis_; _Mus Tytleri_; _Mus Bactrianus_; _Mus cervicolor_(?)--_Jerdon's Nos. 187, 189, 190, 191, and 192_. These are all hill mice, except the last, and found under the same conditions. NO. 356. MUS HOMOURUS. HABITAT.--Lower Himalayan range. DESCRIPTION.--Dark rufescent above, rufescent white below; hands and feet fleshy white; tail equal to length of head and body; "fur more gerbille-like in character than in _M. musculus_" (or _urbanus_), stated to be the common house mouse of the Himalayan hill stations from the Punjab to Darjeeling. Stated by Hodgson to have eight teats only in the female, other mice having ten. Possibly his description was founded on young specimens. I myself was of opinion for some time that I had got two species of hill mice, a larger and a smaller, the latter being so much darker in colour, but I kept them till the young ones attained full size in six months, at which time they were not distinguishable from the old ones. Hodgson may have overlooked the pectoral mammae when he noted the number. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/2 inches; tail, 3-1/2 inches. NO. 357. MUS DARJEELINGENSIS. DESCRIPTION.--Dusky brown, with a slight chestnut reflection; under-parts pale yellowish-white. SIZE.--Head and body, 3 inches; tail, 2-1/2 inches. NO. 358. MUS TYTLERI. HABITAT.--Dehra Doon. DESCRIPTION.--Fur long and full, pale, sandy mouse-coloured above, isabelline below; pale on the well-clad limbs, and also on the tail laterally and underneath. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-3/4 inches; tail, 2-3/4 inches. NO. 359. MUS BACTRIANUS. HABITAT.--Punjab, Kashmir, Candahar, Baluchistan, and Southern Persia. DESCRIPTION.--Upper parts brown above, with a sandy tinge, more on the head; the longer hairs with a dusky tip; the basal two-thirds deep ash; under-parts and feet white; tail clad thinly with fine whitish hair; the fur in general long, dense, and silky. SIZE.--Head and body, from 2-1/4 to 3-1/4 inches; tail, about the same. This is the mouse, I think, that I caught in the house at Simla in 1880. Of eight specimens I got--seven in a cupboard in the dining-room and one in a bath-room--I sent two in spirits to the Indian Museum and brought down to Calcutta three alive, which I kept for about seven months, when they died. I have since then seen living specimens of _M. bactrianus_ from Kohat, with which they appear to be identical. They also resemble--I speak under correction--_M. cervicolor_, which is a field mouse found in Bengal. I made the following notes regarding them: Fur very fine, close and silky, rufescent brown, more rufous on the head, isabelline below; feet flesh-coloured, hinder ones large, much larger than those of the English mouse; the hind-quarters are also more powerful; has a very pretty way of sitting up, with the body bent forwards, and its hands clasped in an attitude of supplication. The young mice seem darker both above and below, and are much more shy than the old ones, of which one soon after being caught took bits of cake from my fingers through the bars of its cage. More delicate looking than _Mus urbanus_, with a much shorter and finer tail; less offensive in smell. Dr. Anderson got, not long ago, two of these mice in a box from Kohat. They bore the journey uncommonly well, and were in lively condition when I saw them at the Museum. Whilst we were talking about them, we noticed an act of intelligence for which I should not have given them credit had I not seen it with my own eyes. They were in a box with a glass front; in the upper left-hand corner was a small sleeping chamber, led up to by a sloping piece of wood. The entrance of this chamber was barred by wires bent into the form of a lady's hair-pin, and passed through holes in the roof of the box. The mice had been driven out, and the sleeping-chamber barred, for they were having their portraits taken. Whilst we were talking we found, to our surprise, that one mouse was inside the chamber, although the bars were down. There seemed hardly space for it to squeeze through; however, it was driven out, and we went on with our conversation, but found, on looking at the cage again, that our little friend was once more inside, so he was driven out again, and we kept an eye on him. To our great surprise and amusement we saw him trot up his sloping board, put his little head on one side, and seize one of the wires, which worked very loosely in its socket, give it a hitch up, when he adroitly caught it lower down, hitched it up again and again till he got it high enough to allow him to slip in underneath, and then he was quite happy once more. He had only been in the box two days, so he was not long in finding out the weak point. I begin to believe now in rats dipping their tails into oil-bottles, and other wonderful stories of murine sagacity that one reads of. Mice, are supposed to live from two-and-a-half to three years. I had the English albino above mentioned for three. NO. 360. MUS CRASSIPES. _The Large-footed Mouse_ (_Jerdon's No. 188_). HABITAT.--Mussoorie and, according to Jerdon, the Neilgherries. DESCRIPTION.--This is stated to be like _M. homourus_, but the difference is well marked in a very much longer tail and much larger feet. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-3/4 inches; tail, 3/4 inch; hind foot, 3/4 inch. NO. 361. MUS SUBLIMIS. HABITAT.--Ladakh, 13,000 feet. DESCRIPTION.--Brown above; whitish below; the colours gradually blending; fur soft and long; all except the tips dark slaty grey, the terminal portions of the shorter hairs being light brown, and of the longer hairs dark brown; upper whiskers black; lower white; ears oval; feet thinly clad with short light brown hairs; tail with short bristly hairs, dusky brown above, whitish below; tail longer than head and body. SIZE.--Head and body, 2.6 inches; tail, 3.05; length of hind foot, 0.83 inch. Mr. Blanford, who named the above species, which was procured in the expedition to Yarkand, is doubtful whether it may not be referable to the last species. NO. 362. MUS PACHYCERCUS. HABITAT.--Yarkand. DESCRIPTION.--Sandy brown above; under-parts white; fur soft and very like _M. bactrianus_; ears large, rounded, hairy; feet clad above with white hair; soles naked; tail thick, shorter than head and body, and thinly clad with white bristles throughout; skin dark above, pale below; incisors deep yellow. SIZE.--Head and body, 2.35 inches; tail, 1.9 to 2 inches. Mr. Blanford says this is a house mouse. It is figured in Blanford's 'Mammalia of the Second Yarkand Mission.' NO. 363. MUS ERYTHRONOTUS. HABITAT.--Yarkand, Persia. DESCRIPTION.--Rufous, washed with blackish above, white below, abruptly separated; hairs on the back are slaty at the base, then blackish and bright ferruginous at the tips, the extreme points being black, except on the sides, where the black tip is wanting; upper whiskers black, lower white; ears large, rounded, naked; feet white above, dusky and naked below; tail equal to head and body, nearly naked. Mammae six. SIZE.--Head and body, 4 inches; tail, 4.2 inches. This mouse is figured and carefully described in Blanford's 'Eastern Persia,' vol. ii. p. 35. NO. 364. MUS CERVICOLOR. _The Fawn-coloured Field Mouse_. HABITAT.--Bengal, Nepal, Southern India. DESCRIPTION.--"Distinguished by its short tail. Above dull fawn, below sordid white; lining of ears and extremities pale" (_Blyth_). "Ears large, hairy" (_Jerdon_). Of the specimens I have seen the fur is soft and of a light sandy brown above and white below, very like _M. bactrianus_. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/2 inches; tail, 2-7/8 inches. NO. 365. MUS TERRICOLOR. _The Earth-coloured Field Mouse_. HABITAT.--India generally, I think. It has been found in the valley of the Ganges, in Bengal, in the Santal district west of Midnapore, and Southern India. DESCRIPTION.--The colour varies according to the soil, but in general fawn brown, more or less rufescent--those from the valley of the Ganges being darker than those from the ferruginous soil of other parts. The under-parts are white, abruptly separated from the brown; fur short and soft. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail, 2-1/8 inches. NO. 366. MUS PEGUENSIS. _The Pegu Field Mouse_. HABITAT.--The valley of the Sitang River, Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--"Fur very full and dense, pale fulvescent olive brown on the upper parts, slightly yellowish-white below; whiskers remarkably long" (_Blyth_). Tail longer than head and body, and well clad with hairs, especially towards the tip. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/8 inches; tail, nearly 4 inches. NO. 367. MUS NITIDULUS. _The Shiny Little House Mouse of Pegu_. HABITAT.--The Sitang valley in Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--The description given of this mouse by Blyth is extremely vague. He says: "A house mouse apparently, with tail equal to head and body, and uniformly furnished with minute setae to the end; ears large and ample; colour nearly that of _M. decumanus_, with the under-parts subdued white, tolerably well defined." He remarks further on that the front teeth are conspicuously larger than those of _M. musculus_ and _M. urbanus_. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/4 inches; tail, the same. NO. 368. MUS BEAVENI. _Beaven's Mouse_. HABITAT.--Maubhum, and, according to Blyth's Catalogue, Burmah, valley of the Salween. DESCRIPTION.--"Above rusty brown, medially black; lips and the whole under side pale ochraceous; feet white, all the hair being slate coloured at the base; tail above brown, below with white hairs; upper whiskers black, lower white. Rather smaller and more delicately built than our common harvest mouse."--_Prof. Peters_, 'P. Z. S.' 1866, p. 559. NO. 369. MUS CUNICULARIS. _The Little Rabbit-Mouse_. HABITAT.--Cherrapunji, Assam. DESCRIPTION.--"A small field (?) mouse, remarkable for its ample ears and tail shorter than head and body; colour of a wild rabbit above, below white; and the feet with brownish hairs above, but with white hairs upon the toes; tail conspicuously ringed; the setae minute and inconspicuous."--_Blyth_. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail, 2-1/8 inches; ears posteriorly half an inch. NO. 370. MUS ERYTHROTIS. _The Cherrapunji Red-eared Mouse_. HABITAT.--Cherrapoonji, Assam. DESCRIPTION.--A small mouse with very deep soft fur, very long and silky, of a rich dark brown colour, grizzled and brightly tinged with rufous or rufo-ferruginous towards the tail, and upon the ears conspicuously. In such spirit specimens as I have seen the colour was darker than in life, but the soft silkiness of the fur could be seen to advantage as it floated in the clear liquid; the lower parts are whitish, tinged with fawn; feet with brown hairs above; ears small and hirsute, and the tail is also hairy. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/4 inches; tail, 2-3/8 inches. NO. 371. MUS FULVIDIVENTRIS. HABITAT.--Ceylon, Trincomalee. DESCRIPTION.--This is a small mouse very like _Mus cervicolor_, or perhaps _M. terricolor_, which it more nearly approaches in size. Kellaart in his 'Prodromus,' calls it _cervicolor_, but Blyth afterwards separated it under the name given above, though after all I think he was doubtful whether it ought to have been so distinguished. The fur is long, soft, and glossy, fulvous fawn brown above, paler below; feet dingy grey. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-9/10 inches; tail, 2-5/10 inches. NO. 372. MUS KAKHYENENSIS. _The Kakhyen Mouse_. HABITAT.--Burmo-Chinese frontier, Ponsee. DESCRIPTION.--Differs from _Mus urbanus_ by its shorter tail, longer hind feet, and larger ears; muzzle moderately deep, and short; ears large and rounded; fur long, dense, and soft, reddish-brown on the upper parts, with a dark speckled appearance due to the stronger hairs having broad brown tips; sides of the head dusky greyish; chin to vent and under-parts greyish-white, with a silvery sheen; feet dusky pale brown; ears and upper surface of tail dark brown, under surface of tail pale brown.--_Anderson_. SIZE.--Head and body, 2.90 inches; tail, 3.36 inches. This mouse was discovered and named by Dr. Anderson, who procured one example at Ponsee, where it occurs, he says, on the old rice and Indian corn clearings. The next species is also a new one discovered and named by him. NO. 373. MUS VICULORUM. _The Kakhyen House Mouse_. HABITAT.--The Burmo-Chinese frontier, Ponsee. DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle rather sharply pointed, moderately long and not deep; ears moderately large, rounded; its height a little in excess of the distance between the inner canthus and the front of the muzzle; hind-feet not long; tail a little longer than the body and head, finely ringed, five rings to one-tenth of an inch; fur soft, short, dense, dull dark brown on the upper parts, tending to blackish on the back, paling to brownish on the sides, and passing into pale dusky brownish on the under parts with a silvery sheen; feet brownish; toes with shining greyish-yellow hairs; ears and tail brown. (_See_ Anderson's 'Anat. and Zool. Res.,' p. 308.) SIZE.--Head and body, 2-9/10 inches; tail, 3.14 inches. This species, according to Dr. Anderson, frequents the villages and houses of the Kakhyens. He obtained it at Ponsee. * * * * * We now come to an interesting little group of mice, of which the hairs are mixed with flat spines, which form the genus _Leggada_ of Gray, a term taken from the Wuddur name for the next species. _GENUS LEGGADA_. CHARACTERISTICS.--Molars high, with somewhat convex crowns; the cross ridges of the upper grinders deeply three-lobed; the front one with an additional lunate lobe at the base of its front edge; fur fine, mixed with numerous spines somewhat flattened. NO. 374. LEGGADA PLATYTHRIX. _The Brown Spiny Mouse_ (_Jerdon's No. 194_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Leggade_ and _Kal-yelka_, of Wuddurs; _Gijeli-gadu_, Telegu, of Yanadees; _Kal-ilei_, Canarese. HABITAT.--Southern India. DESCRIPTION.--Sandy brown or light brown fawn above, white underneath, with a band of pale fawn separating the two colours. The fur mixed with flat transparent spines, smaller beneath; head long; muzzle pointed; ears rather large, oblong, rounded, about half an inch in length. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/2 inches; tail, 2-1/2 inches. The following description has been given by Sir Walter Elliot and reproduced in Jerdon's 'Mammals': "The Leggade lives entirely in the red gravelly soil in a burrow of moderate depth, generally on the side of a bank. When the animal is inside the entrance is closed with small pebbles, a quantity of which is collected outside, by which its retreat may always be known. The burrow leads to a chamber in which is collected a bed of small pebbles on which it sits, the thick close hair of the belly protecting it from the cold and asperity of such a seat. Its food appears to be vegetable. In its habits it is monogamous and nocturnal. "In one earth which I opened, and which did not seem to have been originally constructed by the animal, I found two pairs, one of which were adults, the other young ones about three-parts grown. The mouth of the earth was very large, and completely blocked up with small stones; the passage gradually widening into a large cavity, from the roof of which some other passages appeared to proceed, but there was only one communication with the surface, viz. the entrance. The old pair were seated on a bed of pebbles, near which, on a higher level, was another collection of stones probably intended for a drier retreat; the young ones were in one of the passages, likewise furnished with a heap of small stones." Dr. Jerdon adds he has often opened the burrows of this mouse, and can confirm the above account. He also states that the Yanadees of Nellore declare that one variety uses small sticks instead of stones to sit upon, and they give it a distinct appellation, but he could not detect any difference in the specimens they brought him. NO. 375. LEGGADA SPINULOSA. _The Dusky Spiny Mouse_ (_Jerdon's No. 195_). HABITAT.--Punjab, and also Southern India. DESCRIPTION.--"Nearly affined to _M. platythrix_ (Sykes), but of a dark dusky colour above, with fulvous tips to the softer fur; below and all the feet dull whitish; upper rodential tusks orange, the lower white; whiskers long and fine, the posterior and longer of them black for the basal half or more, the rest white."--_Blyth_, 'J. A. S. B.' 1863. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-3/4 inches; tail, 3 inches. NO. 376. LEGGADA JERDONI. _The Himalayan Spiny Mouse_ (_Jerdon's No. 196_). HABITAT.--Himalayan range, up to 12,000 feet. DESCRIPTION.--"Bright dark ferruginous above, pure white below; some fine long black tips intermingled among the spines of the back; limbs marked with blackish externally; the feet white."--_Blyth's_ 'Mem., J. A. S. B.' vol. xxxii. SIZE.--Head and body, 4 inches; tail, 3-1/2 inches. Dr. Jerdon first found this mouse at Darjeeling, but afterwards in the valley of the Sutlej in Kunawur, at an elevation of nearly 12,000 feet, living under large stones. NO. 377. LEGGADA LEPIDA. _The Small Spiny Mouse_ (_Jerdon's No. 197_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Chitta-burkani_, _Chit-yelka_, _Chitta-ganda_, Telegu of Wuddurs; _Chitta-yelka_ of Yanadees.--_Jerdon_. HABITAT.--Southern India. DESCRIPTION.--Similar to _L. platythrix_, but smaller and more weakly spinous; above pale sandy brown, pure white below, the two colours clearly separated. "The spines are small, fine, transparent, and of a dusky tinge, tipped with fawn; head very long; muzzle pointed; ears large, ovate, naked; tail naked, limbs rather long, fine."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 to 3 inches; tail, 2-3/4 inches. Jerdon says of this mouse that he has found it in gravelly soil in gardens and woods in most parts of Southern India making a small burrow, which generally has a little heap of stones placed at a short distance from the hole. It is preyed on now and then by the common Indian roller or jay, and it is very generally used as a bait to catch that bird with bird-lime. _GENUS GOLUNDA_. The following rats are separated by Gray as a distinct genus, which from the Canarese name of the type he has called _Golunda_, the characteristics of which are: "the grinders, when perfect, low, with a broad, flat crown; the cross ridges of the crown of the upper grinders divided into three distinct slightly raised tubercles; upper incisors grooved; rest like _Mus_." NO. 378. GOLUNDA ELLIOTI. _The Bush Rat or Coffee Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 199_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Gulandi_, Canarese; _Gulat-yelka_ of Wuddurs; _Sora-panji-gadur_, Telegu of Yanadees; _Cofee-wattee-meeyo_, Singhalese (this name seems to me a corruption of "coffee rat"). DESCRIPTION.--Fur thick and stiff, fulvous brown, mixed with black, some olive brown mixed with fulvous, tawny grey beneath; hairs of upper parts flattened, ashy grey, tipped yellow, with some thinner and longer ones, also tipped yellow, with sub-terminal black band; under fur soft and of a light lead colour; face and cheeks rough; ears moderate, sub-ovate, hairy; tail round, tapering, scaly and hairy, dark brown above, yellowish below; cutting teeth yellow. SIZE.--Head and body, 4-1/2 inches; tail, 4 inches. Dr. Kellaart says these are the rats most destructive to coffee-trees, whole plantations being sometimes deprived of buds and blossoms by them. There is an illustration of one in Sir Emerson Tennent's 'Natural History of Ceylon' in the act of cutting off the slender branches which would not bear its weight in order to feed on the buds and blossoms when fallen to the ground. "The twigs thus destroyed are detached by as clean a cut as if severed with a knife." Sir Walter Elliot writes of it: "The _gulandi_ lives entirely in the jungle, choosing its habitation in a thick bush, among the thorny branches of which, or on the ground, it constructs a nest of elastic stalks and fibres of dry grass thickly interwoven. The nest is of a round or oblong shape, from six to nine inches in diameter, within which is a chamber about three or four inches in diameter, in which it rolls itself up. Round and through the bush are sometimes observed small beaten pathways along which the little animal seems habitually to pass. Its motion is somewhat slow, and it does not appear to have the same power of leaping or springing by which the rats in general avoid danger. Its food seems to be vegetable, the only contents of the stomach being the roots of the haryalee grass. Its habits are solitary (except when the female is bringing up her young) and diurnal, feeding in the mornings and evenings." Dr. Jerdon says: "The Yanadees of Nellore catch this rat, surrounding the bush and seizing it as it issues forth, which its comparatively slow actions enable them to do easily. According to Sir Emerson Tennent the Malabar coolies are so fond of their flesh that they evince a preference for those districts in which the coffee-plantations are subject to their incursions, where they fry the rats in cocoanut-oil or convert them into curry." Both he and Dr. Kellaart mention the migratory habits of this animal on the occurrence of a scarcity of food. Kellaart says that in one day on such visits more than a thousand have been killed on one estate alone. NO. 379. GOLUNDA MELTADA. _The Soft-furred Bush Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 200_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Mettade_, of Wuddurs; _Metta-yelka_, Telegu of Yanadees; _Kera ilei_, Canarese. HABITAT.--Southern India and Ceylon. DESCRIPTION.--Fur very soft; above deep yellowish, olive brown or reddish-brown, with a mixture of fawn; under fur lead colour; chin and under parts whitish; head short; muzzle sharp; ears long and hairy; tail shorter than body, scaly, but scales covered with short black adpressed hairs; feet pale. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/2 to 5-1/2 inches; tail, 2-1/4 to 4-1/4 inches. The specific name of this rat is an absurd corruption, such as is not unfrequent in Dr. Gray's names, of the native _mettade_, which means soft. According to that accurate observer Sir Walter Elliot, "the _mettade_ lives entirely in cultivated fields in pairs or small societies of five or six;[25] making a very slight and rude hole in the root of a bush, or merely harbouring among the heap of stones thrown together in the fields, in the deserted burrow of the _kok_,[26] or contenting itself with the deep cracks and fissures formed in the black soil during the hot months. Great numbers perish annually when these collapse and fill up at the commencement of the rains. The monsoon of 1826 having been deficient in the usual fall of rain at the commencement of the season, the _mettades_ bred in such numbers as to become a perfect plague. They ate up the seed as soon as sown, and continued their ravages when the grain approached to maturity, climbing up the stalks of jowaree and cutting off the ear to devour the grain with greater facility. I saw many whole fields completely devastated, so much so as to prevent the farmers from paying their rents. The ryots employed the Wuddurs to destroy them, who killed them by thousands, receiving a measure of grain for so many dozens, without perceptibly diminishing their numbers. Their flesh is eaten by the Tank-diggers. The female produces six to eight at a birth."--'_Madras Journ. Lit. Sc._' x. 1839. [Footnote 25: In this case probably parents and young.] [Footnote 26: _Nesokia providens_.] Kellaart's _Golunda Newera_ is, I fancy, the same, although the measurement he gives is less. Head and body, 3-1/4 inches; tail, 2-1/2. The description tallies, although Kellaart goes upon difference in size and the omission of Gray to state that _G. meltada_ had the upper incisors grooved. He says that "this rat is found in pairs in the black soil of Newara Elia, and is a great destroyer of peas and potatoes." So its habits agree. _GENUS HAPALOMYS_. This was formed by Blyth on a specimen from Burmah of a murine animal "with a long and delicately fine pelage and exceedingly long tail, the terminal fourth of which is remarkably flattened and furnished with hair more developed than in perhaps any other truly murine form; limbs short, with the toes remarkably corrugated underneath; the balls of the inguinal phalanges greatly developed, protruding beyond the minute claws of the fore-feet, and equally with the more developed claws of the hind-feet; head short; the ears small and inconspicuous; the skull approaches in form that of _Mus Indicus_,[27] but the rodential tusks are broader and flatter to the front. Molars as in the _Muridae_ generally, but much worn in the specimen under examination; they are considerably less directed outward than usual, and the bony palate has therefore the appearance of being narrow; the superorbital ridges project much outward in form of a thin bony plate, and there is a considerable process at the base of the zygoma anteriorly and posteriorly to the anti-orbital foramen; zygomata broad, and compressed about the middle." [Footnote 27: _Nesokia Blythiana_.] NO. 380. HAPALOMYS LONGICAUDATUS. HABITAT.--Shway Gheen, in the valley of the Sitang river in Burmah, or its adjacent hills. DESCRIPTION.--"Fur long and soft, measuring about five-eights of an inch on the upper parts, slaty for the basal two-thirds, then glistening brown with black tips, and a few long hairs of very fine texture interspersed; lower parts dull white; whiskers black, long and fine, and there is a tuft of fine blackish-hair anterior to the ears."--_Blyth_. SIZE.--Head and body of a male, 5-3/4 inches; tail 7-1/4 inches. Of another specimen, female: 5-1/4 inches; tail, 7-1/2 inches; sole, 1-1/8 inch; ears posteriorly, 1-1/4 inch. Specimens of adult male and female with a young one were forwarded to the Asiatic Society's Museum by Major Berdmore. * * * * * We have now come to the end of the purely murine group as far as they exist within the limits assigned to these investigations. I ought perhaps to give some short notices of the following specimens discovered in Thibet by the Abbe David, and described by Professor Milne-Edwards in his 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes.' NO. 381. MUS OUANG-THOMAE. _The Kiangsi Rat_. HABITAT.--Kiangsi in Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--A tawny grey above, mixed with long hairs, tipped with brown, greyish below; between the fore-paws a crescent of pure white, which is a distinguishing mark of the species. SIZE.--A little less than _Mus rattus_, which is about seven inches long; tail an inch longer. This rat Professor Milne-Edwards describes from a single specimen; it is apparently rare, and was named after the Abbe David's Chinese servant--'Recherches sur les Mammiferes,' p. 290. NO. 382. MUS FLAVIPECTUS. _The Yellow-breasted Rat_. HABITAT.--Moupin; Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Reddish-brown; chin greyish; throat and chest tawny, mixed with grey; belly and inside of limbs yellowish-grey; ears large, nearly naked; incisors deep yellow; tail brown, covered with short hairs. SIZE.--About 7-3/4 inches; tail, 6-1/4 inches.--'Mammiferes,' p. 289. NO. 383. MUS GRISEIPECTUS. _The Grey-breasted Rat_. HABITAT.--Moupin; Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Brown above; the under-parts of a clear grey. SIZE.--About the same as the last, but with a somewhat shorter tail.--'Mammiferes,' p. 290. NO. 384. MUS CONFUCIANUS. HABITAT.--Moupin; Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Fawn brown above, pure white below; lower part of cheek white; on the back the fur is interspersed with longer hairs of a blackish tint; feet pale. SIZE.--Head and body, about 4 inches.--'Mammiferes,' p. 286. NO. 385. MUS CHEVRIERI. HABITAT.--Moupin; Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--General colour tawny brown, grizzled with dark brown; lower parts of a clear grey, almost white; ears short; feet small; tail covered with short hair. SIZE.--About 4-3/4 inches; tail about 3-1/2 inches.--'Mammiferes,' p. 288. NO. 386. MUS PYGMAEUS. _The Pigmy Mouse_. HABITAT.--Moupin; Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Distinguished by its very short ears and the square form of its head; deep brown above; greyish-yellow beneath; tail shorter than in the common mouse. SIZE.--About 2-3/4 inches; tail, about 2 inches.--'Mammiferes,' p. 291. ARVICOLINAE. In this sub-family the molars are generally semi-rooted or rootless. The _Arvicolinae_ or Voles consist of the American Musquash (_Fiber zibethicus_), a very beaver-like water rat of large size; the Lemmings (_Myodes_), of which there are several species which are celebrated for their vast migrations; and the true Vole (_Arvicola_), which is the only genus found in India, and then only in the colder climate of the Himalayas. There are several species in Europe, of which three are found in England. According to Professor Dallas, the true Voles number about fifty species, arranged by various writers under a considerable number of sub-genera. In India we have only eight known species, and two more from the adjacent country of Thibet. [Illustration: Dentition of _Arvicola_.] The European forms of _Arvicolae_ have been divided by Blasius into four sub-genera of two divisions--the first division having rooted molars in the adult animal--containing one sub-genus only, _Hypudaeus_ of Illiger; the second division consists of three sub-genera with rootless molars, viz. _Paludicola_, _Agricola_, and _Arvicola_, which last has again been subdivided into long-eared and short-eared Voles--_Arvicola_ and _Microtus_--distinguished by the former having eight and the latter four mammae, and respectively six and four tubercles on the plantae, the ears of the latter being almost hidden by the fur. None of the forms with which we have now to deal belong to the first division, for, as far as the matter has been investigated, the Indian Voles have rootless molars, but the character of the teeth in some differs from the European forms, and therefore Mr. Blanford has proposed a new section, _Alticola_, for their reception. I have not space here, nor would it accord with the popular character of this work, to go minutely into all the variation of dentition which distinguish the different species. To those who wish to continue to the minutest details the study of the Indian Voles, I recommend a most careful and elaborate paper on them by Mr. W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. L., pt. ii.; but without entering into the microscopic particulars of each species, I may here give a general idea of the formation of the teeth of the _Arvicolae_ differing as it does so much from others of the myomorphic or mouse-like group of rodents. In these the general contour of the molar teeth is roundish oblong, the margins being wavy or indented, according to the convolutions of the enamel, but in the Voles there is a sharp angularity about these indentations; the marginal lines, instead of being in well-rounded curves, are sharply zigzag, forming acute angles. If you were to draw two close parallel zigzag lines it would give you some idea of the contour of these teeth. The molars are in fact composed of alternating triangular prisms, with the outer folds of enamel forming deep and acute angles. The other characteristics of this family are: skull, with brain case rhomboidal, frontals much contracted; infra-orbital opening typical; limbs moderate; tail moderate, or short and hairy. _GENUS ARVICOLA_. Muzzle blunt; fore-feet small, with short claws; soles naked; tail longer than the hind-foot, clad with short hairs; incisors plain, smooth in front. The fore-feet in some species have but a small wart in place of a thumb; in others there is a small thumb with a minute claw. The hind-feet have five toes. NO. 387. ARVICOLA STOLICZKANUS. _The Yarkand Vole_. HABITAT.--Yarkand. DESCRIPTION.--"Bright ferruginous brown above, pure white beneath; fur soft, rather woolly, 0.5 to 0.6 inch long on the middle of the back, the basal portion throughout both head and body being dark leaden grey; this is the case on the back for about three-quarters of the length of the hairs; the remaining quarter is rufous white, tipped with darker rufous, whilst numerous rather longer hairs are dark rufous-brown at the ends; rather a sharp line divides the rufous of the back from the white belly; upper part of the head the same colour as the back; upper whiskers dark brown, lower, including the longest, white; ears small, rounded, hairy, completely concealed by the fur, with rather short bright rufous hair near the margin inside; and covered outside with longer and paler hair; feet small, the thumb of the fore-foot quite rudimentary and clawless; remaining claws long, compressed, sharply pointed, but much concealed by the long white hairs which cover the upper part of the foot, sales naked; tarsus hairy below, a few hairs between the pads of the toes; tail short, apparently about a quarter the length of the body and head together, covered with stiff fulvescent white hair, which extends about half an inch beyond the end."--_W. T. Blanford_, 'Sc. Res. of Second Yarkand Mission,' p. 43. SIZE.--Head and body, about 4 inches; tail, with hair, 1-1/2. NO. 388. ARVICOLA STRACHEYI. _The Kumaon Vole_. HABITAT.--Kumaon. DESCRIPTION.--Light brown above, with a greyish tint and dusky forehead; under-parts, feet, and tail white; ears small, not longer than the fur, and thickly clad with hair; feet of moderate size; thumb as in the last; tail short and covered with white hairs. SIZE.--Head and body, about 3.7 inches; tail; 0.7. This vole was procured first by Capt. (now Lieut.-Gen.) R. Strachey at Kumaon. NO. 389. ARVICOLA WYNNEI. _The Murree Vole_. NATIVE NAME.--_Kannees_. HABITAT.--Northern Himalayas; Murree. DESCRIPTION.--Dark brown above, with a slight greyish tinge; head rufescent, and under-parts pale brown; tail dark brown; ears short and rounded, hidden by the fur; fore-feet rather large; thumb small, with a short claw; incisors orange. SIZE.--Head and body, about 4-3/4 inches; tail 1-1/4 inch. NO. 390. ARVICOLA ROYLEI. _The Cashmere Vole_ (_Jerdon's No. 202_). HABITAT.--Kashmir; Kunawur near Chini at 12,000 feet. DESCRIPTION.--Yellowish-brown, with a rufous tint on the back, paler below; tail brown above, whitish underneath; feet concolorous with the under-part; ears small, hairy and nearly hidden by the fur; incisors yellow in front. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-3/4 inches; tail, 1-2/12 inch. Jerdon states he got this vole at Kunawur, near Chini, again on the south side of the Barendo pass, and also in the Pir Punjal. NO. 391. ARVICOLA BLANFORDI. _The Gilgit Vole_. HABITAT.--Kashmir territory; Gilgit, at an elevation of 9000 to 10,000 feet. DESCRIPTION.--Light greyish-brown above, slightly tinged with rufous; greyish-white underneath; fur soft, the basal three-fourths being slaty grey, the rest fawn colour, in some instances with black tips, the hairs of the under-parts being white tipped; ears moderately large, well above the fur, hairy; very long whiskers, chiefly white, a few brown; feet whitish, moderate size; tail cylindrical, not tapering, and well clad with hair, which project about a fifth of an inch beyond the end of the vertebrae. SIZE.--Head and body, about 4-1/2 inches; tail, 2 inches. This vole was described by Dr. J. Scully in the 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' for November, 1880, vol. vi., and he named it after Mr. W. T. Blanford. It is said to be common on the mountains around Gilgit. * * * * * The next two species come under the section _Paludicola_. NO. 392. ARVICOLA BLYTHII. HABITAT.--Western Thibet, Leh and Ladakh. DESCRIPTION.--General colour above yellowish-brown, below pale isabelline; fur soft; basal two-thirds of the upper hairs, and one-half of the lower hairs, dark slaty; the upper hairs are tipped, some isabelline and some, which are coarser and longer, dark brown; ears round, small, equal, with the fur thinly clad with pale brown hairs inside, and more thickly so with longer hairs outside; upper whiskers dark brown, lower whitish; feet pale isabelline; soles naked; tail cylindrical, distinctly ringed, covered with short light brown hair like the under-parts in colour. SIZE.--Head and body, about 3 to 4 inches; tail, 1 to 1-1/4 inch. Mr. Blanford has written fully regarding this species, which was the type of Blyth's genus _Phaiomys_, in the 'Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand Mission,' page 39, in which he contends, after going through a mass of literature on the subject, that there are no grounds for constituting it the type of a new species; and, if this be conceded, then the specific name given by Blyth, viz. _leucurus_, being forestalled, it is necessary to rename it, which he has done in honour of that well-known naturalist. NO. 393. ARVICOLA MANDARINUS. _The Afghan Vole_. HABITAT.--Afghanistan; Chinese Mongolia. DESCRIPTION.--Light greyish rufescent brown above, white beneath; ears short, hidden by the fur and hairy; feet whitish; tail rufescent brown. SIZE.--About 4 inches; tail about 1 inch. This vole, which is described and figured by Milne-Edwards, is supposed to have been found in Afghanistan from a specimen in Griffith's collection. _A. mandarinus_ comes from Chinese Mongolia, and it is figured in the 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes.' * * * * * The next species was made a separate genus, _Neodon_, by Hodgson, which has been adopted by Jerdon; but there are no good grounds for continuing this separation. Mr. Blanford is certainly of this opinion, and in his remarks on it (_see_ his 'Sc. Results Second Yarkand Mission,' pp. 41-42) he writes: "The genus _Neodon_, appears to be founded on characters of only specific importance, and the type _N. Sikimensis_ is, I think, a true _Arvicola_." NO. 394. ARVICOLA SIKIMENSIS. _The Sikim Vole_ (_Jerdon's No. 203_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Phalchua_, Nepalese, apparently Hindi; _Cheekyu_, Kiranti; _Singphuci_, Thibetan. HABITAT.--Nepal; Sikim; Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Fur soft and silky. "Deep brownish-black above with a slight rusty shade, minutely and copiously grizzled with hairs of a deep ferruginous tint" (_Horsfield_). Or a deep golden brown from yellow hairs being intermixed; bluish-grey beneath, with a slight fulvous tint; fur leaden grey for the basal three-fourths, the terminal fourth being brownish or tawny with some tipped black; the hairs of the under-parts are dipped with dirty white; ears project beyond the fur moderately, and are hairy; feet very slender; tail thinly clad with short brown hair. The female has six mammae. SIZE.--Head and body, about 4-3/4 inches; tail, 1-1/2 inch. Horsfield gives 5 inches for head and body. According to Jerdon this vole has only been procured in Sikim near Darjeeling, at heights varying from 7000 to 15,000 feet; but I believe the area it inhabits to be much larger. Hodgson found his specimens at Darjeeling, and on one occasion got a nest in a hollow tree in the forest; it was saucer-shaped, of soft grass without any lining, and contained a male, female, and two young. The latter were "2-1/8 inches long, hairy above, nude below, and blind; the ears also closed." Jerdon writes: "Mr. Atkinson found it under fallen trees and stones on the top of Tonglo, near Darjeeling, 10,000 feet, whence also I had a specimen brought me." * * * * * The next species is one described and figured by Professor Milne-Edwards, and from Thibet he has two illustrations of it--one of an entire blackish-brown, the other darker above, but with the black belly. NO. 395. ARVICOLA MELANOGASTER. HABITAT.--Moupin in Tibet. DESCRIPTION.--"It is characterised by the colour of the lower parts, which are a blackish-grey. The upper parts are sometimes as black as a mole, sometimes grizzled with brown" ('Mammiferes,' p. 284). The brown specimen with the dark belly is evidently a rarity. FAMILY SPALACIDAE. The members of this family are characterised by very large incisors; some have premolars, as in _Bathyergus_ and two other genera, but not in the _Spalacinae_, of which our bamboo-rat (_Rhizomys_) is the representative in India. "The grinding teeth are rooted, not tuberculate, but with re-entering enamel folds; infra-orbital opening moderate or small, with no perpendicular plate; occipital plane high, often sloped boldly forward; palate narrow; form cylindrical; eye and ear-conch very small, sometimes rudimentary; limbs short and stout; claws large; tail short or absent" (_Alston_, 'P. Z. S.' 1876, p. 86). There are two subfamilies--_Spalacinae_ and _Bathyerginae_. _GENUS RHIZOMYS--THE BAMBOO-RAT_. "Form robust; eyes very small; ears very short, naked; pollex rudimentary; tail rather short, partially haired; skull broad; occipital plane only slightly sloped forward; infra-orbital opening small, sub-triangular; upper incisors arched forward; no premolar; upper molars with one deep internal and two or more external enamel-folds; the lower molars reversed."--_Alston_. NO. 396. RHIZOMYS BADIUS. _The Chestnut Bamboo-Rat_ (_Jerdon's No. 201_). NATIVE NAME.--Known to the Chingpaws or Kakhyens as the _Yewcron_.--_Anderson_. HABITAT.--The Sikim and Nepal Terai; Burmah; Arakan; Kakhyen Hills. [Illustration: _Rhizomys badius_.] DESCRIPTION.--Fine fur, of a grey or slaty grey for two-thirds of the basal portion, the remaining upper third being from a deep to a bright chestnut. "Most intense on the head, and dullest on the rump" (_Anderson_). "Below dark ashy grey" (_Jerdon_). "The fur of the under-parts in these Eastern examples of the species" (referring to those from the Kakhyen hills) "is paler and more reddish than chestnut, whereas in some Nepal animals it inclines even to slaty grey, washed with reddish. The area immediately around the muzzle and the chin is pale brownish, with a tinge of greyish, and the teeth are brilliant reddish, the nose, ears, feet, and tail being pale flesh-coloured" (_Anderson_, 'Anat. and Zool. Res.' p. 329). SIZE.--Head and body, 7 inches; tail, about 2-1/2 inches. Jerdon says of this species that "it eats the roots of bamboos and other trees, constructing burrows under the roots. It is said to be very bold, and easily taken." "In Burmah it constructs its burrows amongst a rank and tall jungle grass, on the roots of which it is said to live" (_Anderson_). Blyth, who writes of the Burmese form, says: "it is barely separable from _R. badius_, from which it seems to differ only in its much brighter colouring." NO. 397. RHIZOMYS ERYTHROGENYS. _The Red-cheeked Bamboo-Rat_. HABITAT.--Burmah; the Salween hill tracts; Tenasserim. DESCRIPTION.--Upper parts dark iron grey; almost black on the top of the head; the upper lip, chin and upper part of the throat are white, also the chest and belly, which are however more or less tinged with grey and reddish; the lower portion of the throat is dark grey; the sides of the head and cheeks are bright golden red; the feet are sparsely clad and leaden coloured, except the toes of the hind feet, which are fleshy white; tail rather thick at the base, quite naked, not scaly, and of a leaden hue; claws rather broad, and moderately strong. SIZE (of the living female).--Head and body, 14-3/4 inches; tail, 5.35 inches. Dr. Anderson, from whose work I have taken the above description, and who was the first to describe and name this animal, says that a female was recently received in the Zoological Gardens from Mr. A. H. Hildebrand. NO. 398. RHIZOMYS PRUINOSUS. _The Hoary Bamboo-Rat_. HABITAT.--Assam; very common about Cherrapoonjee; Burmah; Kakhyen hills east of Bhamo. DESCRIPTION.--Brown above, grizzled with white; the base of the fur being slaty grey, tipped with brown, and intermixed with longer hairs, terminating in white bands; underneath much the same, only the white-tipped hairs are shorter and less numerous; whiskers dark brown; the head is generally more grey; ears, nose, feet and tail of a dusky flesh tint; tail one-third of the body. SIZE.--Head and-body, about 11 to 13 inches; tail, 3 to 4 inches. NO. 399. RHIZOMYS MINOR. _The Small Bamboo-Rat_. NATIVE NAME.--_Khai_, Aracanese. HABITAT.--Burmah, Upper Martaban, and at Yanageen on the Irrawaddy.--_Blyth_. DESCRIPTION.--"Dark sooty brown above, slightly tinged with deep umber, which is most distinct on the sides of the head and neck, and in reflected light; the under parts are like the upper, only the brown tint is almost absent; the whiskers are black, and tail very sparsely haired" (_Anderson_). "Dusky brown colour, with white muzzle and around the eye, and pale naked feet" (_Blyth_). SIZE.--Head and body, 6-1/2 inches; tail, 1-3/4 inch. Blyth says he obtained a living specimen in Upper Martaban, and recognised it as the same as what had been obtained in Siam. The Rev. Mr. Mason writes of it: "This animal, which burrows under old bamboo roots, resembles a marmot more than a rat; yet it has much of the rat in its habits. I one night caught a specimen gnawing a cocoa-nut, while camping out in the jungles." * * * * * I may here mention a curious little animal, which is apparently a link between the MURIDAE and the SPALACIDAE, _Myospalax fuscocapillus_, named and described by Blyth ('J. A. S. B.' xv. p. 141), found at Quetta, where it is called the "Quetta mole." A full account of it by Mr. W. T. Blanford is to be found in the 'Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal,' (vol. L. pt. ii.). FAMILY DIPODIDAE. This family contains a form of rodent similar to, yet more pronounced than, the jerboa rats, of which I have already treated. It includes the true Jerboas (_Dipus_), the American Jumping Mice (_Zapus_), the _Alactaga_, and the Cape Jumping Hare (_Pedetes caffer_). The characteristics of the family are as follows:-- "Incisors compressed; premolars present or absent; grinding teeth rooted or rootless, not tuberculate, with more or fewer transverse enamel folds; skull with the brain-case short and broad; infra-orbital opening rounded, very large (often as large as the orbit); zygomatic arch slender, curved downwards; the malar ascending in front to the lachrymal in a flattened perpendicular plate; facial surface of maxillaries minutely perforated; mastoid portion of auditory bullae usually greatly developed; metatarsal bones elongated, often fused into a cannon bone; form gracile; front portion of body and fore-limbs very small; hind limbs long and strong, with from three to five digits; tail long, hairy. Three sub-families" (_Alston_ On the Order GLIRES, 'P. Z. S.' 1876). The three sub-families are _Zapodidae_,[28] _Dipodinae_ and _Pedetinae_, but we have only to deal with the second. [Footnote 28: Formerly _Jaculinae_.] [Illustration: Dentition of Jerboa.] _GENUS DIPUS--THE JERBOAS_. Hind feet with three digits; tail cylindrical and tufted; incisors grooved; premolars absent, or, if found, then in the upper jaw and rudimentary; skull with very broad occipital region; greatly developed auditory bullae; the cervical vertebrae are more or less anchylosed, and the metatarsals are united. They are not found in the plains of India, though one species inhabits Yarkand, and two more are found in Eastern Persia. [Illustration: _DIPUS_.] NO. 400. DIPUS LAGOPUS. _The Yarkand Jerboa_. HABITAT.--Koshtak, south of Yarkand; Yarkand; and Yangihissar.--_Blanford_. DESCRIPTION.--"Colour above light sandy brown, slightly washed with dusky, below pure white; a white band across the outside of the thigh; tail pale brown above, whitish below, with a tuft of longer hair, altogether about 2-1/2 inches long; at the end the terminal portion pure white, the proximal portion black or dark-brown on the upper part and sides, but brown or white beneath the tail. The fur is very soft and rather long, 0.6 to 0.8 inch in the middle of the back; on the upper parts it is ashy grey at the base and for the greater parts of its length, pale sandy brown near the end; the extreme tip dusky brown; on the lower parts it is white throughout; ears about half the length of the head, oval, naked inside, thinly clothed with short brown hair outside; face sandy; the hairs grey at the base; sides of head whitish; whiskers as usual very long, exceeding three inches; the uppermost brown; the longest white, except at the base; the lower entirely white; the long hairs beneath the hind feet all white, as are the feet throughout."--_Blanford_, 'Sc. Res. of Sec. Yarkand Mission,' pp. 58,59. _GENUS ALACTAGA_. "Hind feet with _five_ digits, of which the first and fifth do not reach the ground; tail cylindrical, tufted; skull with the occipital region less broad, and the auditory bullae smaller; infra-orbital opening with no separate canal for the nerve; incisors plain. One very small premolar present above only."--_Alston_. NO. 401. ALACTAGA INDICA. NATIVE NAME.--_Khanee_, Afghan. HABITAT.--Afghanistan; Eastern Persia. DESCRIPTION.--Fawn colour above; the hair with black tips and ashy grey at the base; under-parts white; upper parts of thigh white; a black spot behind and inside the thigh just below the white; remainder of the outside and lower part of the inside of the thighs brown; a white line running down the front, and extending over the upper portion of the tarsi and feet; proximal portion of tarsus brown at the sides. (_See_ 'Blanford's Eastern Persia,' vol. ii. p. 77.) The tail is brown with a white tip; ears thinly clad with brown hairs; head brown above, whitish around the eyes; whiskers black. SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/2 inches; tail, 7 inches. This animal is unfortunately named, as it is not Indian at all; equally unfortunate, as Mr. Blanford has shown, is Blyth's name _Bactrianus_, for it does not inhabit that tract, so the original title stands. Hutton, in his 'Rough Notes on the Zoology of Candahar' ('J. A. S. B.' xv. p. 137), writes of it as follows: "This beautiful little animal is abundant over all the stony plains throughout the country, burrowing deeply, and when unearthed bounding away with most surprising agility after the manner of the kangaroo-rat. It is easily tamed, and lives happily enough in confinement if furnished with plenty of room to leap about. It sleeps all day, and so soundly that it may be taken from its cage and examined without awaking it; or at most it will half open one eye in a drowsy manner for an instant, and immediately close it again in sleep. It retires to its burrows about the end of October, and remains dormant till the following April, when it throws off its lethargy and again comes forth." There is a good engraving of this animal in Cassel's new Natural History. * * * * * We have now closed our account of the Myomorpha or Mouse-like Rodents, and will proceed to the next Section, HYSTRICOMORPHA, or Porcupine-like Rodents. SECTION III.--HYSTRICOMORPHA. PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS. This section contains six families, viz.:-- _Octodontidae_ = 3 sub-families, 18 genera. _Hystricidae_ = 2 sub-families, 5 genera. _Chinchillidae_ = 5 genera, of which two are fossil. _Dasyproctidae_ = 2 genera. _Dionymidae_ = 1 genus. _Caviidae_ = 3 genera. Of these we have to deal with but one, the second family, _Hystricidae_, the rest belonging to Africa in part, but the majority to the American continent, chiefly South America. I give the general characteristics of the section as laid down by Mr. Alston:-- "One premolar above and below (except in _Ctenodactylus_); grinding teeth rooted or rootless, not tuberculate; frontals with no distinct post-orbital processes (except in _Chaetomys_); infra-orbital opening large, sub-triangular, or oval; zygomatic arch proportionately stout; molar not advancing far forward, (except in _Ctenodactylinae_ and _Chinchillidae_) and not supported below by a continuation of the maxillary zygomatic process; incisive foramina small; foramina in the base of skull proportionally large; an inter-pterygoid fissure; mandible with its angular portion springing from the _outer side_ of the bony covering of the lower incisor, triangular, usually pointed behind; coronoid process small, and condyle low; clavicles perfect or imperfect; fibula persistent as a distinct bone throughout life; upper lip rarely cleft; muffle clad with fine hairs; nostrils pointed above, sigmoid or linear; ears usually emarginate behind; tail hairy, sub-naked, or scaly."--'P. Z. S.,' 1876, p. 90. As I have said before, we have only to do with the _Hystricidae_ or Porcupines, but many of the others are familiar by name. Of the _Octodontidae_ the best known is the coypu of the Andes, one of the largest of the rodents, and the ground-rat or ground-pig of western and southern Africa. The chinchilla, which is the typical form of the third family, is known to all, especially ladies, from its delicate soft fur. The agouti of South America is the representative of the _Dasyproctidae_. The family _Dinomyidae_ consists of one animal only, _Dinomys Branickii_; the only known example of which was obtained in Peru on the Montana de Vitoc. It was found walking about in a yard at daybreak, and showed so little fear of man that it suffered itself to be killed by the stroke of a sword. It is a pity no one was sensible enough to try and take it alive. As yet nothing is known of its habits. Of the last family, _Caviidae_, the cavy and the capybara are well known to travellers in South America, and the common guinea pig is familiar to us all. FAMILY HYSTRICIDAE--THE PORCUPINES. In this family the hairs of the body are more or less converted into spines or quills; the form of the skull is peculiar, being ovate, often greatly inflated with air cavities in the bones; the facial portion is broad and short; the malar portion of the zygomatic arch has no inferior angular process as in the _Octodontidae_; the occipital plane or hinder-surface is perpendicular, with a median ridge; the incisor teeth are large and powerful; the molars with external and internal folds, four in each jaw. The form is robust; limbs sub-equal; fore-feet with four toes, and a small wart-like thumb; hind-feet with four and five toes; tail long in some, short in others. There are two sub-families--_Sphingurinae_ and _Hystricinae_. With the genera of the first we have nothing to do. They include the prehensile-tailed porcupines of South America, _Sphingurus prehensilis_, _S. villosus_, and _S. Mexicanus_, all arboreal forms, and the Canada porcupine (_Erythizon dorsatus_) which is covered with woolly hairs and spines intermixed. The true porcupines, sub-family _Hystricinae_, consist of two genera, both of which are represented in India--_Atherura_ and _Hystrix_. [Illustration: Skull of Porcupine.] SUB-FAMILY HYSTRICINAE--THE TRUE PORCUPINES. Grinding teeth semi-rooted; skull rather more elongate; infra-orbital foramen of great size; clavicles imperfect, attached to the sternum, and not to the scapula; upper lip furrowed; tail not prehensile; soles of feet smooth. The female has six mammae. In these points they differ from the American arboreal porcupines (_Sphingurus_), the skull of which is very short, the tail prehensile, the soles of the feet tuberculated, and the female has only four mammae. The two genera, _Atherura_ and _Hystrix_, which compose this sub-family, are distinguished by long tail and flattened spines (_Atherura_); and short tail and round spines (_Hystrix_). _GENUS ATHERURA--THE LONG-TAILED PORCUPINE_. Nasal part of skull moderate; upper molars with one internal and three or four external folds, the latter soon separated as enamel loops; the lower teeth similar but reversed; the spines are flattened and channelled; the tail long and scaly, with a tuft of bristles at the end. NO. 402. ATHERURA FASCICULATA. _The Brush-tailed Porcupine_. HABITAT.--Assam, Khasia hills, Tipperah hills, Burmah, Siam, and the Malayan peninsula. DESCRIPTION.--"The general tint of the animal is yellowish-brown, freckled with dusky brown, especially on the back; the spines, taken separately, are brown white at the root, and become gradually darker to the point; the points of the spines on the back are very dark, being of a blackish-brown colour. The long and stout bristles, which are mixed with the spines on the back, are similarly coloured" (_Waterhouse_, 'Mammalia,' vol. ii. p. 472). The spines are flat on the under-surface and concave on the upper, sharply pointed and broadest near the root. Mixed with the spines on the back are long bristles, very stout, projecting some three inches beyond the spines, which are only about an inch in length; below these is a scanty undergrowth of pale coloured hairs; the tail is somewhat less than half the length of the head and body, scaly, and at the end furnished with a large tuft of flattened bristles from three to four inches long, of a dirty white colour, with sometimes dusky tips; the ears are semi-ovate; whiskers long and stout, and of a brown colour; muzzle hairy; feet short, five toes, but the thumb very small, with a short rounded nail. SIZE.--Head and body, 18 inches; tail, exclusive of tuft, 7-1/2 inches. Specimens of this animal were sent home to the Zoological Gardens, from Cherrapoonjee in the Khasia hills, by Dr. Jerdon. This species is almost the same as the African form (_A. Africana_). They are about the same in size and form and in general appearance. This last is found in such plenty, according to Bennett, in the Island of Fernando Po as to afford a staple article of food to the inhabitants. Blyth was of opinion that the Indian animal is much paler and more freckled than the African. _GENUS HYSTRIX--THE PORCUPINE_. "Spines cylindrical; tail short, covered with spines and slender-stalked open quills; nasal cavity usually very large; air sinuses of frontals greatly developed; teeth as in _Atherura_. The hind-feet with five toes; claws very stout." The hinder part of the body is covered by a great number of sharp spines, ringed black and white, mostly tipped with white; the spines are hollow or filled with a spongy tissue, but extremely tough and resistant, with points as sharp as a needle. The animal is able to erect these by a contraction of the skin, but the old idea that they could be projected or shot out at an assailant is erroneous. They easily drop out, which may have given an idea of discharge. The porcupine attacks by backing up against an opponent or thrusting at him by a sidelong motion. I kept one some years ago, and had ample opportunity of studying his mode of defence. When a dog or any other foe comes to close quarters, the porcupine wheels round and rapidly charges back. They also have a side-way jerk which is effective. NO. 403. HYSTRIX LEUCURA. _The White-tailed Indian Porcupine_ (_Jerdon's No. 204_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Kanta-sahi_, _Sayi_, _Sayal_, _Sarsel_, Hindi; _Sajru_, Bengali; _Chotia-dumsee_, Nepali; _Saori_, Gujrati; _Salendra_ and _Sayal_, Mahrathi; _Yed_, Canarese; _Ho-igu_, Gondi; _Phyoo_, Burmese; _Heetava_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--All over India (except perhaps Lower Bengal), Burmah and Ceylon. [Illustration: _Hystrix leucura_.] DESCRIPTION.--Blackish-brown; muzzle clad with short, stiff, bristly hairs; whiskers long and black, and a few white spines on the face; spines on the throat short, grooved, some with white setaceous points forming a half-collar; crest of head and neck formed of long black bristles, with here and there one with a long white tip; the spines of the sides are short, flattish, grooved or striated, mostly with white points; the large quills of the back are either entirely black or ringed at the base and middle with white, a few with white tips; the longer and thinner quills on the back and sides have long white terminations; many of these again, particularly the longest, have a basal and one or two central white rings; the short quills on the mesial line of the lumbar region are nearly all white, and the longer striated quills of this region are mostly white; quills of the tail white or yellowish, a few black ones at the root; pedunculated quills are long, broad, and much flattened in old animals. SIZE.--Head and body, 32 inches; tail, 8 inches. The description given in his 'Prodromus Faunae Zeylanicae' by Dr. Kellaart, who was a most careful observer, has been of great assistance to me in the above, as it was also, I fancy, to Jerdon, and his subsequent remarks are worthy of consideration. "The identification of species from single characters," he observes, "is at all times difficult and unsatisfactory in the genus _Hystrix_, particularly so as regard the conformation of the skull." And again: "The number of molars varies also in different specimens. In two adults obtained at Trincomalee there were only three molars on each side of the jaw, four being the dental formula of the genus _Hystrix_." I think such aberrations ought to warn us from trying to make too many genera out of these animals. Dr. Gray, whose particular forte--or shall I say weakness?--was minute subdivision, classed (in 1847) the Indian porcupines in three sub-families, _Hystrix_, _Acanthion_, and _Atherura_; and _Acanthion_ he some years after (1866, _see_ 'P. Z. S.' p. 308) divided again into three groups, _OEdocephalus_, _Acanthochaerus_ and _Acanthion_. The difference in the skull of _Hystrix_ and _Acanthion_ lies in the intermaxillaries and the grinders, as follows:-- _Hystrix_--Inter-max. broad, truncated, wide behind as before; _grinders_ oblong, longer than broad, one fold on the inner, and three or four on the outer side. _Acanthion_--Inter-max. triangular, tapering behind; _grinders_ sub-cylindrical, not longer than broad, one fold on the inner, two or three on the outer side. According to Waterhouse the European porcupine (_Hystrix cristata_ of Linnaeus) is the _Acanthion Cuvieri_ of Gray; and Gray, who afterwards modified his views of 1847 in 1866, wrote of it: "I am not aware of any external characters by which this species can be distinguished from the _Hystrix cristata_, though the skull is so different." Gray in another place writes that: "Though the skulls of _H. leucurus_ preserve a very distinct character, yet they vary so much amongst themselves as to show that skulls afford no better character for the distinction of species than any other single character, such as colour, but can only be depended on when taken in connection with the rest of the organisation." In these circumstances I think it will be better not to attempt any further subdivision of the Indian porcupines in the present work beyond the two already given, viz. _Hystrix_ and _Atherura_. There is a great similarity between the Indian _H. leucura_ and the European _H. cristata_. According to Waterhouse the quills in the lumbar region, which are white in the Indian, are dusky in the European, which last has long white points to the bristles of the crest, whereas in the Indian one some only of the points are white, and the rest quite brown. The Indian porcupine lives in burrows, in banks, hill sides, on the bunds of tanks, and in the sides of rivers and nullahs. It is nocturnal in its habits, and in the vicinity of cultivation does much damage to such garden stuff as consists of tubers or roots. In the jungle its food consists chiefly of roots, especially of some kinds of wild yam (_Dioscorea_). I have found porcupines in the densest bamboo jungles of the central provinces, where their food was doubtless young bamboo shoots and various kind of roots. The porcupine all the world over is known to be good eating, and is in many countries esteemed a delicacy. The flesh is white and tender, and is much prized by most people in those places where it abounds. Brigadier-General McMaster, in his 'Notes on Jerdon,' in speaking of the only instance where he found a porcupine on the move after daylight, says: "Just at dawn a porcupine appeared, and, as I suppose his house was somewhere between us, trotted and fed, grunting hog-like, about the little valley at our feet until long after the sun was well up, and until I, despairing of other game, and bearing in mind his delicious flesh (for that of a porcupine is the most delicate I know of), shot him. Well may the flesh be tender and of delicate flavour, for, as many gardeners know to their cost, porcupines are most scrupulously dainty and epicurean as to their diet. A pine-apple is left by them until the very night before it is fit to be cut. Peas, potatoes, onions, &c., are not touched until the owner has made up his mind that they were just ready for the table." The Gonds in Seonee were always on the lookout for a porcupine. I described in my book on that district the digging out of one. "The entrance of the animal's abode was a hole in a bank at which the dogs were yelping and scratching; but the bipeds had gone more scientifically to work by countermining from above, sinking shafts downwards at various points, till at last they reached his inner chamber, when he scuttled out, and, charging backwards at the dogs with all his spines erected, he soon sent them flying, howling most piteously; but a Gondee axe hurled at his head soon put an end to his career, for a porcupine's skull is particularly tender." The female produces from two to four young, which are born with their eyes open. Their bodies are covered with short soft spines, which, however, speedily harden. It is said that the young do not remain long with their mother, but I cannot speak to this from personal experience. I have had young ones, but not those born in captivity. NO. 404. HYSTRIX BENGALENSIS. _The Bengal Porcupine_ (_Jerdon's No. 205_). NATIVE NAME.--_Sajaru_ or _Sajru_, Bengali. DESCRIPTION.--"Smaller than the last; crest small and thin; the bristles blackish; body spines much flattened and strongly grooved, terminating in a slight seta Or bristle; slender flexible quills much fewer than in _leucura_, white, with a narrow black band about the centre; the thick quills basally white, the rest black, mostly with a white tip; a distinct white demi-collar; spines of lumbar region white, as are those of tail and rattle; muzzle less hirsute than in _leucura_." SIZE.--Head and body, 28 inches; tail, 8 inches. There is occasionally a variety to be found of this species with orange-coloured quills, or rather the orange hue is assumed at times. Jerdon mentions the fact that Sclater describes his _H. Malabarica_ as having certain orange-coloured quills in place of white, and also that Blyth considered the two species identical. He also states that Mr. Day procured specimens of the orange porcupine from the Ghats of Cochin and Travancore, and that they were considered more delicate eating by the native sportsmen, who aver that they can distinguish the two kinds by the smell from their burrows; but he was not apparently aware at the time that a specimen of _H. Malabarica_ with orange quills in the Zoological Gardens in London moulted, and the red quills were replaced by the ordinary black and white ones of the common Indian kind. Dr. Sclater afterwards (_see_ 'P. Z. S.' 1871, p. 234) came to the conclusion that _H. Malabarica_ was synonymous with _H. leucura_. NO. 405. HYSTRIX (ACANTHION) LONGICAUDA. _The Crestless Porcupine_ (_Jerdon's No. 206_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Anchotia-sahi_ or _Anchotia-dumsi_ in Nepal; _Sathung_, Lepcha; _O'--e_ of the Limbus (_Hodgson_). (N.B.--The _ch_ must not be pronounced as _k_, but as _ch_ in church.) _Anchotia_ means crestless, the crested porcupine being called _Chotia-dumsi_. HABITAT.--Nepal and Sikim, and on through Burmah to the Malayan peninsula, where it was first discovered. DESCRIPTION.--Distinguished from the other species "by its inferior size, total absence of crest on its head, neck, and shoulders, by its longer tail, by the white collar of the neck being evanescent; and lastly by the inferior size and smaller quantity of the spines or quills."--_Hodgson_. It is covered with black spinous bristles from two to three inches long, shortest on the head and limbs. The large quills of the back and croup are from seven to twelve inches long, mostly with one central black ring. SIZE.--Head and body, 24 inches; tail, 4, or with the quills, 5-1/2 inches. This is Hodgson's _H. alophus_, which is, I think, a more appropriate name than the one given, for its tail is not so very long in proportion. Hodgson says of it: "They breed in spring, and usually produce two young about the time the crops ripen. They are monogamous, the pair dwelling together in burrows of their own formation. Their flesh is delicious, like pork, but much more delicate flavoured, and they are easily tamed so as to breed in confinement. All tribes and classes, even high-caste Hindoos, eat them, and it is deemed lucky to keep one or two alive in stables, where they are encouraged to breed. Royal stables are seldom without at least one of them." This animal was described by Gray as _Acanthion Hodgsonii_, the _lesser Indian porcupine_. Waterhouse, in writing of _Hystrix_ (_Acanthion_) _Javanica_, says: "The habits of the animal, as recorded by Muller, do not differ from those of _H. Hodgsonii_"; and Blyth, as mentioned by Jerdon, was of opinion that the two species were one and the same. The _Acanthochaerus Grotei_, described and figured by Dr. Gray in 1866 ('P. Z. S.' p. 306), is the same as this species. It is to be found at Darjeeling amongst the tea plantations, between 4000 and 5000 feet elevation. NO. 406. HYSTRIX YUNNANENSIS. HABITAT.--Burmah, in the Kakhyen hills, at elevations of from 2000 to 4500 feet. DESCRIPTION.--after Dr. Anderson, who first discovered and named this species: "Dark brown on the head, neck, shoulders, and sides passing into a deep black on the extremities, a very narrow white line passing backwards from behind the angle of the mouth to the shoulder; under surface brownish; the spiny hairs of the anterior part of the trunk flattened, grooved or ungrooved. The crest begins behind the occiput and terminates before the shoulders; the hairs are long, slender and backwardly curved, the generality of them being about 4-1/2 inches long, while the longer hairs measure about six inches. "They are all paler than the surrounding hairs, and the individual hairs are either broadly tipped with yellowish-white, or they have a broad sub-apical band of that colour. The short, broad, spiny hairs, lying a short way in front of the quills, are yellow at their bases, the remaining portion being deep brown, whereas those more quill-like spiny hairs, immediately before the quills, have both ends yellow tipped. "The quills are wholly yellow, with the exception of a dark brown, almost black band of variable breadth and position. It is very broad in the shorter quills, and is nearer the free end of the quill than its base, whereas in the long slender quills it is reduced to a narrow mesial band. The stout strong quills rarely exceed six inches in length, whilst the slender quills are one foot long. Posteriorly above the tail and at its sides many of the short quills are pure white. The modified quills on the tail, with dilated barb-like free ends are not numerous, and are also white. There are three kinds of rattle quills, the most numerous measure 0.65 inch in the length of the dilated hollow part, having a maximum breadth of 0.21 inch, whilst there are a few short cups 0.38 inch in length, with a breadth of 0.17 inch, and besides these a very few more elongated and narrow cylinders occur."--'Anat. and Zool. Res.,' p. 332. SUB-ORDER DUPLICIDENTATA--DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS. These rodents are distinguished by the presence of two small additional incisors behind the upper large ones. At birth there are four such rudimentary incisors, but the outer two are shed, and disappear at a very early age; the remaining two are immediately behind the large middle pair, and their use is doubtful; but, as Dallas remarks, "their presence is however of interest, as indicating the direction in which an alliance with other forms of mammalia more abundantly supplied with teeth is to be sought." Another distinctive characteristic of this sub-order is the formation of the bony palate, which is narrowed to a mere bridge between the alveolar borders, or portions of the upper jaw in which the grinding teeth are inserted. The following synopsis of the sub-order is given by Mr. Alston:-- "Incisors 4/2; at birth 6/2; the outer upper incisor soon lost; the next pair very small, placed directly behind the large middle pair; their enamel continuous round the tooth, but much thinner behind; skull with the optic foramina confluent, with no true alisphenoid canal; incisive foramina usually confluent; bony palate reduced to a bridge between the alveolar borders; fibula anchylosed to tibia below, and articulating with the calcaneum; testes permanently external; no vescicular glands. Two families."--'P. Z. S.' 1876, p. 97. [Illustration: Dentition of Hare.] There are only two families each of one existing genus--LEPORIDAE, genus _Lepus_, the Hare; and LAGOMYIDAE, genus _Lagomys_, the Pika, or Mouse-Hare, as Jerdon calls it. There are three fossil genera in the first family, viz. _Palaeolagus_, a fossil hare found in the Miocene of Dacota and Colorado, _Panolax_ from the Pliocene marls of Santa Fe, and _Praotherium_ from Pennsylvanian bone-caves. A fossil Lagomys, genus _Titanomys_, is found in the Post-Pliocene deposits in various parts of Europe, chiefly in the south. FAMILY LEPORIDAE--THE HARES. "Three premolars above and two below; molars rootless, with transverse enamel folds dividing them into lobes; skull compressed; frontals with large wing-shaped post-orbital processes; facial portion of maxillaries minutely reticulated; basisphenoid with a median perforation, and separated by a fissure from the vomer; coronoid process represented by a thin ridge of bone; clavicles imperfect; ears and hind-limbs elongated, tail short, bushy, recurved."--_Alston_. Hares are found all over the world except in Australasia. The Rabbit is much more localised; in India we have none, unless the Hispid Hare, the black rabbit of Dacca sportsmen, is a true rabbit; it is said to burrow, but whether it is gregarious I know not. Another point would also decide the question, viz. are the young born with eyes open or shut? The hare pairs at about a year old, and has several broods a year of from two to five; the young are born covered with hair and their eyes open, whereas young rabbits are born blind and naked. The hare lives in the open, and its lair or "form" is merely a slight depression in some secluded spot. It has been noticed that the hare always returns to its form, no matter to what distance it may have wandered or have been driven. _GENUS LEPUS_. NO. 407. LEPUS RUFICAUDATUS. _The Common Indian Red-tailed Hare_ (_Jerdon's No. 207_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Khargosh_, _Kharra_, Hindi; _Sasru_, Bengali; _Mullol_, Gondi. HABITAT.--India generally. DESCRIPTION.--"General hue rufescent, mixed with blackish on the back and head; ears brownish anteriorly, white at the base, and the tip brown; neck, breast, flanks and limbs more or less dark sandy rufescent, unmottled; nape pale sandy rufescent; tail rufous above, white beneath; upper lip small; eye-mark, chin, throat, and lower parts pure white."--_Jerdon_. SIZE.--Head and body, 20 inches; tail, with hair, 4 inches; ear externally about 5 inches; maximum weight, about 5 lbs. The Indian hare is generally found in open bush country, often on the banks of rivers, at least as far as my experience goes in the Central Provinces. Jerdon says, and McMaster corroborates his statement, that this species, as well as the next, take readily to earth when pursued, and seem to be well acquainted with all the fox-holes in their neighbourhood, and McMaster adds that they seem to be well aware which holes have foxes or not, and never go into a tenanted one. The Indian hare is by no means so good for the table as the European one, being dry and tasteless, and hardly worth cooking. NO. 408. LEPUS NIGRICOLLIS. _The Black-naped Hare_ (_Jerdon's No. 208_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Khargosh_, Hindi; _Malla_, Canarese; _Sassa_, Mahrathi; _Musal_, Tamil; _Kundali_, Telegu; _Haba_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Southern India and Ceylon; stated to be found also in Sind and the Punjab. DESCRIPTION.--"Upper part rufescent yellow, mottled with black; single hairs annulated yellow and black; chin, abdomen, and inside of hind-limbs downy white; a black velvety spot on the occiput and upper part of neck extending to near the shoulders; the spot under the neck is in some specimens of a bright yellow colour; ears long, greyish-brown, internally with white fringes, at the apical part dusky, posteriorly black at the base; feet yellowish; tail above grizzled with black and yellow, beneath white."--_Kellaart_. SIZE.--Head and body, 19 inches; tail, 2-1/2 inches; ears, 4-3/4 inches. A friend of Brigadier-General McMaster's, writing to him, says: "The black-naped hare of the Neilgherries, which appears to be the same as that of the plains, only larger from the effect of climate, often, when chased by dogs, runs into holes and hollow trees. I have found some of the Neilgherry hares to be nearly, if not quite, equal to the English hares in flavour. I think a great deal depends upon keeping and cooking." NO. 409. LEPUS PEGUENSIS. _The Pegu Hare_. NATIVE NAME.--_Yung_, Arakanese. HABITAT.--Pegu, Burmah. DESCRIPTION.--Very like _L. ruficaudatus_, but with the tail _black_ above; the colour of the upper parts is separated more distinctly from the pure white of the under parts. SIZE.--Head and body, about 20 inches. NO. 410. LEPUS HYPSIBIUS. _The Mountain Hare_. HABITAT.--Northern Ladakh. DESCRIPTION.--Colour rufous brown, more or less mixed with black on the back, dusky ashy on the rump; lower parts white with a slight rufescent tinge, fur long, woolly, rather curly, and thick; head brown, whitish round the eyes; whiskers partly black, partly white; outside surface of ears brown in front, whitish behind, the brown hairs having short black tips; the extreme tip of ears black; tail white; throughout limbs chiefly white, a brownish band running down the anterior portion of the fore-legs. SIZE.--Of skin about 24 inches. (_See_ Blanford's 'Second Yarkand Mission,' p. 60; also plate iii.) NO. 411. LEPUS PALLIPES. _The Pale-footed Hare_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Togh_, _Toshkhen_, _Yarkandi_, i.e. Mountain Hare. HABITAT.--Yarkand; Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--"Fur long, dense and soft, of a pale ochre colour, but on the back of the animal pencilled with black; haunches greyish; under-parts white, chest of a delicate yellow rufous tint; the front of the fore-legs and the fore-feet nearly of the same hue; tarsus almost white, but somewhat suffused with rufous in front; tail white, excepting along the middle portion of the upper surface, where it is grey."--Waterhouse's 'Mammalia,' vol. ii. p. 62. SIZE.--Head and body, about 18 inches; tail, with hair about 5 inches. This hare was first described by Hodgson ('J. A. S. B.,' vol. xi.), who also gave a plate; but there is a full description with an excellent plate in Blanford's 'Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand Mission.' NO. 412. LEPUS TIBETANUS. _The Thibet Hare_. HABITAT.--Little Thibet; Ladakh. DESCRIPTION.--Ears longer than the head, margined with yellow white internally, externally, with the apex, edged with black and with a narrow edging of black extending about half-way down the hinder margin. The general colour seems to vary, as is the case with most of the mountain hares. According to Waterhouse it is "palish-ashy grey; the back mottled with dusky and yellowish-white; the back of neck pale rufous brown." Two specimens, described by Blanford, are "general colour rufous brown (very dark brownish tawny)," and another, "above dusky brown, with an ashy tinge on the rump." Waterhouse's specimens may have been in the winter dress; the under-parts are white; legs longish and white; tail white, with the upper surface sooty or grey-black. The excellent plate in the Yarkand Report is nearer to Waterhouse's verbal portraiture, being of a mottled ashy grey. SIZE.--Head and body, about 18 inches; tail, with hair, 4-1/2 inches. NO. 413. LEPUS YARKANDENSIS. _The Yarkand Hare_. NATIVE NAME.--_Toshkhan_, Yarkandi. HABITAT.--The plains of Yarkand and Kashghar. DESCRIPTION.--General colour sandy, more or less mixed with dusky; pale isabelline on the sides; no grey on rump; tail dark brown above; ears without black tip; lower parts white; fur soft and long; fore-legs very pale, brown in front; hind-legs still paler, brown outside. SIZE.--Head and body, about 17 inches; tail, 4 inches. Mr. Blanford remarks that "one striking peculiarity of this very pale coloured hare is the absence of any black patches, and of all grey coloration throughout." The specimens were all shot in winter too. (_See_ Blanford's 'Scientific Results, Second Yarkand Mission,' p. 65, and plate iv., fig. 1.) NO. 414. LEPUS PAMIRENSIS. _The Pamir Hare_. HABITAT.--Lake Sirikal, Pamir. DESCRIPTION.--Pale sandy brown; almost isabelline on back and sides; rump greyish-white; tail black above; face and anterior portion of the ears concolorous with back; terminal portion of ears black outside at the edge; breast light rufous; lower parts white; fur fine, close and soft; fore-legs in front, and hind-legs outside, with a light brownish tinge. SIZE.--Head and body, about 17 inches; tail, 4 inches. The hare is described and named by Mr. W. T. Blanford, and from his full description I have abridged the above short notice. It is also well figured in the 'Yarkand Report,' plate v., fig. 1. NO. 415. LEPUS STOLICZKANUS. _Stoliczka's Hare_. HABITAT.--Kashghar, Altum Artush district, north-east of Kashghar. DESCRIPTION.--"General colour light sandy brown, much mixed with black on the back; the rump very little paler; tail rather long, black above; face and anterior portion of ears the same colour as the back; terminal portion of ears black outside; nape and breast light rufous; lower parts white. The skull differs much from that of _L. Yarkandensis_ and _L. Pamirensis_, the nasals being much more abruptly truncated behind than in either, and the parietal region or sinciput flatter" (Blanford's 'Scientific Results, Second Yarkand Mission,' p. 69, and plate v. fig. 2, skull plate, Va. fig. 2). SIZE.--Head and body, about 17 inches; tail, with hair, 5 inches. This hare was obtained by Dr. Stoliczka, and was first described and named by Mr. W. T. Blanford ('J. A. S. B.' vol. xiv. 1875, part ii. p. 110). NO. 416. LEPUS CRASPEDOTIS. _The Large-eared Hare_. HABITAT.--Baluchistan, Pishin. DESCRIPTION.--Colour brown above, white below; the fur of the back is very pale French grey at the base, then black, and the tip is pale brown, almost isabelline; the black rings are wanting on the nape, hind neck and breast, which, like the fore-legs and hinder part of the tarsi are pale rufous brown; ears externally mouse brown, blackish-brown on the posterior portion near the tip, the anterior edges white, with rather longer hairs, except near the tip, where the hair is short and black; the posterior margins inside pale isabelline, the pale edge becoming broader near the tip; tail black above, white on the sides and below; whiskers black near the base, white except in the shorter ones throughout the greater part of their length; a pale line from the nose, including the eye, continued back nearly to the ear (Blanford's 'Eastern Persia,' vol. ii. p. 81, with plate). SIZE.--Head and body, 15 inches; tail, with hair, 4.5 inches; ear, 6 inches; breadth of ear laid flat, 3.25 inches. This is a new species, described and named by Mr. W. T. Blanford. NO. 417. LEPUS HISPIDUS. _The Hispid Hare_. HABITAT.--The Terai and low forests at the base of the Himalayas. DESCRIPTION.--"General colour dark or iron grey, with an embrowned ruddy tinge, and the limbs shaded outside, like the body, with black, instead of being unmixed rufous" (_Hodgson_). The inner fur is soft, downy, and of an ash colour, the outer longer, hispid, harsh and bristly. Some of the hairs ringed black and brown, others are pure black and long, the latter more numerous; ears short and broad. SIZE.--Head and body, 19-1/2 inches; tail, with hair, 2-1/8 inches; ears, 2-3/4 inches. This animal seems to be a link between the hares and the rabbits. Like the latter, it burrows, and has more equal limbs; but, according to Hodgson, it is not gregarious, but lives in pairs. It would greatly help in the identification of its position if some one would procure the young or a gravid female, and see whether the young are born blind and naked as in the rabbits, or open-eyed and clad with fur as in the hares. Jerdon says it is common at Dacca, and is reported to be found also in the Rajmehal hills, and that its flesh is stated to be white, like that of the rabbit. FAMILY LAGOMYIDAE--THE PIKAS, OR MOUSE-HARES. One or two premolars above and below; grinding teeth as in _Leporidae_; skull depressed; the frontals are contracted, without the wing-like processes of the hares; a single perforation in the facial surface of the maxillaries; a curious prolongation of the posterior angle of the malar into a process extending almost to the ear tube, or auditory meatus; the basisphenoid is not perforated and separated from the vomer as in _Lepus_; the coronoid process is in the form of a tubercle; the clavicles are complete; ears short; limbs nearly equal; no tail. _GENUS LAGOMYS_. Animals of small size and robust form; short-eared and tailless; two premolars above and below. NO. 418. LAGOMYS ROYLEI. _Royle's Pika_ (_Jerdon's No. 210_). NATIVE NAME.--_Rang-runt_, or _Rang-duni_, in Kunawur.--_Jerdon_. HABITAT.--The Himalayan range, from Kashmir to Sikim. DESCRIPTION.--Rabbit grey or brown, with a yellowish-grey tinge, more or less rufous on the head, neck, shoulder and sides of body; a hairy brown muzzle, with pale under-lip; long whiskers, some white, the posterior ones dark; under-parts white; fur soft and fine. The upper lip is lobed as in the hare; ears elliptical, with rounded tops. SIZE.--From 6 to 8 inches. The first specimen was sent to England by Dr. Royle, in whose honour Mr. Ogilby named it. It was obtained not far from Simla. It lives in rocky ground or amongst loose stones in burrows, and is the tailless rat described by Turner in his 'Journey to Thibet,' which had perforated the banks of a lake by its holes. NO. 419. LAGOMYS CURZONIAE. _Curzon's Pika_. HABITAT.--The higher ranges of the Himalayas, from 14,000 to 19,000 feet. It has been found northerly in Ladakh, and easterly in Sikim. DESCRIPTION.--Pale buff above, tinged with rufous, the sides being more rufescent; head, as far back as the ears, decidedly rufescent; ears large and oval; sides of head and nose dirty fulvous white; under-parts white, with a faint yellow tinge; limbs and soles of feet white; whiskers, some black, some white; fur long, fine and silky. SIZE.--About 7 inches to 8 inches. NO. 420. LAGOMYS LADACENSIS. _The Ladak Pika_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Zabra_, _Karin_, or _Phisekarin_, Ladakhi. HABITAT.--High plateaux of Ladakh. DESCRIPTION.--"General hue of the upper body pale buff, fulvous, with a very slight rufous tint, and tipped with dark brown; below whitish with translucent dusky blue."--_Stoliczka_, quoted by Blanford. SIZE.--From 7 inches to 9 inches. It is as yet doubtful whether this is not identical with the last. Mr. Blanford has separated it, and Dr. Gunther, agreeing with him, named this species _L. Ladacensis_; but the skull characteristics of _L. Curzoniae_ have not as yet been compared with this, and the separation has been made on external characters only. NO. 421. LAGOMYS AURITUS. _The Large-eared Pika_. HABITAT.--Lukong, on the Pankong lake. DESCRIPTION.--General colour above smoky or wood brown; the head, shoulders and rump rather paler and more rufous; lower parts whitish, with the dark basal portion of the hair showing through; fur very soft, moderately long; ears large, round, clothed rather thinly inside near the margin with whitish-brown hairs, and outside with much longer hairs of the same colour; whiskers fine and long, the upper dark brown, the lower white; feet whitish. (_See_ Blanford's 'Sc. Res. Second Yarkand Mission,' p. 75, plate vi. fig. 2.) SIZE.--About 8 inches. NO. 422. LAGOMYS MACROTIS. This seems to be a doubtful species; it may probably prove to be the same as the last, the skulls being similar. Mr. Blanford remarks: "I am strongly disposed to suspect, indeed, that _L. auritus_ is the summer _L. macrotis_, the winter garb of the same species; but there are one or two differences which require explanation. The feet appear larger in _L. macrotis_, and the pads of the toes are black, whilst in _L. auritus_ they are pale coloured. In the former the long hair of the forehead is lead black at the base, in the latter, pale grey; the feet and lower parts generally are white in _L. macrotis_, buffy white in _L. auritus_, but this may be seasonable." NO. 423. LAGOMYS GRISEUS. _The Grey Pika_. HABITAT.--Yarkand, Kuenlun range, south of Sunju pass. DESCRIPTION.--General colour dull grey (almost Chinchilla colour), with a slight rufescent tinge on the face and back; lower parts white; fur very soft, about 0.9 inch long in the middle of the back; glossy leaden black at the base and for about two-thirds of its length, very pale ashy grey towards the end; the extreme tips of many hairs dark brown, and on the back the tips of all the hairs are brownish; the sides are almost pure light ashy; rump still paler; feet white; hair on the face long, light brown on the forehead, greyer on the nose, pure grey on the sides of the head. A few of the upper whiskers black, the rest white; ears large round with rather thin white hairs inside, very short hairs close to the margin, white outside, black inside, outer surface covered with whitish hairs, which become long near the base of the ear. (_See_ Blanford's 'Scientific Results, Second Yarkand Mission,' p. 77, and plate vii. fig. 1.) SIZE.-About 7 inches. NO. 424. LAGOMYS RUFESCENS. _The Red Pika_. HABITAT.--Afghanistan, Persia. DESCRIPTION.--Pale sandy red, darker on the top of the head, the shoulders and fore part of back; two large patches behind the ears; the feet and the under-parts are pale buff yellow; ears moderately large, subovate and well clad, rusty yellow, paler on the under part; whiskers very long, brown, a few brownish white; toe-pads blackish. SIZE.-About 8 inches. This species has been found in the rocky hills of Cabul. _Lagomys Hodgsonii_, from Lahoul, Ladakh and Kulu, is considered to be the same as the above, and _L. Nipalensis_, described by Waterhouse, as synonymous with _L. Roylei_. * * * * * Under the systems of older naturalists the thick-skinned animals were lumped together under the order UNGULATA, or _hoofed animals_, subdivided by Cuvier into _Pachydermata_, or thick-skinned non-ruminants, and _Ruminantia_, or ruminating animals; but neither the elephant nor the coney can be called hoofed animals, and in other respects they so entirely differ from the rest that recent systematists have separated them into three distinct orders--_Proboscidea_, _Hyracoidea_ and _Ungulata_, which classification I here adopt. ORDER PROBOSCIDEA. It seems a strange jump from the order which contains the smallest mammal, the little harvest mouse, to that which contains the gigantic elephant--a step from the ridiculous to the sublime; yet there are points of affinity between the little mouse and the giant tusker to which I will allude further on, and which bring together these two unequal links in the great chain of nature. The order Proboscidea, or animals whose noses are prolonged into a flexible trunk, consists of one genus containing two living species only--the Indian and African Elephants. To this in the fossil world are added two more genera--the _Mastodon_ and _Dinotherium_. The elephant is one of the oldest known of animals. Frequent mention is made in the Scriptures and ancient writings of the use of ivory. In the First Book of Kings and the Second of Chronicles, it is mentioned how Solomon's ships brought every three years from Tarshish gold and silver and ivory (or elephants' teeth) apes and peacocks. In the Apocrypha the animal itself, and its use in war, is mentioned; in the old Sanscrit writings it frequently appears. Aristotle and Pliny were firm believers in the superstition which prevailed, even to more recent times, that it had no joints. "The elephant hath joints, but none for courtesy; His legs are for necessity, not flexure"-- says Shakespeare. Even down to the last century did this notion prevail, so little did people know of this animal. The supposition that he slept leaning against a tree is to be traced in Thomson's 'Seasons'-- "Or where the Ganges rolls his sacred waves Leans the huge elephant." Again, Montgomery says-- "Beneath the palm which he was wont to make His prop in slumber." At a very early period elephants were used in war, not only by the Indian but the African nations. In the first Punic war (B.C. 264-241) they were used considerably by the Carthaginians, and in the second Punic war Hannibal carried thirty-seven of them across the Alps. In the wars of the Moghuls they were used extensively. The domestication of the African elephant has now entirely ceased; there is however no reason why this noble animal should not be made as useful as its Indian brother; it is a bigger animal, and as tractable, judging from the specimens in menageries. It was trained in the time of the Romans for performances in the arena, and swelled the pomp of military triumphs, when, as Macaulay, I think, in his 'Lays of Ancient Rome,' says, the people wondered at-- "The monstrous beast that had A serpent for a hand." It seems a cruel shame, when one comes to think of it, that thousands of these noble animals should perish annually by all sorts of ignoble means--pitfalls, hamstringing, poisoned arrows, and a few here and there shot with more or less daring by adventurous sportsmen, only for the sake of their magnificent tusks. Few people think, as they leisurely cut open the pages of a new book or play with their ivory-handled dessert-knives after dinner, of the life that has once been the lot of that inanimate substance, so beautiful in its texture, so prized from time immemorial; still less do they think, for the majority do not know, of the enormous loss of life entailed in purveying this luxury for the market. An elephant is a long-lived beast; it is difficult to say what is the extent of its individual existence; at fifty years it is in its prime, and its reproduction is in ratio slower than animals of shorter life, yet what countless herds must there be in Central Africa when we consider that the annual requirements of Sheffield alone are reported to be upwards of 46,000 tusks, which represent 23,000 elephants a year for the commerce of one single city! The African elephant must be decreasing, even as it has been extirpated in the north of that continent, where it abounded in the time of the Carthaginians, and the time may come when ivory shall be counted as one of the precious things of the past. Even now the price is going up, and is nearly double what it was a year ago. Now enhanced price means either greater demand or deficient supply, and it is probably to this last we must look for an answer to the question. True it is that if we want ivory animals must be killed to get it, for the notion that some people have gained from obsolete works on natural history, to the effect that elephants shed their tusks, is an erroneous one. It is generally supposed that elephants do not shed their tusks at all, not even milk-teeth, but that they grow _ab initio_, as do the incisors of rodents, from a persistent pulp, and continue growing through life. Mr. G. P. Sanderson, the author of 'Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts,' whom I have to thank for much and valuable information about the habits of these animals, assured me, when I spoke to him about the popular idea of there being milk-tusks, that he had watched elephants from their birth, and had never known them to shed their tusks, nor had his mahouts ever found a shed tusk; but Mr. Tegetmeier has pointed out that there are skulls in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, showing both the milk and permanent tusks, the latter pushing forward the former, which are absorbed to a great extent, and leave nothing but a little blackened stump, the size of one's finger. This was brought to my notice by a correspondent of _The Asian_, "Smooth-bore," and I have lately had the pleasure of meeting Mr. Tegetmeier, and speaking to him on the subject. There is apparently no limit to the growth of tusks, so that under favourable circumstances they might attain enormous dimensions, owing to the age of the animal, and absence of the attrition which keeps the incisors of rodents down. As in the case of rodents, malformations of whose incisors I have alluded to some time back, the tusks of elephants assume various freaks. I have heard of their overlapping and crossing the trunk in a manner to impede the free use of that organ. The tusks of fossil elephants are in many cases gigantic. There is a head in the Indian Museum, of which the tusks _outside the socket_ measure 9-3/4 feet, and are of very curious formation. The two run parallel some distance, and then diverge, which would lead one to suppose that the animal inhabited open country, for such a formation would be extremely uncomfortable in thick forest. That tusks of such magnitude are not found nowadays is probably due to the fact that the elephant has more enemies, the most formidable of all being man, which prevent his reaching the great age of those of the fossil periods. It may be said, by those who disbelieve in the extermination of this animal, that, as elephants have provided ivory for several thousand years, they will go on doing so; but I would remind them that in olden days ivory was an article in limited demand, being used chiefly by kings and great nobles; it is only of late years that it has increased more than a hundredfold. Our forefathers used buck-horn handled knives, and they were without the thousand-and-one little articles of luxury which are now made of ivory; even the requirements of the ancient world drove the elephant away from the coasts, where Solomon, and later still the Romans, got their ivory; and now the girdle round the remaining herds in Central Africa is being narrowed day by day. Mr. Sanderson is of opinion that it is not decreasing in India under the present restrictions, but there is no doubt the reckless slaughter of them in Ceylon has greatly diminished their numbers. Sir Emerson Tennent states that the Government reward was claimed for 3,500 destroyed in part of the northern provinces alone in three years prior to 1848, and between 1851 and 1856, 2000 were killed in the southern provinces. _GENUS ELEPHAS--THE ELEPHANT_. In the writings of older naturalists this animal, so singular in its construction, will be found grouped with the horse, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, tapir, coney, and pig, under the name of pachydermata, the seventh order of Cuvier, but these are now more appropriately divided, as I have said before, into three different orders--Proboscidea, the elephants; Hyracoidea, the conies; and the rest come under Ungulata. Apparently singular as is the elephant in its anatomy, it bears traces of affinity to both Rodentia and Ungulata. The composition of its massive tusks or incisors, and also of its grinders, resembles that of the Rodents. The tusks grow from a persistent pulp, which forms new ivory coated with enamel, but the grinders are composed of a number of transverse perpendicular plates, or vertical laminae of dentine, enveloped with enamel, cemented together by layers of a substance called _cortical_. The enamel, by its superior hardness, is less liable to attrition, and, standing above the rest, causes an uneven grinding surface. Each of these plates is joined at the base of the tooth, and on the grinding surface the pattern formed by them distinguishes at once the Indian from the African elephant. In the former, the transverse ridges are in narrow, undulating loops, but in the African they form decided lozenges. These teeth, when worn out, are succeeded by others pushing forward from behind, and not forced up vertically, as in the case of ordinary deciduous teeth, so that it occasionally happens that the elephant has sometimes one and sometimes two grinders on each side, according to age. In the wild state sand and grit, entangled in the roots of plants, help in the work of attrition, and, according to Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, the tame animal, getting cleaner food, and not having such wear and tear of teeth, gets a deformity by the piling over of the plates of which the grinder is composed. An instance of this has come under my notice. An elephant belonging to my brother-in-law, Colonel W. B. Thomson, then Deputy Commissioner of Seonee, suffered from an aggravated type of this malformation. He was relieved by an ingenious mahout, who managed to saw off the projecting portion of the tooth, which now forms a paper-weight. In my account of Seonee I have given a detailed description of the mode in which the operation was effected. [Illustration: Side view of Grinders of Asiatic Elephant.] [Illustration: Grinder of Asiatic Elephant.] [Illustration: Grinder of African Elephant.] [Illustration: Section of Elephant's Skull.] The skull of the elephant possesses many striking features quite different from any other animal. The brain in bulk does not greatly exceed that of a man, therefore the rest of the enormous head is formed of cellular bone, affording a large space for the attachment of the powerful muscles of the trunk, and at the same time combining lightness with strength. This cellular bone grows with the animal, and is in great measure absent at birth. In the young elephant the brain nearly fills the head, and the brain-case increases but little in size during growth, but the cellular portion progresses rapidly with the growth of the animal, and is piled up over the frontals for a considerable height, giving the appearance of a bold forehead, the brain remaining in a small space at the base of the skull, close to its articulation with the neck. According to Professor Flower, the cranial cavity is elongated and depressed, more so in the African than the Indian elephant. The tentorial plane is nearly vertical, so that the cerebellar fossa is altogether behind the cerebral fossa, or, in plainer terms, the division between the big brain (cerebrum) and the little one (cerebellum) is vertical, the two brains lying on a level plane fore and aft instead of overlapping. The brain itself is highly convoluted. The nasal aperture, or olfactory fossa, is very large, and is placed a little below the brain-case. Few people who are intimate with but the external form of the elephant would suppose that the bump just above the root of the trunk, at which the hunter takes aim for the "front shot," is really the seat of the organ of smell, the channels of which run down the trunk to the orifice at the end. The maxillo-turbinals, or twisted bony laminae within the nasal aperture, which are to be found in most mammals, are but rudimentary in the elephant--the elongated proboscis, according to Professor Flower, probably supplying their place in warming the inspired air. The premaxillary and maxillary bones are largely developed, and contain the socket of the enormous tusks. The narial aperture is thus pushed up, and is short, with an upward direction, as in the Cetacea and Sirenia, with whom the Proboscidea have certain affinities. There are no lower incisors (except in a fossil species), and only two of the molar teeth are to be seen on each side of the jaw at a time, which are pushed out and replaced by others which grow from behind. During the life-time of the animal, twenty-four of these teeth are produced, six in each side of the upper and lower jaws. The elephant has seven cervical vertebrae, the atlas much resembling the human form; of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae the number is 23, of which 19 or 20 bear ribs; the caudal vertebrae are 31, of a simple character, without chevron bones. The pelvis is peculiar in some points, such as the form of the ileum and the arrangement of its surfaces, resembling the human pelvis. The limbs in the skeleton of the elephant are disposed in a manner differing from most other mammalia. The humerus is remarkable for the great development of the supinator ridge. "The ulna and radius are quite distinct and permanently crossed; the upper end of the latter is small, while the ulna not only contributes the principal part of the articular surface for the humerus, but has its lower end actually larger than that of the radius--a condition almost unique among mammals" (_Prof. Flower_). On looking at the skeleton of the elephant, one of the first things that strikes the student of comparative anatomy is the perpendicular column of the limbs; in all other animals the bones composing these supports are set at certain angles, by which a direct shock in the action of galloping and leaping is avoided. Take the skeleton of a horse, and you will observe that the scapula and humerus are set almost at right angles to each other. It is so in most other animals, but in the elephant, which requires great solidity and columnar strength, it not being given to bounding about, and having enormous bulk to be supported, the scapula, humerus, ulna and radius are all almost in a perpendicular line. Owing to this rigid formation, the elephant cannot spring. No greater hoax was ever perpetrated on the public than that in one of our illustrated papers, which gave a picture of an elephant hurdle-race. Mr. Sanderson, in his most interesting book, says: "He is physically incapable of making the smallest spring, either in vertical height or horizontal distance. Thus a trench seven feet wide is impassable to an elephant, though the step of a large one in full stride is about six and a half feet." [Illustration: Skeleton of Elephant.] The hind-limbs are also peculiarly formed, and bear some resemblance to the arrangement of the human bones, and in these the same perpendicular disposition is to be observed; the pelvis is set nearly vertically to the vertebral column, and the femur and tibia are in an almost direct line. The fibula, or small bone of the leg, which is subject to great variation amongst animals (it being merely rudimentary in the horse, for instance), is distinct in the elephant, and is considerably enlarged at the lower end. The tarsal bones are short, and the digits have the usual number of phalanges, the ungual or nail-bearing ones being small and rounded. [Illustration: A. Muscles of Elephant's Trunk. B. Cross-section of ditto.] I have thus briefly summarised the osteology of the elephant, as I think the salient points on which I have touched would interest the general reader; but, in now proceeding to the internal anatomy, I shall restrict myself still more, referring only to certain matters affecting externally visible peculiarities. The trunk of the elephant differs somewhat from other nasal prolongations, such as the snouts of certain insectivora, which are simply development of the nasal cartilages. The nasal cartilages in the Proboscidea serve merely as valves to the entrance of the bony nares, the trunk itself being only a pipe or duct leading to them, composed of powerful muscular and membranous tissue and consisting of two tubes, separated by a septum. The muscles in front (_levatores proboscidis_), starting from the frontal bone, run along a semicircular line, arching upwards above the nasal bones and between the orbits. They are met at the sides by the lateral longitudinal muscles, which blend, and their fibres run the whole length of the proboscis down to the extremity. The depressing muscles (_depressores proboscidis_), or posterior longitudinals, arise from the anterior surface and lower border of the premaxillaries, and form "two layers of oblique fasciculi along the posterior surface of the proboscis; the fibres of the superficial set are directed downwards and outwards from the middle line. They do not reach the extremity of the trunk, but disappear by curving over the sides a little above the end of the organ. The fibres of the deeper set take the reverse direction, and are attached to a distinct tendinous raphe along the posterior median line" ('Anat. Ind. Elep.,' Miall and Greenwood). These muscles form the outer sheath of other muscles, which radiate from the nasal canals outwards, and which consist of numerous distinct fasciculi. Then there are a set of transverse muscles in two parts--one narrow, forming the septum or partition between the nasal passages, and the other broader between the narrow part and the posterior longitudinal muscles. When we consider the bulk of these well-knit muscles we can no longer wonder at the power of which this organ is capable, although, according to Mr. Sanderson, its capabilities are much exaggerated; and he explodes various popular delusions concerning it. He doubts the possibility of the animal picking up a needle, the common old story which I also disbelieve, having often seen the difficulty with which a coin is picked up, or rather scraped up; but he quite scouts the idea of an elephant being able to lift a heavy weight with his trunk, giving an instance recorded of one of these creatures lifting with his trunk the axle of a field-piece as the wheel was about to pass over a fallen gunner, which he declares to be a physical impossibility. Certainly the story has many elements of improbability about it, and his comments on it are caustic and amusing: _par exemple_, when he asks: "How did the elephant know that a wheel going over the man would not be agreeable to him?" That is the weak point in the story--but, however intelligent the animal might be, Mr. Sanderson says it is physically impossible. Another thing that strikes every one is the noiseless tread of this huge beast. To describe the mechanism of the foot of the elephant concisely and simply I am going to give a few extracts from the observations of Professor W. Boyd Dawkins and Messrs. Oakley, Miall, and Greenwood: "It stands on the ends of its five toes, each of which is terminated by comparatively small hoofs, and the heel-bone is a little distance from the ground. Beneath comes the wonderful cushion composed, of membranes, fat, nerves, and blood-vessels, besides muscles, which constitutes the sole of the foot" (_W. B. D. and H. O._). "Of the foot as a whole--and this remark apples to both fore and hind extremities--the separate mobility of the parts is greater than would be suspected from an external inspection, and much greater than in most Ungulates. The palmar and plantar soles, though thick and tough, are not rigid boxes like hoofs, but may be made to bend even by human fingers. The large development of muscles acting upon the carpus and tarsus, and the separate existence of flexors and extensors of individual digits, is further proof that the elephant's foot is far from being a solid unalterable mass. There are, as has been pointed out, tendinous or ligamentous attachments which restrain the independent action of some of these muscles, but anatomical examinations would lead us to suppose that the living animal could at all events accurately direct any part of the circumference of the foot by itself to the ground. The metacarpal and metatarsal bones form a considerable angle with the surface of the sole, while the digits, when supporting the weight of the body, are nearly horizontal" (_M. and G._). This formation would naturally give elasticity to the foot, and, with the soft cushion spoken of by Professor Dawkins, would account for the noiselessness of the elephant's tread. On one occasion a friend and myself marched our elephant up to a sleeping tiger without disturbing the latter's slumbers. It is a curious fact that twice round an elephant's foot is his height; it may be an inch one way or the other, but still sufficiently near to take as an estimate. Now we come to a third peculiarity in this interesting animal, and that is the power of withdrawing water or a similar fluid from apparently the stomach by the insertion of its trunk into the mouth, which it sprinkles over its body when heated. The operation and the _modus operandi_ are familiar to all who have made much use of elephants, but the internal economy by which the water is supplied is as yet a mystery to be solved, although various anatomists have given the subject serious attention. It is generally supposed that the receptacle for the liquid is the stomach, from the quantity that is ejected. An elephant distressed by a long march in the heat of the sun withdraws several quarts of water, but that it is water, and not a secretion produced by salivatory glands, is not I think sufficiently evident. In talking over the matter with Mr. Sanderson, he informed me that an elephant that has drunk a short time before taking an arduous march has a more plentiful supply of liquid at his disposal. Therefore we might conclude that it is water which is regurgitated, and in such quantity as to preclude the idea of its being stored anywhere but in the stomach; but the question is, how it is so stored there without assimulating with the food in the process of digestion. Sir Emerson Tennent, in his popular and well-known, but in some respects incorrect, account of the elephant, has adopted the theory that the cardiac end of the stomach is the receptacle for the water; and he figures a section of it showing a number of transverse circular folds; and he accepts the conclusion arrived at by Camper and Sir Everard Home that this portion can be shut off as a water chamber by the action of the fold nearest to the oesophagus; but these folds are too shallow to serve as water-cells, and it has not been demonstrated that the broadest fold near the oesophagus can be contracted to such an extent as to form a complete diaphragm bisecting the stomach. Messrs. Miall and Greenwood say: "The stomach is smooth, externally elongate, and nearly straight. The cardiac end is much prolonged and tapering. A number of transverse, nearly circular, folds project inwards from the cardiac wall; they almost disappear when the stomach is greatly distended, and are at all times too shallow to serve as water-cells, though they have been figured and described as such." That the stomach is the reservoir is, I think, open to doubt; but there is no other possible receptacle as yet discovered, though I shall allude to a supposed one presently, which would hold a moderate supply of water, and further research in this direction is desirable. Most of the dissections hitherto made have been of young and immature specimens. Dr. Watson's investigations have thrown some light on the way in which the water is withdrawn, which differs from Dr. Harrison's conclusions, which are quoted by Sir Emerson Tennent. Dr. Watson says regarding this power of withdrawal: "It is evident that were the throat of this animal similar to that of other mammals, this could not be accomplished, as the insertion of a body, such as the trunk, so far into the pharynx as to enable the constrictor muscles of that organ to grasp it, would at once give rise to a paroxysm of coughing; or, were the trunk merely inserted into the mouth, it would be requisite that this cavity be kept constantly filled with water, at the same time that the lips closely encircled the inserted trunk. The formation of the mouth of the elephant, however, is such as to prevent the trunk ever being grasped by the lips so as effectually to stop the entrance of air into the cavity, and thus at once, if I may so express it, the pump action of the trunk is completely paralysed. We find, therefore, that it is to some modification of the throat that we must look for an explanation of the function in question." He then goes on to explain minutely the anatomical details of the apparatus of the throat, which I will endeavour to sketch as simply, though clearly, as I can. The superior aperture of the pharynx is extremely narrow, so much so as to admit, with difficulty, the passage of a closed fist; but immediately behind this the pharynx dilates into a large pouch capable of containing a certain quantity of fluid--according to Dr. Watson a considerable quantity; but this is open to question. Professor Miall states that in the young specimen examined by him and Mr. Greenwood, a pint was the capacity of the pouch. However, according to Dr. Watson, it is capable of distention to a certain extent. The pouch is prolonged forward beneath the root of the tongue, which forms the anterior boundary, whilst the posterior wall is completed by depression of the soft palate; when the latter is elevated the pouch communicates freely with the oesophagus. I omit Dr. Watson's minute description of the anatomy of this part in detail, which the reader who cares to study the matter more deeply can find in his 'Contributions to the Anatomy of the Indian Elephant,' 'Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,' 1871-74, but proceed to quote some of his deductions from the observations made: "An elephant can," he says, "as the quotations sufficiently prove, withdraw water from his stomach in two ways--first, it may be regurgitated directly into the nasal passages by the action of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, the soft palate being at the same time depressed, so as to prevent the passage of water into the mouth. Having in this manner filled the large nasal passages communicating with the trunk, the water contained in them is then forced through the trunk by means of a powerful expiration; or, in the second place, the water may be withdrawn from the cavity of the mouth by means of the trunk inserted into it." The second deduction is, I think, the more probable one. Before an elephant spirts water over his body, he invariably puts his trunk into his mouth for the liquid, whatever it may be. Messrs. Miall and Greenwood are also against the former supposition, viz. that the fluid is regurgitated into the nasal passages. They say: "We are disposed to question the normal passage of water along this highly-sensitive tract. Examination of the parts discovers no valve or other provision for preventing water, flowing from behind forward, from gaining free entrance into the olfactory recesses." Mr. Sanderson, in discussing the habits of elephants with me, informed me that, from his observations, he was sure that an elephant, in drawing up water, did not fill more than fifteen to eighteen inches of his trunk at a time, which confirms the opinion of the two last-mentioned authors. Now we go on with Dr. Watson's second deduction:-- "It is manifestly impossible that the water can be contained within the cavity of the mouth itself, as I have already shown that the lips in the elephant are so formed as effectually to prevent this. The water regurgitated is, however, by means of the elevation of the soft palate, forced into the pharyngeal pouch. The superior aperture of this pouch being much narrower than the diameter of the pouch itself, and being completely surrounded by the muscular fibres of the stylo-glossus on each side, and the root of the tongue in front, which is prolonged backwards so as to form a free sharp margin, we have thus, as it were, a narrow aperture surrounded by a sphincter muscle, into which the trunk being inserted, and grasped above its dilated extremity by the sphincter arrangement just referred to, air is thus effectually excluded; and, the nasal passages being then exhausted by the act of inspiration, water is lodged within these passages, to be used as the animal thinks fit, either by throwing it over his body, or again returning it into his mouth." This is doubtless a correct conclusion. The question still remaining open is, What is the fluid--water or a secretion? If water, where is it stowed in sufficient quantity? The testimony of several eminent anatomists appears to be against stomach complications such as before suggested. Dr. Anderson has told me that he had the opportunity of examining the stomachs of two very large elephants, which were perfectly simple, of enormous size; and he was astonished at the extent of mucous surface. If water were drawn from such a stomach, it would be more or less tainted with half-digested food, besides which, when drunk, it would be rapidly absorbed by the mucous surfaces. I think therefore that we may assume that these yield back a very fluid secretion, which is regurgitated, as before suggested, into the pharyngeal pouch, to be withdrawn as required. Sir Emerson Tennent figures, on the authority of Dr. Harrison, a portion of the trachea and oesophagus, connected by a muscle which he supposes "might raise the cardiac orifice of the stomach, and so aid this organ to regurgitate a portion of its contents into the oesophagus," but neither Dr. Watson nor Messrs. Miall and Greenwood have found any trace of this muscle. * * * * * Before proceeding to a detailed account of the Indian elephant, I will cursorily sketch the difference between it and its African brother. The African elephant is of larger size as a rule, with enormously developed ears, which quite overlap his withers. The forehead recedes, and the trunk is more coarsely ringed; the tusks are larger, some almost reaching the size of those mentioned above in the fossil head at the museum. An old friend of mine, well known to all the civilised--and a great portion of the uncivilised--world, Sir Samuel Baker, had, and may still have, in his possession a tusk measuring ten feet nine inches. This of course includes the portion within the socket, whereas my measurement of the fossil is from the socket to tip. The lamination of the molar teeth also is very distinct in the two species, as I have before stated--the African being in acute lozenges, the Indian in wavy undulations. Another point of divergence is, that the African elephant has only three nails on the hind feet, whereas the Asiatic has four. NO. 425. ELEPHAS INDICUS. _The Indian or Asiatic Elephant_ (_Jerdon's No. 211_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Hasti_ or _Gaja_, Sanscrit; _Gaj_, Bengali; _Hati_, Hindi; _Ani_ in Southern India, i.e. in Tamil, Telegu, Canarese, and Malabari; _Feel_, Persian; _Allia_, Singhalese; _Gadjah_, Malayan; _Shanh_, Burmese. HABITAT.--India, in most of the large forests at the foot of the Himalayas from Dehra Doon down to the Bhotan Terai; in the Garo hills, Assam; in some parts of Central and Southern India; in Ceylon and in Burmah, from thence extending further to Siam, Sumatra and Borneo. DESCRIPTION.--Head oblong, with concave forehead; small ears as compared with the African animal; small eyes, lighter colour, and four instead of three nails on the hind foot; the laminations of the molar teeth in wavy undulations instead of sharp lozenges, as in the African, the tusks also being much smaller in the female, instead of almost equal in both sexes. SIZE.--The maximum height appears to be about 11 feet, in fact the only authentic measurement we have at present is 10 feet 7 inches. "The huge elephant, wisest of brutes," has had a good deal of the romance about it taken away by modern observers. The staid appearance of the animal, with the intellectual aspect contributed by the enormous cranial development, combined with its undoubted docility and aptitude for comprehending signs, have led to exaggerated ideas of its intelligence, which probably does not exceed that of the horse, and is far inferior to that of the dog. But from time immemorial it has been surrounded by a halo of romance and exaggeration. Mr. Sanderson says, however, that the natives of India never speak of it as an intelligent animal, "and it does not figure in their ancient literature for its wisdom, as do the fox, the crow, and the monkey;" but he overlooks the fact that the Hindu god of wisdom, _Gunesh_, is always depicted with the body of a man, but the head of an elephant. However this is apparently an oversight, for both in his book and lecture he alludes to _Gunesh_. The rest of his remarks are so good, and show so much practical knowledge, that I shall take the liberty of quoting _in extenso_ from a lecture delivered by him at Simla last year, a printed copy of which he kindly sent me, and also from his interesting book, 'Thirteen Years amongst the Wild Beasts.' He says: "One of the strongest features in the domesticated elephant's character is its obedience. It may also be readily taught, as it has a large share of the ordinary cultivable intelligence common in a greater or less degree to all animals. But its reasoning faculties are undoubtedly far below those of the dog, and possibly of other animals; and in matters beyond the range of its daily experience it evinces no special discernment. Whilst quick at comprehending anything sought to be taught to it, the elephant is decidedly wanting in originality." I think one as often sees instances of decided stupidity on the part of elephants as of sagacity, but I think the amount of intelligence varies in individuals. I have known cases where elephants have tried to get their mahouts off their backs--two cases in my own district--in the one the elephant tried shaking and then lying down, both of which proved ineffectual; in the other it tried tearing off the rafters of a hut and throwing them over its back, and finally rubbing against low branches of trees, which proved successful. The second elephant, I think, showed the greatest amount of original thought; but there is no doubt the sagacity of the animal has been greatly overrated. I quote again from Mr. Sanderson, whose remarks are greatly to the point:-- "What an improbable story is that of the elephant and the tailor, wherein the animal, on being pricked with a needle instead of being fed with sweetmeats as usual, is represented as having deliberately gone to a pond, filled its trunk with dirty water, and returned and squirted it over the tailor and his work! This story accredits the elephant with appreciating the fact that throwing dirty water over his work would be the peculiar manner in which to annoy a tailor. How has he acquired the knowledge of the incongruity of the two things, dirty water and clean linen? He delights in water himself, and would therefore be unlikely to imagine it objectionable to another. If the elephant were possessed of the amount of discernment with which he is commonly credited, is it reasonable to suppose that he would continue to labour for man instead of turning into the nearest jungle? The elephant displays less intelligence in its natural state than most wild animals. Whole herds are driven into ill-concealed inclosures which no other forest creatures could be got to enter; and single ones are caught by being bound to trees by men under cover of a couple of tame elephants, the wild one being ignorant of what is going on until he finds himself secured. Escaped elephants are re-taken without trouble; even experience does not bring them wisdom. Though possessed of a proboscis which is capable of guarding it against such dangers, the wild elephant readily falls into pits dug in its path, whilst its fellows flee in terror, making no effort to assist the fallen one, as they might easily do by kicking in the earth around the pit. It commonly happens that a young elephant falls into a pit, in which case the mother will remain until the hunters come, without doing anything to assist her offspring--not even feeding it by throwing in a few branches. "When a half-trained elephant of recent capture happens to get loose, and the approach of its keeper on foot might cause it to move off, or perhaps even to run away altogether, the mahout calls to his elephant from a distance to kneel, and he then approaches and mounts it. The instinct of obedience is herein shown to be stronger than the animal's intelligence. When a herd of wild elephants is secured within a stockade, or _kheddah_, the mahouts ride trained elephants amongst the wild ones without fear, though any one of the wild ones might, by a movement of its trunk, dislodge the man. This they never do." On the other hand we do hear of wonderful cases of reasoning on the part of these creatures. I have never seen anything very extraordinary myself; but I had one elephant which almost invariably attempted to get loose at night, and often succeeded, if we were encamped in the vicinity of sugar-cane cultivation--nothing else tempted her; and many a rupee have I had to pay for the damage done. This elephant knew me perfectly after an absence of eighteen months, trumpeted when she saw me, and purred as I came up and stroked her trunk. I then gave her the old sign, and in a moment she lifted me by the trunk on to her head. I never mounted her any other way, and, as I used to slip off by a side rope, the constant kneeling down and getting up was avoided. Sir Emerson Tennent says: "When free in its native woods the elephant evinces rather simplicity than sagacity, and its intelligence seldom exhibits itself in cunning;" yet in the next page he goes on to relate a story told to him of a wild elephant when captured falling down, and feigning to be dead so successfully that all the fastenings were taken off; "while this was being done he and a gentleman by whom he was accompanied leaned against the body to rest. They had scarcely taken their departure and proceeded a few yards when, to their astonishment, the elephant arose with the utmost alacrity, and fled towards the jungles screaming at the top of its voice, its cries being audible long after it had disappeared in the shades of the forest." If this be correct it shows a considerable amount of cunning. Both Mr. Sanderson and Sir Emerson Tennent agree on the subject of the rarity of the remains of dead elephants. I have never been in real elephant country; the tracks of such as I have come across have been merely single wanderers from the Bilaspore herds, or probably elephants escaped from captivity. Forsyth once came upon the bones of a small herd of five that had been driven over a precipice from the summit of a hill, on which there was a Hindoo shrine, by the drums and music of a religious procession. The following taken from Mr. Sanderson's lecture is interesting as regards the constitution of the herds: "Herds of elephants usually consist of from thirty to fifty individuals, but much larger numbers, even upwards of a hundred, are by no means uncommon. A herd is always led by a female, never by a male. In localities where fodder is scarce a large herd usually divides into parties of from ten to twenty. These remain at some little distance from each other, but all take part in any common movement, such as a march into another tract of forest. These separate parties are family groups, consisting of old elephants with their children and grandchildren. It thus happens that, though the gregarious instincts of elephants prompt them to form large gatherings, if circumstances necessitate it a herd breaks up under several leaders. Cases frequently occur when they are being hunted; each party will then take measures for its individual safety. It cannot be said that a large herd has any _supreme_ leader. Tuskers never interest themselves in the movement of their herds; they wander much alone, either to visit cultivation, where the females, encumbered with young ones, hesitate to follow, or from a love of solitude. Single elephants found wandering in the forests are usually young males--animals debarred from much intimate association with the herds by stronger rivals; but they usually keep within a few miles of their companions. These wandering tuskers are only biding their time until they are able to meet all comers in a herd. The necessity for the females regulating the movements of a herd is evident, as they must accommodate the length and time of their marches, and the localities in which they rest and feed at different hours, to the requirements of their young ones." It is a curious fact that most of the male elephants in Ceylon are what are called _mucknas_ in India, that is, tuskless males--not one in a hundred, according to Sir Emerson Tennent, being found with tusks; nearly all, however, are provided with tushes. These, he says, he has observed them "to use in loosening earth, stripping off bark, and snapping asunder small branches and climbing plants, and hence tushes are seldom seen without a groove worn into them near their extremities." Sir Samuel Baker says that the African elephant uses his tusks in ploughing up ground in search of edible roots, and that whole acres may be seen thus ploughed, but I have never seen any use to which the Indian elephant puts his tusks in feeding. I have often watched mine peeling the bark off succulent branches, and the trunk and foot were alone used. Mr. Sanderson, in his 'Thirteen Years,' remarks: "Tusks are not used to assist the elephant in procuring food;" but he says they are formidable weapons of offence in the tusker, the biggest of whom lords it over his inferiors. The elephant usually brings forth, after a period of gestation of from eighteen to twenty-two months, a single calf, though twins are occasionally born. Mr. Sanderson says: "Elephant calves usually stand exactly thirty-six inches at the shoulder when born, and weigh about 200 lbs. They live entirely upon milk for five or six months, when they begin to eat tender grass. Their chief support, however, is still milk for some months. I have known three cases of elephants having two calves at a birth. It cannot be said that the female elephant evinces any special attachment to her offspring, whilst the belief that all the females of a herd show affection for each other's calves is certainly erroneous. During the catching of elephants many cases occur in which young ones, after losing their mothers by death or separation, are refused assistance by the other females, and are buffeted about as outcasts. I have only known one instance of a very gentle, motherly elephant in captivity, allowing a motherless calf to suck along with her own young one. When a calf is born the mother and the herd usually remain in that place for two days. The calf is then capable of marching. Even at this tender age calves are no encumbrance to the herd's movement; the youngest climb hills and cross rivers, assisted by their dams. In swimming, very young calves are supported by their mothers' trunks, and are held in front of them. When they are a few months old they scramble on to their mother's shoulders, and hold on with their fore-legs, or they swim alone. Though a few calves are born at other seasons, the largest number make their appearance about September, October, and November." Until I read the above I, from my limited experience, had come to the conclusion that elephant mothers are very fussy and jealous of other females. (See Appendix C, p. 527.) I have only once seen an elephant born in captivity, and that was in 1859, when I was in charge of the Sasseram Levy on the Grand Trunk road. Not far from the lines of my men was an elephant camp; they were mostly Burmese animals, and many of them died; but one little fellow made his appearance one fine morning, and was an object of great interest to us all. On one occasion, some years after, I went out after a tiger on a female elephant which had a very young calf. I repented it after a while, for I lost my tiger and my temper, and very nearly my life. Those who have read 'Seonee,' may remember the ludicrous scene in which I made the doctor figure as the hero. An elephant is full grown at twenty-five, though not in his prime till some years after. Forty years is what mahouts, I think, consider age, but the best elephants live up to one hundred years or even more.[29] [Footnote 29: See note in Appendix C on this subject.] _A propos_ of my remarks, in the introductory portion of this paper on Proboscidea, regarding the probable gradual extinction of the African elephant, the following reassuring paragraphs from the lecture I have so extensively quoted will prove interesting and satisfactory. Mr. Sanderson has previously alluded to the common belief, strengthened by actual facts in Ceylon, that the elephant was gradually being exterminated in India; but this is not the case, especially since the laws for their protection have come into force: "The elephant-catching records of the past fifty years attest the fact that there is no diminution in the numbers now obtainable in Bengal, whilst in Southern India elephants have become so numerous of late years that they are annually appearing where they had never been heard of before." He then instances the Billigarungun hills, an isolated range of three hundred square miles on the borders of Mysore, where wild elephants first made their appearance about eighty years ago, the country having relapsed from cultivation into a wilderness owing to the decimation of the inhabitants by three successive visitations of small-pox. He adds: "The strict preservation of wild elephants seems only advantageous or desirable in conjunction with corresponding measures for keeping their numbers within bounds by capture. It is to be presumed that elephants are preserved with a view to their utilisation. With its jungles filled with elephants, the anomalous state of things by which Government, when obliged to go into the market, finds them barely procurable, and then only at prices double those of twenty, and quadruple those of forty years ago, will I trust be considered worthy of inquiry. Whilst it is necessary to maintain stringent restrictions on the wasteful and cruel native modes of hunting, it will I believe be found advantageous to allow lessees every facility for hunting under conditions that shall insure humane management of their captives. I believe that the price of elephants might be reduced one-half in a year or two by such measures. The most ordinary elephant cannot be bought at present for less than Rs. 2,000. Unless something be done, it is certain that the rifle will have to be called into requisition to protect the ryots of tracts bordering upon elephant jungles. To give an idea of the numbers of wild elephants in some parts of India, I may say that during the past three years 503 elephants have been captured by the Dacca kheddah establishment, in a tract of country forty miles long by twenty broad, in the Garo hills, whilst not less than one thousand more were met with during the hunting operations. Of course these elephants do not confine themselves to that tract alone, but wander into other parts of the hills. There are immense tracts of country in India similarly well stocked with wild elephants. "I am sure it will be regarded as a matter for hearty congratulation by all who are interested in so fine and harmless an animal as is the elephant that there is no danger of its becoming extinct in India. Though small portions of its haunts have been cleared for tea or coffee cultivation, the present forest area of this country will probably never be practically reduced, for reasons connected with the timber supply and climate of the country; and as long as its haunts remain the elephant must flourish under due regulations for its protection." Elephants are caught in various ways. The pitfall is now prohibited, so also is the Assam plan of inclosing a herd in a salt lick. Noosing and driving into a _kheddah_ or inclosure are now the only legitimate means of capture. The process is too long for description here, but I may conclude this article, which owes so much to Mr. Sanderson's careful observations, with the following interesting account of the mode in which the newly-caught elephant is taught to obey:-- "New elephants are trained as follows: they are first tied between two trees, and are rubbed down by a number of men with long bamboos, to an accompaniment of the most extravagant eulogies of the animal, sung and shouted at it at the top of their voices. The animal of course lashes out furiously at first; but in a few days it ceases to act on the offensive, or, as the native say, 'shurum lugta hai'--'it becomes ashamed of itself,' and it then stands with its trunk curled, shrinking from the men. Ropes are now tied round its body, and it is mounted at its picket for several days. It is then taken out for exercise, secured between two tame elephants. The ropes still remain round its body to enable the mahout to hold on should the elephant try to shake him off. A man precedes it with a spear to teach it to halt when ordered to do so; whilst, as the tame elephants wheel to the right or left, the mahout presses its neck with his knees, and taps it on the head with a small stick, to train it to turn in the required direction. To teach an elephant to kneel it is taken into water about five feet deep when the sun is hot, and, upon being pricked on the back with a pointed stick it soon lies down, partly to avoid the pain, partly from inclination for a bath. By taking it into shallower water daily, it is soon taught to kneel even on land. "Elephants are taught to pick up anything from the ground by a rope, with a piece of wood attached, being dangled over their foreheads, near to the ground. The wood strikes against their trunk and fore-feet, and to avoid the discomfort the elephant soon takes it in its trunk, and carries it. It eventually learns to do this without a rope being attached to the object." Sir Emerson Tennent's account of the practice in Ceylon is similar. As regards the size of elephants few people agree. The controversy is as strong on this point as on the maximum size of tigers. I quite believe few elephants attain to or exceed ten feet, still there are one or two recorded instances, the most trustworthy of which is Mr. Sanderson's measurement of the Sirmoor Rajah's elephant, which is 10 ft. 7-1/2 in. at the shoulder--a truly enormous animal. I have heard of a tusker at Hyderabad that is over eleven feet, but we must hold this open to doubt till an accurate measurement, for which I have applied, is received. Elephants should be measured like a horse, with a standard and cross bar, and not by means of a piece of string over the rounded muscles of the shoulder. Kellaart, usually a most accurate observer, mentions in his 'Prodromus Faunae Zeylanicae' his having measured a Ceylon elephant nearly twelve feet high, but does not say how it was done. Sir Joseph Fayrer has a photograph of an enormous elephant belonging to the late Sir Jung Bahadur, a perfect mountain of flesh. * * * * * We in India have nothing to do with the next order, HYRACOIDEA or Conies, which are small animals, somewhat resembling short-eared rabbits, but which from their dentition and skeleton are allied to the rhinoceros and tapir. The Syrian coney is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament, and was one of the animals prohibited for food to the Jews, "because he cheweth the cud and divideth not the hoof." The chewing of the cud was a mistake, for the coney does not do so, but it has a way of moving its jaws which might lead to the idea that it ruminates. In other parts of Scripture the habits of the animal are more accurately depicted--"The rocks are a refuge for the conies;" and again: "The conies are but a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in the rocks." Solomon says in the Proverbs: "There be four things which are little upon the earth, but they are exceeding wise." These are the ants, for they prepare their meat in summer, as we see here in India the stores laid up by the large black ant (_Atta providens_); the conies for the reason above given; the locusts, which have no king, yet go forth by bands; and the spider, which maketh her home in kings' palaces. ORDER UNGULATA. These are animals which possess hoofs; and are divided into two sub-orders--those that have an odd number of toes on the hind-foot, such as the horse, tapir, and rhinoceros, being termed the PERISSODACTYLA; and the others, with an even number of toes, such as the pig, sheep, ox, deer, &c., the ARTIODACTYLA; both words being taken from the Greek _perissos_ and _artios_, uneven or overmuch, and even; and _daktulos_, a finger or toe. We begin with the uneven-toed group. SUB-ORDER PERISSODACTYLA. This consists of three living and two extinct families--the living ones being horses, tapirs, and rhinoceroses, and the extinct the _Paleotheridae_ and the _Macrauchenidae_. I quote from Professor Boyd Dawkins and Mr. H. W. Oakley the following brief yet clear description of the characteristics of this sub-order:-- "In all the animals belonging to the group the number of dorso-lumbar vertebrae is not fewer than twenty-two; the third or middle digit of each foot is symmetrical; the femur or thigh-bone has a third trochanter, or knob of bone, on the outer side; and the two facets on the front of the astragalus or ankle-bone are very unequal. When the head is provided with horns they are skin deep only, without a core of bone, and they are always placed in the middle line of the skull, as in the rhinoceros. "In the _Perissodactyla_ the number of toes is reduced to a minimum. Supposing, for example, we compare the foot of a horse with one of our own hands, we shall see that those parts which correspond with the thumb and little finger are altogether absent, while that which corresponds with the middle finger is largely developed, and with its hoof, the equivalent to our nail, constitutes the whole foot. The small splint bones, however, resting behind the principal bone of the foot represent those portions (metacarpals) of the second and third digits which extend from the wrist to the fingers properly so-called, and are to be viewed as traces of a foot composed of three toes in an ancestral form of the horse, which we shall discuss presently. In the tapir the hind foot is composed of three well-developed toes, corresponding to the first three toes in man, and in the rhinoceros both feet are provided with three toes, formed of the same three digits. In the extinct _Paleotherium_ also the foot is constituted very much as in the rhinoceros." FAMILY EQUIDAE--THE HORSE. This family consists of the true horses and the asses, which latter also include the zebra and quagga. Apart from the decided external differences between the horse and ass, they have one marked divergence, viz. that the horse has corns or callosities on the inner side of both fore and hind limbs, whilst the asses have them only on the fore limbs; but this is a very trifling difference, and how closely the two animals are allied is proved by the facility with which they interbreed. It is, therefore, proper to include them both in one genus, although Dr. Gray has made a separation, calling the latter _Asinus_, and Hamilton Smith proposed _Hippotigris_ as a generic name for the zebras. [Illustration: Dentition of Horse.] We have no wild horse in India; in fact there are no truly wild horses in the world as far as we know. The tarpan or wild horse of Tartary, and the mustang of South America, though _de facto_ wild horses, are supposed to be descended from domesticated forms. In Australia too horses sometimes grow wild from being left long in the bush. These are known as _brumbies_, and are generally shot by the stock farmer, as they are of deteriorated quality, and by enticing away his mares spoil his more carefully selected breeds. According to Mr. Anthony Trollope they are marvels of ugliness. The Indian species of this genus are properly asses; there are two kinds, although it has been asserted by many--and some of them good naturalists, such as Blyth--that the _Kiang_ of Thibet and the _Ghor-khur_ of Sind and Baluchistan are the same animal. _GENUS EQUUS_. Incisors, 6/6; canines, 1--1/1--1; molars, 6--6/6--6; these last are complex, with square crowns marked by wavy folds of enamel. The incisors are grooved, and are composed of folds of enamel and cement, aptly described by Professor Boyd Dawkins and Mr. Oakley as being folded in from the top, after the manner of the finger of a glove the top of which has been pulled in. The marks left by the attrition of the surface give an approximate idea of the age of the animal. The stomach is simple--the intestinal canal very long and caecum enormous. NO. 426. EQUUS ONAGER. _The Wild Ass of Kutch_ (_Jerdon's No. 214_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Ghor-khur_, Hindi; _Ghour_, or _Kherdecht_, Persian; _Koulan_ of the Kirghiz. HABITAT.--Sind, Baluchistan, Persia. [Illustration: _Equus onager_.] DESCRIPTION.--Pale sandy colour above, with a slight rufescent tinge; muzzle, breast, lower parts and inside of limbs white; a dark chocolate brown dorsal stripe from mane to tail, with a cross on the shoulder, sometimes a double one; and the legs are also occasionally barred. The mane and tail-tuft are dark brown or black; a narrow dark band over the hoof; ears longish, white inside, concolorous with the body outside, the tip and outer border blackish; head heavy; neck short; croup higher than the withers. SIZE.--Height about 11 to 12 hands. The following account I extract from Jerdon's 'Mammals of India,' p. 238, which epitomises much of what has been written on the subject:-- "The _ghor-khur_ is found sparingly in Cutch, Guzerat, Jeysulmeer and Bikaneer, not being found further south, it is said, than Deesa, or east of 75 degrees east longitude. It also occurs in Sind, and more abundantly west of the Indus river, in Baluchistan, extending into Persia and Turkestan, as far north as north latitude 48 degrees. It appears that the Bikaneer herd consists at most of about 150 individuals, which frequent an oasis a little elevated above the surrounding desert, and commanding an extensive view around. A writer in the _Indian Sporting Review_, writing of this species as it occurs in the Pat, a desert country between Asnee and the hills west of the Indus, above Mithunkote, says: 'They are to be found wandering pretty well throughout the year; but in the early summer, when the grass and the water in the pools have dried up from the hot winds (which are here terrific), the greater number, if not all, of the _ghor-khurs_ migrate to the hills for grass and water. The foaling season is in June, July, and August, when the Beluchis ride down and catch numbers of foals, finding a ready sale in the cantonments for them, as they are taken down on speculation to Hindustan. They also shoot great numbers of full-grown ones for food, the ground in places in the desert being very favourable for stalking.' In Bikaneer too, according to information given by Major Tytler to Mr. Blyth: 'Once only in the year, when the foals are young, a party of five or six native hunters, mounted on hardy Sindh mares, chase down as many foals as they succeed in tiring, which lie down when utterly fatigued, and suffer themselves to be bound and carried off. In general they refuse sustenance at first, and about one-third only of those taken are reared; but these command high prices, and find a ready sale with the native princes. The profits are shared by the party, who do not attempt a second chase in the same year, lest they should scare the herd from the district, as these men regard the sale of a few ghor-khurs annually as a regular source of subsistence.' "This wild ass is very shy and difficult to approach, and has great speed. A full-grown one has, however, been run down fairly and speared more than once." I remember we had a pair of these asses in the Zoological Gardens at Lahore in 1868; they were to a certain extent tame, but very skittish, and would whinny and kick on being approached. I never heard of their being mounted. It is closely allied to, if not identical with, the wild ass of Assyria (_Equus hemippus_). The Hon. Charles Murray, who presented one of the pair in the London Zoological Gardens in 1862, wrote the following account of it to Dr. Sclater: "The ghour or kherdecht of the Persians is doubtless the onager of the ancients. Your specimen was caught when a foal on the range of mountains which stretch from Kermanshah on the west in a south-easterly direction to Shiraz; these are inhabited by several wild and half-independent tribes, the most powerful of which are the Buchtzari. The ghour is a remarkably fleet animal, and moreover so shy and enduring that he can rarely be overtaken by the best mounted horsemen in Persia. For this reason they chase them now, as they did in the time of Xenophon, by placing relays of horsemen at intervals of eight or ten miles. These relays take up the chase successively and tire down the ghour. The flesh of the ghour is esteemed a great delicacy, not being held unclean by the Moslem, as it was in the Mosaic code. I do not know whether this species is ever known to bray like the ordinary domestic ass. Your animal, whilst under my care, used to emit short squeaks and sometimes snorts not unlike those of a deer, but she was so young at the time that her voice may not have acquired its mature intonation." NO. 427. EQUUS HEMIONUS. _The Kiang or Wild Ass of Thibet_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Kiang_ or _Dizightai_, Thibetan. HABITAT.--Thibet and Central Asia; Ladakh. DESCRIPTION.--Darker in hue than the _ghor-khur_, especially on the flanks, contrasting abruptly with the white of the under-parts. It has the dark line along the back, but not the cross band on the shoulder; ears shorter. SIZE.--About 12 to 14 hands in height. From its larger size, shorter ears, and its shrill bray, which has been mistaken for a neigh, this animal has at times been taken for a horse, and described as such. The kiang, of which there is a living specimen in the London Zoological Gardens, inhabits the high plateaux of Thibet, ranging up to fifteen and sixteen thousand feet above the sea level. It is very swift and wary. The late Brigadier-General McMaster, in his 'Notes on Jerdon,' page 248, says: "An excellent sportsman and very close observer, who, being a cavalry officer, should be able to give a sound opinion on the matter, assured me that the voice of the wild horse of the snowy Himalayas is 'an unmistakeable _neigh, not a bray_,' and that he certainly looked on them as horses. He had seen several of these animals, and killed one." Captain (now General) R. Strachey wrote of it: "My impression as to the voice of the _kyang_ is that it is a shrieking bray and not a neigh;" and again: "the _kyang_, so far as external aspect is concerned, is obviously an ass and not an horse." Of this there is but little doubt. Moorcroft, in his travels, vol. i. p. 312, states: "In the eastern parts of Ladakh is a nondescript wild variety of horse which I may call _Equus kiang_. It is perhaps more of an ass than a horse, but its ears are shorter, and it is certainly not the gur-khor or wild ass of Sind." Further on, at page 442, he-adds: "We saw many herds of the kyang, and I made numerous attempts to bring one down, but with invariably bad success. Some were wounded, but not sufficiently to check their speed, and they quickly bounded up the rocks, where it was impossible to follow. They would afford excellent sport to four or five men well mounted, but a single individual has no chance. The kyang allows his pursuer to approach no nearer than five or six hundred yards; he then trots off, turns, looks and waits till you are almost within distance, when he is off again. If fired at he is frightened, and scampers off altogether. The Chanthan people sometimes catch them by snares--sometimes shoot them. From all I have seen of the animal I should pronounce him to be neither a horse nor an ass. His shape is as much like that of the one as the other, but his cry is more like braying than neighing. The prevailing colour is a light reddish-chestnut, but the nose, the under-part of the jaw and neck, the belly and the legs are white, the mane is dun and erect, the ears are moderately long, the tail bare and reaching a little below the hock. The height is about fourteen hands. The form, from the fore to the hind leg and feet to a level with the back is more square than that of an ass. His back is less straight, and there is a dip behind the withers and a rounding of the crupper which is more like the shape of the horse; his neck also is more erect and arched than that of the ass. He is perhaps more allied to the quagga, but without stripes, except a reported one along each side of the back to the tail. These were seen distinctly in a foal, but were not distinguished in the adults." FAMILY TAPIRIDAE--THE TAPIRS. These are somewhat hog-like animals, with elongated snouts, possessing four toes on their fore-feet, and three on the hinder ones. They live in dense forests, are nocturnal in habit, and live exclusively on a vegetable diet. The Indian tapir has a more powerful and extensile trunk than the American, and its skull shows in consequence a greater space for the attachment of the muscles. The dentition is as follows:--Inc., 3--3/3--3; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 4--4/4--4; molars, 3--3/3--3. The outer incisors somewhat resemble canines, whilst the others are very small. The canines themselves are not large. [Illustration: Dentition of Tapir.] The tapir is not found in India proper, but the Malayan species is occasionally to be come across in Burmah, having been killed in Tenasserim. _GENUS TAPIRUS_. NO. 428. TAPIRUS MALAYANUS. _The Malay Tapir_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Ta-ra-shu_, Burmese; _Kuda-ayer_, Malayan; _Sala-dang_ of the Limuns in Sumatra; _Gindol_ of the Mannas in Sumatra; _Babi-alu_ in Bencoolen; _Tennu_ in Malacca. HABITAT.--Tenasserim provinces, as high as the fifteenth degree north latitude; Lower Siam; the Malayan peninsula; Sumatra and Borneo. [Illustration: _Tapirus Malayanus_.] DESCRIPTION.--General colour glossy black, but with the back, rump, and sides of the belly white. The young are beautifully variegated, being striped and spotted with yellow fawn on the upper parts of the body, and with white below. Mr. Mason writes: "Though seen so rarely, the tapir is by no means uncommon in the interior of the Tavoy and Mergui provinces. I have frequently come upon its recent footmarks, but it avoids the inhabited parts of the country. It has never been heard of north of the valley of the Tavoy river." The tapir is naturally all the world over a very shy, retiring animal, but it is capable of being tamed when taken young, and of showing great attachment. FAMILY RHINOCEROTIDAE. "The skeleton of the rhinoceros viewed generally has a resemblance to that of the little hyrax, the tapir, and the horse. The skull is very much elevated at the base, being somewhat of a pyramidal form, and the nasal bones curve upwards and downwards, and are of such a size and thickness, in order to support one or more immense horns, that they are quite unparalleled for their development in any other existing quadruped. The nasal bones, together with the premaxillary and maxillary bones, form the general contour for the external apertures of the nostrils. This is peculiar, and found in no other animal with the exception of the tapir."--_Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins and Mr. Oakley_. The external appearance of this animal is familiar to most--a large ungainly creature, with a long head, a massive horn on its nose, sometimes two horns; a round unwieldly body covered with an immensely thick hide arranged in heavy folds; short tail and short legs, with three toes covered with broad nails or hoofs. The stomach is simple; the intestines about eight times the length of the body, and the caecum is large and sacculated. The horn is a mere agglutinated mass of hair or fibre superimposed on the skin, and has no bony core. The females have two inguinal mammae. The dentition is peculiar; "the grinders are implanted by distinct roots, and in the upper jaw their crowns are traversed by two deep folds of enamel which constitute open valleys. In the lower jaw they are composed of two crescent-shaped lobes, also open. The covering of cement is thin, and never fills up the valleys, as in the case of the more complex dental system in the horse. The normal number of grinders is seven in each jaw, while the incisors, as we have already remarked, vary not only in form but also are sometimes absent, and canines are not developed in any of the living or fossil members of the family."--_Boyd Dawkins and Oakley_. The Rhinocerotidae are divided into two groups--the Asiatic and the African; and the former consist of two genera--RHINOCEROS and CERATORHINUS, the former with one and the latter with two horns. It is a moot point whether the rhinoceros is or is not the unicorn of Scripture, though it is by no means clear that the animal in question was a one-horned creature, but according to some might have been the great wild ox or urus of Macedonia. An Indian single-horned rhinoceros was sent from India to the king of Portugal in 1513, and from it various most distorted pictures were disseminated throughout Europe. It was represented as covered with a wondrous suit of armour beautifully decorated, and with a second horn on its shoulders! The first one brought alive to England was in 1685. Parsons describes and figures one brought to Europe in 1739, and another in 1741 ('Philosophical Transactions,' xlii.). The Asiatic rhinoceroses differ from the African in having the skin divided into shields by well-marked folds, long upper cutting teeth, the African having none, and by the produced conical nasal bones of the skull instead of broad and rounded ones. There are one or two other minor yet well-marked differences which we need not mention here. _GENUS RHINOCEROS_. "The skin divided into shields by well-marked folds, lumbar and neck-folds well developed; horn single, anterior; part of occipital bone near the occipital condyle and the condyles themselves prominent."--_Gray_. [Illustration: Dentition of Rhinoceros. Lower Jaw. Upper Jaw.] There are two species in India, viz. _Rhinoceros Indicus_ and _R. Sondaicus_, the latter being the Javan species. For the following description of the former I have to thank Mr. J. Cockburn, who, with most unselfish kindness, kept back the article he was about to publish, and gave it to me to incorporate in this work. The following remarks on dentition are also his:[30]-- "The normal dentition of _R. Indicus_ is: Inc., 1--1/2--2; premolars, 4--4/4--4; molars, 3--3/3--3; but the dentition varies to a great extent; for example, in a specimen of _R. Sondaicus_ it stood: Inc., 1--1/2--2; molars, 6--7/6--6. The first premolar in both _Indicus_ and _Sondaicus_ is a deciduous tooth, which is not usually replaced, and gradually drops out with age, but it may be retained till extreme old age. In the majority of cases it is either lost or worn down before the last molar is in wear. The incisors also vary greatly in the adult animal; they are 1--1/2--2, the outer pair below being the formidable dagger-shaped tushes, with which they inflict the terrible gashes they can produce. The median pair lower are usually lost or absorbed by advancing age, having no functions, and the incisive tusks themselves are subject to very rapid wear, being often worn down before the animal has reached middle age. Occasionally _R. Indicus_ has six incisors in the lower jaw (the normal number in other mammalia), and four in the upper, but this is very exceptional."--_J. Cockburn_, MS. [Footnote 30: There are some interesting notes on the dentition of the rhinoceros, especially in abnormal conditions, by Mr. Lydekker in the 'J. A. S. B.' for 1880, vol. xlix., part ii.] NO. 429. RHINOCEROS INDICUS. (_Jerdon's No. 212_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Genda_, _Gonda_, _Ganda_, or _Genra_, Hindi; _Gor_, Assamese. HABITAT.--Himalayan Terai, from Central Nepal to the extreme eastern corner of the valley of Assam. "About three centuries ago this animal existed on the banks of the Indus. The Indian rhinoceros inhabits by preference heavy grass jungle, rarely entering forest. In this respect it differs from its ally _Sondaicus_, which is a forest-loving species, and even frequents mountainous countries. It is still numerous in the mighty grass jungles which extend along the foot of the Eastern Himalayas from their slopes to the banks of the Brahmaputra. It is yearly becoming more scarce in the Nepal Terai, but is found there from Rohilkund to the Bhootan Doars." [Illustration: _Rhinoceros Indicus_.] DESCRIPTION.--The accompanying outline sketch, taken from _Nature_ for April 1874, will give a better idea of the animal than a mere verbal description:-- [Illustration: _Rhinoceros Indicus_.] "For convenience of description I will divide the body into five segments--the head, the cervical, the scapular, the abdominal, and the gluteal. At the junction of the head with the neck is a large deep collar or ruff or fold of skin, which gives a very peculiar appearance to the animal. Behind this is a second similar but smaller ruff, which does not hang so low down from the throat as the first. On the dorsal surface it transversely crosses the nape. It is then continued down angularly to about the centre of the anterior edge of the scapular shield, where it forms an obtuse angle with its posterior but major half. It is at the point where it forms this angle that it gives off what I call the cervical fold, which forms the boundary of the top front edge of the scapular shield, but is lost at a point in the shoulder nearly over the centre of the fore limb. "The scapular shield is a thick cuirass-like plate of skin, studded with round projections about the size of a shilling, and bearing much resemblance to the heads of bolts by which the shield was riveted to the body, and hence called 'boiler-bolt tubercules.' This shield is often removed from the carcase of a slain rhinoceros as a trophy, 'and it is in its centre, but slightly low, that the fatal spot lies which will take him in the heart' (_Pollock_). "Between the scapular and the gluteal shields lies the abdominal segment. It calls for no particular description, except that the tubercles here are very much flatter and smaller than on either segments three and four. They are here about the size of a four-anna piece, and they seem to be crowded along the centre line of the body, while the dorsal surface is nearly free from them, and smooth. "We next come to the gluteal segment. It is in this portion that the boiler-bolt tubercles attain their greatest development, some of them being perhaps three-tenths of an inch high. "The gluteal segment is laterally crossed by three ridges of skin. The first, which is the only one indicated in the drawing, goes right across the buttock. In some animals there is an indication of a second below this, and about fourteen inches lower down a third, which only goes about a quarter of the way across. The tail is almost concealed in a deep groove, in which lie the perineum, &c. Both the front and hind limb from the point at which they project from the body are finely covered with reticulated skin, forming pentagonal and hexagonal scales, very much as in _R. Sondaicus_, only much finer and less prominent. "The Indian rhinoceros has the same habit as the African species of depositing its droppings in one spot till they form huge mounds, which the animal levels with its horns. It is probable that this rhinoceros was found throughout the plains of the N.W. Provinces in unreclaimed spots as late as the fifth or sixth century. According to the observation of Dr. Andrew Smith in South Africa these huge pachyderms do not absolutely require for their support the dense tropical vegetation we should think necessary to supply food to such huge beasts. This gentleman saw over fifty of them in one day in an open country covered with short grass and thorn-bushes about four feet high. From the affinities of the fauna of the N.W. Provinces, which are strongly African, it is probable that the plains of the N.W. Provinces were rather covered with scrubby open jungles and grass than with tropical primeval forests. "Here and there belts of Dhak (_Butea frondosa_) were found, and in favoured spots doubtless other tree jungle, but it is improbable that primeval forest has existed since the depression of the Indo-Gangetic plain."--_J. Cockburn_, MS. The rhinoceros is supposed to be a very long-lived animal. Dr. Gray ('P. Z. S.' 1867. p. 1011) states on the authority of Mr. Blyth that a pair lived in the Barrackpore Park for forty-five years. They were exactly alike in size and general appearance; they never bred. There is no difference in the horns or form of the skull in the two sexes (_Blyth_, 'J. A. S. B.' vol. xxxi. p. 155). NO. 430. RHINOCEROS SONDAICUS. _The Javan Rhinoceros_ (_Jerdon's No. 213_). NATIVE NAMES.--The same as last in Hindi; _Khyen-hsen_, Burmese; _Warak_, Javanese; _Badak_, Malayan. HABITAT.--"The Bengal Sunderbunds, Tipperah, the swamps at the base of the Garo, Khasia, and Naga Hills" (_Pollock_). "Munipurf, extending into the western provinces of China, southward into Burmah, the Malayan peninsula; Sumatra, Java, and Borneo" (_J. Cockburn_, MS.). [Illustration: _Rhinoceros Sondaicus_.] DESCRIPTION.--"Folds somewhat on the same plan as in _Indicus_, one marked distinction being that the lateral shoulder fold is continued upward over the back of the neck to form an independent saddle-shaped shield on the nape. The whole body covered with pentagonal or hexagonal warty insulae. Females hornless" (_J. Cockburn_, MS.). Males with one horn. SIZE.--Mr. Cockburn gives the following measurements of a female, which he states is the largest recorded specimen: "Length of body (head and body?), 12 feet 3 inches; tail, 2 feet 4-1/2 inches; height, 5 feet 6 inches." Dr. Jerdon gives: "Length 7 to 8 feet; height, 3-1/2 to 3-3/4 feet;" and he calls the animal "the lesser Indian rhinoceros," whereas Mr. Cockburn's measurement gives an animal somewhat longer, though not so high as the largest recorded specimen of _Indicus_. Blyth again writes ('Mammals of Burmah,' _see_ 'J. A. S. B.' vol. xliv. part ii. 1875, p. 50): "It is about a third smaller than _R. Indicus_, from which it is readily distinguished by having the tubercles of the hide uniformly of the same small size, and also by having a fold or plait of the skin crossing the nape in addition to that behind the shoulder-blades." This rhinoceros seems to be found at all elevations, like the Sumatran one which was found by General Fytche at an altitude of 4000 feet; it is much more of a forester than the last. Blyth and Jerdon suppose it to be the same as the species hunted by the Moghul Emperor Baber on the banks of the Indus. _GENUS CERATORHINUS_. "The skin divided into shields by deep folds; the lumbar fold rudimentary, short, only occupying the middle of the space between the groin and the back; horns two, the front longer, curved backward, the hinder small; conical skull; forehead narrow, flat; the upper part of the nose on each side of the horns narrow, rounded, sub-cylindrical; the occipital region erect, the part near the condyles rather concave; the occipital condyle short, broad, oblong, placed obliquely inferior, scarcely prominent; lachrymal bone very large, irregular shaped."--_Dr. Gray_, 'P. Z. S.' 1867, p. 1021. NO. 431. RHINOCEROS _vel_ CERATORHINUS (CROSSI?) LASIOTIS. _The Ear-fringed Rhinoceros_. HABITAT.--Arakan, Tenasserim provinces; one was caught near Chittagong in 1868. [Illustration: _Rhinoceros lasiotis_. (_R. Indicus_ and _R. Sondaicus_ in the distance.)] DESCRIPTION.--A thinner hide than with the preceding, and not tuberculated; the folds also are fewer in number; there is one great groove behind the shoulder-blades, and a less conspicuous one on the flank, and some slight folds about the neck and top of the limbs; the horns are two in number, the posterior one being the centre of the nose behind the anterior one, and almost over the anterior corner of the eye; the body (of a young specimen) is covered with long, fine, reddish hair, and the posterior margins of the ears have very long fringes of the same; the tail is short and hairy. A young specimen of this animal (of which there is an excellent coloured plate in 'P. Z. S.' 1872, p. 494) was captured in 1868 in Chittagong. She had got into a quicksand, and had exhausted herself by floundering about. The natives contrived to attach two ropes to her neck, and, hauling her out, managed to make her fast to a tree. Next morning they found her so refreshed and vigorous that they were afraid to do anything more to her, and so sent messengers to the magistrate of Chittagong to report the capture. The same evening Captain Hood and Mr. Wickes started with eight elephants to secure the prize, and after a march of sixteen hours to the south of Chittagong, they came up to the animal. The elephants at first sight bolted, but were brought back by considerable exertion, and the rhinoceros was made fast to one by a rope. The poor creature roared with fright, and a second stampede ensued, in which luckily the rope slipped off the leg of the rhinoceros to which it was attached. Ultimately she was secured between two elephants and marched into Chittagong, where she soon got very tame. Eventually she was sent to England, and was purchased by the Zoological Society for 1250 pounds--a very handsome price, owing doubtless to the rarity of the specimen. NO. 432. RHINOCEROS _vel_ CERATORHINUS SUMATRENSIS. _The Sumatran Rhinoceros_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Kyen-shan_, Burmese; _Bodok_, Malayan. HABITAT.--Tenasserim provinces; Burmah, extending into Siam; the Malayan peninsula and Sumatra. DESCRIPTION.--A smaller animal than the preceding, with a hard, black, rough, bristly skin; a deep fold behind the shoulder; ears set closer than in the last species, and filled with black hair internally; the muzzle in front of the first horn is broader; the horns are two in number, and attain a good size, curving, but slightly, backward; the tail is conspicuously longer than in _R. lasiotis_, and is tapering and not tufted. There is a well drawn and coloured plate of this species in the 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society' for 1872, p. 794, as also several engravings showing the heads of the two animals in juxtaposition. SIZE.--About 3 feet 8 inches in height at the shoulder. At first it was considered that _R. lasiotis_ was of this species, and as such it was described and sent to England; but on the subsequent arrival of a genuine _R. Sumatrensis_ from Malacca it was apparent that _R. lasiotis_ was quite distinct. The latter is of larger size, lighter colour, with wide-set ears and a tufted tail. The former is smaller, darker, with narrow-set ears and a long tapering semi-nude tail.[31] The Society paid Mr. Jamrach 600 pounds in 1872 for the female specimen from Malacca, which settled the question of separate species. A young _R. Sumatrensis_ was born in the Victoria Docks in London on December 7th, 1872, on board the steamship _Orchis_. There is a coloured sketch of the little one in the 'P. Z. S.' for 1873, and an interesting account of it and the mother by Mr. Bartlett, the Superintendent of the Society's Gardens. From the circumstances of the capture of the mother it appears that the period of gestation of the rhinoceros is about the same as that of the hippopotamus, viz. seven months. [Footnote 31: There is a very interesting letter in _The Asian_ for July 20, 1880, p. 109, from Mr. J. Cockburn, about _R. Sumatrensis_, of which he considers _R. lasiotis_ merely a variety. He says it has been shot in Cachar.--R. A. S.] Although the number of species of living rhinoceros is but few, there are a great many fossil species which show that the animal was more plentiful and in greater variety in prehistoric times. Remains of the woolly rhinoceros (_R. trichorhinus_) have been found, like those of the mammoth, imbedded in ice; it was about eleven and a-half feet in length, and its body was covered with woolly hair. A specimen found in 1771 or 1772 was entire, and clothed with skin, but so far decomposed as to prevent more than the head and feet being preserved; remains of other fossil species are found throughout Europe, including Great Britain, and also in India. In 'A Sketch of the History of the Fossil Vertebrata of India' by Mr. R. Lydekker, published in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,' vol. xlix., 1880, will be found the names of eight species of fossil rhinoceros, inclusive of _R. Indicus_, which is found in _recent alluvia_--it is found with two others in the Pleistocene formation, and five others are from the Pleiomiocene. SUB-ORDER ARTIODACTYLA. We now come to the second division, and a very large one, of the UNGULATA, which in itself is again subdivided into non-ruminants and ruminants. The former comprises the pigs of the Old and the peccaries of the New World and the hippopotami; the latter contains the camels, llamas, deerlets, oxen, antelope, and deer. In the _Artiodactyla_ the toes are even on all feet, being normally four (perfect and rudimentary) with the exception of the camel, giraffe and a few antelope, in which two only are present. To understand the subject thoroughly one must compare the fore-foot of a deer or pig with our own hand; what we call the knee of the former is merely our wrist. The bones which run through the palm of the hand to the knuckles are the metacarpals; they are five in number, corresponding with the thumb and four fingers. In the _Artiodactyla_--or, I should say, in the _Ungulata_ generally--the thumb is entirely wanting; in the _Artiodactyla_ the fore and little fingers are shorter, rudimentary, or entirely wanting, and the two centre metacarpals, the middle and ring fingers are prolonged into what we call the leg below the knee in these animals, which consist of separate or fused bones terminated by the usual three joints of the finger, on the last of which is placed the hoof. [Illustration: Bones of a Pig's foot. (See also Appendix C.)] The two halves are always symmetrical, and from this we may affirm that it is the thumb and not the little finger which is absent, for we know that, counting from the knuckles, our fingers have three joints, whereas the thumb has only two; so in the digits of the _Artiodactyla_ are three joints at the end of each metacarpal. In the pig the metacarpals of the fore and little fingers are produced from the carpus or wrist, or, as is popularly termed in the case of these animals, the knee. They are more attenuated in the chevrotians or deerlets, of which our Indian mouse-deer is an example; in the _Cervidae_ they are more rudimentary, detached from the carpus, and are suspended free and low down, forming the little hoof-points behind; and a little above the proper hoofs in these the two large metacarpals are more or less joined or fused into one bone, and they are still more so in the camel, in which the fore and little finger bones are entirely absent. In the giraffe and prong-horn antelope they are also wanting. The hind feet are similarly constructed.[32] [Footnote 32: See notes in Appendix C.] Of the non-ruminantia we have only the Suidae--the peccaries belonging to America, and the hippopotami to Africa. FAMILY SUIDAE--THE HOGS. These have incisors in both jaws, which vary in number, the lower ones slanting forward. Their canines are very large and directed outwards and upwards in a curve, grinding against each other to a sharp edge and fine point. Their metacarpal bones are four in number, and are all distinct, in which respect they differ from the peccaries, in which the central metacarpals and metatarsals are fused into a solid bone. The hogs have a prolonged snout, flexible at the end, with a firm cartilaginous tip, with which they are enabled to plough up the ground in search of roots. They have also a very keen sense of smell. The normal dentition of the true hogs is as follows:-- Inc., 6/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 4--4/4--4; molars, 3--3/3--3 = 44. [Illustration: Dentition of Wild Boar.] The hogs, unlike other pachyderms, are noted for their fecundity. _GENUS SUS_. Incisors, 4/6 or 6/6; the lower ones slanted; the canines large and curved outwards and upwards; molars tuberculate; four toes on each foot--that is, two major and two minor, each hoofed. NO. 433. SUS SCROFA. _The European Wild Boar_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Guraz_ or _Kuk_, Persian. HABITAT.--Persia and the Thian Shan mountains near Kashgar. DESCRIPTION.--Body dusky or greyish-brown, with a tendency to black, with black spots; large mouth with long projecting tusks; the hairs of the body coarse, mixed with a downy wool; bristles on the neck and shoulders. The young are marked with longitudinal stripes of reddish colour. The wild boar of Europe apparently extends to the limits sometimes reached by Indian sportsmen. It is found in Persia, and specimens were brought back from Kashgar by the Yarkand Mission in 1873-74. The only divergence which these specimens showed from the European boar was the darker colour of the feet and legs, which were nearly black. NO. 434. SUS INDICUS. _The Indian Boar_ (_Jerdon's No. 215_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Soor_ or _Suar_, _Bura-janwar_, or _Bad-janwar_, _Barha_, Hindi; _Dukar_, Mahratti; _Paddi_, Gondi; _Pandi_, Telegu; _Handi_, _Mikka_, _Jewadi_, Canarese; _Kis_ of the Bhaugulpore hill-tribes; _Tan-wet_, Burmese; _Walura_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Throughout India, from a considerable elevation (12,000 feet according to Jerdon) down to the sea level. It is also common in Burmah and in Ceylon. [Illustration: _Sus Indicus_.] DESCRIPTION.--The head of the Indian wild boar differs considerably from the German one. Sir Walter Elliot says: "The head of the former is larger and more pointed, and the plane of the forehead straight, while it is concave in the European, the ears of the former are small and pointed; in the latter larger and not so erect. The Indian is altogether a more active-looking animal, the German has a stronger, heavier appearance." Jerdon, who has in some measure adopted these remarks, adds that the tail is more tufted, and the malar beard is well marked. The colour of the full-grown animal is brownish-black, sparsely clad with black hair; the ears are scantily covered with black hairs externally, but more abundantly inside. A crest of stiff black bristles extends from the occiput over the neck and shoulders and down the back; the bristles of the throat and breast are reversed, growing forwards instead of backwards, the tips being sometimes white; the limbs, which are well covered with bristly hair outside, are nearly naked within, and the tail is short, slightly hairy, and with a flat tip fringed with lateral bristles set like the barbs of a feather. The young are more hairy, and are striped with brown and fulvous yellow. SIZE.--Head and body, about 5 feet; tail, 1 foot; height, from 30 to 36 inches. This species is so well known to residents in India, not only from personal experience but from the numerous accounts of its chase--one of the most exciting of Indian field sports--that it would be almost superfluous to add anything more to the already redundant porcine literature, so I will confine myself to the habits of the animal in the jungles. It is gregarious, living in herds, usually called _sounders_, the derivation of which has often puzzled me as well as others; but McMaster says it is to be found in Bailey's English Dictionary, of which the fifteenth edition was published in 1753 as (among hunters) _a herd or company of swine_. An old boar is generally the chief, but occasionally he gets driven from the herd, and wanders solitary and morose, and is in such a case an awkward customer to tackle. An old boar of this kind is generally a match for a tiger; in fact few tigers, unless young and inexperienced, would attack one. I have known two instances of tigers being killed by boars; one happened a few miles from the station of Seonee, to which place we had the animal carried. (See Appendix C.) On another occasion, whilst on tour in the district, a deputation from a distant village came into my camp to beg of me to visit them, and shoot a large boar which had taken possession of a small rocky hill, and from it made his nightly forays into their rice fields, and was given to attacking those who approached him. I went and got the boar out and shot him, but lost a tiger, which also sneaked out and broke through a line of beaters; these two were the sole occupants of this small isolated knoll, and lived evidently on terms of mutual respect. The boar was the largest I had ever seen or killed, but, as the sun was getting fierce, and I had far to ride to camp, I regret I left him to the villagers without taking any measurements. It is allowable to shoot hogs in some hilly parts of India where riding is out of the question, otherwise the shooting of a boar in riding country is deservedly looked upon as the crime of vulpecide would be in Leicestershire--a thing not to be spoken of. The boar possesses a singular amount of courage; he is probably the most courageous of all animals, much more so than the tiger, but unless irritated he is not prone to attack at first sight, except in a few cases of solitary individuals, like the one above mentioned. I was once rather ludicrously and very uncomfortably held at bay by a boar who covered the retreat of his family. One evening, after dismissing my _amlah_, I took up a shot gun, and, ordering the elephant to follow, strolled across some fields to a low scrub-covered hill where I thought I might pick up a few partridges or a peafowl before dusk. On entering the bush which skirted the base of the hill I was suddenly brought up by a savage grunt, and there in front of me stood an old boar with his bristles up, whilst the rest of his family scampered off into the thicket. I remembered Shakespeare's (the poet's--not the gallant shikari general's) opinion:-- "To fly the boar before the boar pursues Were to incense the boar to follow us," and therefore stood my ground, undergoing the stern scrutiny of my bristly friend, who cocked his head on one side and eyed me in a doubtful sort of way, whilst he made up his mind whether to go for me or not, whilst I on my part cogitated on the probable effect at close quarters of two barrels of No. 6 shot. However, he backed a bit, and then sidled to the rear for a few paces, when he brought up with another grunt, but, finding I had not moved, he finally turned round and dashed after his spouse and little ones. (See also Appendix C.) Colonel (now General) Shakespear winds up a thrilling account of a fight with one with the following paragraph, which will give a good idea of the endurance of these creatures:-- "There he was with a broken spear in his withers, the shaft sticking up a foot and a-half from the blade, knocking over a horseman and wounding his horse; receiving two bullets--ten to the pound each--the first in his neck and throat, a very deadly part in all animals; the second breaking his jaw, and fired within a few feet of the muzzle; making good his charge, cutting down his enemy like grass, wounding him, knocking over a second man armed with a spear, defying the dogs, and then, when in the act of charging again, shot to the brain and dying without a groan." Although I had not intended giving any shikar stories, I cannot resist quoting one from General McMaster's 'Notes on Jerdon.' He writes:-- "In further proof of the savage courage of a boar I may mention the following instance which is recorded in the 'Hunt Annals' of the 25th December, 1869. A large _unwounded_ boar had succeeded in getting into some thick bushes. On being bullied by a terrier he charged the nearest hunter, and ripped the horse very badly. Two other sportsmen who were not riding then tried to tempt the boar to charge, one by firing No. 10 or quail shot into the bush, the other by riding a camel into it. The last was successful, for, charging straight at the camel's legs (receiving some shot in his face on his way) he completely routed the whole arrangement, knocked over and ripped the camel, which broke its leg in falling, and then made away across the fields; he was followed and twice speared, but he was as cunning as courageous, and managed to give his pursuers the slip in some long grass and thick bushes. This boar's savage charge at the camel was within a few yards of all of us, for every one was trying to entice him to come forth; after his headlong rush out of the bush he reared so upright in his attempt to reach his clumsy disturber, which was quite frantic from deadly fear, that he succeeded in ripping it in what in a horse would be termed the stifle joint. The poor brute rolled over in its agony, smashed one of its legs in the fall, and was of course shot. Luckily the rider, one of the best known among the Nagpore Hunt, was not hurt." I believe a wild pig will charge at anything when enraged. I had an elephant who, though perfectly staunch with tigers, would bolt from a wild boar. The period of gestation is four months, and it produces twice a year; it is supposed to live to the age of twenty years, and, as its fecundity is proverbial, we might reasonably suppose that these animals would be continually on the increase, but they have many enemies, whilst young, amongst the felines, and the sows frequently fall a prey to tigers and panthers. Occasionally I have come across in the jungles a heap of branches and grass, and at first could not make out what it was, but the Gonds soon informed me that these heaps were the nests or lairs of the wild pigs, and they invariably turned them over to look for squeakers. These are funny little things, of a tortoiseshell colour, being striped reddish yellow and dark brown. There is an old writer on Indian field sports, Williamson, who makes some correct observations on the habits of the wild hog, although much in his book (now, I fancy, out of print) is open to question. He writes: "The wild hog delights in cultivated situations, but he will not remain where water is not at hand, in which he may, unobserved, quench his thirst and wallow at his ease; nor will he resort for a second season to a spot which does not afford ample cover, whether of heavy grass or of under-wood jungle, within a certain distance, for him to fly to in case of molestation, and especially to serve as a retreat during the hot season, as otherwise he would find no shelter. The sugar-cane is his great delight, both as being his favourite food and as affording a high, impervious, and unfrequented situation. These hogs commit great devastation, especially the breeding sows, which not only devour, but cut the canes for litter, and throw them up into little huts, which they do with much art, leaving a small entrance which they stop up at pleasure. Sows never quit their young pigs without completely shutting them up. This is, indeed, requisite only for a few days, as the young brood may be seen following the mother at a round pace when not more than a week or ten days old." The fields of _urhur_ or _ruhur dal_ (_Cajanus Indicus_) also afford good shelter to pigs. They feed chiefly at night, and in Central India numbers are shot by native shikaries in moonlight nights over water and favourite crops or in particular runs. Many castes of Hindus, who would turn with abhorrence from the village pig, will not scruple to eat the flesh of the wild boar. On the whole it is probably a cleaner feeder, but it will not hesitate to devour carrion if it should come across a dead animal in its wanderings. NO. 435. SUS ANDAMANENSIS. _The Andaman Island Pig_. HABITAT.--Andaman islands; Nicobars (?) DESCRIPTION.--Much smaller than the last. "The concavity of the cheeks in front of the orbit deeply concave." Tail short, a mere tubercle in fact; the body well clad with somewhat shaggy black hair, probably allied to _Sus Papuensis_. Dr. Gray was of opinion (_see_ his article on the _Suidae_, 'P. Z. S.' 1868) that the skull of this species is more allied to the _Babirussa_ than any others of the pigs, the front of the canines being rather more produced than in other species, but not nearly so much so as in _Babirussa_. NO. 436. SUS MOUPINENSIS. HABITAT.--Thibet. A description of this, which I have not by me at present, will be found in Professor Milne-Edwards's 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes,' p. 377. _GENUS PORCULA_. Head conical, moderate; ears small, erect, hairy; cheeks without any tubercles; tail very short, rudimentary; cutting teeth 6/6, the two upper front largest, the lateral lower small; intermaxillary moderate, not produced; canines small, scarcely elevated above the other teeth, the upper one rather spread out, but not reflexed; premolars, 4--4/4--4 (_Gray_); molars, 3--3/3--3; the fourth toe on all the feet small and unequal. Jerdon observes: "This genus, it will be remarked, makes an approach to the American peccaries in the non-excerted canines, the short tail, and the small fourth toe." Hodgson's dental formula shows one premolar less, viz. teeth: 6/6, 1--1/1--1, 6--6/6--6. NO. 437. PORCULA SALVANIA. _The Pigmy Hog of the Saul Forests_ (_Jerdon' s No. 216_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Sano-banel_, Nepalese; _Chota-suar_, Hindi. HABITAT.--The Saul forests of the Sikim and Nepal Terai. [Illustration: _Porcula Salvania_.] DESCRIPTION.--According to Mr. Hodgson "the pigmy hog is about the size of a large hare, and extremely resembles both in form and size a young pig of the ordinary wild kind of about a month old, except in its dark and unstriped pelage. The likeness of the limbs and members to those of the common hog is so close that every purpose of general description of the pigmy hog is served by pointing to that resemblance, desiring only that heed should be taken by the observer of the shorter jaws, and eye consequently placed midway between the snout and ear; of the much shorter tail, nude, straight, and not extending so far as the bristles of the rump, and lastly of the smallness of the inner hind toe. The ears also are quite nude, and the abdominal surface of the neck, as well as the insides of the limbs and the belly, are nearly so, but the upper and lateral external parts are covered thickly with bristles, even longer and more abundant than those of the wild or tame hog--save upon the ridge of the neck, where the common hog has more or less of, and generally a conspicuous mane, but the pigmy hog little or none"--"the colour of the animal is a black brown, shaded vaguely with dirty amber or rusty red." SIZE.--Head and body, from 18 to 20 inches; height, 8 to 10 inches; weight, 7 to 10 lbs. This little animal, according to Hodgson's account of it (a most interesting one, which will be found in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,' vol. xvi. May 1847), seems to have the disposition of the peccary as well as the resemblance; it goes, he says, in herds, and the males fearlessly attack intruders, "charging and cutting the naked legs of their human or other attackers with a speed that baffles the eyesight, and a spirit which their straight sharp laniaries renders really perplexing, if not dangerous." RUMINANTIA--THE RUMINANTS. These differ materially from the foregoing section of the Artiodactyla by the construction of their digestive organs. Instead of the food being masticated and passed at once into the stomach, each mouthful is but slightly bruised and passed into the paunch, whence at leisure it is regurgitated into the mouth to be chewed. For such an operation the machinery is of course more complicated than in other animals, and I must therefore attempt to describe briefly and as clearly as I can the construction of the ruminating stomach. Taking the ox as a typical specimen, we find four well-defined chambers varying in size. The first of these is the rumen or paunch, in which the unmasticated food is stored; it is a large sac partly bent on itself, and narrowing towards its junction with the oesophagus or gullet, and the entrance into the second chamber. It is lined with a mucous membrane, which is covered with a pile or villous surface, and this membrane is what is sold in butchers' shops as tripe. From this bag (the paunch) in the act of rumination a certain portion of the food is ejected into the second chamber, which is termed the reticulum (i.e. a little net) from the peculiar arrangement of its inner or mucous surface, which is lined with a network of shallow hexagonal cells. The functions of this receptacle are probably the forming of the food into a bolus, and by a spasmodic contraction the forcing of it back through the gullet into the mouth for mastication. Here it is well chewed, and, being thoroughly mixed with saliva passes back; on being swallowed in a soft pulpy state it passes the groove or valve communicating with the chamber from which it issued, and goes straight into the psalterium or manyplies, as the third chamber is called. This is globular, but most of its interior is filled up with folds like the leaves of a book, more or less unequal. It is not quite clear what the peculiar functions of this chamber are, but the semi-liquid food, passing through it, goes into the proper stomach (abomasum or reed) and is here acted upon by the gastric juice. Professor Garrod thus describes the probable order of events in the act of rumination: "The paunch contracts, and in so doing forces some of the food into the honeycomb bag, where it is formed into a bolus by the movement of its walls, and then forced into the gullet, from which by a reverse action it reaches the mouth, where it is chewed and mixed with the saliva until it becomes quite pulpy, whereupon it is again swallowed. But now, because it is soft and semi-fluid, it does not devaricate the walls of the groove communicating with the manyplies, and so, continuing on along its tubular interior, it finds its way direct into the third stomach, most of it filtering between the membrous laminae on its way to the fourth stomach, where it becomes acted on by the gastric juice. After the remasticated food has reached the manyplies, the groove in the reticulum is pushed open by a fresh bolus, and so the process is repeated until the food consumed has all passed on towards the abomasum or true digestive stomach." The ruminants are peculiar also in their dentition; in the so-called true ruminants there are no incisors or cutting teeth in the upper jaw, but the teeth of the lower jaw are opposed to a hard callous pad; the herbage is cropped by being nipped between these teeth and the pad, and detached by an upward motion; in some few, such as the musk deer, Chinese water deer and the rib-faced deer or muntjac the upper canines exist, and are largely developed. The camels and llamas possess two cutting teeth in the upper jaw, and in this respect they differ from the true ruminants, as also in some internal features. The grinding teeth are six on each side of the jaw, and are composed of alternate convolutions of enamel, dentine and cement, which wear unequally by the lateral motion of grinding, and so form the necessary inequality of surface. The centre metacarpal bones in the Ruminantia are fused into one common bone, except in the deerlets, which also have the two outer fore and little finger metacarpals distinct, whereas they are but rudimentary in the rest of the true ruminants, and totally absent in the camels. The following is the classification at present adopted: SUB-ORDER _Ruminantia_, containing two sections, viz. True Ruminants and the Camels (_Tylopoda_). SECTION _True Ruminants_, containing two divisions, viz. Horned Ruminants and Hornless Ruminants, such as the chevrotians or deerlets (_Tragulidae_). DIVISION Horned Ruminants, containing two groups, viz. Hollow-horned Ruminants (_Bovidae_), and Solid-horned Ruminants (_Cervidae_). The deerlets possess no psalterium or third stomach, except in a rudimentary form, and their feet approximate to those of the pigs, and they are destitute of horns. The hollow-horned ruminants are those which bear a persistent sheath of horn on a bony core; the others bear solid antlers which are periodically shed, and grow afresh. FAMILY BOVIDAE--HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS. In these there is an elongated process of bone on the frontals, termed the "horn cores," which are covered with a horny sheath which is never shed, but continues to grow till full adult life, and probably whilst life lasts, the growth being from the base. In some of these the females are horned, but the majority are hornless. These have all the typical organs of rumination and digestion, and they consist of the goats, sheep, antelope, oxen, and buffalos. SUB-FAMILY CAPRINAE--GOATS AND SHEEP. These are noted for having, as a general rule, horns in both sexes, though of varying quality; they are usually compressed, triangular, rugose, with transverse ridges, and curving backwards or spirally; no canines. Feet pits in some; sub-orbital gland small or absent. _GENUS OVIS--THE SHEEP_. Horns in both sexes; in the male very large, angular, deeply wrinkled, turned downwards in a bold circle, with the point curved outwards; the nasal bones are arched; small feet pits; two mammae. NO. 438. OVIS POLII. _Marco Polo's Sheep_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Rass_ or _Roosh_ on the Pamir; _Kuch-kar_ (male), _Mesh_ (female), in Wakhan. HABITAT.--Thian Shan mountains, north of Kashgar, and Yarkand, at elevations exceeding 9000 feet. [Illustration: _Ovis Polii_.] DESCRIPTION.--During winter light greyish-brown on the sides of the body, with a dark line down the middle of the back, white below. In summer the grey changes to dark brown. The horns describe a circle of about one and a quarter when viewed from the side, and point directly outwards. One of the finest specimens I have seen, which was exhibited at a meeting of the Asiatic Society in December 1879, and is now in the Indian Museum, measures over sixty-seven inches from base to tip along the curve, with a circumference at base of sixteen inches and a width from tip to tip in a straight line of fifty-three inches; one in the British Museum measures sixty-three inches, but is wider in its spread, being fifty-four inches across at the tips. Major Biddulph, who presented the head to our museum, remarked that the strength of the neck muscles must be enormous to allow of so great a weight being easily carried, and it was doubtless owing to this weight that the _Ovis Polii_ and other great sheep that he had observed had a very erect carriage, which has also been noticed by others of the _Ovis Ammon_. I have never seen this animal in the flesh, and can only therefore give what I gather from others about it, which is not much, as it is not very well known. SIZE.--Stands nearly four feet at the shoulder. In the article on Asiatic sheep by Sir Victor Brooke and Mr. B. Brooke in the 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society' in 1875, there is an excellent series of engravings of horns of these animals, amongst which are two of _Ovis Polii_. The description of the animal itself appears to be faulty, for it is stated that around the neck is a pure white mane, whereas Mr. Blanford wrote to the Society a few months later to the effect that he had examined a series of skins brought from Kashgar, and found that none possess a trace of a mane along the neck, as represented in a plate of the animal, there being some long hair behind the horns and a little between the shoulders, but none on the back of the neck. The animal has a very short tail also--so short it can hardly be seen in life. According to M. Severtzoff there is a dark line above the spinal column from the shoulders to the loins; a white anal disc surrounds the tail; this disc above is bordered by a rather dark line, but below it extends largely over the hinder parts of the thighs, shading gradually into the brown colour of the legs. The light greyish-brown of the sides shades off into white towards the belly. [Illustration: Horns of _Ovis Polii_.] He gives the following particulars concerning its habits: "It is not a regular inhabitant of the mountains, but of high situated hilly plains, where _Festuca_, _Artemisia_, and even _Salsolae_ form its principal food. It only takes to the mountains for purposes of concealment, avoiding even then the more rocky localities. It keeps to the same localities summer and winter. Its speed is very great, but the difficulty in overtaking wounded specimens may be partly attributed to the distressing effect of the rarefied air upon the horses, which has apparently no effect whatever on the sheep. The weight of an old specimen killed and gralloched by M. Severtzoff was too much for a strong mountain camel, the animal requiring four hours to do four versts (2.6 miles), and being obliged to lie down several times during the journey. He reckons the entire weight of a male _Ovis Polii_ to be not less than 16 or 17 poods (576 to 612 lbs.); the head and horns alone weigh over two poods (72 lbs.)."[33] [Footnote 33: It must be remembered that at such great elevations a camel is unable to bear a very heavy load.] I have before me a beautiful photograph by Mr. Oscar Malitte, of Dehra Doon, of a very large skull of this sheep, with the measurements given. The photograph is an excellent one of a magnificent head, and I should say if the measurements have been correctly made, that the horns are the longest, though not the thickest, on record. The dimensions given are as follows:-- Inches. Round the curve 73 From tip to tip 48 Girth at base 14 The next largest head to this is the very fine one in the Indian Museum, presented by Major Biddulph:-- Inches. Round the curve 67 From tip to tip 53 Girth at base 16 There is another in the British Museum:-- Inches. Round the curve 63 From tip to tip 54 Girth at base 16 From the above measurements it will be seen that the horns in the photograph before me are of greater length, but not so massive as the other two. They are also more compressed in their curvature than the others, and so the tip to tip measurement is less. The skull appears to be that of a very old animal; the horns are quite joined at the base, and from the incrustation on the bones I should say it had been picked up, and was not a shikar trophy. Anyhow it is a valuable specimen.[34] [Footnote 34: See notes to _Ovis Polii_ in Appendix C.] NO. 439. OVIS HODGSONI. _The Argali or Ovis Ammon of Thibet_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Hyan_, _Nuan_, _Nyan_, _Niar_, _Nyaud_ or _Gnow_. HABITAT.--The Thibetan Himalayas at 15,000 feet and upwards. [Illustration: _OVIS HODGSONI_.] DESCRIPTION.--The following description was given by a correspondent of the _Civil and Military Gazette_ in the issue of the 21st October, 1880: "The male dark earthy brown above, lighter below; rump lighter coloured; tail one inch; white ruff of long hairs on throat and chin; hair of body short, brittle, and close-set. The female darker coloured than the male, and may often be distinguished, when too far to see the horns, by the dark hue of the neck." Both male and female are horned; the horns of the former are very large, some are reported as being as much as four feet long, and 22 inches in circumference at the base. Dr. Jerdon quotes Colonel Markham in giving 24 inches as the circumference of one pair. They are deeply rugose, triangular, and compressed, deeper than broad at the base, forming a bold sweep of about four-fifths of a circle, the points turning outwards, and ending obtusely. The horns of the female are mentioned by various writers as being from 18 to 22 inches, slightly curved; but the correspondent of the _Civil and Military Gazette_ above quoted gives 24 inches as his experience. SIZE.--From 10 to 12 hands, sometimes an inch over. [Illustration: _Ovis Hodgsoni_.] A very interesting account of this animal, with a good photograph of the head, is given in Kinloch's 'Large Game-shooting in Thibet and the North-west.' He says: "In winter the _Ovis Ammon_ inhabits the lower and more sheltered valleys, where the snow does not lie in any great quantity. As summer advances, the males separate from the females, and betake themselves to higher and more secluded places. They appear to be particular in their choice of a locality, repairing year after year to the same places, where they may always be found, and entirely neglecting other hills which apparently possess equal advantages as regards pasturage and water. Without a knowledge of their haunts a sportsman might wander for days and never meet with old rams, although perhaps never very far from them. I have myself experienced this, having hunted for days over likely ground without seeing even the track of a ram, and afterwards, under the guidance of an intelligent Tartar, found plenty of them on exactly similar ground a mile or two from where I had been. The flesh of the _Ovis Ammon_, like that of all the Thibetan ruminants, is excellent; it is always tender, even on the day it is killed, and of very good flavour, possibly caused by the aromatic herbs which constitute so large a portion of the scanty vegetation of those arid regions. "No animal is more wary than the _Ovis Ammon_, and this, combined with the open nature of the ground which it usually inhabits, renders it perhaps the most difficult of all beasts to approach. It is however, of course, sometimes found on ground where it can be stalked, but even then it is most difficult to obtain a quiet shot, as the instant one's head is raised one of the herd is nearly sure to give the alarm, and one only gets a running shot. "_Ovis Ammon_ shooting requires a great deal of patience. In the first place, unless the sportsman has very good information regarding the ground, he may wander for days before he discovers the haunts of the old rams; and, secondly, he may find them on ground where it is hopeless to approach them. In the latter case all that can be done is to wait, watch them until they move to better ground, and if they will not do this the same day, they must be left till the next. Sooner or later they will move to ground where they can be stalked, and then, if proper care is exercised, they are not much more difficult to get near than other animals; but the greatest precautions must be taken to prevent being seen before one fires. Some men may think this sort of shooting too troublesome, and resort to driving, but this is very uncertain work, and frightens the animals away, when, by the exercise of patience, a quiet shot might be obtained." A writer in _The Asian_, whose 'Sportsman's Guide to Kashmir and Ladakh' contains most valuable information, writes thus in the issue of August 30, 1881, of the keen sense of smell possessed by this animal, and I take the liberty of quoting a paragraph:-- "The _Ovis Ammon_ is possessed of the sense of smell to a remarkable degree, and, as every one who has stalked in Ladakh is aware, the wind is treacherous. If the stalker feels a puff of wind on his back when within 700 or 800 yards of the game, he well knows that it is 'all up.' On the tops of the mountains and in the vicinity of glaciers these puffs of wind are of frequent occurrence; often they will only last for a few seconds, but that is sufficiently long to ruin the chance of getting a shot at the _Ovis_. Except for this one fact, we cannot admit that the nyan is harder to approach than any other hill sheep." NO. 440. OVIS KARELINI. _Karelin's Wild Sheep_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Ar_ or _Ghuljar_ (male), _Arka_ (female), Khirghiz; _Kulja_, Turki of Kashgar. HABITAT.--Mountains north-west of Kashgar, and thence northwards beyond the Thian Shan mountains on to the Semiretchinsk Altai. [Illustration: Horns of _Ovis Karelini_.] DESCRIPTION (by Sir Victor Brooke and Mr. Brooke, translated and abstracted from Severtzoff, _see_ 'P. Z. S.' 1875, p. 512).--"The horns are moderately thick, with rather rounded edges; frontal surface very prominent, orbital surface rather flat, narrowing only in the last third of its length. The horns are three times as long as the skull. The basal and terminal axis of the horns rise parallel with each other; the median axis parallel with the axis of the skull. The neck is covered by a white mane, shaded with greyish-brown. The light brown of the back and sides is separated from the yellowish-white of the belly by a wide dark line. The light brown of the upper parts gets gradually lighter towards the tail, where it becomes greyish-white, but does not form a sharply marked anal disc. On the back there is a sharply marked dark line running from the shoulders to the loins. I did not find any soft hair under the long winter hair in October." SIZE.--Height at the shoulder, 3 feet 6 inches; length of the horns, from 44 to 45 inches. The following is a description by Dr. Stoliczka of this animal, which he took to be _Ovis Polii_, and described it as such, in the 'P. Z. S.' for 1874, page 425. In the same volume is a plate which, however, is shewn by Mr. Blanford ('Sc. Res. Second Yarkand Mission,' p. 83) to be inaccurate:-- "_Male in winter dress_.--General colour above hoary brown, distinctly rufescent or fawn on the upper hind neck and above the shoulders, darker on the loins, with a dark line extending along the ridge of tail to the tip. Head above and at the sides a greyish-brown, darkest on the hind head, where the central hairs are from four to five inches long, while between the shoulders somewhat elongated hairs indicate a short mane. Middle of upper neck hoary white, generally tinged with fawn; sides of body and the upper part of the limbs shading from brown to white, the hair becoming more and more tipped with the latter colour. Face, all the lower parts, limbs, tail, and all the hinder parts, extending well above towards the loins, pure white. "The hairs on the lower neck are very much lengthened, being from five to six inches long. Ears hoary brown externally, almost white internally. Pits in front of the eye distinct, of moderate size and depth, and the hair round them generally somewhat darker brown than the rest of sides of the head. The nose is slightly arched and the muzzle sloping. The hair is strong, wiry, and very thickly set, and at the base intermixed with scanty, very fine fleece; the average length of the hairs on the back is 2 to 2-1/2 inches. The iris is brown. The horns are subtriangular, touching each other at the base, curving gradually with a long sweep backwards and outwards; and, after completing a full circle, the compressed points again curve backwards and outwards; their surface is more or less closely transversely ridged. "The colour of full-grown females does not differ essentially from that of the males, except that the former have much less white on the middle of the upper neck. The snout is sometimes brown, sometimes almost entirely white, the dark eye-pits becoming then particularly conspicuous. The dark ridge along the tail is also scarcely traceable. In size, both sexes of _Ovis Polii_ appear to be very nearly equal, but the head of the female is less massive, and the horns, as in allied species, are comparatively small: the length of horn of one of the largest females obtained is 14 inches along the periphery, the distance at the tips being 15 inches, and at the base a little more than one inch. The horns themselves are much compressed; the upper anterior ridge is wanting on them; they curve gradually backwards and outwards towards the tip, though they do not nearly complete even a semicircle. In young males, the horns at first resemble in direction and slight curvature those of the female, but they are always thicker at the base and distinctly triangular. "The length of the biggest horn of male along the periphery of curve was 56 inches, and the greatest circumference of a horn of a male specimen at the base 18-1/2 inches. "Mr. Blyth, the original describer of _Ovis Polii_, from its horns, was justified in expecting, from their enormous size, a correspondingly large-bodied animal; but in reality such does not appear to exist. Although the distance between the tips of the horns seems to be generally about equal to the length of the body, and although the horns are very much larger, but not thicker or equally massive, with those of the _Ovis Ammon_ of the Himalayas, the body of the latter seems to be comparatively higher. Still it is possible that the _Ovis Polii_ of the Pamir may stand higher than the specimens described, which were obtained from the Tian Shan range. "Large flocks of _Ovis Polii_ were observed on the undulating high plateau to the south of the Chadow-Kul, where grass vegetation is abundant. At the time the officers of the Mission visited this ground, i.e. in the beginning of January, it was the rutting season. The characters of the ground upon the Pamir and upon the part of the Tian Shan inhabited by these wild sheep are exactly similar." The following remarks on the habits of this species are from Sir Victor Brooke's abstract of Servertzoft's description: "_Ovis Karelini_, like other sheep, does not live exclusively amongst the rocks, as is the case with the different species of _Capra_. It is not satisfied, like the latter, with small tufts of grass growing in the clefts of the rocks, but requires more extensive feeding grounds; it is, therefore, more easily driven from certain districts than is the case with _Capra_. In the neighbourhood of Kopal, for instance, the goats are abundant in the central parts of the steppes of Kara, whilst the sheep have been partially driven from these places, only visiting them in autumn. "On the southern ranges of the Semiretchinsk Altai, in the vicinity of the river Ili, wherever good meadows and rocky places are found, _Ovis Karelini_ occurs at elevations of from 2000 to 3000 feet; at the sources of the rivers Lepsa, Sarkan, Kora, Karatala, and Koksa it goes as high as 10,000, and even to 12,000 feet in the neighbourhood of the Upper Narin. In winter it is found at much lower elevations." In a paper by Captain H. Trotter, R.E., read before the Royal Geographical Society on the 13th of May, 1878, on the geographical results of the mission to Kashgar under Sir Douglas Forsyth ('Journal R. G. S.' vol. xlviii., 1878, p. 193), I find the following account refering to this sheep, there mentioned under the name of _Ovis Polii_: "For twenty-five miles above Chakmak the road continues gently ascending along the course of the frozen stream, passing through volcanic rocks to Turgat Bela, a little short of which the nature of the country alters, and the precipitous hills are replaced by gently undulating grassy slopes, abounding with the _Ovis Polii_.[35] "These extensive grassy slopes, somewhat resembling the English downs, are a very curious feature of the country, and not only attract the Kirghiz as grazing grounds for their cattle, but are equally sought after by the large herds of guljar, in one of which Dr. Stoliczka counted no less than eighty-five." [Footnote 35: _Ovis Heinsi_ and _Ovis nigromontana_ are doubtful species allied to the foregoing, and are not found within the limits assigned to this work.] The Chakmak and Turgat Bela spoken of are on the southern slopes of the Thian Shan mountains, which form the boundary between Russia and Eastern Turkestan, separating the provinces of Semiretchinsk and Kashghar. The Turgat pass, about 12,760 feet, lies between the Kashgharian fort of Chakmak and the Russian fort Naryn or Narin. Captain Trotter mentions in a foot-note that these sheep, as well as ibex, abound in these hills in such large quantities that they form the principal food of the garrisons of the outposts. At Chakmak they saw a large shed piled up to the roof with the frozen carcases of these animals. (A most valuable map of the country is published in the 'Journal' with this paper.) The chief difference between this species and _Ovis Polii_ consists in the much greater length and divergence of horns of the latter and the longer hair on the neck. NO. 441. OVIS BROOKEI. _Brooke's Wild Sheep_. HABITAT.--Ladakh, or probably the Kuenluen range north of Ladakh. [Illustration: _Ovis Brookei_.] DESCRIPTION.--This species is founded on a single specimen, which, in the opinion of Mr. Blyth, Mr. Edwin Ward, F.Z.S., Sir Victor Brooke and others, differed materially from all other wild sheep, but, as they had only a head to go upon, further investigation in this direction is necessary. It is not even certain where the animal was shot, but it is believed to have been obtained in the vicinity of Leh in Ladakh. It is apparently allied to the _O. Ammon_ of Thibet, which Sir Victor and Mr. B. Brooke term in their paper _O. Hodgsonii_, but it differs in its much smaller size, in its deeply sulcated horns, the angles of which are very much rounded, and the terminal curve but slightly developed. It differs also from _O. Vignei_ and _O. Karelini_. The orbits project less, with greater width between them, the length of the molar teeth also exceeds the others. There are two wood-cuts of the skull and horns in the 'P. Z. S.' 1874, page 143, illustrating Mr. Edwin Ward's paper on the subject. The following are the dimensions of the specimen:-- Inches. Length of skull 11 Smallest breadth between orbits 4-5/8 Length of horns, round curve 33-1/2 Circumference of horns 13-3/8 NO. 442. OVIS VIGNEI. _Vigne's Wild Sheep_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Sha_ or _Shapoo_. HABITAT.--Little Thibet; Ladakh, from 12,000 to 14,000 feet. DESCRIPTION.--General colour brownish-grey, beneath paler; belly white; a short beard of stiffish brown hair; the horns of the male are sub-triangular, rather compressed laterally and rounded posteriorly, deeply sulcated, curving outward and backward from the skull; points divergent. The female is beardless, with small horns. The male horns run from 25 to 35 inches, but larger have been recorded. This sheep was for some time, and is still by some, confounded with the oorial (_Ovis cycloceros_), but there are distinct differences, as will be seen further on, when I sum up the evidence. It inhabits the elevated ranges of Ladakh, and is found in Baltistan, where it is called the _oorin_. NO. 443. OVIS CYCLOCEROS. _The Punjab Wild Sheep_ (_Jerdon's No. 236_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Oorial_ or _Ooria_, in the Punjab; _Koch_ or _Kuch_, in the Suleiman range. HABITAT.--The Salt range of the Punjab; on the Suleiman range; the Hazarah hills; and the vicinity of Peshawar. [Illustration: _Ovis cycloceros_.] DESCRIPTION.--General colour rufous brown; face livid, side of mouth and chin white; a long thick black beard mixed with white hairs from throat to breast, reaching to the knees; legs below knees and feet white; belly white, a blotch on the flanks; outside of legs and a lateral line blackish. The horns of the male are sub-triangular, much compressed laterally and posteriorly; in fact one may say concave at the sides, that is, from the base of the horn to about one half; transversely sulcated; curving outwards, and returning inward towards the face; points convergent. The female is more uniform pale brown, with whitish belly; no beard, and short straight horns. SIZE.--About 5 feet in length, and 3 feet high; horns from 25 to 30 inches round the curve.[36] The marked distinctions between the two species may be thus briefly summed up:-- _Ovis Vignei_. Horn rather compressed laterally. Rounded posteriorly. Curving outward and backward. Points divergent. General colour, brownish-grey. Beard short, of stiffish brown hairs. _Ovis cycloceros_. Horn much compressed laterally. Much compressed posteriorly. Curving outward and inward. Points convergent. General colour, rufous brown, with blotch on flanks and lateral line blackish. Beard profuse, reaching to knees, black intermixed with white hairs. [Footnote 36: See also Appendix C.] Mr. Sclater, with reference to the two in his paper on the Punjab Sheep living in the Zoological Society's Garden in 1860 ('P. Z. S.' 1860, page 126), says: "On comparing the skull (of _O. cycloceros_) with that of the shapoo we observe a general resemblance. But it may be noted that the sub-orbital pits in the present species are smaller, deeper, and more rounded; the nasal bones are considerably shorter and more pointed, and the series of molar teeth (formed in each skull of three premolars and three molars) measures only 2.85 instead of 3.20 inches in total length." There is a fine coloured plate of this animal in that magnificent folio work--Wolf's 'Zoological Sketches,' showing the male, female, and lambs; and in that valuable book of Kinloch's, 'Large Game-shooting in Thibet and the North-west' is a very clear photograph of the oorial's head, from which I give the above sketch. He gives the following account of its habits: "The oorial is found among low stony hills and ravines, which are generally more or less covered with thin jungle, consisting principally of thorny bushes. During the heat of the day the oorial conceal themselves a good deal, retiring to the most secluded places, but often coming down to feed in the evening on the crops surrounding the villages. Where not much disturbed, they will stay all day in the neighbourhood of their feeding grounds, and allow sheep and cattle to feed amongst them without concern; but where they have been much fired at they usually go a long distance before settling themselves for the day. They are generally found on capital ground for stalking, the chief drawback being the stony nature of the hills, which renders it difficult to walk silently. When fired at, oorial usually go leisurely away, stopping to gaze every now and then, so that several shots may often be fired at one herd." Dr. Leith Adams says regarding it, that it "frequents bleak and barren mountains, composed of low ranges intersected by ravines and dry river courses, where vegetation is scanty at all seasons, and goats and sheep are seldom driven to pasture. It is found in small herds, and, being fond of salt, is generally most abundant in the neighbourhood of salt mines. Shy and watchful, it is difficult to approach, and possesses in an eminent degree the senses of sight and smell. It is seldom seen in the day-time, being secreted among rocks, whence it issues at dusk to feed in the fields and valleys, returning to its retreat at daybreak. "When suddenly alarmed the males gives a loud shrill whistle, like the ibex. This is an invariable signal for the departure of the herd, which keeps moving all the rest of the day until dusk. Their bleat is like that of the tame species; and the males fight in the same way, but the form of the body and infra-orbital pits simulate the deer, hence it is often called the 'deer-sheep.' It equals the deer in speed and activity. The female gestates seven months. The rutting season is in September." According to Captain Hutton the flesh is good and well-flavoured, "while the horns are placed as trophies of success and proofs of skill upon tombs and temples." This sheep has bred in the Gardens of the Zoological Society in London. (_See_ notes to _Oorial_ in Appendix C.) NO. 444. OVIS BLANFORDII. _Blanford's Wild Sheep_. HABITAT.--Central hills of Khelat. DESCRIPTION.--The horns of this species are longer and more slender than those of _Ovis Vignei_, _O. cycloceros_, or _O. Gmelini_. Mr. Hume says ('J. A. S. B.' 1877, p. 327): "In all these three species, as far as I can make out, each horn lies in one plane, whereas in the present species the horn twists out in a capital-S fashion. There is, in fact, much the same difference between the horns of the present species and of _O. cycloceros_, that there is between those of _O. Kareleni_ and _O. Hodgsoni_. The lower part of the forehead at the nasal suture, and the whole of the frontals, are more raised and convex than in either _O. cycloceros_ or _O. Vignei_. "The frontal ridge between the bases of the horns is less developed in _O. Blanfordii_, and in this latter the posterior convex margin of the bony palate is differently shaped, being more pointed, and not nearly semi-circular as in _O. cycloceros_." The dimensions of the skull are given in detail by Mr. Hume in the paper above quoted, out of which I extract those of the horns:-- Inches. Length along curve 35.75 Circumference at base 9.0 Width from tip to tip 16.5 Greatest breadth of horn at base 2.25 Greatest depth of ditto 3.25 The horns of a specimen of _O. cycloceros_ of about the same age were 29.5 in length and 10 inches in circumference at base, so that the greater length and slenderness of the horns of _Ovis Blanfordii_ are apparent. Mr. Hume writes to me that there is a living specimen of this sheep at present in the London Zoological Gardens. NO. 445. OVIS NAHURA _vel_ BURHEL. _The Blue Wild Sheep_ (_Jerdon's No. 237_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Burhel_, _Buroot_, in the Himalayas; _Napu_, _Na_, or _Sna_, Thibet and Ladakh; _Nervati_, in Nepal. _Wa'_ or _War_ on the Sutlej. HABITAT.--This animal has a wide range; it is found from Sikim, and, as Jerdon says, probably Bhotan, right away through Thibet, as Pere David found it in Moupin, and it extends up to the Kuenluen mountains north of Ladakh, and in Ladakh itself, and it has been obtained by Prejevalski on the Altyn-Tagh, therefore the limits assigned by Jerdon must be considerably extended. [Illustration: _Ovis nahura_.] DESCRIPTION.--General colour a dull slaty blue, slightly tinged with fawn; the belly, edge of buttocks, and tail, white; throat, chest, front of fore-arm and cannon bone, a line along the flank dividing the darker tint from the belly; the edge of the hind limbs and the tip of the tail deep black; horns moderately smooth, with few wrinkles, rounded, nearly touching at the base, directed upwards, backwards and outwards, the points being turned forwards and inwards. The female is smaller, the black marks smaller and of less extent; small, straight, slightly recurved horns; nose straighter. The young are darker and browner. SIZE.--Length of head and body, 4-1/2 to 5 feet; height, 30 to 36 inches; tail, 7 inches; horns, 2 to 2-1/2 feet round the curve; circumference at base, 12 to 13 inches. An excellent coloured plate is to be found in Blanford's 'Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand Mission' and a life-like photograph of the head in Kinloch's 'Large Game-shooting.' According to the latter author the burrel prefers bare rocky hills, and when inhabiting those which are clothed with forest, rarely or never descends to the limits of the trees. "The favourite resorts of burrel are those hills which have slopes well covered with grass in the immediate vicinity of steep precipices, to which they can at once betake themselves in case of alarm. Females and young ones frequently wander to more rounded and accessible hills, but I have never met with old males very far from some rocky stronghold. The males and females do not appear to separate entirely during the summer, as I have found mixed flocks at all seasons, though, as a rule, the old males form themselves into small herds and live apart. In my opinion the flesh of the burrel surpasses in flavour the best mutton, and has moreover the advantage of being generally tender soon after the animal is killed." According to Jerdon the burrel is fattest in September and October. In the 'Indian Sporting Review' a writer, "Mountaineer," states that in winter, when they get snowed in, they actually browse the hair off each other, and come out miserably thin. The name _Ovis nahura_ is not a felicitous one, as it was given under a mistake by Hodgson, the nahoor being quite another animal. I think Blyth's name of _Ovis burhel_ should be adopted to the exclusion of the other, which, however, is in general use. There is a very interesting paper on this animal by Mr. R. Lydekker in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,' vol. xlix., 1880, in which he points out its affinity to the goats from the absence of eye-pits and their larminal depression in the lachrymal bone--from the similarity of the basi-occipital and in the structure and colour of its horns. On the other hand it agrees with _Ovis_ in the form of its lower jaw, in the absence of beard and any odour, and in the possession of interdigital pores in all feet. _GENUS CAPRA--THE GOATS_. Horns in both sexes curving backwards, angular and flattened, or in some cases twisted spirally. The nose is arched, and the chin of both sexes is more or less bearded; there are no eye-pits or inguinal pits, and feet-pits only in the fore-feet in most, and none in some. Mr. Blyth some years ago pointed out that a hind-quarter of goat with the foot attached can always be told from the same piece of mutton by the absence of the feet-pits in the goat. The males especially emit a strong odour. In other respects there is little difference between goats and sheep, and by interbreeding they produce a fertile offspring. Our domestic goat is supposed to have descended from the ibex, but certainly some of our Indian varieties may claim descent from the markhor. I noticed in 1880 at Simla herds of goats with horns quite of the markhor type, and one old fellow in a herd of about one hundred, which was being driven through the station to some rajah's place in the vicinity, had a remarkably fine head, with the broad flat twist of the markhor horn. I tried in vain to get a similar one; several heads were brought to me from the bazaar, but they were poor in comparison. Goats are more prolific than sheep. The power of gestation commences at the early age of seven months; the period is five months, and the female produces sometimes twice a year, and from two to occasionally four at a birth. The goat is a hardy animal, subsisting on the coarsest herbage, but its flesh and milk can be immensely improved by a selected diet. Some of the small domestic goats of Bengal are wonderful milkers. I have kept them for years in Calcutta for the use of my children, and once took two of them with me to Marseilles by the 'Messageries' Steamers. I prefer them to the larger goats of the North-west. My children have been singularly free from ailments during their infancy, and I attribute the immunity chiefly to the use of goats' milk drawn fresh as required. Of the wild goats, to which I must now confine my attention, there are two groups, viz. the true goats and the antelope goats. Of the former there is a sub-genus--_Hemitragus_--which have no feet-pits, but have a muffle and occasionally four mammae, which form a connecting link with the _Cervidae_. In all other respects _Hemitragus_ is distinctly caprine. NO. 446. CAPRA MEGACEROS. _The Markhor_ (_Jerdon's No. 234_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Mar-khor_ (i.e. snake-eater), in Afghanistan, Kashmir, &c.; _Ra-che_, or _Ra-pho-che_, Ladakhi. HABITAT.--The mountain districts of Afghanistan, and the highest parts of the Thibetan Himalayas. On the Pir Panjal, in Kashmir, the Hazarah hills, the hills north of the Jhelum, the Wurdwan hills west of the Beas river, on the Suleiman range, and in Ladakh. DESCRIPTION.--General colour a dirty light-blue gray, with a darker beard; in summer with a reddish tinge; the neck and breast clad with long dark hair, reaching to the knees; hair long and shaggy; fore-legs brown. The females are redder, with shorter hair, short black beard, but no mane, and with small horns slightly twisted. The horns of an old male are a magnificent trophy. Kinloch records having seen a pair, of which the unbroken horn measured sixty-three inches, and its fellow, which had got damaged, had fifty-seven inches left. Forty to fifty inches is, however, a fair average. According to Kinloch the very long horns are not so thick and massive as those of average length. Jerdon says the longest horns have three complete spiral twists. The horns of certain varieties differ so much that I may say species have been settled with less to go upon. Kinloch notes four varieties. I have hitherto reckoned only two, but he gives-- No. 1.--Pir Panjal markhor; heavy, flat horns, twisted like a corkscrew. No. 2.--Trans-Indus markhor; perfectly straight horns, with a spiral flange or ridge running up them. No. 3.--Hazarah markhor; a slight corkscrew, as well as a twist. No. 4.--Astor and Baltistan markhor; large, flat horns, branching out very widely, and then going up nearly straight with only a half turn. Of the two kinds I have seen, the one has the broad flat horn twisted like a corkscrew; the other a perfectly straight core, with the worm of a screw turned round it. Nothing could be more dissimilar than these horns, yet, in other respects the animal being the same, it has not been considered necessary to separate the two as distinct species.[37] [Footnote 37: Colonel Kinloch writes on my remarks as above, and gives the following interesting information: "I cannot consider the spiral-horned and the straight-horned markhor to be one species, any more than the Himalayan and Sindh ibex. The animals differ much in size, habits, and coat, as well as in the shape of their horns. Mr. Sterndale considers that the markhor is probably the origin of some of our breeds of domestic goats, and states that he has seen tame goats with horns quite of the markhor type. Has he ever observed that (as far as my experience goes) the horns of domestic goats invariably twist the _reverse way_ to those of markhor? I have observed that the horns of not only markhor, but also antelope, always twist one way; those of domestic goats the other."] SIZE.--Height, about 46 inches. There is a life-like photograph of No. 1 variety in Kinloch's 'Large Game of Thibet,' and of No. 3 a very fine coloured plate in Wolf's folio of 'Zoological Sketches.' [Illustration: _Capra megaceros_. No. 1 variety.] [Illustration: _Capra megaceros_. No. 2 variety.] The markhor frequents steep and rocky ground above the forests in summer, but descending in the winter. I cannot do better than quote Kinloch, who gives the following graphic little description: "The markhor inhabits the most precipitous and difficult ground, where nearly perpendicular faces of rock alternate with steep grassy slopes and patches of forest. It is very shy and secluded in its habits, remaining concealed in the densest thickets during the day-time, and only coming out to feed in the mornings and evenings. No animal's pursuit leads the sportsman over such dangerous ground as that of the markhor. Living so much in the forest, it must be followed over steep inclines of short grass, which the melting snow has left with all the blades flattened downwards; and amid pine-trees, whose needle-like spines strew the ground and render it more slippery and treacherous than ice. If one falls on such ground, one instantly begins to slide down the incline with rapidly increasing velocity, and, unless some friendly bush or stone arrests one's progress, the chances are that one is carried over some precipice, and either killed or severely injured. Many hair-breadth escapes occur, and the only wonder is that fatal accidents so seldom happen. "Early in the season the males and females may be found together on the open grassy patches and clear slopes among the forest, but during the summer the females generally betake themselves to the highest rocky ridges above the forest, while the males conceal themselves still more constantly in the jungle, very rarely showing themselves. They are always very wary, and require great care in stalking them." NO. 447. CAPRA SIBIRICA. _The Himalayan Ibex_ (_Jerdon's No. 235_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Sakin_, _Iskin_, or _Skeen_ of the Himalayas; _Buz_, in the upper part of the Sutlej; _Kale_, Kashmiri; _Tangrol_, in Kulu; _Skin_, the male, _L'Damuo_ the female, in Ladakh. HABITAT.--Throughout the Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal. The localities given by Kinloch are Kunawar, Kulu, Lahoul, Spiti, Kashmir, Baltistan, and various parts of Thibet; also Ladakh according to Horsfield. [Illustration: _Capra Sibirica_.] DESCRIPTION.--General colour light brownish, with a dark stripe down the back in summer, dirty yellowish-white in winter; the beard, which is about six to eight inches long, is black; the horns, which are like those of the European ibex, are long and scimitar-shaped, curving over the neck, flattened at the sides, and strongly ridged in front; from forty to fifty inches in length. A pair is recorded in the 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society' for 1840 of fifty-one inches in length. The females have thin slightly curved horns about a foot long. Under the hair, which is about two inches long, is a soft down, and is highly prized for the fine soft cloth called _tusi_. SIZE.--Height at shoulder, about 44 inches. According to Colonel Markham the ibex "frequents the highest ground near the snows where food is to be obtained. The sexes live apart generally, often in flocks of one hundred and more. In October the males descend and mix with the females, which have generally twins in June and July. It is an extremely wary and timid animal, and can make its way in an almost miraculous manner over the most inaccessible-looking ground. No animal can exceed the ibex in endurance and agility." Kinloch writes as follows concerning it:-- "The ibex inhabits the most precipitous ground in the highest parts of the ranges where it is found, keeping above the forest (when there is any), unless driven down by severe weather. In the day-time it generally betakes itself to the most inaccessible crags, where it may sleep and rest in undisturbed security, merely coming down to the grassy feeding grounds in the mornings and evenings. Occasionally, in very remote and secluded places, the ibex will stay all day on their feeding grounds, but this is not common. In summer, as the snows melt, the old males retire to the highest and most unfrequented mountains, and it is then generally useless to hunt for them, as they have such a vast range, and can find food in places perfectly inaccessible to man. The females and young ones may be met with all the year round, and often at no very great elevation. "Although an excessively wary animal, the ibex is usually found on such broken ground that, if due care be taken, it is not very difficult to obtain a shot. The grand rule, as in all other hill stalking, is to keep well above the herd, whose vigilance is chiefly directed beneath them. In places where they have been much disturbed, one or two of the herd usually keep a sharp look-out while the rest are feeding, and on the slightest suspicion of danger the sentries utter a loud whistle, which is a signal for a general rush to the nearest rocks. Should the sportsman succeed in obtaining a shot before he is observed by the ibex, he may often have time to fire several shots before they are out of range, as they appear to be completely stupefied and confused by the sudden noise, the cause of which they are unable to account for if they neither see nor smell their enemy." Jerdon states that Major Strutt killed in the Balti valley an ibex of a rich hair-brown colour, with a yellowish-white saddle in the middle of its back, and a dark mesial line; the head, neck and limbs being of a dark sepia brown, with a darker line on the front of the legs; others were seen in the same locality by Major Strutt of a still darker colour. These seem to be peculiar to Balti; the horns are the same as the others. Kinloch remarks that a nearly black male ibex has been shot to the north of Iskardo. NO. 448. CAPRA AEGAGRUS. _The Wild Goat of Asia Minor_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Pasang_ (male), _Boz_ (female), generally _Boz-Pasang_, Persian (_Blanford_); _Kayeek_ in Asia Minor (_Danford_). HABITAT.--Throughout Asia Minor from the Taurus mountains; through Persia into Sindh and Baluchistan; and in Afghanistan. M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, late a distinguished member of the Russian Diplomatic Service, and well known as an author and a man of science, whose acquaintance I had the pleasure of making some time ago in Florence, found these goats most abundant on the Aladagh, Boulgerdagh and Hussandagh ranges of the Taurus. He made a very good collection of horns and skulls there, which are now in the Imperial Museum, St. Petersburg. Captain Hutton found it in Afghanistan. DESCRIPTION.--Hair short and brown, becoming lighter in summer; a dark, almost black line down the back; the males have a black beard; the young and females are lighter, with fainter markings; the horns are of the usual ibex type, but there is a striking difference between those of this species and all the others. As a rule the ibex horn is triangular in section, that is, the front part of the horn is square, with transverse knobs at short intervals all the way up, for about three-fourths of the length, whereas the horn of _C. aegagrus_ is more scimitar-like, flattish on the inner side and rounded on the outer, with an edge in front; the sides are wavily corrugated, and on the outer edge are knobs at considerable distances apart. It is believed that an estimate of the age of the animal can be made by these protuberances--after the third year a fresh knob is made in each succeeding one. Mr. Danford says: "The yearly growths seem to be greatest from the third to the sixth year, the subsequent additions being successively smaller." The horns sometimes curve inwards and sometimes outwards at the tips. Mr. Danford figures a pair, the tips of which, turning inwards, cross each other. The female horns are shorter and less characteristic. The size of the male horns run to probably a maximum of 50 inches. There is a pair in the British Museum 48-1/2 inches on the curve. Mr. Danford's best specimen was 47-1/2, the chord of which was 22-1/2, basal circumference 9-3/4, weight 10-1/4 lbs. Captain Hutton's living specimen had horns 40-1/2 inches in length. SIZE.--According to Herr Kotschy "it attains not unfrequently a length of 6-1/2 feet." Mr. Danford measured one 5 feet 5-1/2 inches from nose to tip of tail, 2 feet 9-1/2 inches at shoulder. (See also Appendix C.) I have not had an opportunity of measuring a very well-stuffed specimen in the Indian Museum, but I should say that the Sind variety was much smaller. Standing, as it does, beside a specimen of _Capra Sibirica_, it looks not much bigger than some of the Jumnapari goats. (See Appendix C.) The _aegagrus_ is commonly supposed to be the parent stock from which the domestic goat descended, and certainly the European and many Asiatic forms show a similarity of construction in the horn, but the common goat descended from more than one wild stock, for, as I have before stated, there are goats in India, which show unmistakable signs of descent from the markhor, _Capra megaceros_. In the article on _Capra aegagrus_ in the 'P. Z. S.' for 1875, p. 458, by Mr. C. G. Danford, F.Z.S., written after a recent visit to Asia Minor, it is stated that the late Captain Hutton found it common in Afghanistan, in the Suleiman and Pishin hills, and in the Hazarah and western ranges. I confess I had thought the ibex of these parts to be identical with _C. Sibirica_. Mr. Danford, describing where he met with it, says:-- "The picturesque town of Adalia is situated at the head of the gulf of the same name, and is the principal place in the once populous district of Pamphylia. It is surrounded on its landward side by a wide brushwood-covered plain, bounded on the north and north-east by the Gok and other mountains of the Taurus, and on the west by the Suleiman, a lofty spur of the same range, in which latter the present specimens were collected. "These mountains, the principal summit of which, the Akdagh (white mountain), attains a height of 10,000 feet (_Hoskyn_), rise abruptly from the plain and sea, and are of very imposing and rugged forms. The pure grey tints of the marble and marble-limestone, of which they are principally composed, show beautifully between the snowy summits, and the bright green of the pines and darker shades of the undergrowth of oak, myrtle and bay, which clothe their lower slopes. "The wild goat is here found either solitary or in small parties and herds, which number sometimes as many as 100; the largest which I saw contained 28. It is called by the natives _kayeek_, which word, though applied in other parts of the country to the stag, and sometimes even the roe, is here only used to designate the _aegagrus_, the fallow deer of this district being properly known as _jamoorcha_. The old males of the _aegagrus_ inhabit during summer the higher mountains, being often met with on the snow, while the females and young frequent the lower and easier ridges; in winter, however, they all seem to live pretty much together among the rocks, scattered pines, and bushy ground, generally preferring elevations of from 2000 to 5000 feet. Herr Kotschy says they never descend below 4000 feet in Cilicia; but his observations were made in summer. "Like all the ibex tribe, the _aegagrus_ is extremely shy and wary at ordinary times, though, as in the case with many other animals, they may be easily approached during the rutting season. I was told that they were often brought within shot at that time by the hunter secreting himself, and rolling a few small stones down the rocks. When suddenly disturbed they utter a short angry snort, and make off at a canter rather than a gallop. Though their agility among the rocks is marvellous, they do not, according to Mr. Hutton ('Calcutta Journ.' vii. p. 524), possess sufficient speed to enable them to escape from the dogs which are employed to hunt them in the low lands of Afghanistan. It is interesting to see how, when danger is dreaded, the party is always led by the oldest male, who advances with great caution, and carefully surveys the suspected ground before the others are allowed to follow; their food consists principally of mountain grasses, shoots of different small species of oak and cedar, and various berries. The young are dropped in May, and are one or two (Kotschy says sometimes three) in number. The horns appear very early, as shown in a kid of the year procured in the beginning of January." It appears to be very much troubled with ticks, and an _oestrus_ or bot which deposits its larvae in the frontal sinuses and cavities of the horns. _SUB-GENUS HEMITRAGUS_. Some naturalists do not separate this from _Capra_, but the majority do on the following characteristics, viz. that they possess a small muffle, and one of the two species has four mammae. The horns are trigonal, laterally compressed and knotted on the upper edge. NO. 449. CAPRA _vel_ HEMITRAGUS JEMLAICUS. _The Tahr_ (_Jerdon's No. 232_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Tehr_, _Jehr_, near Simla; _Jharal_, in Nepal; _Kras_ and _Jagla_, in Kashmir; _Kart_, in Kulu; _Jhula_ the male, and _Thar_ or _Tharni_ the female, in Kunawur; _Esbu_ and _Esbi_, male and female, on the Sutlej above Chini (_Jerdon_). HABITAT.--Throughout the entire range of the Himalayas, at high elevations between the forest and snow limits. According to Dr. Leith Adams it is very common on the Pir Panjal, and more so near Kishtwar. [Illustration: _Hemitragus Jemlaicus_.] DESCRIPTION.--The male is of various shades of brown, varying in tint from dark to yellowish, the front part and mane being ashy with a bluish tinge, the upper part of the limbs rusty brown, the fronts of legs and belly being darker. There is no beard, the face being smooth and dark ashy, but on the fore-quarters and neck the hair lengthens into a magnificent mane, which sometimes reaches to the knees. There is a dark mesial line; the tail is short and nude underneath; the horns are triangular, the sharp edge being to the front; they are about ten or eleven inches in circumference at the base where they touch, then, sweeping like a demi-crescent backwards, they taper to a fine point in a length of about 12 to 14 inches. The male has at times a very strong odour. The female is smaller, and of a reddish-brown or fulvous drab above, with a dark streak down the back, whitish below; the horns are also much smaller. SIZE.--Length of head and body, about 4-1/2 feet. Height, 36 to 40 inches. Col. Kinloch, whose two volumes are most valuable, both as regards interesting details and perfect illustrations, speaks thus of this species:-- "The tahr is a fine-looking beast, although his horns are small, and he cannot compare with his majestic relatives, the ibex and the markhor. The male tahr is about the same size as the ibex, but rather more heavily made. The general colour is a reddish-brown, deepening into a much darker tint on the hind-quarters, but individuals vary a good deal, and I have shot one which was of a yellowish-white. The face is covered with smooth short hair, and is nearly black; the hair of the body is long and coarse, attaining its greatest length on the neck, chest and shoulders, where it forms a fine flowing mane reaching below the animal's knees. The horns are curious, being triangular, with the sharp edge to the front; they are very thick at the base, and taper rapidly to a fine point, curving right back on to the neck. The largest horns attain a length of about 14 inches, and are 10 or 11 inches in circumference at the base. "The female tahr is very much smaller than the male; the hair is short, and the horns diminutive. The colour is a lightish red, with a dark stripe down the back. "The tahr is like the markhor, a forest-loving animal, and, although it sometimes resorts to the rocky summits of the hills, it generally prefers the steep slopes, which are more or less clothed with trees. Female tahr may be frequently found on open ground, but old males hide a great deal in the thickest jungle, lying during the heat of the day under the shade of trees or overhanging rocks. Nearly perpendicular hills with dangerous precipices, where the forest consists of oak and ringall cane, are the favourite haunts of the old tahr, who climb with ease over ground where one would hardly imagine that any animal could find a footing. Tahr ground indeed is about the worst walking I know, almost rivalling markhor ground; the only advantage being that, bad as it is, there are generally some bushes or grass to hold on to. "Owing to the ground it inhabits being so covered with jungle, the pursuit of the tahr is attended with a great deal of labour and uncertainty. Forcing one's way for hours through tangled bushes is very fatiguing, and, as it is impossible to do so without noise, chances are often lost which would be easy enough if the ground was more open. Frequently, although the tracks show that old tahr must be near, and in spite of the utmost care and caution, the first intimation one has of the presence of the game is a rush through the bushes, a clatter of falling stones, and perhaps a glimpse of the shaggy hind-quarters of the last of the herd as he vanishes over some precipice where it is perfectly impossible to follow him. "Early in the spring, when grass and leaves are scarce, and again in the rutting season, are the best times for tahr shooting, as the old males then come out on open slopes. "The tahr is very tenacious of life, and, even when mortally wounded, he will frequently make his escape into utterly impracticable ground. In autumn the tahr becomes immensely fat and heavy, and his flesh is then in high favour with the natives, the rank flavour suiting their not very delicate palates. An Englishman would rather not be within one hundred yards to leeward of him, the perfume being equal to treble-distilled 'bouquet de bouc.' Ibex is bad enough, but tahr is 'a caution.' The flesh of the female is, however, excellent." Colonel Markham says: "Seen at a distance it looks like a great wild hog, but when near it is a noble beast." According to Hodgson, it has interbred with a female spotted deer, and the offspring, which more resembled the mother, grew up a fine animal. There is a beautifully clear photograph in Kinloch's 'Large Game of Thibet,' and a large coloured plate in Wolf's 'Zoological Sketches.' NO. 450. CAPRA _vel_ HEMITRAGUS HYLOCRIUS. _The Neilgherry Wild Goat, or Ibex of Madras Sportsmen_ (_Jerdon's No. 233_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Warra-adu_ or _Warri-atu_, Tamil. HABITAT.--The Western Ghats, southerly towards Cape Comorin. DESCRIPTION.--According to Jerdon, "the adult male, dark sepia brown, with a pale reddish-brown saddle, more or less marked, and paler brown on the sides and beneath; legs somewhat grizzled with white, dark brown in front, and paler posteriorly; the head is dark, grizzled with yellowish-brown, and the eye is surrounded by a pale fawn-coloured spot; horns short, much curved, nearly in contact at the base, gradually diverging, strongly keeled internally, round externally, with numerous close rings not so prominent as in the last species. There is a large callous spot on the knees surrounded by a fringe of hair, and the male has a short stiff mane on the neck and withers. The hair is short, thick, and coarse." Colonel Douglas Hamilton, writing to the late Brigadier-General McMaster, says: "I think Jerdon's description is good, but I should call the saddles of the old males grizzled with white, and not pale reddish-brown. A real old 'saddle-back' has a white saddle and almost jet-black points. He makes a mistake about the length of the tail, 6 or 7 inches; it is not more than 3 inches." SIZE.--Height at shoulder, 41 to 42 inches. Jerdon gives 32 to 34, but he appears to have under-estimated the animal, unless it be a misprint for 42 and 44; although he questions Colonel W. Campbell's measurements of length and height, the former of which does seem excessive (6 feet 5 inches, including tail, probably taken from a skin), but the latter, 42 inches, is corroborated by Colonel Hamilton and several others. The size of the horns is given by Jerdon as occasionally 15 inches, rarely more than 12. Colonel Douglas Hamilton says, 9 inches in circumference and 15 to 15-1/2 or 15-3/4 in length is the average of a large horn. General McMaster writes, referring to the latter opinion: "Both he and I know of one 16 inches in length, shot by a well-known South Indian sportsman of the Madras Civil Service, and in February 1869 at Ootacamund, he and I measured the horn of a magnificent buck ibex, shot within 15 or 20 miles of that place. The exact measurements of this mighty horn were 17 inches in length, and 9-3/4 in circumference at the base." Jerdon states that this goat chiefly frequents the northern and western slopes of the Neilgherries, where the hills run down in a succession of steep stony slopes or rocky ridges to the high table-land of Mysore and the Wynaad, both of which districts are themselves hilly. It is occasionally seen on the summit of the northern and western faces, but more generally some distance down, at an elevation of 4000 to 6000 feet, and, if carefully looked for, the herd may be seen feeding on an open grassy glade at the foot of some precipice. "I have," he adds, "seen above twenty individuals in a flock occasionally, but more generally not more than six or seven. With the large herds there is almost always one very large old male conspicuous by his nearly black colour." Colonel D. Hamilton says he has seen 120 pass out of one valley, which he thinks were probably the aggregate of several herds, but he has counted sixty and sixty-five in a herd, and thirty-five in another, without a single adult buck amongst them. In the _South of India Observer_ for the 3rd and 17th of September, 1868, will be found most interesting descriptions of ibex-shooting by "Hawkeye" whose letters are largely quoted by McMaster; but I can only find space for one extract here, interesting to both sportsman and naturalist:-- "It is a pleasant sight to watch a herd of ibex, when undisturbed, the kids frisking here and there on pinnacles or ledges of rocks and beetling cliffs, where there seems scarcely safe foothold for anything much larger than the grasshopper or a fly; the old mother looking calmly on or grazing steadily while the day is young, cropping the soft moss or tender herbs and sweet short grass springing from the crevices of the craggy precipices in rich abundance. Then, again, to see the caution observed in taking up their resting or abiding places for the day, where they may be warmed by the sun, listening to the roar of many waters, and figuratively, we may say, chewing the cud of contentment, and giving themselves up to the full enjoyment of their nomadic life and its romantic haunts. Usually before reposing one of the herd, generally an old doe, may be observed intently gazing below, apparently scanning every spot in the range of her vision, sometimes for half an hour or more before she is satisfied that 'all is well;' strange to say, seldom or ever looking up to the rocks above. Then, being satisfied on the one side, she observes the same process on the other, eventually calmly lying down, contented with the precautions she has taken that all is safe. Her post as sentinel is generally a prominent one, on the edge and corner perhaps of some ledge, to be well sheltered from the wind and warmed by the sun, along which the rest of the herd dispose themselves as inclined, fully trusting in the watchful guardian, whose manoeuvres I have been describing. Should the sentinel be joined by another, or her kid come and lie down by her, they invariably place themselves back to back, or in such a manner that they can keep a look-out on either side. A solitary male goes through all this by himself, and wonderfully careful he is, but when with the herd he reposes in security, leaving it to the females to take precautions for their mutual safety. I have stated that these animals seldom look above them, except when any cause of alarm leads them to do so. I recollect an instance which I will relate, partly to show the advantage of a good colour for a stalker's dress, and to illustrate what I have mentioned above. I had disturbed a buck ibex accidentally one morning, and, after watching him a long distance with the glass, observed him to take up a position and commence the vigilant process previously mentioned. By this I knew he was preparing to lie down. He was a long time about it, but eventually he was satisfied, and took up his post on a prominent rock, from which, as lying with his back to the mountain, he held a clear view in front and on both sides. I approached from above, the wind all right, and the ibex reposing comfortably in fancied security. I had to pass a large rock to clear an intervening impediment, and gain a full view of the buck, as I could at first only see his horns. I had taken the precaution to remove my shoes, the grass being very dry and noisy. The crunching of the dry grass as I moved attracted the notice of the ibex, and suddenly he looked back and up towards me. He was not more than eighty or ninety yards below. I leaned against the rock, my shikar dress blending with the dark grey of the stone and burnt-up grass so completely as to deceive even my lynx-eyed prey. Long, long he looked, till my very knees trembled with anxiety. At last he turned his head, but I knew better than to move, being sure he would have another look. He did so and it proved to be his last, for, when he again turned his head away, I quietly subsided, and in another moment the buck died on his rocky bed." There is an illustration by Wolf of the animal in Colonel Walter Campbell's 'My Indian Journal.' The female has only two mammae, and usually produces two young at a time. THE GOAT ANTELOPES, OR CAPRICORNS. These animals form the link between the goats and the antelopes; their general characteristics are short, conical horns, ringed at the base, upright and curving backwards, and of nearly equal size in both sexes. The body is heavier than is usual amongst antelopes; the feet are large, and have false hoofs. _GENUS NEMORHOEDUS_. "Horns in both sexes round, black and ringed; a small muffle; eye-pits wanting or small; large feet-pits in all feet; no inguinal pits nor calcic tufts; tails short, hairy; four mammae" (_Jerdon_). NO. 451. NEMORHOEDUS BUBALINA. _The Serow, or Forest Goat_ (_Jerdon's No. 230_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Serow_, or _Serowa_, Pahari; _Eimu_, on the Sutlej; _Ramu_, _Halj_, _Salabhir_, Kashmiri; _Nga_, Leesaws of the Sanda valley; _Paypa_, of the Shans; _Shanli_, Chinese of the Burma-Chinese frontier. HABITAT.--The whole of the wooded ranges of the Himalayas from Kashmir down past Sikim on to the ranges dividing China from Burmah. [Illustration: _Nemorhoedus bubalina_.] DESCRIPTION.--I have before me several descriptions of this animal, of which I have little personal knowledge. The best of all is that of Colonel Kinloch, which has been, to some extent, quoted by Professor Garrod in Cassell's Natural History. I give it _in extenso_:-- "The serow is an ungainly-looking animal, combining the characteristics of the cow, the donkey, the pig, and the goat! It is a large and powerful beast, considerably larger than a tahr, and longer in the leg. The body is covered with very coarse hair, which assumes the form of a bristly mane on the neck and shoulders, and gives the beast a ferocious appearance, which does not belie its disposition. The colour is a dull black on the back, bright red on the sides, and white underneath, the legs also being dirty white. The ears are very large, the muzzle is coarse, and two singular circular orifices are situated two or three inches below the eyes. The horns are stout at the base, are ringed nearly to the tips, and curve back close to the neck, growing to the length of from nine to fourteen inches; they are very sharp-pointed, and the serow is said to be able to make good use of them. "The sexes vary very little, less than in any ruminating animal with which I am acquainted; both are furnished with horns of nearly the same size, those of an old male being rather thicker than those of the female. "The serow has an awkward gait; but in spite of this it can go over the worst ground; and it has, perhaps, no superior in going down steep hills. "It is a solitary animal, and is nowhere numerous; two or three may be found on one hill, four or five on another, and so on. It delights in the steepest and most rocky hill-sides, and its favourite resting-places are in caves, under the shelter of overhanging rocks, or at the foot of shady trees. It constantly repairs to the same spots, as testified to by the large heaps of its droppings which are to be found in the localities above alluded to. Although very shy and difficult to find, the serow is a fierce and dangerous brute when wounded and brought to bay. I have even heard of an unwounded male charging when his mate had been shot. "It is said that the serow will sometimes beat off a pack of wild dogs, and I believe that serow and dogs have been found lying dead together. It is therefore advisable to be cautious when approaching a wounded one. "When disturbed, the serow utters a most singular sound, something between a snort and a screaming whistle, and I have heard them screaming loudly when they had apparently not been alarmed." Colonel Markham says of it that it is something in appearance between a jackass and a _thar_, with long stout legs, and a strong neck. Jerdon's description is not clear; it is: "above black, more or less grizzled and mixed on the flanks with deep clay colour; a black dorsal stripe; forearms and thighs anteriorly reddish brown; the rest of the limbs hoary; beneath whitish." The deep clay colour is indefinite, as there are many sorts of clay, and people's ideas may differ as to the shade by the particular clay to which they are most accustomed. Dr. Anderson found it in the Western provinces of Yunnan; and General McMaster, in his 'Notes' (page 143), says that when he was quartered at Shuaygheen, on the Sitang river, in Burmah, a female of this species was brought alive to Major Berdmore by some Burmans, who had caught it in the river, by which it had probably been washed down from the Karanee mountains. He adds that even in its exhausted and dying state it was exceedingly savage, butting at every one who approached it. SIZE.--Height, about 3 feet, or an inch or two over; length, about 5 to 5-1/2 feet; weight, about 200 lbs.; horns, about a foot long as an average, varying from 9 to 14 inches. The female usually produces one kid in the autumn, about September or October, and the period of gestation is about seven months. NO. 452. NEMORHOEDUS RUBIDA _vel_ SUMATRENSIS. _The Arakanese Capricorn_. NATIVE NAME.--_Tan-Kseik_, Arakanese. HABITAT.--Arakan, through Pegu to (according to Blyth) the extremity of the Malayan peninsula, and occurs in Siam and Formosa, and also in Sumatra. Has been shot near Shillong in Assam. DESCRIPTION.--Blyth is of opinion ('Cat. Mam. British Burmah,' 'J. A. S. B.' 1875) that his _N. rubida_ is identical with _Sumatrensis_ and _Swinhoei_, and he could detect no difference in their skulls and skins. I therefore take the following description of _Capricornis Swinhoei_ from the 'P. Z. S.' 1862, page 263, where it is also figured, plate xxxv.:-- "The fur harsh and crisp, brown, with a narrow streak down the back of the neck; a spot on the knee and the front of the fore-legs below the knee black; the hind-legs are bay; the sides of the chin pale yellowish; the under-side of the neck yellow bay, this colour being separated from the darker colour of the upper part of the neck by a ridge of longer, more rigid hairs; the ears are long, brown, paler internally; the horns are short and conical; the skull has a deep and wide concavity in front of the orbits, and a keeled ridge on the cheek." Blyth says: "This species varies much in colour from red to black, and the black sometimes with a white nape, or the hairs of the nape may be white at the base only." Lieut. Bevan described one ('P. Z. S.' 1866) shot on the Zwagaben mountain, near Moulmein, as being of a mingled black and ferruginous colour. NO. 453. NEMORHOEDUS EDWARDSII. _The Thibetan Capricorn_. HABITAT.--Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--This differs from the Indian _N. bubalina_ by the uniform blackish brown of the upper parts tending to ferruginous on the thighs, and the red colour in place of the grey on the lower parts of the legs. It was discovered by the Abbe David, who named it after the well-known Professor A. Milne-Edwards. NO. 454. NEMORHOEDUS GORAL. _The Small Himalayan Capricorn_ (_Jerdon's No. 231_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Goral_, Pahari; _Pijur_, Kashmiri (_Jerdon_); _Rein_ or _Rom_, Kashmiri (_Kinloch_); _Sah_ or _Sarr_, in the Sutlej valley; _Suh-ging_, Lepcha; _Ra-giyu_, Bhotia. HABITAT.--The whole range of the Himalayas from Bhotan to Kashmir. [Illustration: _Nemorhoedus goral_.] DESCRIPTION.--Dull brownish-grey above, with a dark mesial line, paler below; a large white spot under the throat; chest and front of fore-legs dark brown; female paler. The general appearance is that of a high, or arched-backed goat. The females and young are lighter coloured; the horns spring from the crest of the frontals and incline backward, and are slightly curved and very sharp pointed, ringed at the base, and smooth for the apical half or third; some have more rings than others. Jerdon says from twenty to twenty-five rings, but a specimen from Bhutan, which I have before me as I write (a female, I think) has but ten annuli, or little more than one-third ringed. The following description is from Kinloch's 'Large Game of Thibet':-- "Gooral are not gregarious, like the true goats, all of which frequently assemble in large flocks, but are usually scattered about the hills, three or four being occasionally found close together, but more commonly they feed alone or in pairs. They are to be found in all sorts of ground, from bare crags to thick undulating forests, but their favourite resorts are steep rocky hills, thinly sprinkled with forest, especially where it consists of the Kolin pine. In bright weather they conceal themselves in shady places during the day-time, and only come out to feed on the open slopes in the morning and evening; but when the weather is cloudy they sometimes feed nearly all day. "From living so near human habitations, and constantly seeing shepherds and wood-cutters, gooral are not alarmed by seeing men at a distance, and where the ground is much broken they are not difficult to stalk. Where they are at all plentiful they afford very good sport, and their pursuit is a capital school for the young sportsman. Gooral-shooting is in fact like miniature ibex-shooting. The ground they inhabit is frequently difficult walking; the animals are quite sufficiently wary to test the generalship of the stalker; and as they do not present a very large mark, good shooting is required. "The best way to hunt them is (having discovered a good hill) to be on the ground by daylight and work along the face of the hill, keeping as high up as possible. Every slope should be carefully examined, and on reaching the edge of each ravine it should be thoroughly reconnoitred. Being good climbers, the gooral may be found in all sorts of places--on narrow ledges, on the face of steep precipices, on gentle slopes of young grass, and among scattered bushes or forest trees. As little noise as possible should be made; talking should never be allowed, for nothing frightens game so much. Frequently after firing a shot or two on a hill-side, other animals may be found quietly feeding a little further on, whereas if there has been any shouting or talking the beasts will have been driven away. Shooting over a hill does not appear to have the effect of frightening gooral away; when disturbed they seldom go far, and may be found again on their old ground in the course of a day or two. On detecting the presence of danger, the gooral generally stands still, and utters several sharp hisses before moving away." SIZE.--Height, 28 to 30 inches; length, about 4 feet; horns, from 6 to 9 inches. * * * * * I must here include one of the most curious animals in India, a creature resembling at first sight the African gnu. About a couple of years ago, a friend of mine, who hails from the "land o' cakes," called to ask me about a strange animal he had noticed in the Museum. "They call it a 'takin,'" said he; "and if I did not think they were above jokes in such a dry-bone establishment, I should say in the language of my native country, that it is a 'tak' in,' for it does not look natural at all." I turned up Hodgson's account of the creature for him, to prove that it was not a hoax. It was first brought to notice by the above naturalist about thirty years ago, and he gave it the name _Budorcas_, from the two Greek words signifying ox and gazelle. His account of it appears in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society,' vol. xix., 1850. It is again mentioned in the 'P. Z. S.' for 1853, with a plate (No. xxxvi.), and a further account of it, with several plates, will be found in Professor Milne-Edwards's 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes' (pp. 367 to 377). As my time has been very much occupied lately, I have not been able to go through all that has been written on this singular antelope, but I have been fortunate enough to find a willing helper in Mr. J. Cockburn, who, always ready to assist in the study to which he has devoted himself, has given me the following notes, which I have given in the following notice, as they stand under the heading DESCRIPTION. _GENUS BUDORCAS_. A heavily-built, somewhat cow-shaped animal, with curiously bent horns, which spring upwards, but soon bend laterally outward and then upwards and backwards with angular curves; a front view resembles a trident with the centre prong removed. The chevron is highly arched, and the false hoofs are very large. NO. 455. BUDORCAS TAXICOLOR. _The Takin_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Takin_ or _Takhon_, pronounced nasally. HABITAT.--The Mishmi hills, Assam, Thibet. [Illustration: _Budorcas taxicolor_.] DESCRIPTION.--"The takin is a large, heavily-built ruminant, about 3 feet 6 inches high at the shoulder and 6 feet in total length. The external peculiarities of the animal are: first, peculiar angularly curved horns in both sexes; second, the enormously arched chevron; third, the very great development of the spurious hoofs, which are obtusely conical, and about 1-1/2 inches in length in a small specimen. "The colour of the adult in one stage is fulvous throughout, some of the hairs being dark tipped. Legs, tail, muzzle and dorsal stripe black. "Old bulls appear to become of an uniform brownish-black at times, but the colour doubtless depends on the season, as each hair has the basal two-thirds yellow, and its apical third black, and the young its hair brown with a dark tint. The takin, pronounced takhon (nasally), is found just outside British limits in the Mishmi and Akha hills, north of Assam. It extends into the mountainous parts of Chinese Thibet, whence it has lately been procured by the adventurous Abbe David, and has been described by the great French naturalist A. Milne-Edwards, in his work 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes,' with some osteological details which were hitherto wanting, but no more than the limb bones appear to have been obtained. "The horns of the takin have been considered to bear some likeness to those of the gnu (_Catoblepas_), but I fail to trace a resemblance. Hodgson's description of the horns is as follows:-- "'The horns of the takin are inserted on the highest part of the forehead. The horns are nearly in contact at their bases. Their direction is first vertically upwards, then horizontally outwards, or to the sides, and then almost as horizontally backwards. The length of each horn is about 20 inches along the curves, but their thickness is great. The tail is about three inches long.' "This remarkable animal was originally described by Brian Hodgson in 1850, from specimens procured by Major Jenkins from the Mishmis, north-east of Sadya. Skulls and skins are fairly common among the residents of Debroogurh, and two perfect skins of adults were lately presented by Colonel Graham to the Indian Museum. "It is to be regretted that the skeleton of the animal remains unknown to science; from information collected by myself from the Mishmis, it was apparent that they might easily be procured. "The animal would appear to range from about 8000 feet to the Alpine region, which is stated to be its habitat. "While at Sadya a Mishmi chief pointed me out various spurs of the Himalayas, tantalisingly close, where he stated that he had hunted the animal. "Hodgson's paper on the takin was published in the 'Jour. As. Soc.' vol. xix., pp. 65, 75, with three plates, a drawing of the animal, and two views of the skull. "The next figure was by Wolf, in the 'Proc. of the Zool. Soc.' for 1853, pt. xxxvi., and is perhaps the worst he has ever done. Neither of these drawings are correct; and it is to be hoped that Professor Milne-Edwards has more materials for his picture than flat skins and limb bones. "Professor Milne-Edwards was inclined to consider his specimens a distinct variety from the Mishmi animal, and calls it _Budorcas taxicola (sic)_ var. _Tibetana_. "The difference the professor points out, namely the fulvous colour and the thinner undeveloped horns, exist in various specimens of the Mishmi takin, and there can be no question but that the animals are identical. "The slaty colour of Wolf's drawing is probably due to an incorrect conception of Hodgson's term grey, which he defines as a yellowish-grey. "The takin is essentially a serow (_Nemorhoedus_), with affinities to the bovines through the musk ox (_Ovibos moschata_), and other relationship to the sheep, goat and antelope. The development of the spurious hoofs would indicate that it frequents very steep ground."--_J. C._ _GENUS GAZELLA--THE GAZELLES_. These are small animals of slender frame; bovine muzzle; of sandy colour above and white underneath; small annulated horns, curved gracefully backwards, and in some species so elegantly formed as to take the shape of a lyre on looking at them full in front. The females of some have smaller, smoother horns, but others are hornless. The skull has an anteorbital vacuity, with a small anteorbital fossa. The auditory bullae are large; "eye-pits small; groin-pits distinct; large feet-pits in all feet; knees tufted" (_Jerdon_). The face has a white band running from the outer side of the base of each horn down to the muzzle, the space between forming a dark triangular patch bordered with a deeper tint. Sir Victor Brooke classifies the twenty or so known species as follows:-- I.--BACK UNSTRIPED. Dentition:--Inc. 0/3; can. 0/1; prem. 3/3; molars, 3/3. A.--_The white colour of the rump not encroaching on the fawn of the haunches._ _a_. BOTH SEXES WITH HORNS. Horns lyrate or semi-lyrate: _Gazella dorcas_; _G. Isabella_; _G. rufifrons_; _G. loevipes_; _G. melanura_. Horns non-lyrate: _Gazella Cuvieri_; _G. leptoceros_; _G. Spekii_; _G. Arabica_; _G. Bennetti_; _G. fuscifrons_. _b_. FEMALES HORNLESS. _Gazella subgutterosa_; _G. gutterosa_; _G. picticaudata_. B.--_White of rump projecting forwards in an angle into the fawn colour of the haunches._ _Gazella dama_; _G. mohr_; _G. Soemmerringii_; _G. Granti_. II.--BACK WITH A WHITE MEDIAN STRIPE. One premolar less in the lower jaw: _Gazella euchore_. Of the above species the following come under the scope of this work: _Gazella Bennetti_; _G. fuscifrons_; _G. subgutterosa_; _G. picticaudata_. NO. 456. GAZELLA BENNETTI. _The Indian Gazelle_ (_Jerdon's No. 229_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Chikara_, Hindi; _Kal-punch_, Hindi; _Kal-sipi_, Mahratti; _Hirni_, in the Punjab; _Tiska_, also _Budari_ and _Mudari_, Canarese; _Barudu-jinka_, Telegu; _Porsya_ (male) and _Chari_ (female), of Baoris. HABITAT.--Mr. W. Blanford defines the limits of this species as follows ('P. Z. S.,' 1873, p. 315)--the italics are mine: "It is found throughout the Punjab, North-west Provinces, Rajputana, Sind (unless in part replaced by the next species), Kachh, Kathiawar, Guzerat, and the whole Bombay Presidency, _with the exception of the Western Ghats and the low land on Konkan, along the western coast, south of the neighbourhood of Daman_. It is also met with in the Narbada and Tapti valleys, Bandelkand, the Son valley, and Rewah, in the Nagpur and Chanda country, Berar, the Hyderabad territories, and other parts of Southern India, _with the complete exception of the Malabar coast and the adjacent hills_." He adds that from the evidence of Colonel McMaster and Colonel Douglas Hamilton, both good authorities, it is not known to occur much south of the Krishna river, nor is it found in the Ganges valley east of Benares, in Eastern Behar, the Santal Pergunnahs, Chotia Nagpur, Birbhum, &c., Chhatisgurh, the Mahanadi valley, Orissa, Bastar, and the east coast, generally north of the river Krishna. He says it is met with in the Narbada valley, but I have also found it common on the plateaux of the Satpura range. [Illustration: _Gazella Bennetti_ (male and female).] DESCRIPTION.--"Fawn brown above, darker where it joins the white of the sides and buttocks; chin, breast, lower parts and buttocks behind white; tail, knee-tufts and fetlocks behind black; a dark brown spot on the nose, and a dark line from the eyes to the mouth, bordered by a light one above" (_Jerdon_). SIZE.--Length, 3-1/2 feet; height, 26 inches at shoulder, 28 inches at croup. The horns run from 10 to 14 inches in the male, but, in fact, few exceed a foot. The longest of six pairs in my collection measure 12 inches, and the head is looked upon as a fine one. I agree with Jerdon that there must be some mistake about 18-inch horns recorded from the Punjab. This pretty little creature, miscalled "ravine-deer," is familiar to most shikaris. How it got called a _deer_ it is difficult to say, except on the principle of "rats and mice, and such small deer." The Madras term of "goat-antelope" is more appropriate. I remember once, when out on field service with the late Dr. Jerdon during the Indian Mutiny, a few _chikara_ crossed our line of march. A young and somewhat bumptious ensign, who knew not of the fame of the doctor as a naturalist, called out: "There are some deer, there are some deer." "Those are not deer," quietly remarked Jerdon. "Oh, I say," exclaimed the boy, thinking he had got a rise out of the doctor; "Jerdon says those are not deer!" "No more they are, young man--no more they are; much more of the goat--much more of the goat." This gazelle frequents broken ground, with sandy nullahs bordered by scrub jungle, and is most common in dry climates. It is unknown, I believe, in Bengal and, according to Jerdon, on the Malabar coast, but is, I think, found almost everywhere else in India. It abounds in the Central provinces, and I have found it in parts of the Punjab, and it is common throughout the North-west. It is a wary, restless little beast, and requires good shooting, for it does not afford much of a mark. When disturbed they keep constantly shifting, not going far, but hovering about in a most tantalising way. Natives it cares little for, unless it be a shikari with a gun, of which it seems to have intuitive perception; but the ordinary cultivator, with his load of wood and grass, may approach within easy shot; therefore it is not a bad plan, when there is no available cover, to get one of these men to walk alongside of you, whilst, with a horse-cloth or blanket over you, you make yourself look as like your guide as you can. A horse or bullock is also a great help. I had a little bullock which formed part of some loot at Banda--a very handsome little bull, easy to ride and steady under fire--and I found him most useful in stalking black buck and gazelle. When alarmed, the _chikara_ stamps its foot and gives a sharp little hiss. It is generally found in small herds of four or five, but often singly. Jerdon, however, says that in the extreme North-west he had seen twenty or more together, and this is corroborated by Kinloch. They are sometimes hunted by hawks and dogs combined, the _churrug_ (_Falco sacer_) being the hawk usually employed, as mentioned both by Kinloch and Hodgson, writing of opposite ends of the great Himalayan chain. The hawk stoops at the head of its quarry and confuses it, whilst the dogs, who would otherwise have no chance, run up and seize it. The poor little gazelle has also many other enemies--jackals and wolves being amongst the number. Captain Baldwin, in his interesting book, writes: "Like other antelopes, the little ravine-deer has many enemies besides man. One day, when out with my rifle, I noticed an old female gazelle stamping her feet, and every now and then making that hiss which is the alarm note of the animal. It was not I that was the cause of her terror, for I had passed close to her only a few minutes before, and she seemed to understand by my manner that I meant no harm; no, there was something else. I turned back, and, on looking down a ravine close by, saw a crafty wolf attempting a stalk on the mother and young one. Another day, at Agra, a pair of jackals joined in the chase of a wounded buck." Brigadier-General McMaster also relates how he and two friends, whilst coursing, watched for a long time four jackals trying to force one of a small herd of young bucks to separate from the rest. "The gazelles stood in a circle, and maintained their ground well by keeping their heads very gallantly outwards to their foes, until at length, seeing us, both sides made off. We laid the greyhounds into and killed one of the jackals." NO. 457. GAZELLA FUSCIFRONS. _The Baluchistan Gazelle_. HABITAT.--The deserts of Jalk between Seistan and Baluchistan. DESCRIPTION.--"Central facial band strongly marked, grizzled black; light facial streak grey, fairly definite, as is also the blackish dark facial streak; cheeks and anterior of neck grey; back of the neck, back, sides, haunches and legs sandy; lateral streaks wanting; belly and rump whitish; knee-brushes long, black; ears very long; horns (of female only known) strongly annulated, bending forwards and very slightly inwards at the tips" (_Sir V. Brooke_, 'P. Z. S.,' 1873, p. 545). SIZE.--Total length, from tip of nose to end of tail, 4 feet; height at shoulder, 1 foot 11 inches. This curious species was first brought to notice by Mr. Blanford. It is distinguished, he says, from the Indian _G. Bennetti_--first by colour, and secondly by the greater length and more strongly marked annulation of the horns of the female. "The face in the Indian gazelle," he says, "is nearly uniform rufescent fawn colour; the parts that are black and blackish in _G. fuscifrons_ being only a little darker than the rest in _G. Bennetti_; the back also in the latter is more rufescent and less yellow, and the hairs are less dense." * * * * * The following two species belong to section _B_, of which the females are hornless. NO. 458. GAZELLA SUBGUTTEROSA. _The Persian Gazelle_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Kik_, _Sai-kik_, and _Jairan_, Turki of Yarkand and Kashgar (_Blanford_). HABITAT.--The high lands of Persia; to the north-west it is found as far as Tabriz; it is probably, according to Blanford, the gazelle of Meshed and Herat; on the east it extends to the frontier of India, and is found in Afghanistan and northern Baluchistan; a variety also exists in Yarkand. [Illustration: _Gazella subgutterosa_.] DESCRIPTION.--"Hair in winter rough and coarse, in summer much softer and smoother. During both seasons the dirty white of the face and cheeks is only relieved by the dark facial streak, which is short and narrow, but defined by a sprinkling of rufous hairs; the lateral and pygal bands are very faintly indicated, the dark bands being more rufous, the light band rather paler than the grey fawn colour of the upper parts of the body; breast and belly white; tail and ears moderate in length, the former blackish-rufous. Horns absent in the female; in the male long, annulated and lyrate, the points projecting inwards" (_Sir V. Brooke_). According to Blanford, who seemed doubtful whether it should not be raised to the rank of a species, the Yarkand variety differs from the typical _G. subgutterosa_ in the very much darker markings on the face, and in the much smaller degree to which the horns diverge; he adds, however, that as there is some variation in face-markings amongst Persian specimens, it is perhaps better to consider the Yarkand race as only a variety. He gives a very good coloured plate of the animal. ('Sc. Results, Second Yarkand Mission--Mammalia.') NO. 459. GAZELLA PICTICAUDATA. _Thibetan Gazelle_. NATIVE NAME.--_Goa_, Thibetan. HABITAT.--Ladakh. Abundant, according to Kinloch, on the plateau to the south-east of the Tsomoriri lake, on the hills east of Hanle, and in the Indus valley from Demchok, the frontier village of Ladakh, as far down as Nyima. He had also seen it on the Nakpogoding pass to the north of the Tsomoriri, and picked up a horn on the banks of the Sutlej beyond the Niti pass. DESCRIPTION.--Hair in winter long and softish; facial and lateral markings wanting; breast, belly and anal disk which surrounds the tail dirty white; the rest of the body grizzled fawn-colour, becoming more rusty towards the anal disk, a rusty line sometimes running through the disk to the short tail, the tip of which is rusty brown; the hairs about the corners of the mouth elongated. In the summer the coat is short and of a slaty-grey colour. Ears very short; horns long, annulated--diverge as they rise, bending forwards and backwards, again forwards, and a little inwards at the tips. Skull: anteorbital fossa _very_ shallow, nasals converging to a point, and rather elongated (_Sir Victor Brooke_, 'P. Z. S.,' 1873, p. 547). SIZE.--Height, about 18 inches. There is a lovely little photograph of this gazelle in Kinloch's 'Large Game of Thibet,' wonderfully life-like; the head seems to stand out from the page. He describes it under Hodgson's generic name, _Procapra_, but there is no reason for separating it from _Gazella_. He says: "The goa avoid rocky and steep ground, preferring the undulating plains and gently sloping valleys. Early in the season they are to be found in small herds, frequently close to the snow; as this melts they appear to disperse themselves over the higher ground, being often found singly or in twos and threes." _GENUS PANTHOLOPS_. Between the gazelles and antelopes proper comes the _chiru_ (_Pantholops Hodgsonii_), though strictly speaking it is, with the saiga antelope (_Saiga Tartarica_), though in a somewhat less degree, connected by cranial affinities with the sheep. The saiga is notable for its highly-arched nose and inflated nostrils, which are so much lengthened as to necessitate the animal's walking backwards when it feeds. The _chiru_ is not quite so developed in this respect. The skull of the saiga is unique among ruminants, and those who wish to become acquainted with its most minute osteological details should refer to an article on this animal by Dr. James Murie in the 'P. Z. S.,' 1870, p. 457. I can only here give a very brief summary of the chief characteristics. Looked at in profile, the nasal bones we find to be remarkably short, the face being hollowed out, as it were, between the upper nasal cartilage and the very long and narrow maxillary and pre-maxillary bones; great vertical depth from the top of the nasal to the bottom of the maxillary bones; a very prominent bovine orbit, above and a little behind which the short tapering horns of a gazelle type are placed. The lower nasal cartilage is prolonged on to the fibrous cord of the nares, and the profile view of the animal in life is that of a grotesquely Roman-nosed antelope with swollen nostrils. Its nearest relative in India is the _chiru_, which has certain points of resemblance. The nose is but slightly arched, but the nostrils are more swollen than in antelopes as a rule. This is not sufficiently rendered in an otherwise admirable coloured plate in Blanford's 'Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand Mission,' but it is more apparent in the photograph of the head in Kinloch's 'Large Game of Thibet.' Another approach to the saiga is in the position of the horns, which, though of the same class, are much longer and more attenuated, but the position over the eye and the osseous development of the orbit are the same. The nasal bones are also shorter in proportion to other antelopes. The super-orbital foramina just under the horns, which are marked in most antelope and deer, are very minute in _Pantholops_. Dr. Murie notices the inflation of the post-maxilla in the saiga, and states that a similar extension is to be found in the _chiru_. [Illustration: Saiga Antelope.] NO. 460. PANTHOLOPS HODGSONII. _The Chiru_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Chiru_ in Nepal; _Isos_ in Thibet (_Strachey_); also _Isors_ or _Choos_ (_Kinloch_). HABITAT.--The open plains of Thibet from Lhassa to Ladakh. [Illustration: _Pantholops Hodgsonii_.] DESCRIPTION.--The following description was written in 1830, apparently by Mr. Brian Hodgson himself, and was published in 'Gleanings in Science' (vol. ii., p. 348), probably the first scientific magazine in India. As I have seen no better account of this curious antelope I give it as it stands. Mr. Hodgson had the advantage of drawing from life, he having had a living specimen as a pet:-- "Antelope with very long, compressed, tapering, sub-erect (? sub-lyrated) horns, having a slight concave arctuation forwards, and blunt annulations (prominently ridged on the frontal surface), except near the tips; a double coat throughout, greyish blue internally, but superficially fawn-coloured above, and white below, a black forehead, and stripes down the legs; and a tumour or tuft above either nostril. "The ears and tail are moderate and devoid of any peculiarity; so likewise are the sub-orbital sinuses.[38] The horns are exceedingly long, measuring in some individuals nearly 2-1/2 feet. They are placed very forward on the head, and may popularly be said to be erect and straight, though a reference to the specific character will show that they are not strictly one or the other. "The general surface of the horns is smooth and polished, but its uniformity is broken by a series of from fifteen to twenty rings extending from the base to within six inches of the tip of each horn. Upon the lateral and dorsal surfaces of the horns these rings are little elevated, and present a wavy rather than a ridgy appearance; but on the frontal surface the rings exhibit a succession of heavy, large ridges, with furrows between; the annulation is nowhere acutely edged. The horns have a very considerable lateral compression towards the base, where their extent fore and aft is nearly double of that from side to side; upwards from the base the lateral compression becomes gradually less, and towards their tips the horns are nearly rounded. Compared with their length the thickness of the horns is as nothing--in other words they are slender, but not therefore by any means weak. The tips are acute rather than otherwise; the divergence at the points is from one-third to one-half of the length. At the base a finger can hardly be passed between the horns. Throughout five-sixths of their length from the base the horns describe an uniform slightly inward curve, and on the top angle of the curve they turn inwards again more suddenly, but still slightly, the points of the horns being thus directed inwards; the lateral view of the horns shows a considerable concave arctuation forwards, but chiefly derived from the upper part of the horns." [Footnote 38: These are wanting.--R. A. S.] There is an excellent coloured plate of this animal in Blanford's 'Mammalia of the Second Yarkand Mission.' The only fault I see lies in the muzzle, especially of the male, which the artist has made as fine as that of a gazelle. The photograph in Kinloch's 'Large Game of Thibet' shows the puffiness of the nostrils much better; the latter author says of it:-- "The Thibetan antelope is a thoroughly game-looking animal; in size it considerably exceeds the common black buck or antelope of India, and is not so elegantly made. Its colour is a reddish fawn, verging on white in very old individuals. A dark stripe runs down the shoulders and flanks, and the legs are also dark brown. The face alone is nearly black, especially in old bucks. The hair is long and brittle, and extraordinarily thick-set, forming a beautiful velvety cushion, which must most effectually protect the animal from the intense cold of the elevated regions which it inhabits. A peculiarity about this antelope is the existence of two orifices in the groin, which communicate with long tubes running up into the body. The Tartars say that the antelope inflates these with air, and is thereby enabled to run with greater swiftness! The muzzle of the Thibetan antelope is quite different from that of most of the deer and antelope tribe, being thick and puffed looking, with a small rudimentary beard; the eyes are set high up in the head; the sub-orbital sinus is wanting; the horns are singularly handsome, jet black, and of the closest grain, averaging about twenty-three or twenty-four inches in length. They are beautifully adapted for knife handles. The females have short black horns, and are much smaller than the males." The last is a doubtful point; as far as I have been able to gather evidence on the subject the female appears to be hornless, which allies _Pantholops_ more to the antelopes and the gazelles. Major Kinloch may have taken some young males for females, the general colouring being much the same. In the 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society' for 1834, p. 80, there is an extract from a letter from Mr. Hodgson, which, with reference to previous correspondence, says: "The communications referred to left only the inguinal pores, the number of teats in the female, and the fact of her being cornute or otherwise, doubtful. These points are now cleared up. The female is hornless, and has two teats only; she has no marks on the face or limbs, and is rather smaller than the male. The male has a large pouch at each groin, as in _Ant. dorcas_; that of the female is considerably smaller." Mr. Hodgson further remarks that "the _chiru_ antelope can only belong either to the gazelline or the antelopine group. Hornless females would place it among the latter; but lyrate horns, ovine nose, and want of sinus, would give it rather to Gazella, and its singular inguinal purses further ally it to _Ant. dorcas_ of this group. But from Gazella it is distinguished by the accessory nostrils, of inter-maxillary pouch, the hornless females, the absence of tufts on the knees, and of bands on the flanks. The _chiru_, with his bluff bristly nose, his inter-maxillary pouches, and hollow-cored horns, stands in some respects alone." Hodgson was apparently not well acquainted at the time with saiga, or he would have certainly alluded to the affinity. Kinloch has the following regarding its habits:-- "In Chang Chenmo, where I have met with it, the elevation can be nowhere less than 14,000 feet, and some of the feeding grounds cannot be less than 18,000. In the early part of summer the antelope appear to keep on the higher and more exposed plains and slopes when the snow does not lie; as the season becomes warmer, the snow, which has accumulated on the grassy banks of the streams in the sheltered valleys, begins to dissolve, and the antelope then come down to feed on the grass which grows abundantly in such places, and then is the time when they may easily be stalked and shot. They usually feed only in the mornings and evenings, and in the day-time seek more open and elevated situations, frequently excavating deep holes in the stony plains, in which they lie, with only their heads and horns visible above the surface of the ground. It is a curious fact that females are rarely found in Chang Chenmo; I have met with herds of sixty or seventy bucks, but have only seen one doe to my knowledge during the three times that I visited the valley." _GENUS ANTELOPE_ (_restricted_). Horns in the male only; abnormal cases of horned females are on record, but they only prove the rule. No muffle; sub-orbital sinus moderate, somewhat linear; no canines; groin-pits large; feet-pits present. In the skull the sub-orbital fossa is large. NO. 461. ANTELOPE BEZOARTICA. _The Indian Antelope_ (_Jerdon's No. 228_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Mrig_ or _Mirga_, Sanscrit; _Harna_, _Hirun_, _Harin_ (male) and _Hirni_ (female), Hindi; also _Kalwit_, Hindi, according to Jerdon; _Goria_ (female) and _Kala_ (male), in Tirhoot; _Kalsar_ (male) and _Baoti_ (female), in Behar; _Bureta_, in Bhagulpore; _Barout_ and _Sasin_, in Nepal; _Phandayet_, Mahrathi (_Jerdon_). _Hiru_ and _Bamuni-hiru_, Mahrathi; _Chigri_, Canarese; _Irri_ (male), _Sedi_ (female), and _Jinka_, Telegu; _Alali_ (male) and _Gandoli_ (female), of Baoris. HABITAT.--In open plain country throughout India except in Lower Bengal and Malabar. In the Punjab it does not cross the Indus. Dr. Jerdon says: "I have seen larger herds in the neighbourhood of Jalna in the Deccan than anywhere else--occasionally some thousands together, with black bucks in proportion. Now and then, Dr. Scott informs me, they have been observed in the Government cattle-farm at Hissar in herds calculated at 8000 to 10,000." I must say I have never seen anything like this, although in the North-west, between Aligarh and Delhi, I have noticed very large herds; in the Central provinces thirty to forty make a fair average herd, though smaller ones are more common. These small parties generally consist of does, and perhaps two or three young sandy bucks lorded over by one old black buck, who will not allow any other of his colour to approach without the ordeal of battle. I have lately heard of them in Assam, but forget the precise locality. [Illustration: _Antelope bezoartica_.] DESCRIPTION.--Form supple and elegant, with graceful curves; the neck held up proudly; the head adorned with long, spiral, and closely annulated horns, close at the base, but diverging at the tips in a V form. In very large specimens there are five flexures in the horn, but generally four. They are perfectly round, and taper gradually to the tips, which are smooth; the bony cores are also spiral, so that in the dry skull the horn screws on and off. The colour of the old males is deep blackish-brown, the back and sides with an abrupt line of separation from the white of the belly; the dark colour also extends down the outer surface of the limbs; the back of the head, nape and neck are hoary yellowish; under parts and inside of limbs pure white; the face is black, with a white circle round the eyes and nose; the tail is short; the young males are fawn-coloured. The females are hornless, somewhat smaller, and pale yellowish-fawn above, white below, with a pale streak from the shoulder to the haunch. SIZE.--Length, about 4 feet to root of tail; tail, 7 inches; height at shoulder, 32 inches. Horns, average length about 20 inches--fine ones 22, unusual 24, very rare 26. Sir Barrow Ellis has or had a pair 26-1/2, with only three flexures; 28 has been recorded by "Triangle" in _The Asian_, and 30 spoken of elsewhere, but I have as yet seen no proof of the latter. The measurement should be taken straight from base to tip, and not following the curves of the spiral. I have shot some a little over 22, but never more. I believe, however, that the longest horns come from the North-west. This antelope is so well known that it is hardly necessary to dilate at length on it; every shikari in India has had his own experiences, but I will take from Sir Walter Elliot's account and Dr. Jerdon's some paragraphs concerning the habits of the animal which cannot be improved upon, and add a short extract from my own journals regarding its love of locality:-- "When a herd is met with and alarmed, the does bound away for a short distance, and then turn round to take a look; the buck follows more leisurely, and generally brings up the rear. Before they are much frightened they always bound or spring, and a large herd going off in this way is one of the finest sights imaginable. But when at speed the gallop is like that of any other animal. Some of the herds are so large that one buck has from fifty to sixty does, and the young bucks driven from these large flocks are found wandering in separate herds, sometimes containing as many as thirty individuals of different ages. "They show some ingenuity in avoiding danger. In pursuing a buck once into a field of _toor_, I suddenly lost sight of him, and found, after a long search, that he had dropped down among the grain, and lay concealed with his head close to the ground. Coming on another occasion upon a buck and doe with a young fawn, the whole party took to flight, but the fawn being very young, the old ones endeavoured to make it lie down. Finding, however, that it persisted in running after them, the buck turned round and repeatedly knocked it over in a cotton field until it lay still, when they ran off, endeavouring to attract my attention. Young fawns are frequently found concealed and left quite by themselves."--_Elliot_. Jerdon adds: "When a herd goes away on the approach of danger, if any of the does are lingering behind, the buck comes up and drives them off after the others, acting as whipper-in, and never allowing one to drop behind. Bucks may often be seen fighting, and are then so intently engaged, their heads often locked together by the horns, that they may be approached very close before the common danger causes them to separate. Bucks with broken horns are often met with, caused by fights; and I have heard of bucks being sometimes caught in this way, some nooses being attached to the horns of a tame one. I have twice seen a wounded antelope pursued by greyhounds drop suddenly into a small ravine, and lie close to the ground, allowing the dogs to pass over it without noticing, and hurry forward." ('Mamm. of India,' p. 278.) I have myself experienced some curious instances of the hiding propensities spoken of by Sir Walter Elliot and Dr. Jerdon. In my book on Seonee I have given a case of a wounded buck which I rode down to the brink of a river, when he suddenly disappeared. The country was open, and I was so close behind him that it seemed impossible for him to have got out of sight in so short a space of time; but I looked right and left without seeing a trace of him, and, hailing some fishermen on the opposite bank, found that they had not seen him cross. Finally my eye lighted on what seemed to be a couple of sticks projecting from a bed of rushes some four or five feet from the bank. Here was my friend submerged to the tip of his nose, with nothing but the tell-tale horns sticking out. This antelope attaches itself to localities, and after being driven away for miles will return to its old place. The first buck I ever shot I recovered, after having driven him away for some distance and wounded him, in the very spot I first found him; and the following extract from my journals will show how tenaciously they cling sometimes to favourite places:-- "I was out on the boundary between Khapa and Belgaon, and came across a particularly fine old buck, with very wide-spreading horns; so peculiar were they that I could have sworn to the head amongst a thousand. He was too far for a safe shot when I first saw him, but I could not resist the chance of a snap at him, and tried it, but missed; and I left the place. My work led me again soon after to Belgaon itself, and whilst I was in camp there I found my friend again; but he was very wary; for three days I hunted him about, but could not get a shot. At last I got my chance; it was on the morning of the day I left Belgaon, I rode round by the boundary, when up jumped my friend from a bed of rushes, and took off across country. I followed him cautiously, and found him again with some does about two miles off. A man was ploughing in the field close by; so, hailing him, I got his bullocks and drove them carefully up past the does. We splashed through a nullah, and waded through a lot of rushes, and at last I found myself behind a clump of coarse grass, with a nullah between me and the antelope. They jumped up on my approach, and Blacky, seeing his enemy, made a speedy bolt of it; but I was within easy range of him, and a bullet brought him down on his head with a complete somersault. Now this buck, in spite of the previous shot at him, and being hunted about from day to day, never left his ground, and used to sleep every night in a field near my tent." This antelope has been raised by the Hindoos amongst the constellations harnessed to the chariot of the moon. Brahmins can feed on its flesh under certain circumstances prescribed by the 'Institutes of Menu,' and it is sometimes tamed by Fakirs. It is easily domesticated, but the bucks are always dangerous when their horns are full grown, especially to children. The breeding season begins in the spring, but fawns of all ages may be seen at any time of the year. The flesh of this species is among the best of the wild ruminants. * * * * * The next group of antelopes are those with smooth horns, without knots; spiral in some African species, but short and straight, or but slightly curved in the Indian ones. Females hornless. There are but two genera in India, _Portax_ and _Tetraceros_. _GENUS PORTAX--THE NYLGAO_. Horns on back edge of frontal bone behind the orbit, short, recurved, conical and smooth, angular at the base; bovine nose with large moist muffle; small eye-pits; hind legs shorter than the front; tail long and tufted; back short, sloping down from high withers; the neck deep and compressed like a horse, with a short upright mane; on the throat of the male under a white patch is a long tuft of black hair. In the skull the nasal opening is small, and the molars have, according to Dr. Gray, supplementary lobes. Dr. Jerdon says: "There is a small pit in front of the orbit, and anterior to this a small longitudinal fold, in the middle of which there is a pore through which exudes a yellow secretion from the gland beneath." The female has sometimes in an abnormal condition been found with horns. Mr. J. Cockburn, in a letter to _The Asian_ (11th of November, 1879, p. 40), describes such a one. NO. 462. PORTAX PICTUS _vel_ TRAGOCAMELUS. _The Nylgao or Blue Bull_ (_Jerdon's No. 226_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Nilgao_, _Nilgai_, or _Lilgao_, _Lilgai_, _Rojra_ or _Rojh_, _Rooi_ (female), Hindi; _Guraya_, Gondi; _Maravi_, Canarese; _Manupotu_, Telegu. HABITAT.--India generally, from the Himalayas to the south. It is not common south of the Ganges, nor, according to Jerdon, is it found in the extreme south of India. [Illustration: _Portax pictus_.] DESCRIPTION.--A horse-like animal at the first glance, owing to its lean head, long, flat, and deep neck, and high withers, but with cervine hind-quarters, lower than in front. The male is of an iron grey colour, intensified by age; the inside of the ears, lips, and chin are white; a large white patch on the throat, below which is the pendant tuft of black hair; the chest, stomach, and rings on the fetlocks, white; mane, throat-tuft and tip of tail, black. The female is a sandy or tawny colour, and is somewhat smaller than the male. SIZE.--Length of male, 6-1/2 to 7 feet; tail 18 to 22 inches; height at shoulder, from 13 to 14-1/2 hands; horns, from 8 to 10 inches. The nilgao inhabits open country with scrub or scanty tree jungle, also, in the Central provinces, low hilly tracts with open glades and valleys. He feeds on beyr (_Zizyphus jujuba_) and other trees, and at times even devours such quantities of the intensely acrid berries of the _aonla_ (_Phyllanthus emblica_) that his flesh becomes saturated with the bitter elements of the fruit. This is most noticeable in soup, less so in a steak, which is at times not bad. The tongue and marrow-bones, however, are generally as much as the sportsman claims, and, in the Central provinces at least, the natives are grateful for all the rest. He rests during the day in shade, but is less of a nocturnal feeder than the sambar stag. I have found nilgao feeding at all times of the day. The droppings are usually found in one place. The nilgao drinks daily, the sambar only every third day, and many are shot over water. Although he is such an imposing animal, the blue bull is but poor shooting, unless when fairly run down in the open. With a sharp spurt he is easily blown, but if not pressed will gallop for ever. In some parts of India nilgai are speared in this way. I myself preferred shooting them either from a light double-barrelled carbine or large bore pistol when alongside; the jobbing at such a large cow-like animal with a spear was always repugnant to my feelings. They are very tenacious of life. I once knocked one over as I thought dead, and, putting my rifle against a tree, went to help my shikaree to _hallal_ him, when he jumped up, kicked us over, and disappeared in the jungle; I never saw him again. A similar thing happened to a friend who was with me, only he sat upon his supposed dead bull, quietly smoking a cigar and waiting for his shikarees, when up sprang the animal, sending him flying, and vanished. On another occasion, whilst walking through the jungle, I came suddenly on a fine dark male standing chest on to me. I hardly noticed him at first; but, just as he was about to plunge away into the thicket, I rapidly fired, and with a bound he was out of sight. I hunted all over the place and could find no trace of him. At last, by circling round, I suddenly came upon him at about thirty yards off, standing broadside on. I gave him a shot and heard the bullet strike, but there was not the slightest motion. I could hardly believe that he was dead in such a posture. I went up close, and finally stopped in front of him; his neck was stretched out, his mouth open and eyes rolling, but he seemed paralysed. I stepped up close and put a ball through his ear, when he fell dead with a groan. I have never seen anything like it before or since, and can only suppose that the shot in the chest had in some way choked him. I have alluded to this incident in my book on Seonee; it was in that district that it occurred. The nilgao is the only one of the deer and antelope of India that could be turned to any useful purpose. The sambar stag, though almost equal in size, will not bear the slightest burden, but the nilgao will carry a man. I had one in my collection of animals which I trained, not to saddle, for such a thing would not stay on his back, but to saddle-cloth. He was a little difficult to ride, rather jumpy at times, otherwise his pace was a shuffling trot. I used to take him out into camp with me, and made him earn his grain by carrying the servants' bundles. He was not very safe, for he was, when excited, apt to charge; and a charge from a blue bull with his short sharp horns is not to be despised. In some parts the Hindoos will not touch the flesh of this animal, which they believe to be allied to the cow. It has much more of a horsey look about it. McMaster says that in some parts of the Coimbatore district the natives described this creature to Colonel Douglas Hamilton as a wild horse, and called it by a name signifying such. He also notices the resemblance of the Gondi name _Guraya_, to the Hindi _Ghora_. _GENUS TETRACEROS_. Horns four, conical, smooth, slightly bent forward at tip, the anterior ones very short, sometimes rudimentary, which has led to the distinction of a separate species by some naturalists; slightly ringed at the base. The posterior ones situated far back on the frontal bone, the anterior ones above the orbits; eye-pits small, linear; muffle large; feet-pits in the hind feet; no groin-pits; four mammae; canine teeth in the males; females hornless. The skull is characterized by the large sub-orbital fossae which occupy nearly the whole cheek. The various species--_sub-quadricornutus_ of Elliot, _iodes_ and _paccerois_ of Hodgson--are but varieties of the following only Indian species. NO. 463. TETRACEROS QUADRICORNIS. _The Four-horned Antelope_ (_Jerdon's No. 227_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Chowsingha_, _Chowka_. Jerdon also gives _Bherki_, _Bekra_, and _Jangli-bakra_, but I have also heard these names given by natives to the rib-faced deer (_Cervulus aureus_); _Bhir-kura_ (the male) and _Bhir_(female) Gondi; _Bhirul_ of Bheels; _Kotri_, Bustar; _Kond-guri_, Canarese; _Konda-gori_, Telegu (_Jerdon_). Kinloch also gives _Doda_, Hindi. HABITAT.--Throughout India, but not in Ceylon or Burmah. [Illustration: _Tetraceros quadricornis_.] DESCRIPTION.--A small brownish-bay animal, slightly higher at the croup than at the shoulder, which gives it a poky look, lighter beneath and whitish inside the limbs and in the middle of the belly; fore-legs, muzzle, and edge of ears dark; fetlocks dark, sometimes ringed with lighter colour. The colouring varies a good deal. The horns are situated as I have before described; the anterior ones are subject to much variation; sometimes they are absent or represented merely by a black callous skin; others are merely little knobs; the largest seldom exceed an inch and a-half, and the posterior horns five inches. SIZE.--Head and body, 40 to 42 inches; height at shoulder, 24 to 26 inches; at croup a little higher. This little antelope, the smallest of Indian hollow-horned ruminants, is very shy and difficult to get, even in jungles where it abounds. It was plentiful in the Seonee district, yet I seldom came across it, and was long before I secured a pair of live ones for my collection. It frequents, according to my experience, bamboo jungle; but, according to Kinloch, Jerdon and other writers, it is found in jungly hills and open glades, in the forests, and in bushy ground near dense forests. It is an awkward-looking creature in action, as it runs with its neck stuck out in a poky sort of way, making short leaps; in walking it trips along on the tips of its toes like the little mouse-deer (_Meminna_). The young are stated to be born in the cold season. General Hardwicke created great confusion for a time by applying the name _chikara_, which is that of the _Gazella Bennetti_, to this species. It is not good eating, but can be improved by being well larded with mutton fat when roasted. McMaster believes in the individuality of Elliot's antelope (_T. sub-quadricornutus_), but more evidence is required before it can be separated from _quadricornis_. The mere variation in size, or the presence or absence of the anterior horns and the lighter shade of colour, are not sufficient reasons for its separation as a species, for the _quadricornis_ is subject to variation in like manner.[39] [Footnote 39: See notes in Appendix C.] BOVINAE--CATTLE. These comprise the oxen, and wind up the hollow-horned ruminants as far as India is concerned. There are in the New World some other very interesting animals of this group, such as the musk-ox (_Ovibos_), and the prong-horned antelope (_Antilocapra_), which last so far resembles the Cervidae that the horns, which are bifurcate, are also annually shed. They come off the bony core, on which the new horn is already beginning to form. The Bovines are animals of large size, horned in both sexes, a very large and broad moist muffle, massive bodies and stout legs. The horns, which are laterally wide spread, are supported on cores of cellular bone, and are cylindrical or depressed at the base. The nose broad, with the nostrils at the side. The skull has no sub-orbital pit or fissure, and the bony orbit is prominent; grinders with a well-developed supplementary lobe; cannon bone short. In India, the groups into which this sub-family may be divided, are oxen, the buffaloes, and the yaks. There are no true bison in our limits, the commonly so-called bison being properly a wild ox. The taurine or Ox group is divided into the _Zebus_, or humped domestic cattle; _Taurus_, humpless cattle with cylindrical horns; and _Gavaeus_, humpless cattle with flattened horns. According to Dr. Jerdon, in some parts of India small herds of zebus have run wild. He says:-- "Localities are recorded in Mysore, Oude, Rohilkund, Shahabad, &c., and I have lately seen and shot one in the Doab near Mozuffernugger. These, however, have only been wild for a few years. Near Nellore, in the Carnatic, on the sea-coast there is a herd of cattle that have been wild for many years. The country they frequent is much covered with jungle and intersected with salt-water creeks and back-waters, and the cattle are as wild and wary as the most feral species. Their horns were very long and upright, and they were of large size. I shot one there in 1843, but had great difficulty in stalking it, and had to follow it across one or two creeks." _GENUS GAVAEUS_. Massive head with large concave frontals, surmounted in _G. gaurus_ by a ridge or crest of bone; horns flattened on the outer surface, corrugated at the base, and smooth for the rest of the two-thirds, or a little more; wide-spreading and recurved at the tips, forming a crescent; greenish grey for the basal half, darker towards the tips, which are black; muffle small; dewlap small or absent; the spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae are greatly developed down to about half the length of the back; legs small under the knee, and white in colour; hoofs small and pointed, leaving a deer-like print in the soil, very different to the splay foot of the buffalo. NO. 464. GAVAEUS GAURUS. _The Gaur, popularly called Bison_ (_Jerdon's No. 238_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Gaor_ or _Gaori-gai_, _Bun-boda_, Hindi; _Boda_ and _Bunparra_ in the Seonee and Mandla districts; _Pera-maoo_ of Southern Gonds; _Gaoiya_, Mahrathi; _Karkona_, Canarese; _Katuyeni_, Tamil; _Jangli-kulgha_ in Southern India; _Pyoung_ in Burmah; _Salandang_ in the Malay countries. Horsfield gives the following names under his _Bibos asseel_: _As'l Gayal_, Hindi; _Seloi_, Kuki; _P'hanj_ of the Mughs and Burmese, and some others which he considers doubtful. HABITAT.--Regarding this, I quote at length from Jerdon, whose inquiries were carefully made. He says: "The gaur is an inhabitant of all the large forests of India, from near Cape Comorin to the foot of the Himalayas. On the west coast of India it is abundant all along the Syhadr range on Western Ghats, both in the forests at the foot of the hills, but more especially in the upland forests and the wooded country beyond the crest of the Ghats. The Animally hills, the Neilgherries, Wynaad, Coorg, the Bababooden hills, the Mahableshwar hills, are all favourite haunts of this fine animal. North of this, it occurs to my own knowledge in the jungles on the Taptee river and the neighbourhood, and north of the Nerbudda; a few on the deeper recesses of the Vindhian mountains. On the eastern side of the peninsula it is found in the Pulney and Dindigul hills, the Shandamungalum range, the Shervaroys, and some of the hill ranges near Vellore and the borders of Mysore. North of this, the forest being too scanty, it does not occur till the Kistna and Godavery rivers; and hence it is to be found in suitable spots all along the range of Eastern Ghats to near Cuttack and Midnapore, extending west far into Central India, and northwards towards the edge of the great plateau which terminates south of the Gangetic valley. According to Hodgson it also occurs in the Himalayan Terai, probably however only towards the eastern portion, and here it is rare, for I have spoken to many sportsmen who have hunted in various parts of the Terai, from Sikhim to Rohilkund, and none have ever come across the gaur at the foot of the Himalayas."--'Mam. of Ind.,' p. 303. (See also Appendix C.) In the Central provinces the gaur is found in several parts of the bamboo-clad spurs of the Satpura range. My experience of the animal is limited to the Seonee district, where it is restricted to the now closely preserved forests of Sonawani in the south-east bend of the range, and a few are to be seen across occasionally, near the old fort of Amodagarh, on the Hirri river. It is also more abundant on the Pachmari and Mahadeo hills. On the east of the Bay of Bengal it is found from Chittagong through Burmah to the Malayan peninsula. It was considered that the gaur of the eastern countries was a distinct species, and is so noted in Horsfield's Catalogue, and described at some length under the name of _Bibos asseel_; but it appears that all this distinction was founded on the single skull of a female gaur, and is an instance of the proneness of naturalists to create new species on insufficient data. He himself remarks that when the skin was removed it was evident that the animal was nearly related to _Gavaeus gaurus_, or, as he calls it, _Bibos cavifrons_. Mr. G. P. Sanderson shot a fine old male of what he supposed to be the wild _gayal_, and he says: "I can state that there was not one single point of difference in appearance or size between it and the bison of Southern India, except that the horns were somewhat smaller than what would have been looked for in a bull of its age in Southern India;" and this point was doubtless an individual peculiarity, for Blyth, in his 'Catalogue of the Mammals of Burmah,' says: "Nowhere does this grand species attain a finer development than in Burmah, and the horns are mostly short and thick, and very massive as compared with those of the Indian gaurs, though the distinction is not constant on either side of the Bay of Bengal." Jerdon supposes it to have existed in Ceylon till within the present century, but I do not know on what data he founds his assertion. [Illustration: _Gavaeus gaurus_.] DESCRIPTION.--I cannot improve on Jerdon's description, taken as it is from the writings of Hodgson, Elliot, and Fisher, so I give it as it stands, adding a few observations of my own on points not alluded to by them:-- "The skull is massive; the frontals large, deeply concave, surmounted by a large semi-cylindric crest rising above the base of the horns. There are thirteen pairs of ribs.[40] The head is square, proportionately smaller than in the ox; the bony frontal ridge is five inches above the frontal plane; the muzzle is large and full, the eyes small, with a full pupil (? iris) of a pale blue colour. The whole of the head in front of the eyes is covered with a coat of close short hair, of a light greyish-brown colour, which below the eyes is darker, approaching almost to black; the muzzle is greyish and the hair is thick and short; the ears are broad and fan-shaped; the neck is sunk between the head and back, is short, thick, and heavy. Behind the neck and immediately above the shoulder rises a gibbosity or hump of the same height as the dorsal ridge. This ridge rises gradually as it goes back, and terminates suddenly about the middle of the back; the chest is broad; the shoulder deep and muscular; the fore-legs short, with the joints very short and strong, and the arm exceedingly large and muscular; the hair on the neck and breast and beneath is longer than on the body, and the skin of the throat is somewhat loose, giving the appearance of a slight dewlap; the fore-legs have a rufous tint behind and laterally above the white. The hind-quarters are lighter and lower than the fore, falling suddenly from the termination of the dorsal ridge; the skin of the neck, shoulders, and thigh is very thick, being about two inches and more. "The cow differs from the bull in having a slighter and more graceful head, a slender neck, no hump; and the points of the horns do not turn towards each other at the tip, but bend slightly backwards, and they are much smaller; the legs too are of a purer white. The very young bull has the forehead narrower than the cow, and the bony frontal ridge scarcely perceptible. The horns too turn more upwards. In old individuals the hair on the upper parts is often worn off. The skin of the under parts when uncovered is deep ochrey-yellow."--'Mammals of India,' p. 302. [Footnote 40: The true bison has fourteen pairs of ribs.--R. A. S.] The fineness of the leg below the knee is another noticeable feature, and also the well-formed pointed hoof, which leaves an imprint like that of a large deer. Mr. Sanderson states in his book that the bison, after a sharp hunt, gives out an oily sweat, and in this peculiarity he says it differs from domestic cattle, which never sweat under any exertion. This I have not noticed. The period of gestation seems to be about the same as that of the domestic cow, and the greatest number of calves are born in the summer. SIZE.--I cannot speak personally, for I regret now that I took no measurements in the days when I was acquainted with these magnificent animals, but the experiences of others I give as follows:-- Sir Walter Elliot gives-- Ft. In. Nose to root of tail 9 6-1/2 Height at shoulder (over 18 hands!) 6 1-1/2 " at rump 5 3 Tail 2 10-1/2 Length of dorsal ridge 3 4 Height of " 0 4-1/2 Head from muzzle to top of frontal ridge 2 1-3/4 Breadth of forehead 1 3-1/2 Ear 0 10-1/2 Circumference of horn at base 1 7-1/2 Distance between the points of the horns 2 1 I give the measurements of two fine heads:-- Ft. In. Ft. In. From tip to tip round the outer edge and across the forehead 6 2 6 11 Across the sweep 2 9 3 2-1/2 Circumference at base 1 7 1 5 Between tips 1 7 1 10-1/2 The following careful measurements are recorded by Mr. Blyth ('J. A. S. B.,' vol. xi., 1842, p. 588), and were furnished to him by Lieut. Tickell from the recently-killed animal, in order to assist in the setting up of the specimen in the Asiatic Museum:-- Ft. In. A string passed along the back to root of tail 8 8-1/2 From frontal ridge to tip of muzzle 2 0 Horns apart anteriorly at base 1 0-1/2 Tip to tip of horns 2 3-1/4 From nose to centre of eye 1 0-3/4 Eye to root of horn 0 4-1/4 Eye to base of ears 0 6 Humerus, &c. 1 11-1/4 Radius 2 8 Metacarpus 0 9-3/4 Pastern, &c., and hoof 0 7-1/4 Pelvis 1 4-1/2 Femur 1 7-1/4 Tibia and fibula 1 10 Metatarsus 1 4 Pastern to end of hoof 0 7-1/2 Height perpendicularly, about 5 9 Length of dorsal ridge 2 5-1/2 Tail, root to tip of hairs 3 1-3/4 Circumference of head behind horns 3 11 " " neck behind ears 4 0-1/2 " " chest 8 8 " " muzzle 1 9-1/4 " " forearm close to axilla 1 11-1/4 " " thigh close to body 3 0-3/4 " " thigh close above hock 1 6 I feel tempted to let my pen run away with me into descriptions of the exciting scenes of the past in the chase of this splendid creature--the noblest quarry that the sportsman can have, and the one that calls forth all his cunning and endurance. As I lately remarked in another publication, I know of no other animal of which the quest calls forth the combined characteristics of the ibex, the stag and the tiger-hunter. Some of my own experiences I have described in 'Seonee;' but let those who wish to learn the poetry of the thing read the glowing, yet not less true pages of Colonel Walter Campbell's 'Old Forest Ranger;' and for clear practical information, combined also with graphic description, the works of Captain J. Forsyth and Mr. G. P. Sanderson ('The Highlands of Central India' and 'Thirteen years among the Wild Beasts'). The gaur prefers hilly ground, though it is sometimes found on low levels. It is extremely shy and retiring in its habits, and so quick of hearing that extreme care has to be taken in stalking to avoid treading on a dry leaf or stick. I know to my cost that the labour of hours may be thrown away by a moment of impatience. In spite of all the wondrous tales of its ferocity, it is as a rule a timid, inoffensive animal. Solitary bulls are sometimes dangerous if suddenly come upon. I once did so, and the bull turned and dashed up-hill before I could get a shot, whereas a friend of mine, to whom a similar thing occurred a few weeks before, was suddenly charged, and his gun-bearer was knocked over. The gaur seldom leaves its jungles, but I have known it do so on the borders of the Sonawani forest, in order to visit a small tank at Untra near Ashta, and the cultivation in the vicinity suffered accordingly. Hitherto most attempts to rear this animal when young have failed. It is said not to live over the third year. Though I offered rewards for calves for my collection, I never succeeded in getting one. I have successfully reared most of the wild animals of the Central provinces, but had not a chance of trying the bison. NO. 465. GAVAEUS FRONTALIS. _The Mithun or Gayal_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Gayal_, _Gavi_ or _Gabi_, _Gabi-bichal_ (male), _Gabi-gai_ (female); _Bunerea-goru_ in Chittagong and Assam; _Mithun_. HABITAT.--The hilly tracts east of the Brahmaputra, at the head of the Assam valley, the Mishmi hills, in hill Tipperah, Chittagong, and then southwards through Burmah to the hills bordering on the Koladyne river. [Illustration: _Gavaeus frontalis_.] DESCRIPTION.--Very like the gaur at first sight, but more clumsy looking; similarly coloured, but with a small dewlap; the legs are white as in the last species. In the skull the forehead is not concave as in the gaur, but flat, and if anything rather convex. The back has a dorsal ridge similar to that of the gaur. The _gayal_ is of a much milder disposition than the _gaur_, and is extensively domesticated, and on the frontiers of Assam is considered a valuable property by the people. The milk is rich and the flesh good. There are purely domesticated _mithuns_ bred in captivity, but according to many writers the herds are recruited from the wild animals, which are tempted either to interbreed, or are captured and tamed. In Dr. F. Buchanan Hamilton's MS. (_see_ Horsfield's 'Cat. Mammalia, E. I. C. Mus.') the following account is given: "These people (i.e. the inhabitants of the frontiers) have tame gayals, which occasionally breed, but the greater part of their stock is bred in the woods and caught; after which, being a mild animal, it is easily domesticated. The usual manner employed to catch the full-grown gayal is to surround a field of corn with a strong fence. One narrow entrance is left, in which is placed a rope with a running noose, which secures the gayal by the neck as he enters to eat the corn; of ten so caught perhaps three are hanged by the noose running too tight, and by the violence of their struggling. Young gayals are caught by leaving in the fence holes of a size sufficient to admit a calf, but which excludes the full-grown gayal; the calves enter by these holes, which are then shut by natives who are watching, and who secure the calves. The gayal usually goes in herds of from twenty to forty, and frequents dry valleys and the sides of hills covered with forest." Professor Garrod, in his _Ungulata_ in Cassell's Natural History, quotes the following account from Mr. Macrae concerning the way in which the Kookies of the Chittagong hill regions catch the wild gayal: "On discovering a herd of wild gayals in the jungle they prepare a number of balls, the size of a man's head, composed of a particular kind of earth, salt and cotton. They then drive their tame gayals towards the wild ones, when the two herds soon meet and assimilate into one, the males of the one attaching themselves to the females of the other, and _vice versa_. The Kookies now scatter their balls over such parts of the jungles as they think the herd most likely to pass, and watch its motions. The gayals, on meeting these balls as they pass along, are attracted by their appearance and smell, and begin to lick them with their tongues, and, relishing the taste of the salt and the particular earth composing them, they never quit the place till all the balls are consumed. The Kookies, having observed the gayals to have once tasted their balls, prepare a sufficient supply of them to answer the intended purpose, and as the gayals lick them up they throw down more; and it is to prevent their being so readily destroyed that the cotton is mixed with the earth and the salt. This process generally goes on for three changes of the moon or for a month and a-half, during which time the tame and the wild gayals are always together, licking the decoy balls, and the Kookie, after the first day or two of their being so, makes his appearance at such a distance as not to alarm the wild ones. By degrees he approaches nearer and nearer, until at length the sight of him has become so familiar that he can advance to stroke his tame gayals on the back and neck without frightening the wild ones. He next extends his hand to them and caresses them also, at the same time giving them plenty of his decoy balls to lick. Thus, in the short space of time mentioned, he is able to drive them, along with the tame ones, to his _parrah_ or village, without the least exertion of force; and so attached do the gayals become to the _parrah_, that when the Kookies migrate from one place to another, they always find it necessary to set fire to the huts they are about to abandon, lest the gayals should return to them from the new grounds." NO. 466. GAVAEUS SONDAICUS. _The Burmese Wild Ox_. NATIVE NAME.--_Tsoing_, Burmese; _Banteng_ of the Javanese. HABITAT.--"Pegu, the Tenasserim provinces, and the Malayan peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and Java; being domesticated in the island of Bali" (_Blyth_). DESCRIPTION.--This animal resembles the gaur in many respects, and it is destitute of a dewlap, but the young and the females are bright chestnut. The bulls become black with age, excepting always the white stockings and a white patch on each buttock. SIZE.--About the same as the last two species. This animal has bred in captivity, and has also interbred with domestic cattle. Blyth says he saw in the Zoological Gardens of Amsterdam a bull, cow, and calf in fine condition. "The bull more especially has an indication of a hump, which, however, must be specially looked for to be noticed, and he has a broad and massive neck like the gaur, but no raised spinal ridge, nor has either of these species a deep dewlap like the gayal" ('Cat. Mamm. Burmah'). The banteng cow is much slighter in build, and has small horns that incline backwards, and she retains her bright chestnut colour permanently. _GENUS POEPHAGUS--THE YAK_. Somewhat smaller than the common ox, with large head; nose hairy, with a moderate sized bald muffle between nostrils; broad neck without dewlap; cylindrical horns; no hump or dorsal ridge, and long hair on certain parts of the body. Requires an intensely cold climate. NO. 467. POEPHAGUS GRUNNIENS. _The Yak or Grunting Ox_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Yak_, _Bubul_, _Soora-goy_, _Dong_, in Thibet; _Bun-chowr_, Hindi; _Brong-dong_, Thibetan. HABITAT.--The high regions of Thibet and Ladakh, the valley of the Chang Chenmo, and the slopes of the Kara Koram mountains (_Kinloch_). DESCRIPTION.--"In size it is somewhat less than the common or domestic ox. The head is large, and the neck proportionally broad, without any mane or dewlap, having a downward tendency; the horns are far apart, placed in front of the occipital ridge, cylindrical at the base, from which they rise obliquely outward and forward two-thirds of their length, when they bend inward with a semi-circular curve, the points being directed to each other from the opposite sides; the muffle is small; the border of the nostrils callous; the ears short and hairy. At the withers there is a slight elevation, but no protuberance or hump, as in the Indian ox. The dorsal ridge not prominent; body of full dimensions; rump and hinder parts proportionally large; limbs rather small and slender; hoofs smooth, square, and well defined, not expanded as in the musk-ox; anterior false hoofs small, posterior large; tail short, not reaching beyond the houghs, naked for some inches at the root, very bushy, lax, and expanded in the middle; colour black throughout, but varying in tint according to the character of the hairy covering; this, on the anterior parts, the neck, shoulders, back, and sides, is short, soft, and of a jet-black colour, but long, shaggy, pendulous, and shining on the sides of the anterior extremities, and from the medial part of the abdomen over the thighs to the hinder parts" (_Horsfield_, 'Cat. Mam. Ind. Mus.'). _GENUS BUBALUS--THE BUFFALOS_. Horns very large, depressed and sub-trigonal at the base, attached to the highest line of the frontals, inclining upwards and backwards, conical towards the tip and bending upwards; muffle large, square. No hump or dorsal ridge; thirteen pairs of ribs; hoofs large. NO. 468. BUBALUS ARNI. _The Wild Buffalo_ (_Jerdon's No. 239_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Arna_ (male), _Arni_ (female), _Arna-bhainsa_, _Jangli-bhains_, Hindi; _Mung_, Bhagulpore; _Gera-erumi_, Gondi; _Karbo_ of the Malays; _Moonding_ of the Sundanese. HABITAT.--In the swampy terai at the foot of the hills from Oude to Bhotan, in the plains of Lower Bengal as far west as Tirhoot, in Assam and in Burmah, in Central India from Midnapore to Rajpore, and thence nearly to the Godavery; also in Ceylon. [Illustration: _Bubalus arni_.] DESCRIPTION.--This animal so closely resembles the common domesticated buffalo that it seems hardly necessary to attempt a description. The wild one may be a trifle larger, but every one in India is familiar with the huge, ungainly, stupid-looking creature, with its bulky frame, black and almost hairless body, back-sweeping horns, and long narrow head. SIZE.--A large male will stand 19 hands at the shoulder and measure 10-1/4 feet from nose to root of tail, which is short, reaching only to the hocks. Horns vary greatly, but the following are measurements of large pairs: In the British Museum are a pair without the skull. These horns measure 6 feet 6 inches each, which would give, when on the head, an outer curve measurement of nearly 14 feet. Another pair in the British Museum measure on the skull 12 feet 2 inches from tip to tip and across the forehead, but these horns do not exactly correspond in length and shape. The buffalo never ascends mountains like the bison, but keeps to low and swampy ground and open grass plains, living in large herds, which occasionally split up into smaller ones during the breeding season in autumn. The female produces one, or sometimes two in the summer, after a period of gestation of ten months. Forsyth doubts their interbreeding with the domestic race, but I see no reason for this. The two are identically the same, and numerous instances have been known of the latter joining herds of their wild brethren; and I have known cases of the domestic animal absconding from a herd and running wild. Such a one was shot by a friend of mine in a jungle many miles from the haunts of men, but yet quite out of the range of the wild animal. Probably it had been driven from a herd. Domestic buffalo bulls are much used in the Central provinces for carrying purposes. I had them yearly whilst in camp, and noticed that one old bull lorded it over the others, who stood in great awe of him; at last one day there was a great uproar; three younger animals combined, and gave him such a thrashing that he never held up his head again. In a feral state he would doubtless have left the herd and become a solitary wanderer. Dr. Jerdon, in his 'Mammals of India,' says: "Mr. Blyth states it as his opinion that, except in the valley of the Ganges and Burrampooter, it has been introduced and become feral. With this view I cannot agree, and had Mr. Blyth seen the huge buffalos I saw on the Indrawutty river (in 1857), he would, I think, have changed his opinion. They have hitherto not been recorded, south of Raepore, but where I saw them is nearly 200 miles south. I doubt if they cross the Godavery river. "I have seen them repeatedly, and killed several in the Purneah district. Here they frequent the immense tracts of long grass abounding in dense, swampy thickets, bristling with canes and wild roses; and in these spots, or in the long elephant-grass on the bank of jheels, the buffalos lie during the heat of the day. They feed chiefly at night or early in the morning, often making sad havoc in the fields, and retire in general before the sun is high. They are by no means shy (unless they have been much hunted), and even on an elephant, without which they could not be successfully hunted, may often be approached within good shooting distance. A wounded one will occasionally charge the elephant, and, as I have heard from many sportsmen, will sometimes overthrow the elephant. I have been charged by a small herd, but a shot or two as they are advancing will usually scatter them." The buffalo is, I should say, a courageous animal--at least it shows itself so in the domesticated state. A number of them together will not hesitate to charge a tiger, for which purpose they are often used to drive a wounded tiger out of cover. A herdsman was once seized by a man-eater one afternoon a few hundred yards from my tent. His cows fled, but his buffalos, hearing his cries, rushed up and saved him. The attachment evinced by these uncouth creatures to their keepers was once strongly brought to my notice in the Mutiny. In beating up the broken forces of a rebel Thakoor, whom we had defeated the previous day, I, with a few troopers, ran some of them to bay in a rocky ravine. Amongst them was a Brahmin who had a buffalo cow. This creature followed her master, who was with us as a prisoner, for the whole day, keeping at a distance from the troops, but within call of her owner's voice. When we made a short halt in the afternoon, the man offered to give us some milk; she came to his call at once, and we had a grateful draught, the more welcome as we had had nothing to eat since the previous night. That buffalo saved her master's life, for when in the evening the prisoners were brought up to court martial and sentenced to be hanged, extenuating circumstances were urged for our friend with the buffalo, and he was allowed to go, as I could testify he had not been found with arms in his hands; and I had the greatest pleasure in telling him to be off, and have nothing more to do with rebel Thakoors. Jerdon says the milk of the buffalo is richer than that of the cow. I doubt this. I know that in rearing wild animals buffalos' milk is better than cows' milk, which is far too rich, and requires plentiful dilution with water. There is a very curious little animal allied to the buffalo, of which we have, or have had, a specimen in the Zoological Gardens at Alipore--the _Anoa depressicornis_; it comes from the Island of Celebes, and seems to link the buffalo with the deer. It is black, with short wavy hair. * * * * * Before passing on to the true Cervidae I must here place an animal commonly called a deer, and generally classed as such--the musk-deer according to some naturalists. There is no reason, save an insufficient one, that this creature should be so called and classed, there being much evidence in favour of its alliance to the antelopes. In the first place it has a gall bladder, which the Cervidae have not, with the exception, according to Dr. Crisp, of the axis ('P. Z. S.'). On the other hand it has large canine tusks like the muntjacs, deerlets, and water-deer, and, as these are all aberrant forms of the true Cervidae, there is no reason why the same character should not be developed in the antelopes. Its hair is more of the goat than the deer, and the total absence of horns removes a decided proof in favour of one or the other. The feet are more like some of the Bovidae than the generality of deer, with the exception, perhaps, of _Rangifer_ (the reindeer), the toes being very much cloven and capable of grasping the rocky ground on which it is found. A very eminent authority, however, Professor Flower, is in favour of placing the musk-deer with the Cervidae, and he instances the absence of horns as in favour of this opinion, for in none of the Bovidae are the males hornless. There are many other points also, such as the fawns being spotted, some intestinal peculiarities, and the molar and premolar teeth being strictly cervine, which strengthen him in his opinion. (_See_ article on the structure and affinities of the musk-deer, 'P. Z. S.' 1879, p. 159.) [Illustration: Skull of Musk Deer.] _GENUS MOSCHUS--THE MUSK DEER_. Canines in both sexes, very long and slender in the male; no horns; feet much cloven, with large false hoofs that touch the ground; the medium metacarpals fused into a solid cannon bone; in the skull the intermaxillaries join the nasals; hinder part of tarsus hairy; fur thick, elastic, and brittle; muffle large; no eye, feet, or groin-pits; a large gland or praeputial bag under the stomach in the males, which contains the secretion known in commerce as "musk." NO. 469. MOSCHUS MOSCHIFERUS. _The Musk Deer_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Kastura_, Hindi; _Rous_, _Roos_, and _Kasture_, in Kashmir; _La-lawa_, Thibetan; _Rib-jo_, Ladakhi; _Bena_ in Kunawur (_Jerdon_); _Mussuck-naba'_, Pahari (_Kinloch_). HABITAT.--Throughout the Himalayas at elevations above 8000 feet, extending also through Central and Northern Asia as far as Siberia. [Illustration: _Moschus moschiferus_.] [Illustration: _Moschus moschiferus_.] DESCRIPTION.--It is difficult to describe the colour of this animal, for it so constantly changes; and, as I do not know the creature personally, I think it better to give the recorded opinions of three writers who have had personal experience. Markham describes it as a dark speckled brownish-grey, nearly black on the hind-quarters, edged down the inside with reddish-yellow; the throat, belly, and legs lighter grey. Leith Adams ('P. Z. S.' 1858, p. 528) says: "Some are very dark on the upper parts, with black splashes on the back and hips; under-parts white or a dirty white. Others are of a yellowish-white all over the upper parts, with the belly and inner sides of the thighs white. A brownish-black variety is common, with a few white spots arranged longitudinally on the back--the latter I found were young." Kinloch writes: "The prevailing colour is brownish-grey, varying in shade on the back, where it is darkest, so as to give the animal a mottled or brindled appearance." SIZE.--Length, about 3 feet; height, 22 inches. The musk-deer is a forest-loving animal, keeping much to one locality. It bounds with amazing agility over the steepest ground, and is wonderfully sure-footed over the most rocky hills. It ruts in winter, produces one or two young, which are driven off in about six weeks' time by the mother to shift for themselves. They begin to produce at an early age--within a year. The musk bag is an abdominal or praeputial gland which secretes about an ounce of musk, worth from ten to fifteen rupees. It is most full in the rutting season; in the summer, according to Leith Adams, it hardly contains any. The musk does not seem to affect the flavour of the meat, which is considered excellent. CERVIDAE--THE DEER. Of the horned ruminants these are the most interesting. In all parts of the world, Old and New, save the great continental island of Australia, one or other kind of stag is familiar to the people, and is the object of the chase. The oldest writings contain allusions to it, and it is frequently mentioned in the Scriptures. "Like as the hart desireth the water brooks," sang David. It is bound up in history and romance, and the chase of it in England is to this day a royal pastime. However, to come back from the poetry of the thing to dry scientific details, I must premise that the two main distinctions of the Cervidae, as separating them from the Bovidae, are horns which are not persistent, but annually shed, and the absence of a gall bladder, which is present in nearly all the Bovidae. The deer also, with one exception (the reindeer, _Rangifer tarandus_) have horns only in the males. Regarding the shedding of these horns, it is supposed that the operation is connected with the sexual functions. It is a curious fact that castration has a powerful effect on this operation; if done early no horns appear; if later in life, the horns become persistent and are not shed. Captain James Forsyth (in his 'Highlands of Central India'), was of opinion that the Sambar does not shed its horns annually, and states that this also is the opinion of native shikaris in Central India. This, however, requires further investigation. I certainly never heard of such a theory amongst them, nor noticed the departure from the normal state. There have been several classifications of the Cervidae, but I think the most complete and desirable one is that of Sir Victor Brooke (_see_ 'P. Z. S.' 1878, p. 883), which I shall endeavour to give in a condensed form. Dr. Gray's classification was based on three forms of antlers and the shape of the tail. But Sir Victor Brooke's is founded on more reliable osteological details. As I before stated in my introductory remarks on the Ruminantia, the first and fourth digits, there being no thumb, are but rudimentary, the metacarpal bones being reduced to mere splints; the digital phalanges are always in the same place, and bear the little false hoofs, which are situated behind and a little above the large centre ones, but the metacarpal splint is not always in the same place; it may either be annexed to the phalanges, or widely separated from them and placed directly under the carpus. The position of these splints is an important factor in the classification of the Cervidae into two divisions, distinguished by Sir Victor Brooke as the _Plesiometacarpals_, in which the splint is near the carpus, and the _Telemetacarpals_, in which the splint is far from the carpus, and articulated with the digital phalanges. All the known species of deer can be classified under these two heads; and it is a significant fact that this pedal division is borne out by certain cranial peculiarities discovered by Professor Garrod, and also, to a certain extent, by an arrangement of hair-tufts on the tarsus and metatarsus. In the Old World deer, which are with few exceptions _Plesiometacarpi_, those which have these tufts have them above the middle of the metatarsus, and those of the New World, which are, with one exception, _Telemetacarpi_, have them, when present, below the middle of the metatarsus. There is also another character in addition to the cranial one before alluded to, which was also noticed by Professor Garrod. The first cranial peculiarity is that in _Telemetacarpi_, as a rule, the vertical plate developed from the lower surface of the vomer is prolonged sufficiently downwards and backwards to become anchylosed to the horizontal plate of the palatals, forming a septum completely dividing the nasal cavity into two chambers. In the _Plesiometacarpi_ this vertical plate is not sufficiently developed to reach the horizontal plate of the palatals. The second cranial peculiarity is that in the Old World deer (_Plesiometacarpi_), the ascending rami of the premaxillae articulate with the nasals with one or two exceptions, whereas in the New World deer (_Telemetacarpi_), with one or two exceptions, the rami of the premaxillae do not reach the nasals. It will thus be seen that the osteological characters of the head and feet agree in a singularly fortunate manner, and, when taken in connection with the external signs afforded by the metatarsal tufts, prove conclusively the value of the system. In India we have to deal exclusively with the _Plesiometacarpi_, our nearest members of the other division being the Chinese water-deer (_Hydropotes inermis_), and probably _Capreolus pygargus_ from Yarkand, the horns of a roebuck in velvet attached to a strip of skin having been brought down by the Mission to that country in 1873-74. Now comes the more difficult task of subdividing these sections into genera--a subject which has taxed the powers of many naturalists, and which is still in a far from perfect state. To all proposed arrangements some exception can be taken, and the following system is not free from objection, but it is on the whole the most reliable; and this system is founded on the form of the antler, which runs from a single spike, as in the South American _Coassus_, to the many branches of the red deer (_Cervus elaphas_); and all the various changes on which we found genera are in successive stages produced in the red deer, which we may accept as the highest development; for instance, the stag in its first year develops but a single straight "beam" antler, when it is called a "brocket," and it is the same as the South American brocket (_Coassus_). On this being shed the next spring produces a small branch from the base of this beam, called the brow antler, which is identical almost with the single bifurcated horn of the _Furcifer_ from Chili. The stag is then technically known as a "spayad." In the third year an extra front branch is formed, known as the tres-tine. The antler then resembles the rusine type, of which our sambar stag is an example. In the fourth year the top of the main beam throws out several small tines called "sur-royals," and the brow antler receives an addition higher up called the "bez-tine." The animal is then a "staggard." In the fifth year the "sur-royals" become more numerous, and the whole antler heavier in the "stag," whose next promotion is to that of "great hart" of ten or more points. The finest heads are found in the German forests. Sir Victor Brooke alludes to some in the hunting Schloss of Moritzburg of the 15th to 17th century, of enormous size, bearing from 25 to 50 points--50 inches round the outside curve, 10 inches in circumference round the _smallest_ part of the beam, and of one of which the spread between the coronal tines is 74 inches. Professor Garrod mentions one as having sixty-six points, and states that Lord Powerscourt has in his possession a pair with forty-five tines. The deer with which we have to deal range from the elaphine, or red deer type, to the simple bifurcated antler of the muntjac, which consists of a beam and brow antler only. We then come to the rusine type of three points only--brow, tres, and royal tines, and of this number are also the spotted and hog deer of India, but the arrangement of the tines is different; and following the rusine type comes the rucervine, in which the tres and royal tines break out into points--the tres-tine usually bifurcate, and the royal with two, three or more points. The arrangements of the main limbs of the horns is strictly rusine--that is to say, the external and anterior tine is equal to or shorter than the royal tine, whereas it is the reverse in the axis (spotted deer), and therefore this genus should come between the two. Even in the sambar and axis there is a tendency to throw out abnormal tines. There are many examples in the Indian Museum, and I possess a magnificent head which bears a large abnormal tine on one horn, and a faint inclination in the corresponding spot on the other horn to do likewise. I have no doubt, had the animal lived another year, the second extra tine would have been developed. Professor Garrod has three phases of the rucervine type, which he calls the normal, the intermediate, and the extreme. The first has both branches of the beam, tres and royal of equal size (_ex_. Schomburgk's deer); the second has the tres-tine larger than the royal (_ex_. our swamp deer); and the extreme type is that in which the royal is represented merely by a snag, the whole horn being bent forward (_ex_. the Burmese _Panolia Eldii_). The true cervine type of horn I have already described in its progress from youth to age. The Kashmir and Sikim stags are the representatives of this form in India. In Japan there is an intermediate form in _Cervus sika_ which has no bez-tine. [Illustration: Stag with Horns matured.] Deer have large eye-pits, but no groin-pits; feet-pits in all four, or sometimes only in the hind feet. The female has four mammae. [Illustration: Stag with Horns in velvet.] At the time of reproduction of the antlers a strong determination of blood to the head takes place, enlarging the vessels, and a fibro-cartilaginous substance is formed, which grows rapidly, and takes the form of the antler of the species. The horns in their early stage are soft and full of blood-vessels on the surface, covered with a delicate skin, with fine close-set hairs commonly called the velvet. "As the horns ossify the periosteal veins become enlarged, grooving the external surface; the arteries are enclosed by hard osseus tubercles at the base of the horns, which coalesce and render them impervious, and, the supply of nutriment being thus cut off, the envelopes shrivel up and fall off, and the animals perfect the desquamation by rubbing their horns against trees, technically called 'burnishing.'"--_Jerdon_. * * * * * We now begin with the simplest form of tine we have, viz. with one basal snag only. _GENUS CERVULUS--THE MUNTJACS OR RIB-FACED DEER_. Of small size, slightly higher at the croup than at the shoulders; short tail; large pits in hind feet; no groin-pits; no tuft on the metatarsus. This genus is specially characterised, according to Sir Victor Brooke, by the absence of the lateral digital phalanges on all four feet; the proximal ends of the metacarpals are however present; horns situated on high pedicles of bone, covered with hair, continued down the face in two longitudinal ridges, between which the skin is ridged or puckered; horns small, composed of a single beam with a basal snag; skull with a very large, deep sub-orbital pit; forehead concave; large canine tusks in the upper jaw; moderate, moist muffle. NO. 470. CERVULUS MUNTJAC _vel_ AUREUS. _The Muntjac or Rib-faced Deer_ (_Jerdon's No. 223_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Kakur_, _Bherki_, _Jangli-bakra_, Hindi; _Maya_ Bengali; _Ratwa_, in Nepal; _Karsiar_, Bhotia; _Siku_ or _Suku_, Lepcha; _Gutra_, _Gutri_, Gondi; _Bekra_ or _Baikur_, Mahrathi; _Kankuri_, Canarese; _Kuka-gori_, Telegu; _Gee_, Burmese; _Kidang_, Javanese; _Muntjac_, Sundanese; _Kijang_, Malayan of Sumatra; _Welly_ or _Hoola-mooha_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--India, Burmah, Ceylon, the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Hainan, Banka and Borneo. [Illustration: _Cervulus aureus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Between the facial ridges the creases are dark brown, with a dark line running up the inside of each frontal pedestal; all the rest of the head and upper parts a bright rufous bay; chin, throat, inside of hind-legs, and beneath tail, white; some white spots in front of the fetlocks of all four legs; fore-legs from the shoulder downwards, the legs under the tarsal joints, and a line in front of hind-legs, dark blackish-brown. The doe is a little smaller, and has little black bristly knobs where the horns of the buck are. SIZE.--Head and body, about 3-1/2 feet; tail, 7 inches; height, 26 to 28 inches. Jerdon gives the size of the horn 8 to 10 inches, but in this he doubtless included the pedicle, which is about 5 inches, and the horns, from 2 to 5 inches. Of the only specimen I have at present in my collection the posterior measurement from cranium to tip of horn is 6-1/2 inches, of which the bony pedicle is 3 inches. It is a question whether we should separate the Indian from the Malayan animal. The leading authority of the day on the Cervidae, Sir Victor Brooke, was of opinion some time back (_see_ 'P. Z. S.,' 1874, p. 38), that the species were identical. He says: "In a large collection of the skins, skulls, and horns of this species, which I have received from all parts of India and Burmah, and in a considerable number of living specimens which I have examined, I have observed amongst adult animals so much difference in size and intensity of coloration that I have found it impossible to retain the muntjac of Java and Sumatra as a distinct species. The muntjacs from the south of India are, as a rule, smaller than those from the north, as is also the case with the axis and Indian antelope. But even this rule is subject to many exceptions. I have received from Northern India perfectly adult, and even slightly aged, specimens of both muntjac and axis inferior in size to the average as presented by these species in Southern India. These small races are always connected with particular areas, and are doubtless the result of conditions sufficiently unfavourable to prevent the species reaching the full luxuriance of growth and beauty of which it is capable, though not sufficiently rigorous to prevent its existence." In a later article on the Cervidae, written four years afterwards, he seems, however, to qualify his opinion in the following words: "This species appears to attain a larger size in Java, Sumatra, and Borneo than it does on the mainland; and I think it not improbable that persistent race characters may eventually be found distinguishing the muntjac of these islands from that of British India." The rib-face is a retiring little animal, and is generally found alone, or at times in pairs. Captain Baldwin mentions four having been seen together at one time, and General McMaster mentions three; but these are rare cases. It is very subtle in its movements, carrying its head low, and creeping, as Hodgson remarks, like a weasel under tangled thickets and fallen timber. In captivity I have found it to be a coarse feeder, and would eat meat of all kinds greedily. Its canine teeth are very long and sharp, and have a certain amount of play in the socket, but I am unable to state whether they are ever used for any purpose, whether of utility or defence. Its call is a hoarse, sharp bark, whence it takes its name of barking deer. What Jerdon says about the length of its tongue is true; it can certainly lick a good portion of its face with it. For excellent detailed accounts of this little deer I must refer my readers to Kinloch's 'Large Game Shooting,' and a letter by "Hawkeye," quoted by McMaster's 'Notes on Jerdon.' My space here will not allow of my quoting largely or giving personal experience, but both the above articles, as well as Captain Baldwin's notice, nearly exhaust the literature on this subject in a popular way. * * * * * The next development of antler is the rusine type, in which the main beam divides at the top into two branches, making with the basal tine a horn of three points only. _GENUS RUSA--THE RUSINE DEER_. Antlers with a brow tine, the beam bifurcating into a tres and royal tine; muffle large; lachrymal fossa large and deep; ante-orbital vacuity very large; rudimentary canines in both sexes, except in the hog deer; tail of moderate length; no feet-pits. The males heavily maned. NO. 471. RUSA ARISTOTELIS. _The Sambar_ (_Jerdon's No. 220_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Sambar_ or _Samhar_, Hindi; _Jerai_ and _Jerao_ in the Himalayas; _Maha_ in the Terai; _Meru_, Mahrathi; _Ma-oo_, Gondi; _Kadavi_ or _Kadaba_, Canarese; _Kannadi_, Telegu; _Ghous_ or _Gaoj_, Eastern Bengal, the female _Bholongi_ (_Jerdon_); _Schap_, Burmese (_Blyth_); _Gona-rusa_, Singhalese (_Kellaart_). HABITAT.--Throughout India from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin; through Assam round to the east of the Bay of Bengal, down through Burmah to the Malay peninsula; it is also found in Ceylon. [Illustration: _Rusa Aristotelis_.] DESCRIPTION.--The sambar stag is a grand animal, with fine erect carriage, heavily maned neck, and with massive horns of the rusine type. In size it is considerably larger than the red deer, and, though its horns are not so elegant, it is in its _tout ensemble_ quite as striking an animal. In colour it is dark brown, somewhat slaty in summer; the chin, inside of limbs and tail, and a patch on the buttocks yellowish or orange yellow. The head of the sambar is very fine; the eye large and full, with immense eye-pits, which can be almost reversed or greatly dilated during excitement. The ears are large and bell-shaped, and the throat surrounded by a shaggy mane--truly a noble creature. The female and young are lighter. SIZE.--A large stag will stand 14 hands at the withers, the length of the body being from 6 to 7 feet; tail about a foot; ears 7 to 8 inches. The average size of horns is about 3 feet, but some are occasionally found over 40 inches. Jerdon says: "some are recorded 4 feet along the curvature; the basal antler 10 to 12 inches or more." A very fine pair, with skull, in my own collection, which I value much, show the following measurements: right horn, 45 inches; left horn, 43 inches; brow antler from burr to tip, 18-1/4 inches circumference; just above the burr, 9 inches; circumference half-way up the beam, 7-1/4 inches. On the right horn underneath the tres-tine is an abnormal snag 9 inches long. The left horn has an indication of a similar branch, there being a small point, which I have no doubt would have been more fully developed had the animal lived another year. I have had no experience of deer-shooting in the regions inhabited by the Kashmir and Sikim stags, which are approximate to our English red deer; but no sportsman need wish for a nobler quarry than a fine male sambar. As I write visions of the past rise before me--of dewy mornings ere the sun was up; the fresh breeze at daybreak, and the waking cry of the koel and peacock, or the call of the painted partridge; then, as we move cautiously through the jungle that skirts the foot of the rocky range of hills, how the heart bounds when, stepping behind a sheltering bush, we watch the noble stag coming leisurely up the slope! How grand he looks!--with his proud carriage and shaggy, massive neck, sauntering slowly up the rise, stopping now and then to cull a berry, or to scratch his sides with his wide, sweeping antlers, looming large and almost black through the morning mists, which have deepened his dark brown hide, reminding one of Landseer's picture of 'The Challenge.' Stalking sambar is by far the most enjoyable and sportsmanlike way of killing them, but more are shot in _battues_, or over water when they come down to drink. According to native shikaris the sambar drinks only every third day, whereas the nylgao drinks daily; and this tallies with my own experience--in places where sambar were scarce I have found a better chance of getting one over water when the footprints were about a couple of days old. An exciting way of hunting this animal is practised by the Bunjaras, or gipsies of Central India. They fairly run it to bay with dogs, and then spear it. I have given in 'Seonee' a description of the _modus operandi_. When wounded or brought to bay the sambar is no ignoble foe; even a female has an awkward way of rearing up and striking out with her fore-feet. A large hind in my collection at Seonee once seriously hurt the keeper in this manner. Those who have read 'The Old Forest Ranger,' by Colonel Campbell, have read in it one of the finest descriptions of the stalking of this noble animal. I almost feel tempted to give it a place here; but it must give way to an extract from a less widely known, though as graphic a writer, "Hawkeye," whose letters to the _South of India Observer_ deserve a wider circulation. I cannot find space for more than a few paragraphs, but from them the reader may judge how interesting the whole article is:-- "The hill-side we now are on rapidly falls towards the river below, where it rushes over a precipice, forming a grand waterfall, beautiful to behold. The hill-side is covered with a short, scrubby rough-leafed plant, about a foot and a-half high. Bending low, we circle round the shoulder of the slope, beyond the wood. The quick eye of the stalker catches sight of a hind's ears, at the very spot he hoped for. The stag must be nigh. "Down on all-fours we move carefully along, the stalker keenly watching the ears. A short distance gained, and the hind detects the movement of our heads. At the same moment the upper tines of the stag's antlers are in sight; he lies to the right of the hind, about 120 yards distant, hidden by an inequality of the ground. Be still, oh beating heart! Be quiet, oh throbbing pulse! Steady, oh shaky hand, or all your toil is vain! Onward, yet only a few paces! Be not alarmed, oh cautious hind! We care not for you. Crouching still lower, we gain ground; the head and neck of our noble quarry are in sight; the hind still gazes intensely. Presently she elongates her neck in a most marvellous manner. We still gain. On once more we move, when up starts the hind. We know that in another moment she will give the warning bell, and all will vanish. The time for action has arrived. We alter our position in a second, bring the deadly weapon to bear on the stag; quickly draw a steady bead, hugging the rifle with all our might, and fire! The hinds flash across our vision like the figures in a magic lantern, and the stag lies weltering in his couch." _GENUS AXIS_. Horns of the rusine type, but with the tres-tine longer than the royal or posterior tine; beam much bent; horns paler and smoother than in the sambar; large muffle and eye-pits; canines moderate; feet-pits in the hind-feet only; also groin-pits; tail of moderate length; skin spotted with white; said to possess a gall-bladder. NO. 472. AXIS MACULATUS. _The Spotted Deer_ (_Jerdon's No. 221_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Chital_, _Chitra_, _Chritri-jhank_ (the male), Hindi; _Chatidah_ in Bhagulpore; _Boro-khotiya_, Bengali at Rungpore; _Buriya_, in Gorukpore; _Saraga_, Canarese; _Dupi_, Telegu; _Lupi_, Gondi (_Jerdon_); _Tic-mooha_, Singhalese (_Kellaart_); _Sarga_, _Jati_, _Mikka_, Canarese (_Sanderson_). HABITAT.--Throughout India, with the exception of the Punjab; nor is it found, I believe, in the countries east of the Bay of Bengal. It is however obtained in Ceylon, where it has been classed by Kellaart as a distinct species, _A. oryzeus_. [Illustration: _Axis maculatus_.] DESCRIPTION.--General colour like that of the English fallow deer, yellowish or rufous fawn, spotted with white; the spots on the sides low down assuming an elongated shape, forming lines; a dark dorsal stripe from nape to tail; head brownish, unspotted; muzzle dark; ears dark externally, white within; chin, throat, and under-parts whitish, as also the inside of limbs and tail; the horns frequently throw out snags on the brow antler. SIZE.--Length, 4-1/2 to 5 feet. Height at shoulder, 36 to 38 inches. I regret I cannot give accurate measurements just now of horns, as I am writing on board ship, with all my specimens and most of my books boxed up, but I should say 30 inches an average good horn. Jerdon does not give any details. This deer is generally found in forests bordering streams. I have never found it at any great distance from water; it is gregarious, and is found in herds of thirty and forty in favourable localities. Generally spotted deer and lovely scenery are found together, at all events in Central India. The very name _chital_ recalls to me the loveliest bits of the rivers of the Central provinces, the Nerbudda, the Pench, the Bangunga, and the bright little Hirrie. Where the bamboo bends over the water, and the _kouha_ and _saj_ make sunless glades, there will be found the bonny dappled hides of the fairest of India's deer. There is no more beautiful sight in creation than a _chital_ stag in a sun-flecked dell when-- "Ere his fleet career he took The dewdrops from his flanks he shook; Like crested leader, proud and high, Toss'd his beam'd frontlet to the sky; A moment gazed adown the dale, A moment snuff'd the tainted gale, A moment listen'd to the cry That thicken'd as the chase drew nigh; Then, as the headmost foes appeared, With one brave bound the copse he clear'd." Here I may fitly quote again from "Hawkeye," whose descriptions are charming: "Imagine a forest glade, the graceful bamboo arching overhead, forming a lovely vista, with here and there bright spots and deep shadows--the effect of the sun's rays struggling to penetrate the leafy roof of nature's aisle. Deep in the solitude of the woods see now the dappled herd, and watch the handsome buck as he roams here and there in the midst of his harem, or, browsing amongst the bushes, exhibits his graceful antlers to the lurking foe, who by patient woodcraft has succeeded in approaching his unsuspecting victim; observe how proudly he holds himself, as some other buck of less pretensions dares to approach the ladies of the group; see how he advances, as on tiptoe, all the hair of his body standing on end, and with a thundering rush drives headlong away this bold intruder, and then comes swaggering back! But, hark--a twig has broken! Suddenly the buck wheels round, facing the quarter whence the sound proceeded. Look at him now, and say, is he not a quarry well worth the hunter's notice? "With head erect, antlers thrown back, his white throat exposed, his tail raised, his whole body gathered together, prepared to bound away into the deep forest in the twinkling of an eye, he stands a splendid specimen of the cervine tribe. We will not kill him; we look and admire! A doe suddenly gives that imperceptible signal to which I have formerly alluded, and the next moment the whole herd has dashed through the bamboo alleys, vanishing from sight--a dappled hide now and again gleaming in the sunlight as its owner scampers away to more distant haunts." Jerdon is a follower of Hodgson, who was of opinion that there are two species of spotted deer--a larger and smaller, the latter inhabiting Southern India; but there is no reason for adopting this theory; both Blyth, Gray, and others have ignored this, and the most that can be conceded is that the southern animal is a variety owing to climatic conditions. Multiplication of species is a thing to be avoided of all naturalists--I have, therefore, not separated them. McMaster too writes: "I cannot agree with Jerdon that there are two species of spotted deer." And he had experience in Southern India as well as in other parts. He states that the finest _chital_ he ever came across were found in the forests in Goomsoor, where, he adds, "as in every other part of Orissa, both spotted deer and sambar are, I think, more than usually large." NO. 473. AXIS PORCINUS. _The Hog Deer_ (_Jerdon's No. 222_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Para_, Hindi; Jerdon also gives _Khar-laguna_, Nepal Terai; _Sugoria_ also in some parts. _Nuthurini-haran_ in some parts of Bengal; _Weel-mooha_, Singhalese (_Kellaart_). HABITAT.--Throughout India, though scarce in the central parts; it is abundant in Assam and Burmah, and is also found in Ceylon, but is stated not to occur in Malabar. [Illustration: _Axis porcinus_.] DESCRIPTION.--"Light chestnut or olive-brown, with an eye-spot; the margin of the lips, the tail beneath, limbs within, and abdomen, white--in summer many assume a paler and more yellow tint, and get a few white spots, and the old buck assumes a dark slaty colour; the horns resemble those of a young spotted deer, with both the basal and upper tines very small, the former pointing directly upwards at a very acute angle, and the latter directed backwards and inwards, nearly at a right angle, occasionally pointing downwards" (_Jerdon_). McMaster says: "I can corroborate Jerdon's statement that the young of this deer are beautifully spotted; but, although I have seen many specimens, dead and alive, and still more of the skins while I was in Burmah, I do not remember having remarked the few white spots which he says many of them assume in summer." The fawns lose their spots at about six months. SIZE.--Length, 42 to 44 inches; tail, 8 inches; height, 27 to 28. Average length of horns, 15 to 16 inches. This animal is seldom found in forest land; it seems to prefer open grass jungle, lying sheltered during the day in thick patches, and lies close till almost run upon by beaters or elephants. Its gait is awkward, with some resemblance to that of a hog carrying its head low; it is not speedy, and can easily be run down by dogs in the open. McMaster writes: "Great numbers of these deer are each season killed by Burmans, being mobbed with dogs." The meat is fair. Hog deer are not gregarious like _chital_; they are usually solitary, though found occasionally in pairs. The horns are shed about April, and the rutting season is September and October. This species and the spotted deer have interbred, and the hybrid progeny survived. * * * * * The next stage from the rusine to the cervine or elaphine type is the rucervine. In this the tres-tine, as well as the royal tine, throw out branches, and in the normal rucervine type the tres and royal are equal as in Schomburgk's deer, but in the extreme type, _Panolia_ or _Rucervus Eldii_ of Burmah, the tres-tine is greatly developed, whilst the royal is reduced to a mere snag. The Indian swamp-deer (_Rucervus Duvaucelli_) is intermediate, both tres and royal tines are developed, but the former is much larger than the royal. In none of the rucervine forms is the bez-tine produced. _GENUS RUCERVUS_. Horns as above; muzzle pointed. Canines in males only. NO. 474. RUCERVUS DUVAUCELLI. _The Swamp-Deer_ (_Jerdon's No. 219_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Bara-singha_, Hindi; _Baraya_ and _Maha_ in the Nepal Terai; _Jhinkar_ in Kyarda Doon; _Potiyaharan_ at Monghyr (_Jerdon_); _Goen_ or _Goenjak_ (male), _Gaoni_ (female), in Central India. HABITAT.--"In the forest lands at the foot of the Himalayas, from the Kyarda Doon to Bhotan. It is very abundant in Assam, inhabiting the islands and churs of the Berhampooter, extending down the river in suitable spots to the eastern Sunderbunds. It is also stated to occur near Monghyr, and thence extends sparingly through the great forest tract of Central India" (Jerdon's 'Mamm. Ind.'). I have found it in abundance in the Raigarh Bichia tracts of Mundla, at one time attached to the Seonee district, but now I think incorporated in the new district of Balaghat. In the open valleys, studded with sal forest, of the Thanwur, Halone, and Bunjar tributaries of the Nerbudda, may be found bits reminding one of English parks, with noble herds of this handsome deer. It seems to love water and open country. McMaster states that it is found in the Golcondah Zemindary near Daraconda. DESCRIPTION.--Smaller and lighter than the sambar. Colour rich light yellow or chestnut in summer, yellowish-brown in winter, sometimes very light, paler below and inside the limbs, white under the tail. The females are lighter; the young spotted. SIZE.--Height, about 44 to 46 inches; horns, about 36 inches. They have commonly from twelve to fourteen points, but Jerdon states he has seen them with seventeen. Like the spotted deer this species is gregarious; one writer, speaking of them in Central India, says: "The plain stretched away in gentle undulations towards the river, distant about a mile, and on it were three large herds of bara singhas feeding at one time; the nearest was not more than five hundred yards away from where I stood. There must have been at least fifty of them--stags, hinds, and fawns, feeding together in a lump, and outside the herd grazed three most enormous stags" ('Indian Sporting Review,' quoted by Jerdon). NO. 475. RUCERVUS _vel_ PANOLIA ELDII. _The Brown Antlered or Eld's Deer_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Thamin_, in Burmah; _Sungrai_ or _Sungnaie_, in Munipur, Eastern Himalayas, Terai, Munipur, Burmah, Siam, and the Malay peninsula. DESCRIPTION.--In body similar to the last, but with much difference in the horns, the tres-tine being greatly developed at the expense of the royal, which gives the antlers a forward cast; the brow-tine is also very long. In summer it is a light rufous brown, with a few faint indications of white spots; the under-parts and insides of ears nearly white; the tail short and black above. It is said to become darker in winter instead of lighter as in the last species. SIZE.--Height from 12 to 13 hands. This deer, which is identical with _Cervus frontalis_ and Hodgson's _Cervus dimorpha_, and which was discovered in 1838 by Captain Eld, has been well described by Lieutenant R. C. Beavan. The following extracts have been quoted by Professor Garrod; the full account will be found in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.' The food of this species seems to consist of grass and wild paddy. "In habits they are very wary and difficult of approach, especially the males. They are also very timid and easily startled. The males, however, when wounded and brought to bay with dogs, get very savage, and charge vigorously. On being disturbed they invariably make for the open instead of resorting to the heavy jungle, like hog deer and sambar. In fact the thamyn is essentially a plain-loving species; and although it will frequent tolerably open tree-jungle for the sake of its shade, it will never venture into dense and matted underwood. When first started the pace of the thamyn is great. It commences by giving three or four large bounds, like the axis or spotted deer, and afterwards settles down into a long trot, which it will keep up for six or seven miles on end when frequently disturbed." * * * * * The next phase of development of which we have examples in India is the true cervine or elaphine type of horn in which the brow-tine is doubled by the addition of the bez; the royal is greatly enlarged at the expense of the tres-tine, and breaks out into the branches known as the sur-royals. _GENUS CERVUS_. Horns as above, muzzle pointed, muffle large and broad, with a hairy band above the lip; hair coarse, and usually deep brown, with a light and sometimes almost white disc or patch round the tail, which is very short; eye-pits moderate. NO. 476. CERVUS CASHMIRIANUS. _The Kashmir Stag_ (_Cervus Wallichii of Jerdon, No. 217_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Hangul_ or _Honglu_ in Kashmir; _Barasingha_, Hindi. HABITAT.--Kashmir. Jerdon also gives out that it is found throughout great part of Western and Central Asia, as far as the eastern shores of the Euxine Sea, and that it is common in Persia, where it is called _maral_; but according to careful observations made by Sir Victor Brooke the _maral_ is a distinct species, to which I will allude further on. In Kashmir it frequents the Sind valley and its offshoots; the country above also. [Illustration: _Cervus Cashmirianus_.] DESCRIPTION.--Brownish-ash, darker along the dorsal line; caudal disk white, with a dark border; sides and limbs paler; ears light coloured; lips and chin and a circle round eyes white. The male has very long and shaggy hair on the lower part of the neck. The colour of the coat varies but little; at times it is liver-coloured or liver-brown, sometimes "bright pale rufous chestnut," with reddish patches on the inner sides of the hips. Jerdon says: "The belly of the male is dark brown, contrasting with the pale ashy hue of the lower part of the flanks; the legs have a pale dusky median line. In females the whole lower parts are albescent." SIZE.--Length, 7 to 7-1/2 feet; height, 12 to 13 hands; tail, 5 inches. The horns are very large and massive, with from ten to fifteen, or even more, points. Jerdon states that even eighteen points have been counted, but such cases are rare. Dr. Leith Adams says the largest he ever measured were four feet round the curves. "A. E. W." in his interesting papers on Kashmir game, published in _The Asian_, gives the following measurements of two heads:-- Inches. Inches. Length of horns. 47 46 Girth above brow antler. 7-3/4 8 Divergency at tips. Greatest. 56 50 Least. 29 32 Where obtained. Sindh Valley Sindh Valley I once saw a beautiful head at a railway-station, the property of an officer who had just come down from Kashmir, the horns of which appeared to me enormous. The owner afterwards travelled with me in the train, and gave me his card, which I regret I lost, and, having forgotten his name, I was never enabled to write to him, either on the subject of the horns or to send him some papers he wanted on Asiatic sheep. Dr. Leith Adams writes: "They (the horns) are shed in March, and the new horn is not completely formed till the end of October, when the rutting season commences, and the loud bellowings of the stags are heard all over the mountains." Of this bellowing Sir Victor Brooke says it is just like the voice of the Wapiti stag, which this animal closely resembles, and is quite different from that of the red deer. "In the former it is a loud squeal, ending in a more gutteral tone; in the latter it is a distinct roar, resembling that of a panther." Sir Victor Brooke also points out another peculiarity in this deer: namely, that "the second brow antler (bez) in _Cervus Cashmirianus_, with very rare exceptions, exceeds the brow antler in length; a peculiarity by which the antlers of this species may be distinguished from those of its allies." The female gives birth in April, and the young are spotted. The points on which this stag differs from the _maral_ are the longer and more pointed head of the latter. NO. 477. CERVUS AFFINIS _vel_ WALLICHII. _The Sikhim Stag_ (_Jerdon's No. 218_). NATIVE NAME.--_Shou_, Thibetan. HABITAT.--Eastern Himalayas; Thibet in the Choombi valley, on the Sikhim side of Thibet. DESCRIPTION.--Jerdon describes this stag as "of very large size; horns bifurcated at the tip in all specimens yet seen; horns pale, smooth, rounded, colour a fine clear grey in winter, with a moderately large disk; pale rufous in summer." Hodgson writes of the horns: "Pedicles elevate; burrs rather small; two basal antlers, nearly straight, so forward in direction as to overshadow the face to the end of the nasal; larger than the royal antlers; median or royal antlers directed forward and upwards; beam with a terminal fork, the prongs radiating laterally and equally, the inner one longest and thinnest." Jerdon adds: "Compared with the Kashmir stag this one has the beam still more bent at the origin of the median tine, and thus more removed from _C. elaphus_, and like _C. Wallichii_ (_C. Cashmirianus_)." The second basal tine or bez antler is generally present, even in the second pair of horns assumed. Moreover the simple bifurcation of the crown mentioned above is a still more characteristic point of difference both from the Kashmir _barasingha_ and the stag of Europe. Regarding the nomenclature of this species there seems to be some uncertainty. Jerdon himself was doubtful whether the _shou_ was not _C. Wallichii_, and the Kashmir stag _C. Cashmirianus_. He says: "It is a point reserved for future travellers and sportsmen to ascertain the limits of _C. Wallichii_ east and _C. affinis_ west, for, as Dr. Sclater remarks, it would be contrary to all analogy to find two species of the same type inhabiting one district." Sir Victor Brooke writes: "Should _Cervus Wallichii_ (_Cuvier_) prove to be specifically identical with _Cervus affinis_ (_Hodgson_), the former name, having priority, must stand." SIZE.--Length, about 8 feet; height at shoulders, 4-1/2 to 5 feet. Horns quoted by Jerdon 54 inches round curve, 47 inches in divergence between the two outer snags. Longest basal tine, 12 inches; the medians, 8 inches. * * * * * An allied stag, _Cervus maral_, is found in Circassia and Persia. Sir Victor Brooke mentions a pair kept for some years in one of his parks, which never interbred with the red deer, and kept apart from them. "The old stag _maral_, though considerably larger in size, lived in great fear of the red deer stag." Another very fine species, _Cervus Eustephanus_, was discovered by Mr. W. Blanford inhabiting the Thian Shan mountains. As yet it is only known from its antlers, which are of great size, and in their flattened crowns closely resemble Wapiti horns. TRAGULIDAE--THE CHEVROTIANS OR DEERLETS. Animals of small size and delicate graceful form, which are separated from the deer and oxen by certain peculiarities which approximate them to the swine in their feet. They are, however, ruminants, having the complex stomach, composed of paunch, honeycomb-bag and reed, the manyplies being almost rudimentary; but in the true ruminants the two centre metacarpals are fused into a single bone, whilst the outer ones are rudimentary. In the pig all the metacarpal bones are distinct, and the African Tragulus closely resembles it. The Asiatic ones have the two centre bones fused, but the inner and outer ones are entire and distinct as in the swine. The legs are, however, remarkably delicate, and so slight as to be not much thicker than an ordinary lead pencil. The males have pendant tusks, like those of the musk and rib-faced deer. _GENUS TRAGULUS_. Has the hinder part of metatarsus bald and callous. NO. 478. TRAGULUS NAPU. _The Javan Deerlet_. NATIVE NAME.--_Napu_. HABITAT.--Tenasserim and the Malay countries. [Illustration: _Tragulus napu_.] DESCRIPTION.--Above rusty brown, with three whitish stripes; under-parts white, tail tipped with white, muzzle black. * * * * * _Tragulus kauchil_ is another Malayan species yet smaller than the preceding; it may be found in Tenasserim. It is darker in colour than the last, especially along the back, with a broad black band across the chest. _GENUS MEMINNA_. Hinder edge of metatarsus covered with hair. NO. 479. MEMINNA INDICA. _Indian Mouse Deer_. NATIVE NAMES.--_Pisuri_, _Pisora_, _Pisai_, Hindi and Mahratti; _Mugi_ in Central India; _Turi-maoo_, Gondi; _Jitri-haran_, Bengali; _Gandwa_, Ooria; _Yar_ of the Koles; _Wal-mooha_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--In all the large forests of India; but is not known, according to Jerdon, in the countries eastward of the Bay of Bengal. It is common in the bamboo forests of the Central provinces, where I obtained it on several occasions. [Illustration: Mouse Deer. (From Sir Emerson Tennant's 'Ceylon,' by permission of Messrs. Longmans.)] DESCRIPTION.--"Above olivaceous, mixed with yellow grey; white below; sides of the body with yellowish-white lines formed of interrupted spots, the upper rows of which are joined to those of the opposite side by some transverse spots; ears reddish-brown" (_Jerdon_). The colour however varies; some are darker than others. SIZE.--Length, 22 to 23 inches; tail, 1-1/2 inches; height, 10 to 12 inches. Weight, 5 to 6 lbs. The above measurements and weight are taken from Jerdon. Professor Garrod (Cassell's Nat. His.) gives eighteen inches for length and eight inches for height, which is nearer the size of those I have kept in confinement; but mine were young animals. They are timid and delicate, but become very tame, and I have had them running loose about the house. They trip about most daintily on the tips of their toes, and look as if a puff of wind would blow them away. They are said to rut in June and July, and bring forth two young about the end of the rainy season. TRIBE TYLOPODA--THE CAMELS. This name, which is derived from the Greek [Greek: tulos], a swelling, pad, or knot, and [Greek: pous], a foot, is applied to the camels and llamas, whose feet are composed of toes protected by cushion-like soles, and not by a horny covering like those of the Artiodactyli generally. The foot of the camel consists of two toes tipped by small nails, and protected by soft pads which spread out laterally when pressed on the ground. The two centre metacarpal bones are fused into one cannon bone, and the phalanges of the outer and inner digits which are more or less traceable in all the other families of the Artiodactyli are entirely absent. The dentition of the camel too is somewhat different from the rest of the Ruminantia, for in the front of the upper jaw there are two teeth placed laterally, one on each side, whereas in all other ruminating animals there are no cutting teeth in the upper jaw--only a hard pad, on which the lower teeth are pressed in the act of tearing off herbage. The stomach of the camel is the third peculiarity which distinguishes it. The psalterium or manyplies is wanting. The abomasum or "reed" is of great length, and the rumen or paunch is lined with cells, deep and narrow, like those of a honeycomb, closed by a membrane, the orifice of which is at the control of the animal. These cells are for the purpose of storing water, of which the stomach when fully distended will hold about six quarts. The second stomach or reticulum is also deeply grooved. The hump of the camel may also be said to contain a store of food. It consists of fatty cells connected by bands of fibrous tissue, which are absorbed, like the fat of hibernating bears, into the system in times of deprivation. Hard work and bad feeding will soon bring down a camel's hump; and the Arab of the desert is said to pay particular attention to this part of his animal's body. There are two species of true camel, _Camelus dromedarius_, with one hump only, most commonly seen in India, and _C. bactrianus_, the two-humped camel, a shorter, coarser-looking, and less speedy animal. There never was a creature about whom more poetical nonsense has been written. He has been extolled to the skies as patient, long-suffering, the friend of man, and what not. In reality he is a grumbling, discontented, morose brute, working only under compulsion and continual protest, and all writers who know anything of him agree in the above estimate of his disposition. The camel is nowhere found in a wild state. ORDER EDENTATA. These are animals without teeth, according to the name of their order. They are however without teeth only in the front of the jaw in all, but with a few molars in some, the Indian forms however are truly edentate, having no teeth at all. In those genera where teeth are present there are molars without enamel or distinct roots, but with a hollow base growing from below and composed of three structures, vaso-dentine, hard dentine and cement, which, wearing away irregularly according to hardness, form the necessary inequality for grinding purposes. The order is subdivided into two groups: _Tardigrada_, or sloths, and _Effodientia_ or burrowers. With the former we have nothing to do, as they are peculiar to the American continent. The burrowers are divided into the following genera: _Manis_, the scaly ant-eaters; _Dasypus_, the armadillos; _Chlamydophorus_, the pichiciagos; _Orycteropus_, the ant-bears, and _Myrmecophaga_, the American ant-eaters. Of these we have only one genus in India; _Manis_, the pangolin or scaly ant-eater, species of which are found in Africa as well as Asia. _GENUS MANIS_. Small animals from two to nearly five feet in length; elongated cylindrical bodies with long tails, covered from snout to tip of tail with large angular fish-like scales, from which in some parts of India they are called _bun-rohu_, or the jungle carp; also in Rungpore _Keyot-mach_, which Jerdon translates the fish of the _Keyots_, but which probably means khet-mach or field-fish--but in this I am open to correction. The scales overlap like tiles, the free part pointing backwards. These form its defensive armour, for, although the _manis_ possesses powerful claws, it never uses them for offence, but when attacked rolls itself into a ball. In walking it progresses slowly, arching its back and doubling its fore-feet so as to put the upper surface to the ground and not the palm. The hind-foot is planted normally--that is, with the sole on the earth. The tongue is very long and worm-like, and covered with glutinous saliva; and, much of this moisture being required, the sub-maxillary glands are very large, reaching down under the skin of the neck on to the chest. The external ear is very small, and internally it is somewhat complicated, there being a large space in the temporal bone which communicates with the internal ear, so that, according to Professor Martin-Duncan, one tympanum is in communication with the other. These animals are essentially diggers. The construction of their fore-arms is such as to economise strength and the effectiveness of their excavating instruments. The very doubling up of their toes saves the points of their claws. The joints of the fore-fingers bend downwards, and are endowed with powerful ligaments; and in the wrist the scaphoid and semi-lunar bones are united by bone, which increases its strength. As Professor Martin-Duncan remarks: "Every structure in the creature's fore-limbs tends to the promotion of easy and powerful digging, and, as the motion of scratching the ground is directly downwards and backwards, the power of moving the wrist half-round and presenting the palm more or less upwards, as in the sloths and in man, does not exist. In order to prevent this pronation and supination the part of the fore-arm bone, the radius, next to the elbow, is not rounded, but forms part of a hinge joint." He also notices another interesting peculiarity in the chest of this animal, the breast-bone being very long; the cartilage at end large, with two long projections resembling those of the lizards. There is no collar-bone. NO. 480. MANIS PENTADACTYLA _vel_ BRACHYURA. _The Five-fingered or Short-tailed Pangolin_ (_Jerdon's No. 241_). NATIVE NAMES.--_Bajar-kit_, _Bajra-kapta_, _Sillu_, _Sukun-khor_, _Sal-salu_, Hindi; _Shalma_ of the Bauris; _Armoi_ of the Kols; _Kauli-mah_, _Kauli-manjra_, _Kassoli-manjur_, Mahratti; _Alawa_, Telegu; _Alangu_, Malabarese; _Bun-rohu_ in the Deccan, Central provinces, &c.; _Keyot-mach_, in Rungpore; _Katpohu_, in parts of Bengal; _Caballaya_, Singhalese. HABITAT.--Throughout India. Jerdon says most common in hilly districts, but nowhere abundant. I have found it myself in the Satpura range, where it is called _Bun-rohu_. [Illustration: _Manis pentadactyla_.] DESCRIPTION.--Tail shorter than the body, broad at the base, tapering gradually to a point. Eleven to thirteen longitudinal rows of sixteen scales on the trunk, and a mesial line of fourteen on the tail; middle nail of fore-foot much larger than the others. Scales thick, striated at base; yellowish-brown or light olive. Lower side of head, body, and feet, nude; nose fleshy; soles of hind-feet dark. SIZE.--Head and body, 24 to 27 inches; tail, about 18. Jerdon gives the weight of a female measuring 40 inches as 21 pounds. This species burrows in the ground to a depth of a dozen feet, more or less, where it makes a large chamber, sometimes six feet in circumference. It lives in pairs, and has from one to two young ones at a time in the spring months. Sir W. Elliot, who gives an interesting detailed account of it, says that it closes up the entrance to its burrow with earth when in it, so that it would be difficult to find it but for the peculiar track it leaves (_see_ 'Madras Journal,' x. p. 218). There is also a good account of it by Tickell in the 'Journal As. Soc. of Bengal,' xi. p. 221, and some interesting details regarding one in captivity by the late Brigadier-General A. C. McMaster in his 'Notes on Jerdon.' I have had specimens brought to me by the Gonds, but found them very somnolent during the day, being, as most of the above authors state, nocturnal in its habits. The first one I got had been kept for some time without water, and drank most eagerly when it arrived, in the manner described by Sir Walter Elliot, "by rapidly darting out its long extensile tongue, which it repeated so quickly as to fill the water with froth." The only noise it makes is a faint hiss. It sleeps rolled up, with the head between the fore-legs and the tail folded firmly over all. The natives believe in the aphrodisine virtues of its flesh. NO. 481. MANIS AURITA. _The Eared Pangolin_ (_Jerdon's No. 242_). HABITAT.--Sikhim, and along the hill ranges of the Indo-Chinese frontier. Dr. Anderson says it is common in all the hilly country east of Bhamo. DESCRIPTION.--Tail shorter and not so thick at the base as that of the last; the body less heavy; smaller and darker scales; muzzle acute; ears conspicuous; scales of head and neck not so small in proportion as in _M. pentadactyla_. SIZE.--Head and body of one mentioned by Jerdon, 19 inches; tail, 15-1/4 inches. NO. 482. MANIS JAVANICA. _The Javan Ant-eater_. HABITAT.--Burmah and the Malayan peninsula; also Tipperah. DESCRIPTION.--To be distinguished from the two preceding species by the greater number of longitudinal rows of scales, _M. pentadactyla_ having from eleven to thirteen, _M. aurita_ from fifteen to eighteen, and _M. Javanica_ nineteen. Taking the number of scales in the longitudinal mesial line from the nose to the tip of the tail in _M. pentadactyla_, it is forty-two; in _aurita_ forty-eight to fifty-six; in _Javanica_ as high as sixty-four; on the tail the scales are: _M. pentadactyla_, fourteen; _M. aurita_ sixteen to twenty; _M. Javanica_ thirty. * * * * * I am indebted to Dr. Anderson's 'Zoological and Anatomical Researches' for the following summary of characteristics:-- "_M. pentadactyla_ by its less heavy body; by its tail, which is broad at the base, tapering gradually to a point, and equalling the length of the head and trunk; by its large light olive-brown scales, of which there are only from eleven to thirteen longitudinal rows on the trunk, and a mesial line of fourteen on the tail; and by its powerful fore-claws, the centre one of which is somewhat more than twice as long as the corresponding claw of the hinder extremity. _M. aurita_ is distinguished from _M. pentadactyla_ by its less heavy body; by its rather shorter tail, which has less basal breadth than _M. pentadactyla_; by its smaller and darker brown, almost black scales in the adult, which are more numerous, there being from fifteen to eighteen longitudinal rows on the trunk, seventeen rows being the normal number, and sixteen to twenty caudal plates in the mesial line; and by its strong fore-claws, the middle one of which is not quite twice as long as the corresponding claw on the hind foot. "_M. Javanica_ is recognised by its body being longer and more attenuated than in the two foregoing species; by its narrower and more tapered tail; by its longer and more foliaceous or darker olive-brown scales, of which there are nineteen longitudinal rows on the trunk, and as many as thirty along the mesial line of the tail; and by the claws of the fore-feet being not nearly so long as in _M. aurita_, and being but little in excess of the claws of the hind-feet." APPENDIX A. FAMILY MYOXIDAE--THE DORMICE. These small rodents approximate more to the squirrels than the true mice; but they differ from all others intestinally by the absence of a caecum. They have four rooted molars in each upper and lower jaw, the first of each set being smaller than the other three, the crowns being composed of transverse ridges of enamel. In form they are somewhat squirrel-like, with short fore-limbs, and hairy, though not bushy, tails. The thumb is rudimentary, with a small, flat nail; hind-feet with five toes. [Illustration: Dentition of Dormouse (magnified).] The common English dormouse is a most charming little animal, and a great pet with children. I have had several, and possess a pair now which are very tame. They are elegant little creatures, about three inches long, with tails two and a-half inches; soft deep fur of a pale reddish-tawny above, pale yellowish-fawn below, and white on the chest. The eyes are large, lustrous, and jet-black. The tails of some are slightly tufted at the end. They are quite free from the objectionable smell of mice. In their habits they are nocturnal, sleeping all day and becoming very lively at night. I feed mine on nuts, and give them a slice of apple every evening; no water to drink, unless succulent fruits are not to be had, and then sparingly. The dormouse in its wild state lives on fruits, seeds, nuts and buds. In cold countries it hibernates, previous to which it becomes very fat. It makes for itself a little globular nest of twigs, grass, and moss, pine-needles, and leaves, in which it passes the winter in a torpid state. "The dormouse lives in small societies in thickets and hedgerows, where it is as active in its way amongst the bushes and undergrowth as its cousin the squirrel upon the larger trees. Among the small twigs and branches of the shrubs and small trees the dormice climb with wonderful adroitness, often, indeed, hanging by their hind feet from a twig, in order to reach and operate on a fruit or a nut which is otherwise inaccessible, and running along the lower surface of a branch with the activity and certainty of a monkey" (_Dallas_). This little animal is supposed to breed twice in the year--in spring and autumn. It is doubtful whether we have any true _Myoxidae_ in India, unless _Mus gliroides_ should turn out to be a _Myoxus_. The following is mentioned in Blanford's 'Eastern Persia': _Myoxus pictus_--new species, I think; I regret I have not the book by me at present--also _Myoxus dryas_, of which I find a pencil note in my papers. Mouse-red on the back, white belly with a rufous band between; white forehead; a black stripe from the nose to the ears, passing through the eye. [Illustration: _Myoxus_.] APPENDIX B. [Illustration: _Osteology of the Skull of Platanista Gangetica, section 257_. A. Side view. B. Upper view. C. Back tooth. D. Front tooth.] The above illustration was by accident omitted from the text. APPENDIX C. NOTES ON SOME OF THE FOREGOING SPECIES. _The Slow Loris_, No 28.--This creature sometimes assumes the erect posture, though in general it creeps. The following illustration shows an attitude observed and sketched by Captain Tickell, as the animal was about to seize a cockroach. When it had approached within ten or twelve inches, it drew its hind feet gradually forward until almost under its chest; it then cautiously and slowly raised itself up into a standing position, balancing itself awkwardly with its uplifted arms; and then, to his astonishment, flung itself, not upon the insect, which was off "like an arrow from a Tartar's bow," but on the spot which it had, half a second before, tenanted. [Illustration: Slow Loris and a cockroach.] _Trade Statistics of Fur-skins_, Mustelidae.--The Philadelphia _Times_, in an article on furs, says that the best sealskins come from the antarctic waters, principally from the Shetland Islands. New York receives the bulk of American skins, which are shipped to various ports. London is the great centre of the fur trade of the world. In the United States the sea-bear of the north has the most valuable skin. Since 1862 over 500,000 have been killed on Behring Island alone. In 1867 there were 27,500 sea-bears killed; in 1871 there was a very large decrease, only 3,614 being killed. There were 26,960 killed in 1876; and in 1880 the number killed was 48,504, a large increase. Sea-otter fur is about as expensive as any, and some 48,000 skins are used yearly. Over 100,000 marten or Russian sable skins are annually used. Only about 2,000 silver foxes are caught every year; and about 6,500 blue foxes. Other fox skins are used more or less. About 600 tiger skins are used yearly, over 11,000 wild cat skins, and a very large trade is being carried on in house cat skins. About 350,000 skunk and 42,000 monkey skins are utilised annually. The trade in ermine skins is falling off, as is also the trade in chinchilla. About 3,000,000 South American nutrias are killed every year, and a very large business is carried on in musk-rat skins. About 15,000 each of American bear and buffalo skins were used last year. There are also used each year about 3,000,000 lamb, 5,000,000 rabbit, 6,000,000 squirrel, and 620,000 filch skins; also 195,000 European hamster, and nearly 5,000,000 European and Asiatic hares. _Tigers_, No. 201.--Since writing on the subject of the size of tigers I have received the following extract from a letter addressed to the editor of _The Asian_. Both the animals were measured on the ground before being skinned, and in the presence of all whose names are given:-- "Tiger shot on the 6th of July, 1882. Party present: C. A. Shillingford, Esq.; J. L. Shillingford, Esq.; F. A. Shillingford, Esq.; A. J. Shillingford, Esq. Length of head, 1 ft. 8-1/2 in.; body, 5 ft. 6-1/2 in.; tail, 3 ft. 6-1/2 in.; total length, 10 ft. 9-1/2 in. Height at shoulder, 3 ft. 7 in. "Tiger shot on the 17th of March, 1883. Party present: The Earl of Yarborough; A. E. Fellowes, Esq.; Col. R. C. Money, B.S.C.; Capt. C. H. Mayne, A.D.C.; Lieut. R. Money; J. D. Shillingford, Esq. Length of head, 1 ft. 8 in.; body, 5 ft. 7 in.; tail, 3 ft. 5-1/2 in.; total length, 10 ft. 8-1/2 in. Height at shoulder, 3 ft. 8-1/2 in.; girth of head round jaw, 3 ft. 1-1/2 in.; girth of body round chest, 4 ft. 7 in. "The latter animal, though not so long as the former, was the larger animal of the two, being more massively built, and by far the finer specimen of a tiger. He was shot by Mr. Fellowes while out shooting in the Maharajah of Darbhanga's hunt in the Morung Terai." The following is an extract from a letter lately received by me from General Sir Charles Reid, K.C.B., with reference to an enormous tiger killed by him:-- "I had a tiger in the Exhibition of 1862, and which is now in the museum at Leeds, which was the largest tiger I ever killed or ever saw. As he lay on the ground he measured 12 feet 2 inches--his height I did not measure--from the tip of one ear to the tip of the other 19-1/2 inches. I never took skull measurements, nor did I ever weigh a tiger. I had another in the International Exhibition, which measured 11-1/2 feet fair measurement as he lay on the ground. The one at Leeds 12 feet 2 inches, as before mentioned, is not now more than 11 feet 6 inches. Mr. Ward was not satisfied with the Indian curing, and had it done over again, and it shrunk nearly a foot. The three tigers[41] mentioned are the largest I ever killed--all Dhoon tigers." [Footnote 41: The third tiger is one which Sir Charles Reid has had set up, and is now in his house; it measured, as he lay on the ground, 10 ft. 6 in. He then goes on to say that his father-in-law had killed in the Dhoon four or five tigers over 11 feet, and that the late Sir Andrew Waugh told him he had killed one in the same place 13 feet. He says: "I believe the Dhoon tigers are the largest and finest beasts that are found in any part of India." Their coats are longer and thicker also.] _Elephants_, No. 425--The two Indian elephants now in the Zoological Society's Gardens, in Regent's Park, are interesting examples of the growth of these animals in captivity. I regret extremely that I have not been able to get accurate statistics regarding them before leaving England; I was obliged to put off several proposed visits to the Gardens in consequence of ill health, and am now correcting the final proof-sheets of this work on board ship, preparatory to posting them at Suez, so I must trust to memory for what I heard concerning them. The large male, _Jung Pershad_, must be close upon nine feet high, and the female, _Suffa Kulli_, at least seven feet; and I was astonished to find that they were the same that I had seen as little things in the Prince of Wales's collection in 1876. _Suffa Kulli's_ age is not more than fifteen, yet she has been in a fair way of becoming a mother. There was no doubt as to the possibility, and she seemed to show some signs of it, but it ended in disappointment; however it is hoped that she will yet prove that these noble animals may be bred in captivity. _Osteology of the feet in Ruminantia_, Artiodactyla--The following illustrations were inadvertently omitted from the text in the section on the _Artiodactyla_. [Illustration: 1. Pig, or African deerlet. 2. Javan deerlet. 3. Roebuck. 4. Sheep. 5. Camel.] _Wild Boar_, No. 434.--A few days before leaving England, I called to say good-bye to an old friend well known in Calcutta and Lower Bengal, Dr. Charles Palmer. He asked me whether I had ever heard of a boar killing a tiger, and, on my answering in the affirmative, he told me he had just heard from his son, who had witnessed a fight between these two animals, in which the boar came off victorious, leaving his antagonist dead on the field. _Ovis Polii_, No. 438.--Mr. Carter in one of his letters to me says: "I see that you make the biggest horns of _Ovis Polii_ 53 inches from tip to tip. In a photo of one brought down by the Yarkhand Expedition, which had a foot rule laid close, so as to scale it, the distance from tip to tip is nearly five feet." I do not know which particular head is referred to, but two out of the three measurements given by me were of the finest heads brought down by the Expedition. There may have been a smaller pair with a wider spread, as the 73-inch horns I also mention, and which Sir Victor Brooke, to whom I sent a photograph, tells me is the finest head he has heard of, has only a spread of 48 inches. _Ovis cycloceros_, No. 443.--I gave from 25 to 30 inches as an average size for the horns of this species, but Captain W. Cotton, F.Z.S., writes to me that he sent home a pair of ovrial horns from Cabul, 35-1/2 inches, and that there is a pair in the R.A. mess at Attock 38-1/2 inches, but very thin. They were looted in the Jowaki campaign. This sheep has bred freely in the Zoological Society's Gardens, and two hybrids have been born there from a male of this species and the Corsican mouflon, _Ovis musimon_. I mentioned that there is in the Gardens a specimen of _Ovis Blanfordi_. I see by the Society's list that this was presented by Captain Cotton; the habitat given is Afghanistan. _The Wild Goat of Asia Minor_, No. 448.--Mr. Carter writes to me: "In one of your letters you mention the Scind ibex, which is a wild goat. I have a photo of a head 31 inches round curve, but Mr. Inverarity, barrister, Bombay, says he has seen one 52-1/2. The animal is not much bigger than the black buck." This last agrees with the estimate I formed from the specimens in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. _Tetraceros sub-quadricornutus_, No. 463.--It is doubtful whether Elliot's antelope should stand as a separate species; Blyth was against it, and Jerdon followed him, and I incline to think that it is only a variety. Dr. Sclater, to whom I mentioned the subject, appeared to me to agree in this view, but I see he includes it in his list of the Society's mammals. Being adverse to the multiplication of species, I gave it the benefit of the doubt, and included it with _T. quadricornis_; but, as I have received one or two letters from writers whose opinions are entitled to consideration, I mention them here, merely stating that I still feel inclined to doubt the propriety of promoting _sub-quadricornutus_ to the dignity of a species. Dr. Gray was certainly of opinion it was separate; but then, great naturalist as he was, his peculiar foible was minute sub-division. The claims of Elliot's antelope to separate rank are: absence of the anterior horns, or with only a trace; smaller size; lighter colour; but even the larger, darker _quadricornis_ is sometimes without the anterior horns; and, unless some other marked difference is found in the skull, it is hardly sufficient to warrant separation. However, I will give what others say on the subject. "I can scarcely agree with you as to Elliot's antelope not being a good species, I have therefore taken the trouble of having a most accurate and full-size sketch of the skull of one made, and if you will compare it with those of the ordinary _quadricornis_ I think you will see a well-marked difference. Dr. Gray wrote to me, and said that there was the recognised species of _sub-quadricornutus_."--Letter from Mr. H. R. P. Carter, "Smoothbore" of the _Field_. The following is an extract from a letter signed "Bheel," addressed to the editor of _The Asian_, which appeared in that paper:-- "In the jungles of Rajputana, especially about the Arravelli Range, I have shot repeatedly very small, exceedingly shy deer, called by the Bheels and shikaries in this part 'bhutar.' They are very much smaller than the four-horned antelope, having very sharp thin horns about two inches in length, which are perfectly smooth, as if polished, and black. The colour of the skin is light brown, somewhat like a chinkara, white inside the limbs and under the belly. The hair on the skin is short, smooth and glossy. The feet are exceedingly small, about one-third in size smaller than that of the four-horned antelope. They are very retiring little creatures, and very difficult to bag. They run, or, more appropriately, bound with amazing swiftness when disturbed, and disappear like some passing shadow. These little deer live on the lower spurs of the hills, and are generally found in pairs. They are very plump, and appear to be always in good condition. The last one I shot was last year. The females are hornless. "The four-horned antelope is described accurately by Mr. Sterndale, only that, in my humble opinion, I do not consider it to be the smallest of the ruminant species. The 'Bheel' name for this creature is 'fonkra.' It is found in the thick jungles at the foot of the hills. It selects some secluded spot, which it does not desert when disturbed, returning invariably to its hiding-place when the coast is clear. I noticed this very particularly. The hair of the 'fonkra' is comparatively much longer than the bhutar's, and the colour is a great deal darker. Could Mr. Sterndale kindly let me know the Latin name for the 'bhutar'? I am sure it can't be _Cervulus aureus_ (kakur, or barking deer), because the colour given of this deer is a beautiful bright glossy red or chesnut, while, as I have mentioned above, the colour of the bhutar is light brown." "Bheel's" "bhutar" is evidently Elliot's _sub-quadricornutus_. _The Gaur_, No. 464.--Jerdon doubted the existence of this animal in the Himalayan Terai, according to Hodgson's assertion; but Hodgson was right, for I have a letter before me which I received some time back from Dr. W. Forsyth, stating that a few days previously a companion of his shot a large solitary bull (6 feet 1 inch at the shoulder) in the Terai, and he himself knocked one and lost another the day before he wrote. The local name is _gauri-gai_. [Illustration: The Gaur.] I also received a letter through the columns of _The Asian_ from "Snapshot," vouching for the existence of the _gaur_ in the Darjeeling Terai. Another correspondent of _The Asian_ writes regarding the naming of this species:-- "In referring to Mr. Sterndale's descriptions of the gaur and gayal, in your issues of the 28th March and 11th April, I trust that that gentleman will not be offended by my making a few remarks on the subject, and that he will set me right if I am in the wrong. I see that he has perpetuated what appears to my unscientific self a mistake on the part of the old writers--Colebrooke, Buchanan, Trail, and others, who I fancy got confused, and mixed up the animals. The local name for the Central Indian ox is over a large tract of country the gayal, or gyll; and this, being the animal with the peculiar frontal development, was most probably named bos, or _Gavaeus frontalis_, whilst the mithun, or Eastern Bengal animal, was the gaur. It seems to me, therefore, that the names should be transposed. Will Mr. Sterndale consider this, if he has not already done so; and, if I am wrong, tell me why the animal with peculiar frontal development, and called the gayal locally, should not have been named _frontalis_, whilst the animal called mithun, with nothing peculiar in his frontal development, is so called? "Orissa, _April 15th, 1882_. "CHAMPSE. "P.S.--Do any of the Eastern Bengal races call this mithun gayal?" I think Hodgson's name _Bibos cavifrons_ is a sufficient proof that _Gavaeus gaurus_ is applicable to the animal with the high frontal crest, which is the species inhabiting the Himalayan Terai, and is locally known as the _gaur_, or _gauri-gai_. It is known as _gayal_ in some parts of India, but, where the people are familiar with the _mithun_, the _gaur_ is called _asl'gayal_, from whence Horsfield's name _Bibos asseel_. Probably the _mithun_ was called _frontalis_, under ignorance of a species with a still greater frontal development. _Gavaeus frontalis_ interbreeds freely with domesticated cattle of all kinds. In the Society's Gardens are several hybrids between this and _Bos Indicus_, one of which hybrids again interbred with American bison (_Bison Americanus_), the progeny being one-half bison, and one-quarter each _frontalis_ and _Indicus_. APPENDIX D. As many specimens are spoilt by either insufficient curing, or curing by wrong methods, I have asked Mr. Geo. F. Butt, F.Z.S., who was for many years manager to Edwin Ward, whom he has now succeeded, to give me a page or two of useful hints on the preservation of skins. The following notes are what he has kindly placed at my disposal. I know of no one I can more strongly recommend for good work than Mr. Butt. Some of his groups are works of art, with most lifelike finish. I have just seen a bear set up by him which seems almost to breathe. NOTES ON SKINNING THE MAMMALIA AND THE PRESERVATION OF SKINS. By GEO. F. BUTT, F.Z.S., Naturalist to the Royal Family, 49, Wigmore Street, London, W. The quadruped killed, the first and important step is to plug up the nostrils and throat with cotton-wool or tow, as also any wound from which blood may escape. Place the animal on its back, make a longitudinal incision with the knife at the lower part of the belly (the vent), and thence in as straight a line as possible extending to the chin bone, taking particular care that during the operation the hair is carefully divided and not cut. Vertical incisions may then be made extending down the inside of each leg to the claws. The skin can then be turned back in every direction as far as the extent of the incisions will admit of--the legs may now be freed from the skin. Next make a straight incision down the under part of the tail to the tip, turn the skin back until it is free. Having executed this, there remains only to remove the skin from the back and head; to do this place the carcase on its side, and with the scalpel carefully separate the skin by drawing it towards the head, in skinning which care being taken to cut the ears as close to the skull as possible, leaving the cartilage in the skin; the eyelids, also nose and lips, should be carefully skinned without injury. The skin is now free from the carcase. Turn the ears inside out, the nostrils, lips, and feet, removing all cartilage and flesh. Place the skin open on the ground with the fur side down, and remove the flesh and pieces of fat adhering; scrape the skin well, so as to get away all the loose particles of under-skin or pelt. When this has been thoroughly done, take powdered alum plentifully, and, with a _very_ small quantity of common salt, rub well into the skin, especially into the ears, nostrils, lips, and feet, so that every portion of the skin is powerfully impregnated. Allow the skin to lie in this condition for an hour or so, then place it on a line or branch to dry. The operation should be carried on in the shade, if possible. If the specimen is not for stuffing it may be pegged out to dry on the ground, but in no one instance should a skin be unduly strained out of shape, which is often done in order to make it appear larger than it really is, a mistake which is very common. When this operation is completed, and the skin dry, it is ready for packing, and should be folded, with the fur or hair inside, and placed in a sound box or case well protected against the visits of ants, beetles, or moth. Where it is intended that the animal should be ultimately stuffed whole, it is necessary to preserve the leg bones. These should be separated from the trunk at the os humeri or shoulder-joint, and at the os femoris or thigh bones; these bones cleanse from flesh. The skull in every instance should be preserved: remove the flesh and brain; to do this place the skull in boiling water for five or ten minutes--in the case of small skulls for five minutes only, care being taken that the teeth are not lost. In packing skulls each one should be tied up in paper, marked with a corresponding number to the skin to which it belongs, and packed firmly, to prevent rolling about, the result of which is often broken teeth and disappointment. Another excellent method for the preservation of skins of mammalia, where convenience will permit, and which can be followed with confidence, is as follows: After the skin has been treated according to the directions given--viz. thoroughly scraped and cleansed of all adherent particles of flesh, &c.--place it entirely in a tub or cask in which a solution or pickle has been previously prepared, as follows: to every gallon of cold water add 1 lb. powdered alum, 1/2 oz. saltpetre, 2 oz. common salt; well mix. Allow the skin to remain about a couple of days, after which hang it up to dry and for packing. INDEX. A. Acanthion longicauda, 405 Ailuropus melanoleucos, 168 Ailurus fulgens, 169 Alactaga Indica, 401 Antelope bezoartica, 461 Anurosorex Assamensis, 149 Aonyx leptonyx, 199 Arctictis binturong, 235 Arctomys aureus, 313 " bobac, 310 " caudatus, 311 " dichrous, 314 " Hemachalanus, 312 " robustus, 315 Arctonyx collaris, 170 " taxoides, 171 Arvicola Blanfordi, 391 " Blythii, 392 " mandarinus, 393 " melanogaster, 395 " Roylei, 390 " Sikimensis, 394 " Stoliczkanus, 387 " Stracheyi, 388 " Wynnei, 389 Atherura fasciculata, 402 Axis maculatus, 472 " porcinus, 473 B. Balaenoptera Indica, 271 Barbastellus communis, 120 Bubalus arni, 468 Budorcas taxicolor, 455 C. Canis aureus, 248 " laniger, 246 " lupus, 247 " pallipes, 245 " rutilans, 249 Capra aegagrus, 448 " hylocrius, 450 " Jemlaicus, 449 " megaceros, 446 " Sibirica, 447 Cervulus muntjac _vel_ aureus, 470 Cervus affinis _vel_ Wallichii, 477 " Cashmirianus, 476 " maral, 477 Coelops Frithii, 68 Corsira Alpina, 148 Cricetus fulvus, 331 " phaeus, 330 Cuon rutilans, 249 Cynonycteris amplexicaudata, 32 Cynopterus marginatus, 33 D. Delphinus fusiformis, 265 " gadamu, 262 " lentiginosus, 263 " longirostris, 267 " maculiventer, 264 " perniger, 260 " plumbeus, 261 " pomeegra, 266 " velox, 268 Dipus lagopus, 400 E. Elephas Indicus, 425 Eonycteris spelaea, 35 Equus hemionus, 427 " onager, 426 Erinaceus Blanfordi, 154 " collaris, 150 " Grayi, 153 " Jerdoni, 155 " megalotis, 156 " micropus, 151 " pictus, 152 Euphysetes simus, 270 F. Felis aurata, 210 " Bengalensis, 208 " caracal, 218 " chaus, 216 " Diardii _vel_ macrocelis, 205 " isabellina, 217 " Jerdoni, 209 " jubata, 219 " leo, 200 " manul, 213 " marmorata, 207 " panthera, 203 " pardus, 202 " rubiginosa, 211 " scripta, 214 " Shawiana, 215 " tigris, 201 " torquata, 212 " uncia, 204 " viverrina, 206 Feroculus macropus, 138 G. Galaeopithecus volans, 30 Gavaeus frontalis, 465 " gaurus, 464 " Sondaicus, 466 Gazella Bennetti, 456 " fuscifrons, 457 " picticaudata, 459 " subgutterosa, 458 Gerbillus cryptorhinus, 319 " erythrurus, 320 " Hurrianae, 318 " Indicus, 317 " nanus, 321 Globicephalus Indicus, 269 Golunda Ellioti, 378 " meltada, 379 Gymnura Rafflesii, 162 H. Halicore dugong, 272 Hapalomys longicaudatus, 380 Harpiocephalus auratus, 101 " cyclotis, 104 " griseus, 102 " harpia, 99 " leucogaster, 103 " suillus, 100 Helarctos gedrosianus, 165 " Malayanus, 166 " Tibetanus, 164 Helictis moschata, 176 " Nipalensis, 175 Hemitragus hylocrius, 450 " Jemlaicus, 449 Herpestes auropunctatus, 239 " ferrugineus, 242 " fuscus, 240 " Jerdoni _vel_ monticolus, 237 " Maccarthiae, 241 " pallidus _vel_ griseus, 236 " Smithii, 238 " vitticollis, 243 Hipposideros armiger, 54 " Blythii, 60 " cineraceus, 57 " diadema, 61 " larvatus, 58 " murinus, 56 " speoris, 55 " vulgaris, 59 Hyaena striata, 220 Hylobates hooluck, 1 " lar, 2 " syndactylus, 3 Hystrix Bengalensis, 404 " leucura, 403 " longicauda, 405 " Yunnanensis, 406 I. Inuus arctoides, 22 " leoninus, 21 " nemestrinus, 20 " pelops, 19 " rhesus, 18 " silenus, 17 " Thibetanus, 23 K. Kerivoula Hardwickii, 107 " pallida, 105-106 " papillosa, 106 " picta, 105 L. Lagomys auritus, 421 " Curzoniae, 419 " griseus, 423 " Ladacensis, 420 " macrotis, 422 " Roylei, 418 " rufescens, 424 Lasiurus Pearsonii, 99 Leggada Jerdoni, 376 " lepida, 377 " platythrix, 374 " spinulosa, 375 Lepus craspedotis, 416 " hispidus, 417 " hypsibius, 410 " nigricollis, 408 " pallipes, 411 " Pamirensis, 414 " Peguensis, 409 " ruficaudatus, 407 " Stoliczkanus, 415 " Tibetanus, 412 " Yarkandensis, 413 Loris gracilis, 29 Lutra aurobrunnea, 198 " Ellioti, 197 " monticola _vel_ simung, 196 " nair, 195 M. Macacus arctoides, 22 " carbonarius, 27 " cynomolgus, 26 " leoninus, 21 " nemestrinus, 20 " pelops, 19 " pileatus, 25 " radiatus, 24 " rhesus, 18 " silenus, 17 " Thibetanus, 23 Macroglossus minimus, 34 Manis aurita, 481 " Javanica, 482 " pentadactyla _vel_ brachyura, 480 Martes abietum, 178 " flavigula, 177 " toufoeus, 179 Megaderma lyra, 36 " spasma, 38 " spectrum, 37 Meles albogularis, 173 " leucurus, 172 Mellivora Indica, 174 Melursus labiatus, 167 Meminna Indica, 479 Miniopterus Schreibersii, 119 Moschus moschiferus, 469 Mus aequicaudalis, 349 " Andamanensis, 334 " bactrianus, 359 " badius, 352 " Beaveni, 368 " brunneus, 340 " caudatior, 344 " cervicolor, 364 " Ceylonus, 347 " Chevrieri, 385 " concolor, 345 " Confucianus, 384 " crassipes, 360 " cunicularis, 369 " Darjeelingensis, 357 " decumanus, 333 " Elliotanus, 328 " erythronotus, 363 " erythrotis, 370 " flavipectus, 382 " fulvidiventris, 371 " giganteus, 329 " gliroides, 353 " griseipectus, 383 " homourus, 356 " infralineatus, 339 " Khakhyenensis, 372 " Nilagiricus, 351 " nitidulus, 367 " nitidus, 343 " niveiventer, 342 " oleraceus, 350 " ouang-thomae, 381 " pachycercus, 362 " palmarum, 346 " Peguensis, 354; ibid. 366 (By oversight this species has been twice described.) " plurimammis, 348 " pygmaeus, 386 " rattus, 332 " robustulus, 335 " rubricosa, 337 " rufescens, 341 " Sladeni, 336 " sublimis, 361 " terricolor, 365 " Tytleri, 358 " urbanus, 355 " viculorum, 373 " Yunnanensis, 338 Mustela alpina, 187 " canigula, 184 " erminea, 183 " Hodgsoni, 188 " Horsfieldi, 189 " kathiah, 181 " Sibirica, 186 " Stoliczkana, 185 " strigidorsa, 182 Myotis murinus, 108 " parvipes, 110 " Theobaldi, 109 Myoxus, Appendix A N. Nemorhoedus bubalina, 451 " Edwardsii, 453 " goral, 454 " rubida _vel_ Sumatrensis, 452 Nesokia Barclayiana, 327 " Blythiana, 326 " Elliotanus, 328 " giganteus, 329 " Hardwickii, 322 " Huttoni, 323 " providens, 325 " Scullyi, 324 Noctulinia noctula, 97-98 Nycticebus tardigradus, 28 Nycticejus atratus, 97-98 " canus, 97-98 " castaneus, 97-98 " Heathii, 97-98 " luteus, 97-98 " nivicolus, 97-98 " ornatus, 97-98 " Temminckii, 97-98 Nyctogale elegans, 147 Nyctophilus Geoffroyi, 121 O. Orcella brevirostris, 258 " fluminalis, 259 Ovis Blanfordii, 444 " Brookei, 441 " cycloceros, 443 " Hodgsoni, 439 " Karelini, 440 " nahura _vel_ burhel, 445 " Polii, 438 " Vignei, 442 P. Panolia Eldii, 475 Pantholops Hodgsonii, 460 Paradoxurus bondar, 230 " Grayii, 229 " laniger, 234 " leucotis, 232 " musanga, 228 " trivirgatus, 231 " zeylanicus, 233 Phyllorhina armigera, 64 " bicolor, 67 " diadema, 61 " galerita, 66 " leptophylla, 65 " Masoni, 62 " Nicobarensis, 63 Physeter simus, 270 Platacanthomys lasiurus, 316 Platanista Gangetica, 257 Plecotus auritus _vel_ homochrous, 77 Poephagus grunniens, 467 Porcula Salvania, 437 Portax pictus _vel_ tragocamelus, 462 Presbytes albinus, 16 " Barbei, 10 " cephalopterus, 13 " entellus, 4 " Johnii, 7 " jubatus, 8 " obscurus, 12 " Phayrei, 11 " pileatus, 9 " priamus, 6 " schistaceus, 5 " thersites, 15 " ursinus, 14 Prionodon gracilis, 227 " maculosus, 226 " pardicolor, 225 Pteromys albiventer, 303 " alboniger, 308 " alborufus, 301 " caniceps, 304 " cineraceus, 298 " fimbriatus, 307 " magnificus, 302 " melanopterus, 300 " oral, 297 " Pearsonii, 305 " spadiceus, 309 " Yunnanensis, 299 Pteropus Edwardsii _vel_ medius, 31 " Leschenaultii, 32 " minimus, 34 Putorius astutus, 193 " Davidianus, 192 " larvatus _vel_ Tibetanus, 191 " Moupinensis, 194 R. Rhinoceros Indicus, 429 " lasiotis, 431 " Sondaicus, 430 " Sumatrensis, 432 Rhinolophus affinis, 43 " Andamanensis, 48 " coelophyllus, 50 " Garoensis, 51 " macrotis, 45 " minor, 49 " mitratus, 40 " Pearsonii, 42 " perniger _vel_ luctus, 39 " Petersii, 52 " rammanika, 47 " rouxi, 44 " sub-badius, 46 " tragatus _vel_ ferrum-equinum, 41 " trifoliatus, 53 Rhinopoma Hardwickii, 69 Rhinosciurus tupaoides, 296 Rhizomys badius, 396 " erythrogenys, 397 " minor, 399 " pruinosus, 398 Rucervus Duvaucelli, 474 " Eldii, 475 Rusa Aristotelis, 471 S. Sciurus atrodorsalis, 283 " Berdmorei, 294 " Blanfordii, 282 " caniceps, 280 " erythraeus, 284 " ferrugineus, 288 " giganteus, 276 " Gordoni, 285 " hippurus, 286 " Indicus, 273 " Layardi, 291 " lokriah, 277 " lokroides, 278 " macrourus, 275 " maximus, 274 " palmarum, 289 " Phayrei, 281 " pygerythrus, 279 " quinquestriatus, 295 " Sladeni, 287 " sublineatus, 292 " tristriatus, 290 " tupaoides, 296 Scotophilus emarginatus, 95 " fuliginosus, 92 " Heathii, 94 " ornatus, 96 " pallidus, 97 " Temminckii, 93 Semnopithecus albinus, 16 " Barbei, 10 " cephalopterus, 13 " entellus, 4 " Johnii, 7 " jubatus, 8 " obscurus, 12 " Phayrei, 11 " pileatus, 9 " priamus, 6 " schistaceus, 5 " thersites, 15 " ursinus, 14 Sorex atratus, 144 " caerulescens, 125 " ferrugineus, 135 " Griffithi, 136 " heterodon, 137 " Hodgsoni, 139 " leucops, 132 T. Taphozous longimanus, 70 " melanopogon, 71 " Kachhensis, 74 " saccolaimus, 72 " Theobaldi, 73 Tapirus Malayanus, 428 Taxidia leucurus, 172 Tetraceros quadricornis, 463 Tragulus napu, 478 Tupaia Chinensis, 160 " Ellioti, 158 " Nicobarica, 161 " Peguana _vel_ Belangeri, 159 U. Ursus gedrosianus, 165 " Isabellinus, 163 " labiatus, 167 " Malayanus, 166 " torquatus _vel_ Tibetanus, 164 Urva cancrivora, 244 V. Vespertilio Coromandelicus, 90 " emarginatus, 118 " formosus, 116 " longipes, 111 " montivagus, 114 " muricola, 113 " murinoides, 115 " murinus, 108 " mystacinus, 112 " Nepalensis, 117 Vesperugo Abramus, 90 " affinis, 81 " annectans, 86 " atratus, 83 " Coromandelianus, 90 " dormeri, 87 " Leisleri, 89 " leucotis, 79 " lobatus, 91 " maurus, 80 " noctula, 78 " pachyomus, 89-90 " pachyotis, 82 " pachypus, 85 " serotinus, 88 " Tickelli, 84 Viverra civettina, 222 " Malaccensis, 224 " megaspila, 223 " zibetha, 221 Vulpes Bengalensis, 250 " ferrilatus, 252 " flavescens, 255 " Griffithii, 256 " leucopus, 251 " montanus, 253 " pusillus, 254 LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. 
44705	----	PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. III, PP. 111-138. MARCH 26, 1901 MAMMALS COLLECTED BY DR. W. L. ABBOTT ON THE NATUNA ISLANDS. BY GERRIT S. MILLER, JR. About three months during the spring and summer of 1900 were spent by Dr. W. L. Abbott in exploring the Natuna Islands in the South China Sea.[1] Specimens were collected at the following localities: Pulo Midei, or Low Island (May 23-26), Pulo Seraia (May 29), Sirhassen Island (June 1-10), Pulo Subi (June 12-13), Pulo Lingung (June 17-19), Bunguran, or Great Natuna Island (June 24-July 31) and Pulo Laut, or North Natuna Island (August 5-13). About 265 mammals were obtained, all of which have been presented to the United States National Museum. This paper contains an account of these, and is published here by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Two extensive collections of mammals had been made on the Natuna Islands previous to Dr. Abbott's visit, the first by Mr. A. Everett during September and October, 1893, the second by Mr. Ernest Hose during July, August, September and October, 1894. These have formed, either wholly or in part, the basis of several papers,[2] which constitute the literature relating to the mammals of the islands.[3] Twenty-eight land mammals have been recorded as actually represented by specimens, though several others are mentioned which the collectors ascertained to occur. Dr. Abbott secured forty-four species, but failed to obtain seven[4] of those previously taken. The total number of mammals collected on the islands thus becomes fifty-one. This increase is due, in part to the recognition of a larger number of insular forms than has been admitted by previous writers, but also to a considerable extent to the actual addition of species not hitherto taken. Species new in the latter sense are distinguished in the present paper by absence of reference to previous records. In regard to the faunal relationships of the Natunas, whether predominantly Bornean or Peninsular, about which much has been written,[5] it may be said that this collection, together with much of the other work recently done by Dr. Abbott, tends to show that there is greater general uniformity in the mammalian fauna of Borneo, the Malay Peninsula, and the intervening islands than has been hitherto supposed. It seems unprofitable therefore to offer conjectures as to the probability of greater nearness of the Natuna mammals as a whole to those of Borneo or to those of the Malay Peninsula. MANIS JAVANICA Desmarest. 1895. _Manis javanica_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 492. December, 1895 (Bunguran). An adult male was taken on Bunguran, June 24, 1900. Total length 914; head and body 508; tail 406. TRAGULUS BUNGURANENSIS sp. nov. _Type._--Adult male (skin and skull) No. 104604 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Bunguran Island, North Natunas, July 9, 1900. Original number, 547. _Characters._--Color pattern essentially as in _Tragulus nigricans_ Thomas, from Balabac. Size equal to that of _T. canescens_ from the Malay Peninsula, therefore much greater than in the Balabac animal. _Color._--Back uniform ochraceous, fading to buff on sides, the hairs everywhere gray at base. Both back and sides everywhere darkened by black hair tips, but these never sufficiently abundant to produce a dark shading in excess of the ochraceous. The relative proportion of the dark wash to the light under color is precisely the same as in _Tragulus canescens_ and _T. napu_ (from Linga Island) but the black is less conspicuous than in the Bornean form of _T. napu_. Legs, except white area on inner side, like back but slightly brighter and less shaded with black. Entire dorsal and lateral surface of neck clear black to base of hairs, a few ochraceous specks visible on close scrutiny, particularly at sides near throat markings. On shoulders this black area fades abruptly into color of back; on head it passes forward between ears and eyes nearly to muzzle. Cheek, region between eye and ear, and line extending forward over eye to muzzle and separating black median stripe from naked loral space, ochraceous, essentially like that of legs. Throat markings as in _Tragulus nigricans_, but white stripes apparently even more restricted. Region occupied by posterior white stripes black, continuous with that of neck, but distinctly speckled with ochraceous. Region occupied by anterior stripes ochraceous, continuous with that of cheeks and somewhat less pure and more speckled with black. White stripes as follows: (_a_) One on each side of naked chin area. These are about 50 mm. in length and never more than 10 mm. in breadth, but occasionally so narrow as to break up into two or more spots. They are separated from naked chin patch by an ochraceous stripe slightly broader than the white. Chin area narrowly and discontinuously bordered with white, especially in front. (_b_) Two posterior lateral stripes varying from 50 mm. to 80 mm. in length, and never more than 12 mm. wide. They are strongly convergent anteriorly, and sometimes nearly joined together in front by a median spot. These white stripes are always separated from the anterior stripes by an ochraceous median area varying from 10 mm. to 25 mm. in width. (_c_) A median stripe lying between the posterior lateral stripes. Posteriorly this stripe is as wide as the lateral stripes, but it quickly narrows and sometimes disappears at middle of latter, though usually represented again by the median spot already referred to. In none of the specimens is this stripe broad and continuous anteriorly to level of front of lateral stripes as in Nehring's figure of the throat markings of _T. nigricans_.[6] Collar narrow, ochraceous grizzled with black. It is seldom more than 25 mm. in width; therefore much narrower than indicated by Nehring's figure. Behind the collar is a whitish gray median area continuous laterally with narrow light stripe down inner side of fore legs. This light area is sometimes divided by a dark median line joining collar with buff of belly. Belly and chest buff, essentially like that of sides, with which it forms no contrast in color. As on the sides the buff is clouded by black hair tips, but the hairs are scarcely if at all gray at base. On chest the dark hair tips tend to form a median stripe, which is sometimes sharply defined and continuous with the ochraceous line occasionally dividing white of breast. A clear whitish area slightly larger and better defined than that of breast occupies region between hind legs. It is continuous with white stripe down inner side of hind legs. This stripe is usually divided on thigh by encroachment of the surrounding ochraceous. Tail silky white below and at tip, essentially like back above. _Skull._--The skull of _Tragulus bunguranensis_ fully equals that of _T. canescens_ in size, and distinctly exceeds that of the Bornean form of _T. napu_. It is much larger than that of _T. nigricans_, which proves to be a medium sized species like _T. rufulus_. In general form the skull agrees so closely with that of _Tragulus canescens_ that it is only to be distinguished by its slightly greater relative breadth and smaller, less inflated audital bullæ. As compared with the skull of _Tragulus nigricans_,[7] that of _T. bunguranensis_ is much larger (distance from back of occiput to front of canine 103 instead of 92, zygomatic breadth 53 instead of 45), and the braincase is more conspicuously ridged for muscular attachment. That part of the braincase immediately above posterior root of zygoma is more conspicuously inflated. Otherwise I can detect no salient differences in the skulls of the two animals. _Teeth._--The teeth are uniformly larger than those of _Tragulus nigricans_, but in form they present no characters of importance. As compared with _T. canescens_ the premolars both above and below are conspicuously more robust, a character in which the Bunguran animal agrees with the Bornean form of _Tragulus napu_. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length 647; head and body 571; tail vertebræ 76; hind foot 146; hind foot without hoofs 128. Average and extremes of five adults from the type locality: total length 643 (628-673); head and body 566 (558-584); tail vertebræ 77 (70-89); hind foot 142 (140-146); hind foot without hoofs 126 (124-128). Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 114; basal length 107; basilar length 100; occipito-nasal length 106; length of nasals 32; diastema 13 (9);[8] zygomatic breadth 52 (46); least interorbital breadth 33 (28); greatest breadth of braincase above base of zygomata 38 (33); mandible 91 (78); maxillary toothrow (alveoli) 38 (34); mandibular toothrow (alveoli) 44 (39); anterior upper premolar 7 × 3.8 (6.4 × 3); middle lower premolar 7.2 × 3 (5.8 × 2.4). _Weight._--Weight of type 3.8 kg.; of two other males 3.6 kg. each. Two adult females weigh respectively 3.6 kg. and 4.2 kg. _Specimens examined._--Six, all from the type locality. _Remarks._--_Tragulus bunguranensis_ is so distinct from the other known species as to require no detailed comparisons. TRAGULUS sp. Two specimens from Sirhassen Island are too immature for determination. Apparently they represent a member of the _napu_ group, allied to that occurring in Borneo. The throat markings show no approach to those of _Tragulus bunguranensis_. TRAGULUS JAVANICUS (Gmelin). 1894. _Tragulus javanicus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 660. September, 1864 (Bunguran). 1895. _Tragulus javanicus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 492. December, 1895 (part, specimens from Bunguran). Six specimens from Bunguran. TRAGULUS PALLIDUS sp. nov. 1895. _Tragulus javanicus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 492. December, 1895 (part, specimen from Pulo Laut). _Type._--Adult female (skin and skull) No. 104616 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Pulo Laut, North Natuna Islands, August 11, 1900. Original number 625. _Characters._--Smaller than _Tragulus javanicus_ from Borneo or Bunguran and very pale in color. Black clouding of upper parts inconspicuous, but dark nape band well defined. _Color._--Back and sides light ochraceous-buff everywhere clouded by the blackish hair-tips, but these never in excess, except perhaps along middle of back and across lumbar region. Flanks, shoulders, neck, outer surface of legs and narrow line dividing color of sides from that of belly pale ochraceous. Nape band clear black, sharply defined from color of sides but quickly fading into that of shoulders. Top of head dull dark brown. A faint pale stripe over and in front of eye. Throat markings normal, the dark bands like neck. Collar very narrow. Under parts and inner surface of legs white. A faint yellowish shade along middle of belly. Tail white beneath and at the tip, ochraceous faintly shaded with brown above. _Skull._--The skull of the type, though fully adult and with all the teeth distinctly worn, is smaller than in Bunguran specimens so young that the posterior molars are still below the rim of the alveoli. In form, however, it shows no marked peculiarities, though in general it appears to be somewhat broader in proportion to its length than that of the Bunguran animal. _Teeth._--Teeth as in specimens of _Tragulus javanicus_ from Bunguran except that the premolars, both above and below, are shorter and broader, a difference which may prove to be an individual peculiarity only. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: Total length 539; head and body 444; tail vertebræ 95; hind foot 107; hind foot without hoofs 95. Cranial measurements of type: Greatest length 90 (94[9]); basal length 83 (87); basilar length 78 (82); occipito-nasal length 83 (89); length of nasals 25 (29.6); diastema 9.2 (9.8); zygomatic breadth 41.4 (40); least interorbital breadth 26.4 (25); breadth of braincase over roots of zygomata 29.4 (28.4); mandible 72 (75); maxillary toothrow (alveoli) 31.6 (34); first upper premolar 6.4 × 2.8 (7 × 2.6); mandibular toothrow (alveoli) 35.8 (38). _Specimens examined._--One, the type. _Remarks._--This is a pallid form of _Tragulus javanicus_, a species which apparently shows very little tendency to become differentiated into local races. The characters of the Pulo Laut animal were pointed out by Thomas and Hartert in 1895. SUS NATUNENSIS sp. nov. 1894. _Sus_ sp. THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 660. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1895. _Sus_ sp. THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 492. December, 1895 (Bunguran). _Type._--Adult female (skin and skull) No. 104856 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Pulo Laut, North Natuna Islands, August 6, 1900. Original number 609. _Characters._--Externally much like the Tenasserim form of _Sus cristatus_, but smaller; body brownish in marked contrast with black legs and face; skull conspicuously shorter and broader. _Fur._--The fur throughout consists of bristles with no admixture of softer hairs. The bristles are everywhere less stiff than in the Tenasserim pig, but the difference is most noticeable in the mane, which, though well developed (about 80 mm. in length), is composed of bristles very slightly coarser than those of the surrounding parts, and of not more than half the diameter of the corresponding hairs in females of _S. cristatus_. Muzzle, chest, belly and ears nearly bare. _Color._--General color black, clear and unmixed with brown on legs, throat, and face, but elsewhere heavily overlaid with brownish buff, particularly on back and sides. The brownish wash ceases abruptly just in front of ears, leaving the face and cheeks clear black. A conspicuous dull buff streak 100 mm. long and about half as wide at middle extends back from angle of mouth to level of posterior canthus of eye. It is sharply outlined above by black of cheeks, and below by that of chin. A faint buffy mark beneath eye. Tail like back. _Skull._--The skull while much shorter than that of _Sus cristatus_ from Tenasserim is actually broader. As a result the width across postorbital processes is contained only about three times in occipito-nasal length, as opposed to nearly four times in the related species. Similarly the zygomatic breadth slightly exceeds one half of the basilar length, while in _Sus cristatus_ it is less than half. Width of palate between middle molars almost exactly one sixth distance from posterior edge of palate to front of premaxillaries (measured along median line). In _Sus cristatus_ the palatal width is contained nearly seven times in the same distance. Dorsal profile of skull slightly concave near base of nasals. Zygomata heavier and deeper than in _Sus cristatus_. Audital bullæ noticeably smaller and less inflated than in the Tenasserim pig. Mandible shorter and much more robust than that of _Sus cristatus_, the outward bulge of the ramus a little behind middle of toothrow greatly accentuated. _Teeth._--As the teeth of the two specimens of _Sus natunensis_ are much worn, while those of the only skulls of _Sus cristatus_ at hand are not fully grown, it is impossible to make any accurate comparisons. The smaller size of the Natuna pig's teeth is, however, evident for the length of the entire upper toothrow does not equal that of _S. cristatus_ without the posterior molar. The crown of the middle upper molar appears to be more nearly square in outline than that of the Tenasserim pig, but in the very different condition of the specimens it would be unsafe to assume that this character is constant. _Measurements._--External measurements of type; total length 1294; head and body 1117; tail vertebræ 177; height at shoulder 558; hind foot 220 (170); ear from meatus 100; width of ear 75. Cranial measurement of type: greatest length 295 (332[10]); occipito-nasal length 282 (316); basal length 245 (275); basilar length 235 (263); length of nasals 135 (157); width of both nasals together posteriorly 34 (33); median length of bony palate 168 (183); width of bony palate at middle of second molar 30 (29); breadth between tips of postorbital processes 87 (87); least interorbital breadth 64 (65); zygomatic breadth 130 (133); occipital breadth 58 (62); occipital depth 100 (103); least depth of rostrum between canine and incisor 33 (39); mandible 225 (232); depth of mandible through coronoid process 104 (110); depth of ramus at front of first molar 40 (41); maxillary toothrow to front of canine (alveoli) 113 (131[11]); mandibular toothrow to front of canine (alveoli) 120 (138); crown of first upper molar 12 × 13 (18 × 16); crown of second upper molar 18 × 18 (22 × 16). _Weight._--Weight of type, 40 kg.; weight of adult female from Pulo Lingung, 35 kg. _Specimens examined._--Two, one from Pulo Laut, the other from Pulo Lingung. _Remarks._--While the two specimens agree in all essential characters they differ in numerous minor details. The skin from Pulo Lingung is somewhat darker than the type, but the difference is due to the shade of the brown wash, not to any extension of the black. The skull of this specimen is more rounded posteriorly than that of the type, and the rostrum is shorter. Both specimens show conclusively that their relationships are with the _Sus cristatus_ of the Malay Peninsula and not with the _S. longirostris_ of Borneo, a case which finds an exact parallel in the giant squirrels. MUS INTEGER sp. nov. _Type._--Adult male (skin and skull) No. 104837 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Sirhassen Island, South Natunas, June 7, 1900. Original number 455. _Characters._--A large robust species with coarse but not spinous fur. Relationships with _Mus validus_ Miller, from Trong, Lower Siam, and _Mus mülleri_ Jentink from Sumatra. Differs from the former in smaller size and in the absence of the anterior outer tubercle of the last upper molar, and from the latter in larger size, and yellowish brown (not white) underparts. _Color._--Back and sides a fine grizzle of black and dull ochraceous (the exact shade intermediate between the ochraceous and ochraceous-buff of Ridgway), the two colors nearly equally mixed on back, but the ochraceous in excess on sides. Underparts and inner surface of legs buff. An ill defined drab-gray median line from throat to pubic region. Head darker and more glossy than back, the cheeks distinctly washed with gray. Lips and chin drab-gray. Feet an indefinite brown, darker on metapodials. Ears essentially naked, dark brown. Tail dark brown throughout. Underfur gray (Ridgway, pl. II, No. 8), becoming paler on under parts where it fades irregularly into the general buff. _Fur._--The fur is exactly as in _Mus validus_, that is the grooved bristles are so slender that their true nature is not apparent without use of lens. On middle of back the mass of the fur is about 17 mm. in length, the long terete hairs scattered through it reaching about 30 mm. On rump the fur is longer but not conspicuously so, and there is no noticeable increase in length or abundance of the terete black hairs. _Tail, feet and mammæ._--Tail slightly more coarsely scaled than in _Mus validus_; 9 rings to the centimeter at middle. Hairs scarcely noticeable except toward tip, where they somewhat exceed the breadth of the rings. Feet heavy and robust. Thumb short, with a flat blunt nail. Soles and palms naked, the former with six well developed tubercles, the latter with five. Mammæ, p. 2--2, i. 2--2 = 8. _Skull._--In general appearance the skull of _Mus integer_ resembles that of _Mus validus_.[12] It is shorter (greatest length about 51 instead of 55) and the rostrum is relatively broader and deeper. Audital bullæ similar in form to those of _Mus validus_, but the surface less irregular. Region between anterior bases of zygomata broader than in _Mus validus_ so that the arches are more nearly parallel. _Teeth._--The teeth are relatively as well as actually smaller than in _Mus validus_ and the enamel pattern is normal, that is, the posterior upper molar consists of two transverse folds, and an anterior internal tubercle. There is no trace of the supplementary outer tubercles of the corresponding tooth of _Mus validus_. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length 463; head and body 235[13] tail vertebræ 228;[13] hind foot 48 (45); ear from meatus 19; ear from crown 15; width of ear 15. In adult male topotype: total length 462; head and body 234;[13] tail vertebræ 228;[13] hind foot 46 (44); ear from meatus 21; ear from crown 16; width of ear 16. Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 52 (55);[14] basal length 45 (48.6); basilar length 41.6 (45.6); palatal length 23 (26); least width of palate between anterior molars 5 (5); diastema 14 (14.6);[15] length of incisive foramen 8 (9); combined breadth of incisive foramina 3 (3.6); length of nasals 21 (22.6); combined breadth of nasals 6 (6.2); zygomatic breadth 25 (28); interorbital breadth 8 (8); mastoid breadth 19 (19); breadth of braincase above roots of zygomata 18.8 (20); depth of braincase at anterior border of basi-occipital 12.8 (15); frontopalatal depth at posterior extremity of nasals 12.8 (13.4); least depth of rostrum immediately behind incisors 10 (10); maxillary toothrow (alveoli) 9.6 (11); width of front upper molar 3 (3); mandible 30 (31); mandibular toothrow (alveoli) 9 (10). _Specimens examined._--Four, three from the type locality, and one from Pulo Lingung. _Remarks._--This rat is probably a near relative of the Bornean _Mus mülleri_ of Thomas.[16] The specimen from Pulo Lingung does not differ appreciably from the others. MUS SABANUS Thomas. 1887. _Mus sabanus_ THOMAS, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 5th ser., XX, p. 270. October, 1887 (Mt. Kina Balu, Borneo). 1894. _Mus sabanus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 658. September, 1894 (Bunguran). Thirteen skins and one extra skull, all from Bunguran. There is little probability that this rat is the same as the true _Mus sabanus_ of Borneo. MUS RAJAH Thomas. 1894. _Mus hellwaldi_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 658. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1894. _Mus rajah_ THOMAS, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 6th ser., XIV, p. 451. December, 1894 (Mount Batu Song, Borneo). 1895. _Mus rajah_ THOMAS, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 26. February, 1895 (Revised determination of Bunguran specimens). Six specimens (one in alcohol) from Bunguran, two from Pulo Lingung, one from Pulo Laut, four (one in alcohol) from Sirhassen, and one (in alcohol) from Pulo Midei. It is doubtful whether these series are referable to one species or whether any of them are the true Bornean _Mus rajah_. The material is not wholly satisfactory, and I have been unable to examine specimens from Borneo. MUS NEGLECTUS Jentink. 1894. _Mus rattus_ var. THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 658. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1895. _Mus neglectus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 492. December, 1895 (Bunguran). Five specimens from Pulo Lingung, one from Pulo Midei, and nine from Sirhassen. In the absence of Bornean material, I follow Thomas and Hartert in referring the Natuna rats of the '_alexandrinus_' type to _Mus neglectus_. SCIUROPTERUS EVERETTI Thomas. 1894. _Sciuropterus phayrei_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 660. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1895. _Sciuropterus everetti_ THOMAS, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 27. February, 1895 (Revised determination of Bunguran specimens). 1895. _Sciuropterus everetti_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 490. December, 1895 (Bunguran). Two specimens, both from Bunguran; an immature male taken July 4, and an adult female taken July 21, 1900. PETAURISTA NITIDULA Thomas. 1894. _Pteromys nitidus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 660. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1895. _Pteromys nitidus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 490. December, 1895 (Bunguran). 1900. _Petaurista nitidula_ THOMAS, Novitates Zoologicæ, VII, p. 592. December 8, 1900 (Bunguran). Seven specimens from Bunguran. SCIURUS PROCERUS sp. nov. 1894. _Sciurus tenuis_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 659. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1895. _Sciurus tenuis_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 492. December, 1895 (Bunguran). _Type._--Adult male (skin and skull) No. 104698 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Bunguran Island, North Natunas, July 18, 1900. Original number 574. _Characters._--Externally similar to _Sciurus tenuis_ though somewhat smaller. Skull very much smaller and relatively broader than in the related species. _Color._--The color is exactly like that of _Sciurus tenuis_ from Singapore. _Skull and teeth._--Except that it appears to be broader throughout, relatively to its length, the skull of _Sciurus procerus_ is essentially a miniature of that of _S. tenuis_, as the braincase shows none of the tendency to increased depth characteristic of the Bornean animal. Ratio of rostral depth to distance between middle of interparietal and lower rim of audital bulla, 50. This ratio is 49 in _S. tenuis_. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length 235; head and body 140; tail vertebræ 95; hind foot 35 (33). Average and extremes of four specimens from the type locality: total length 239.5 (235-247); head and body 140; tail vertebræ 99.5 (95-107); hind foot 35.2 (34-36.5); hind foot without claws 32.9 (31.8-34). Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 34 (38);[17] basal length 28.6 (32); basilar length 26 (29); palatal length 14.6 (16); diastema, 7.6 (8.8); length of nasals 10.4 (11.4); greatest breadth of nasals 4.8 (5.6); interorbital breadth 12 (12.6); zygomatic breadth 20.8 (21); greatest breadth of braincase 17 (17.6); cranial depth from middle of interparietal to lower rim of audital bulla 14 (15); least depth of rostrum 7 (7.2); mandible, 20 (21); maxillary toothrow (alveoli) 6 (7); mandibular toothrow (alveoli), 6 (7). _Specimens examined._--Six, all from the type locality. _Remarks._--This species is immediately distinguishable from its allies by its small skull, scarcely larger than that of _Funambulus macclellandi_. SCIURUS NATUNENSIS (Thomas). 1894. _Sciurus lowi_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 659. September, 1894 (Sirhassen). 1895. _Sciurus lowi natunensis_ THOMAS, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 26. February, 1895 (Revised determination of Sirhassen specimen). 1895. _? Sciurus lowi natunensis_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 491. (Bunguran and Pulo Laut.) Four specimens from Sirhassen. The average and extreme measurements are as follows: total length 222 (215-229); head and body 135 (133-140); tail vertebræ 86 (82-89); hind foot 33.6 (33-35); hind foot without claw 31.5 (30.5-32). SCIURUS LINGUNGENSIS sp. nov. 1895. _? Sciurus lowi natunensis_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 491. (Bunguran and Pulo Laut.) _Type._--Adult male (skin and skull) No. 104693 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Pulo Lingung off southern extremity of Bunguran, North Natuna Islands, June 19, 1900. Original number 494. _Characters._--Externally similar to _Sciurus natunensis_ (Thomas), but slightly larger (hind foot with claws 36 instead of 33.6). Skull larger than that of _S. natunensis_, the audital bullæ much broader anteriorly. _Color._--The color is precisely as in _Sciurus natunensis_, and therefore requires no detailed description. _Skull._--Skull larger than that of _Sciurus natunensis_ (see measurements) but not different in general form. The audital bullæ are, however, readily distinguishable by the much greater development of the anterior inner lobe. In _Sciurus natunensis_ this lobe is so small as scarcely to form any part of the general contour of the bulla. In _S. lingungensis_ it is nearly equal to the anterior outer lobe, together with which it imparts a distinctly triangular outline to the ventral aspect of the bulla. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length 229; head and body 140; tail vertebræ 89; hind foot 36 (33.7); ear from meatus 12; ear from crown 7. A second specimen from the type locality gives precisely the same measurements. Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 38 (36);[18] basal length 33 (31); basilar length 30 (29); palatal length 17 (16); greatest length of nasals 11 (10); greatest width of both nasals together 5 (5); interorbital breadth 12 (11.4); zygomatic breadth 22.4 (20); mastoid breadth 17 (16.6); depth of braincase at anterior edge of basi-occipital 13.6 (13); mandible 23 (22); maxillary toothrow (alveoli) 6.4 (7); mandibular toothrow (alveoli) 7 (7). _Specimens examined._--Two, both from the type locality. _Remarks._--While _Sciurus lingungensis_ is scarcely distinguishable from _S. natunensis_ by external characters alone, size of the skull and form of the audital bullæ are clearly diagnostic. Both species from the Natunas are separated from the Bornean _S. lowi_ Thomas by their well developed ears, and shorter broader rostral portion of skull. SCIURUS LUTESCENS sp. nov. 1894. _Sciurus notatus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 659. September, 1894 (part, specimens from Sirhassen). _Type._--Adult male (skin and skull) No. 104668 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Sirhassen Island, South Natunas, June 3, 1900. Original number 429. _Characters._--Allied to _Sciurus notatus_, but considerably smaller than the Bornean representative of the species. Colors very pale, the under parts buff or cream-buff (Ridgway, pl. v, nos. 13 and 11) irregularly tinged with gray. _Color._--Entire dorsal surface of body and tail a fine grizzle of black and cream-buff, the individual hairs black with two or three cream buff rings. On tail the grizzle is less fine than on back, and it shows a faint tendency to resolve itself into obscure cross bands. On sides of body and on head the cream-buff brightens to buff. Cheeks and muzzle buff, scarcely grizzled. Feet slightly yellower than sides, under parts and inner surface of legs pale buff, palest anteriorly and laterally (where it about matches the cream-buff of Ridgway) brightest along median line. Under side of tail dull ochraceous-buff slightly grizzled with black. Pencil not different from rest of tail. Between the colors of sides and belly are the usual longitudinal stripes. The outer of these is about 5 mm. in width, and cream-buff in color. The inner is about twice as wide, and black, but much obscured by a thick sprinkling of bluish gray hairs. Outer surface of ears concolor with neck, inner surface like cheeks. The sprinkling of bluish gray hairs on sides of belly extends irregularly forward to axilla and inner side of front leg, occasionally to throat and chin. _Skull._--As compared with the Bornean form of _Sciurus notatus_, the skull of _S. lutescens_ is much smaller (greatest length about 45 instead of 50) the rostrum is relatively shorter and broader, and the audital bullæ are less elongate antero-posteriorly. Teeth as in _Sciurus notatus_ except that they are uniformly smaller. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length 355; head and body 177; tail vertebræ, 177; hind foot 45 (41). Average and extremes of six specimens from the type locality: total length 356 (329-375); head and body 186 (177-196); tail vertebræ 170 (152-178); hind foot 43.8 (41-45); hind foot without claws 40.7 (39-42). Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 45.4 (50.4)[19]; basal length 39 (43); basilar length 36.4 (41); palatal length 20 (23); palatal width between middle molars 6 (6); greatest length of nasals 13 (14.8); greatest width of both nasals together 6.6 (7); interorbital breadth 15.4 (17); mastoid breadth 21 (21); zygomatic breadth 26 (29); depth of braincase at anterior edge of basi-occipital 16 (16.8); mandible 28 (30); maxillary toothrow (alveoli) 8 (9); mandibular toothrow (alveoli) 8 (9). _Specimens examined._--Seven (one in alcohol), all from the type locality. _Remarks._--This squirrel is recognizable among the members of the _S. notatus_ group by its light colors, and particularly by the pallor of the under parts. In the latter characteristic it is approached by the form inhabiting Pulo Laut, but with this exception it is unique among the fulvous bellied species. The six specimens show no variation worthy of note. SCIURUS SERAIÆ sp. nov. _Type._--Adult male (skin and skull) No. 104660 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Pulo Seraia, South Natuna Islands, May 29, 1900. Original number 415. _Characters._--Most nearly related to the small, pallid, _Sciurus lutescens_ from Sirhassen Island, but upper parts slightly less pale, and under parts and pale side stripe buff-yellow, the former without admixture of gray. _Color._--Upper parts as in _Sciurus lutescens_ except that the pale bands on the hairs are more nearly buff than cream-buff. Tail essentially as in _S. lutescens_ but a shade less pale. Under parts buff-yellow darkening irregularly to dull orange-buff. Dark side stripe broad and well defined. _Skull._--The skull closely agrees with that of _Sciurus lutescens_ in both size and form, though it is perhaps even broader in proportion to its length. Teeth as in _S. lutescens_. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length 368; head and body 197; tail vertebræ 171; hind foot 44 (40). Average and extremes of four specimens from the type locality: total length 347 (323-368); head and body 184 (171-197); tail vertebræ 163 (152-171); hind foot 43.7 (43-45); hind foot without claws 40.1 (39.5-41). Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 45; basal length 38.6; basilar length 36; zygomatic breadth 26.4; least interorbital breadth 17; mandible 28; maxillary toothrow (alveoli) 8.6; mandibular toothrow (alveoli) 8.6. _Specimens examined._--Four, all from the type locality. _Remarks._--As might be expected from the geographic position of the island it inhabits, _Sciurus seraiæ_ differs from the Bornean _S. notatus_ in much the same way as the Sirhassen representative of the group. It is readily distinguishable from the Sirhassen animal by the different color of the under parts. In color _Sciurus seraiæ_ closely resembles _S. abbottii_ of the Tambelan Islands. The latter is, however, a much larger animal, with a longer and relatively narrower skull. SCIURUS RUTILIVENTRIS sp. nov. _Type._--Adult male (skin and skull) No. 104658 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Pulo Midei (Low Island), South Natuna Islands, May 24, 1900. Original number 405. _Characters._--Size slightly greater than that of _Sciurus lutescens_ and _S. seraiæ_, but not equal to that of the Bornean or Bunguran representatives of _S. notatus_. Color above as in _S. seraiæ_. Under parts bright clear orange-rufous. _Color._--Color exactly as in _Sciurus seraiæ_ except that the pale side stripe is light cream-buff and the under parts are bright orange rufous. Tail without trace of red suffusion. _Skull and teeth._--The skull and teeth are a trifle larger than in _Sciurus lutescens_ and _S. seraiæ_, but the difference is scarcely a tangible one. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: Total length 368; head and body 190; tail vertebræ 178; hind foot 45 (41). Average and extremes of seven specimens from the type locality: total length 356 (330-368); head and body 186 (178-190); tail vertebræ 173 (165-184); hind foot 45.5 (43-48); hind foot without claws 42.2 (39.5-45). _Specimens examined._--Seven, all from the type locality. _Remarks._--This squirrel is remarkable among the Natuna members of the _S. notatus_ group for the brilliant color of its under parts. In this respect it surpasses all of the related forms with which I am acquainted. The red color is, however, strictly confined to the body, showing no tendency to spread to the tail as in _S. miniatus_ of the Malay Peninsula. SCIURUS RUBIDIVENTRIS sp. nov. 1894. _Sciurus notatus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 659. September, 1894 (part, specimens from Bunguran). 1895. _Sciurus notatus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 491. December, 1895 (part, specimens from Bunguran). _Type._--Adult female (skin and skull) No. 104671 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Bunguran Island, North Natunas, June 22, 1900. Original number 498. _Characters._--Size and general appearance both above and below as in the Bornean form of _Sciurus notatus_, but red of under parts brighter, and cheeks and chin distinctly less fulvous than surrounding parts. Skull with broader, deeper braincase than in the Bornean animal. _Color._--The color so closely resembles that of the Bornean _Sciurus notatus_ that no detailed description is necessary. Under parts ochraceous-rufous, fading to tawny on throat, everywhere lighter and more tinged with red than in the Bornean animal. In the latter the color of the under parts extends forward to lips and also strongly suffuses the cheeks and sides of head which are only a shade browner than the throat and conspicuously more fulvous than top of head and sides of neck. In _Sciurus rubidiventris_ the cheeks and lips are noticeably suffused with gray so that they form a distinct contrast with both throat, top of head and sides of neck. _Skull._--The skull agrees in general size with that of the Bornean animal, and is therefore much larger than in the three species from the South Natunas. It is distinguishable by greater general breadth and by the depth of the braincase, which perceptibly exceeds that of _S. notatus_. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length 380; head and body 209; tail vertebræ 171; hind foot 49 (44.5). Averages and extremes of seven specimens from the type locality: total length 378 (368-393); head and body 208 (203-222); tail vertebræ 173 (165-184); hind foot 49.3 (48-50); hind foot without claws 45.7 (44.5-47). Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 52.4 (50.4);[20] basal length 44 (43); basilar length 41 (41); palatal length 23 (23); palatal width between middle molars 6 (6); greatest length of nasals 15 (14.8); greatest width of both nasals together 7.2 (7); interorbital breadth 18.2 (17); mastoid breadth 23 (21); breadth of braincase above roots of zygomata 24 (22); zygomatic breadth 30.4 (29); depth of braincase at anterior edge of basi-occipital 17.8 (16.8); mandible 29 (30); maxillary toothrow (alveoli) 9 (9); mandibular toothrow (alveoli) 9 (9). _Specimens examined._--Seven, all from the type locality. _Remarks._--In both size and general color this squirrel more closely resembles the Bornean representative of the group than it does either of the three forms from the South Natunas. Its relationships, however, appear to be rather with the race inhabiting Singapore Island than with any of its near geographic allies, _Sciurus lautensis_ excepted. SCIURUS LAUTENSIS sp. nov. 1895. _Sciurus notatus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 491. December, 1895 (part, specimens from Pulo Laut). _Type._--Adult female (skin and skull) No. 104683 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Pulo Laut, North Natuna Islands, August 6, 1900. Original number 612. _Characters._--Size slightly less than that of _Sciurus rubidiventris_ and color conspicuously pallid. Upper parts as in _S. lutescens_; lower parts nearly as in _S. seraiæ_ but rather less dull; pale side stripe much less yellow than belly. Skull as in _Sciurus rubidiventris_. _Color._--Upper parts and tail as in _Sciurus lutescens_. Cheeks faintly washed with ochraceous-buff. Under parts and inner surface of legs bright ochraceous-buff (distinctly more yellow than Ridgway's pl. V, No. 10). Lateral stripes as in _S. lutescens_ (not distinctly yellowish as in _S. seraiæ_), but black band usually less sprinkled with gray. Scarcely a trace of gray in axillary region or on sides of neck. _Skull._--The skull in all respects closely resembles that of _S. rubidiventris_ except that it is slightly smaller. Its large size and the correspondingly large teeth readily distinguish it from that of the South Natuna species. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length 375; head and body 195; tail vertebræ 180; hind foot 44 (41). Average and extremes of nine specimens from the type locality; total length 363 (355-379); head and body 189 (171-196); tail vertebræ 170 (165-183); hind foot 45 (44-46); hind foot without claws 42 (41-43). _Specimens examined._--Ten (one in alcohol), all from the type locality. _Remarks._--Though suggesting two of the small South Natuna squirrels in color, _Sciurus lautensis_ is obviously related to the dark colored Bunguran form, with which it more nearly agrees in size. SCIURUS NAVIGATOR (Bonhote). 1894. _Sciurus prevostii_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 656. September, 1894 (Sirhassen). 1901. _Sciurus prevostii navigator_ BONHOTE, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 7th ser., VII, p. 171. February, 1901 (Sirhassen). Nine specimens, three from Sirhassen Island and six from Pulo Subi. Those from Pulo Subi, while agreeing with the topotypes in color, appear to average a trifle smaller, though the series is hardly extensive enough to prove that this is constant. RATUFA SIRHASSENENSIS (Bonhote). 1894. _Sciurus bicolor albiceps_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 659. September, 1894 (Sirhassen). 1900. _Ratufa ephippium sirhassenensis_ BONHOTE, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 7th ser., V, p. 498. June, 1900 (Sirhassen). Two specimens, Sirhassen, June 8, 1900. This species, though related to _Ratufa ephippium_, with which it agrees in color-scheme, is sharply differentiated by its small size and cranial peculiarities. It is in no way closely allied to _Ratufa bunguranensis_ and _R. nanogigas_. As compared with that of _Ratufa ephippium sandakanensis_ Bonhote, the skull in addition to its small size (greatest length 57 instead of 65) differs in general narrowness, in the relatively greater breadth of the nasal branches of the premaxillaries, and in the form of the audital bullæ. When the skull is held upside down and viewed from behind the bullæ are seen to be narrower than in the Bornean animal and to rise to a much greater height above the surface of the basi-occipital. RATUFA BUNGURANENSIS (Thomas and Hartert). 1894. _Sciurus bicolor bunguranensis_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 658. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1895. _Sciurus bicolor bunguranensis_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 491. December, 1895 (Bunguran). 1900. _Ratufa ephippium bunguranensis_ BONHOTE, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 7th ser., V, p. 497. June, 1900. Thirteen specimens from Bunguran, all in various stages of the change from the bleached winter coat to the summer pelage. In the latter there is some color variation, mostly due to the greater or less distinctness of the drab wash overlying the Prouts-brown or 'chocolate' of the upper parts. Not only does the drab vary in amount in different individuals, but on every specimen it is more noticeable when the animal is viewed from in front. The drab wash is of the same character as that in _Ratufa affinis_, though less conspicuous. As Mr. Thomas has pointed out to me, after examining a specimen of the latter, _Ratufa bunguranensis_ is closely allied to _R. pyrsonota_. Indeed its relationship to the Siamese species is much closer than to the _R. ephippium_ of Borneo. Together with _R. pyrsonota_ the Bunguran giant squirrel differs conspicuously from that of Borneo in its narrow skull, lengthened audital bullæ, dark feet, dark median line on under surface of tail, and entirely brown back. From _R. pyrsonota_, however, it is readily separable by its darker, less ochraceous color both above and below, drab washed back, and by the much less distinct annulation of the hairs of the dorsal surface. RATUFA NANOGIGAS (Thomas and Hartert). 1895. _Sciurus bicolor nanogigas_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 491. December, 1895 (Pulo Laut). 1900. _Ratufa ephippium nanogigas_ BONHOTE, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 7th ser., V, p. 498. June, 1900 (Pulo Laut). Four specimens, all from Pulo Laut, the type locality. This strongly characterized dwarf species is allied to _Ratufa pyrsonota_ and _R. bunguranensis_ with which it agrees in color scheme. It is in no way closely related to the large Bornean _R. ephippium_. RATUFA ANGUSTICEPS sp. nov. _Type._--Adult male (skin and skull) No. 104646 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Pulo Lingung, off south coast of Bunguran, June 17, 1900. Original number 481. _Characters._--Externally like _Ratufa anambæ_ and _R. melanopepla_. Skull about equal to that of latter in length, but conspicuously narrower. _Color._--As the color is precisely like that of _Ratufa anambæ_ and _R. melanopepla_ it requires no description. _Skull and teeth._--The skull is immediately recognizable by its general narrowness, but particularly in the region of the anterior zygomatic roots. Ratio of lachrymal breadth to greatest length, 39. In the other black backed species it is about 42. Audital bullæ narrower and more elongate than in _R. melanopepla_, and more elevated above level of basi-occipital (when skull is held upside down). Lateral processes of basi-occipital obsolete. Teeth as in the related species. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length 748; head and body 342; tail vertebræ 406; hind foot 79 (74). Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 48.6 (70);[21] basal length 57 (59); basilar length 52 (53); diastema 15.6 (16); length of nasals 22 (23.4); breadth of nasals anteriorly 12 (13); breadth of nasals posteriorly 6 (7); interorbital breadth 27 (28); lachrymal breadth 28.4 (31); breadth between tips of postorbital processes 38 (41); zygomatic breadth 41 (44); mastoid breadth 31 (32.6); mandible 40 (41.6); maxillary toothrow (alveoli) 14 (14); mandibular toothrow (alveoli) 14.6 (14.4). _Specimens examined._--One, the type. _Remarks._--While this squirrel exactly resembles the other black backed species with untufted ears, so far as external characters are concerned, it seems to be well differentiated in cranial peculiarities. No black backed _Ratufa_ has hitherto been recorded from the Natunas. RHINOSCIURUS sp. An immature long-nosed squirrel was taken on Sirhassen Island, June 4, 1900. In the absence of material for comparison I am unable to determine the species. The genus is new to the islands. ARCTOGALIDIA INORNATA sp. nov. _Type._--Adult[22] male (skin and skull) No. 104859 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Bunguran Island, North Natunas, June 23, 1900. Original number 502. _Characters._--Much smaller than _Arctogalidia leucotis_ from the Malay Peninsula or _A. stigmatica_ from Borneo (greatest length of skull about 100 instead of 115) and in color paler than either, the dark dorsal stripes obsolete in adult. _Color._--General color of back and sides light silvery gray irregularly suffused with buff and slightly darkened by blackish hair-tips and by appearance at surface of hair-brown basal portion of fur. The buff suffusion is least noticeable on back, slightly more apparent on sides and flanks, and most evident on sides of neck, where it usually brightens almost to buff-yellow in distinct contrast with surrounding parts. On middle of back there is a trace of the middle dark stripe of the three normally present in members of the genus. Head essentially like back though somewhat more gray. Muzzle and ill-defined eye ring blackish. Cheeks and short median stripe on forehead dull whitish gray. Under parts essentially like back, but buff tinge more diffuse. Feet and ears dark brown. Tail like back but darkening to uniform brown beyond middle. Newly born young are clear bluish gray, with scarcely a tinge of buff. The three black dorsal stripes are clearly defined and normal in extent. _Skull._--In addition to its smaller size the skull differs from that of the Bornean _Arctogalidia stigmatica_ in the relatively larger braincase, and less prominent audital bullæ. The braincase is nearly as broad as in the Bornean species, but the zygomatic width is distinctly less. Audital bullæ less raised above level of basi-occipital when skull is held upside down and viewed from behind. The sagittal crest, though of normal development in very old individuals, is absent at an age when it is well grown in the larger species. In _Arctogalidia leucotis_ and _A. stigmatica_, even in animals so young that the teeth are unworn and all the sutures of the rostrum plainly visible, the sagittal crest is a knife-like ridge extending from proencephalon to lambdoid suture, and rising to a height of about 4 mm. over middle of braincase. In much older individuals of _A. inornata_, with worn teeth and nearly obliterated rostral sutures, the crest is represented by a low ridge about 5 mm. wide over middle of braincase and flat or grooved on top. At this stage it rises very inconspicuously above level of the adjacent surface, from which it is distinguished more by the texture of the bone than by actual form. _Teeth._--The teeth are uniformly much smaller than in _Arctogalidia leucotis_ and _A. stigmatica_, but I can detect no important differences in form. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length 1027; head and body 469; tail vertebræ 558; hind foot 78 (73.) External measurements of an adult female: total length 911; head and body 431; tail vertebræ 480; hind foot 77 (72). Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 102 (115);[23] basal length 96 (106); basilar length 92 (103); median palatal length 53 (60); palatal breadth between anterior molars 13 (15.4); zygomatic breadth 55 (60); breadth between tips of postorbital processes 41 (39); constriction in front of postorbital processes 19 (18); constriction behind postorbital processes 13 (12); breadth of braincase above roots of zygomata 32 (33); mastoid breadth 36 (38); mandible 76 (86); maxillary toothrow (exclusive of incisors) 34[24] (41); mandibular toothrow (exclusive of incisors) 39 (44); crown of first upper molar 5.4 × 5 (5.4 × 5.6); crown of second upper molar 4 × 5 (5.4 × 6.4); crown of second lower molar 7 × 4.2 (8.4 × 5.4). _Specimens examined._--Seven (two young in alcohol and one skull without skin), all from the type locality. _Remarks._--_Arctogalidia inornata_ is so distinct from the previously described species as to require no special comparisons. It is common on Bunguran where it frequents the cocoanut trees, living for the most part in the tops among the leaf stalks. VIVERRA TANGALUNGA Gray. 1895. _Viverra tangalunga_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 490. December, 1895 (Bunguran). Nine specimens from Bunguran. These agree in all respects with the Bornean animal. TUPAIA SPLENDIDULA Gray. 1894. _Tupaia splendidula_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 656. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1893. _Tupaia splendidula typica_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 489. December, 1895 (Bunguran). Two specimens from Bunguran. TUPAIA LUCIDA (Thomas and Hartert). 1895. _Tupaia splendidula lucida_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 490. December, 1895 (Pulo Laut). Seven specimens (two in alcohol) from Pulo Laut. TUPAIA SIRHASSENENSIS sp. nov. 1894. _Tupaia tana_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 657. September, 1894 (Sirhassen). _Type._--Adult male (skin and skull) No. 104712 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Sirhassen Island, South Natunas, June 5, 1900. Original number 442. _Characters._--In general similar to Bornean specimens of _Tupaia tana_, but smaller (hind foot 47 instead of 52, greatest length of skull 55 instead of 60), gray markings on head and shoulders less distinct, and red of tail brighter. Rostral portion of skull less attenuate than in _Tupaia tana_. _Color._--The color so exactly resembles that of the common Bornean _Tupaia tana_ as to need no detailed description. Gray of head darker than in the Bornean animal and light shoulder markings less distinct and sharply defined. Under side of tail light orange-rufous, darkening to ferruginous toward edge. (In _T. tana_ these colors are replaced by dull ferruginous and hazel respectively.) _Skull and teeth._--The skull is throughout much smaller than in specimens of _Tupaia tana_ from Borneo. In form it differs from that of _T. tana_ in less slender and elongate rostrum, narrower braincase and slightly shorter audital bullæ. Suborbital vacuity much broader than in _T. tana_. Teeth as in the Bornean animal. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: Total length 355; head and body 203; tail vertebræ 152; hind foot 46.4 (44). Average and extremes of four adults from the type locality: total length 367 (365-371); head and body 203; tail vertebræ 163 (162-168); hind foot 45.4 (44-46.6); hind foot without claws 42.5 (41-44). Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 54.6 (61);[25] basal length 49 (54); basilar length 46.4 (51); median palatal length 48 (53); distance from lachrymal notch to tip of premaxillary 27.6 (31); least interorbital breadth 14.4 (16); zygomatic breadth 25 (28.4); mandible 38 (41); maxillary toothrow (behind diastema) 20 (21.4); mandibular toothrow (behind diastema) 17 (18). _Specimens examined._--Five, all from the type locality. GALEOPITHECUS VOLANS (Linnæus). 1894. _Galeopithecus volans_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 657. September, 1894 (Bunguran and Sirhassen). Two specimens from Sirhassen and two (one young in alcohol), from Bunguran. Also foetus of one of the Sirhassen specimens. EMBALLONURA ANAMBENSIS Miller. Four specimens from Bunguran. These agree essentially with the Anamba animal, but show some slight cranial peculiarities. PIPISTRELLUS SUBULIDENS sp. nov. _Type._--Adult female (in alcohol) No. 104758 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Sirhassen Island, South Natunas, June 3, 1900. _Characters._--Similar to _Pipistrellus pipistrellus_ (Schreber) in size, color and external form, but skull with broader rostrum, and inner upper incisor without supplemental cusp. _Skull._--The skull is of the same size as that of _Pipistrellus pipistrellus_, but the braincase is narrower and more elongate, and the rostrum is very markedly shorter and broader. The great breadth of the anterior portion of the skull involves also the palate and interpterygoid space, both of which are noticeably wider than in _Pipistrellus pipistrellus_. Audital bullæ slightly smaller than in the European species. _Teeth._--The teeth are essentially as in _Pipistrellus pipistrellus_, except that the inner upper incisor lacks the small supplemental cusp. Mandibular teeth wider than those of _P. pipistrellus_. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length 76; head and body 41; tail 33; tibia 14; foot 6; calcar 10; forearm 32.4; thumb 6; second digit 30; third digit 60; fourth digit 53; fifth digit 43; ear from meatus 11; ear from crown 9; width of ear 9.6; tragus (measured in front) 4. Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 12.4 (12);[26] basal length 11.8 (11.6); basilar length 9 (9); zygomatic breadth 8.4 (8); least interorbital breadth 3.2 (3.2); greatest length of braincase 8 (7.6); greatest breadth of braincase above roots of zygomata 6.6 (6.6); mandible 8.8 (8.4); maxillary toothrow (exclusive of incisors) 4.2 (4.2); mandibular toothrow (exclusive of incisors) 4.8 (4.8). _Specimens examined._--Six (in alcohol), all from the type locality. _Remarks._--I am unable to identify this bat with any described species. Externally it is practically identical with _Pipistrellus pipistrellus_ except that the color, so far as can be judged from specimens preserved in alcohol, is more blackish. Internally it is readily distinguished by the characters of the skull and teeth. From _Pipistrellus abramus_ it differs externally in smaller size, narrower ears, and in the absence of any unusual development of the penis. The incisors differ from those of _P. abramus_ in the same manner as from those of _P. pipistrellus_. HIPPOSIDEROS LARVATUS (Horsfield). Two specimens (one in alcohol) were collected on Sirhassen Island, June 6 and 7, 1900. RHINOLOPHUS AFFINIS (Horsfield). One badly damaged specimen from Bunguran appears to be referable to typical _Rhinolophus affinis_. The forearm cannot be measured, but the third finger is 75 mm. in length. Tibia 21, foot 10.4, ear from meatus 21. Ridge on muzzle beneath edge of nose leaf low, broad and hairy, not in the least suggesting a supplementary leaflet. RHINOLOPHUS SPADIX sp. nov. 1894. _Rhinolophus affinis_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 656. December, 1895 (Sirhassen). _Type._--Adult female (in alcohol) No. 104752 U. S. National Museum. Collected on Sirhassen Island, South Natunas, June, 1900. _Characters._--In general like _Rhinolophus affinis_ but much smaller. Color uniform tawny brown. Muzzle with distinct supplemental leaflets. _Muzzle._--Muzzle and noseleaf precisely as in _Rhinolophus affinis_, except that the ridge on muzzle beneath edge of horseshoe is developed into a distinct supplemental leaflet resembling those present in _Hipposideros_. In this respect _Rhinolophus spadix_ resembles the animal from Burmah referred by Thomas to _Rhinolophus rouxii_;[27] but the terminal erect portion of the noseleaf is not shortened or in any way peculiar in form. _Ears._--The ears resemble those of _Rhinolophus affinis_, except that they are not as large. _Color._--Fur everywhere russet, slightly paler on ventral surface, darker and somewhat tinged with hazel above. Ears and membranes dark brown. _Skull and teeth._--The skull and teeth exactly resemble those of mainland specimens of _Rhinolophus affinis_ except for their uniformly smaller size. _Measurements._--External measurements of type: total length, 70 (85[28]); tail 21 (23); tibia 17.6 (24); foot 8 (10); calcar 12 (13); forearm 43 (51); thumb 8 (8.6); second digit 32 (40); third digit 64 (77); fourth digit 53 (61); fifth digit 54 (63); ear from meatus 17 (20); ear from crown 14 (17); length of noseleaf from lip 13 (16); greatest width of noseleaf 8 (9). Cranial measurements of type: greatest length 18 (23); basal length 16 (20.4); basilar length 14.6 (18); zygomatic breadth 9 (11); least interorbital breadth 2.4 (2.4); greatest length of braincase 10.4 (13); greatest breadth of braincase above roots of zygomata 8 (9.4); frontopalatal depth (at middle of molar series) 4 (4.8); depth of braincase 6 (7); mandible 11.8 (15); maxillary toothrow (exclusive of incisor) 6.8 (9); mandibular toothrow (exclusive of incisors) 7 (9.8). _Specimens examined._--Three (one skin), all from the type locality. _Remarks._--_Rhinolophus spadix_ is so readily distinguished from its relatives of the _R. affinis_ group that it needs no special comparisons. It is a much smaller animal than the species from the Anambas that I recently referred to _R. rouxii_.[29] In color the latter is a dull brown not in the least resembling the russet of _R. spadix_. CYNOPTERUS MONTANOI Robin. 1894. _Cynopterus marginatus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 655. September, 1894 (Sirhassen and Bunguran). 1899. _Cynopterus montanoi_ MATSCHIE, Die Fledermäuse des Berliner Museums für Naturkunde, p. 75. August, 1899. (Natuna record of _C. marginatus_ placed in synonymy of _C. montanoi_.) Five specimens (three skins) from Sirhassen. These agree so closely with a skin and two bleached alcoholic specimens from Singapore, which I suppose to be the same as the Malaccan _Cynopterus montanoi_, that without more material it is impossible to distinguish the Natuna animal from that of the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula. _Cynopterus montanoi_ as thus understood differs from _C. angulatus_ Miller[30] of Lower Siam in its more slender skull and in the absence of the white border of the ear, and from _C. titthæcheilus_ (Temminck) of Sumatra and Java in its conspicuously smaller size. PTEROPUS VAMPYRUS (Linnæus). 1894. _Pteropus vampyrus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 655. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1895. _Pteropus vampyrus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 489. December, 1895 (Bunguran). Six skins from Bunguran. ? PTEROPUS HYPOMELANUS Temminck. 1894. _Pteropus hypomelanus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 655. September, 1894 (Sirhassen). 1895. _Pteropus hypomelanus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 489. December, 1895 (Pulo Pandak, Pulo Panjang and Pulo Laut). Eight (one in alcohol) from Sirhassen and seven (one in alcohol) Pulo Laut. It is highly probable that these specimens represent a species distinct from the true _Pteropus hypomelanus_ of Ternate. NYCTICEBUS TARDIGRADUS (Linnæus). 1894. _Nycticebus tardigradus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 655. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1895. _Nycticebus tardigradus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 489 (Bunguran). One specimen from Bunguran. MACACUS 'CYNOMOLGUS' Auct. 1894. _Macacus cynomolgus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 654. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1895. _Macacus cynomolgus_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 489. December, 1895 (Bunguran). A specimen from each of the following islands: Sirhassen, Pulo Lingung and Pulo Laut. SEMNOPITHECUS CRISTATUS (Raffles). Two monkeys from Sirhassen appear to be referable to this species. SEMNOPITHECUS NATUNÆ Thomas and Hartert. 1894. _Semnopithecus natunæ_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 652. September, 1894 (Bunguran). 1895. _Semnopithecus natunæ_ THOMAS and HARTERT, Novitates Zoologicæ, II, p. 489. (Bunguran.) Ten specimens from Bunguran. FOOTNOTES: [1] For location of the Natuna Islands see Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., II, p. 204. August 20, 1900. [2] Thomas (O.) and Hartert (E.). List of the first collection of mammals from the Natuna Islands. Novitates Zoologicæ, I, pp. 652-660. September, 1894. Thomas (O.). Revised determinations of three of the Natuna rodents. Novitates Zoologicæ, II, pp. 26-28. February, 1895. Thomas (O.) and Hartert (E.). On a second collection of mammals from the Natuna Islands. Novitates Zoologicæ, II, pp. 489-492. December, 1895. Bonhote (J. Lewis). On the squirrels of the Ratufa (Sciurus) bicolor group. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 7th ser., V, pp. 490-499. June, 1900. Thomas (O.). The red flying squirrel of the Natuna Islands. Novitates Zoologicæ, VII, p. 592. December 8, 1900. Bonhote (J. Lewis). On the Squirrels of the Sciurus Prevostii Group. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 7th ser., VII, pp. 167-177. February, 1901. [3] Gray's "Notice of a species of Tupaia from Borneo, in the collection of the British Museum" in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London for 1865 (p. 322) may be added to the bibliography of Natuna mammals, as the animal described, though supposed to have been taken in Borneo, is apparently confined to Bunguran Island, the largest of the Natunas. [4] _Megaderma spasma_, _Myotis muricola_, _Taphozous melanopogon_, _Mydaus meliceps_, _Paradoxurus hermaphroditus_, _Lutra sumatrana_ and _Mus ephippium_. [5] See papers already cited, also Novitates Zoologicæ, I, p. 468 (letter from Mr. Everett); _ibid._, I, p. 483 (note on land shells by Mr. E. Smith), _ibid._, II, p. 478 (Birds); _ibid._, II, p. 499 (Reptiles). [6] Sitz.-Berich. der Gesellsch. Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin, 1893, p. 224. [7] For the opportunity of examining the skull of an adult male from Balabac I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. D. G. Elliot. A photograph (slightly reduced) of this specimen was published by Mr. Elliot in 1896 (Field Columbian Museum, Publication II, Zoological Series, I, No. 3, pl. XI, May, 1896). [8] Measurements in parentheses are those of an adult male topotype of _Tragulus nigricans_. [9] Measurements in parentheses are those of a less mature specimen from Bunguran. [10] Measurements in parentheses are those of a Tenasserim specimen (female) of _Sus cristatus_ so young that the posterior molar is not fully in place. [11] Last molar not fully grown. [12] See Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, XIII, pl. III and IV. [13] Collector's measurement. [14] Measurements in parentheses are those of the type of _Mus validus_. [15] In the type of _Mus mülleri_ the diastema is 12 mm. [16] Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 6th ser., XIV, p. 450. December, 1894. [17] Measurements in parentheses are those of an adult male topotype of _Sciurus tenuis_. [18] Measurements in parentheses are those of an older specimen of _Sciurus natunensis_ from Sirhassen. [19] Measurements in parentheses are those of an adult _Sciurus notatus_ from Borneo. [20] Measurements in parentheses are those of an adult Bornean _Sciurus notatus_. [21] Measurements in parentheses are those of the type of _Ratufa melanopepla_. [22] Teeth very much worn and many of them absent. [23] Measurements in parentheses are those of a young adult _A. stigmatica_ from British North Borneo. [24] Tooth measurements are from a younger specimen (male) with perfect dentition. [25] Measurements in parentheses are those of an adult male Bornean _Tupaia tana_. [26] Measurements in parentheses are those of an adult skull of _Pipistrellus pipistrellus_ from Switzerland. [27] Ann. Mus. Civ. di Storia Nat. di Genova, Ser. 2, X, p. 923, pl. XI, 1892. [28] Measurements in parentheses are those of an adult female _Rhinolophus affinis_ from Trong, Lower Siam. [29] Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., II, p. 234. August 20, 1900. [30] Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1898, p. 316. July, 1898. * * * * * Transcriber's Note: Obvious typographical errors have been repaired. _Underscores_ surround italicized content. 
38959	----	Transcriber's Note Italic text is presented as _Text_. UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 18, No. 5, pp. 421-504 August 20, 1969 Comparative Ecology of Pinyon Mice and Deer Mice in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado BY CHARLES L. DOUGLAS UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1969 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors of this number: Frank B. Cross, Philip S. Humphrey, J. Knox Jones, Jr. Volume 18, No. 5, pp. 421-504 Published August 20, 1969 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY ROBERT R. (BOB) SANDERS, STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1969 [Illustration] 32-6879 CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 424 Physiography 425 Vegetation and Climate 427 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 427 DESCRIPTIONS OF MAJOR TRAPPING LOCALITIES 428 HOME RANGE 435 Calculations of Home Range 437 Analysis by Inclusive Boundary Strip 439 Analysis by Exclusive Boundary Strip 440 Adjusted Length of Home Range 440 Distance Between Captures 441 VEGETATIONAL ANALYSIS OF HABITATS 446 MICROCLIMATES OF DIFFERENT HABITATS 450 HABITAT PREFERENCE 459 NESTING AND NEST CONSTRUCTION 461 REPRODUCTION 465 GROWTH 469 PARENTAL BEHAVIOR 471 Transportation of Young 472 CHANGES OWING TO INCREASE IN AGE 475 ANOMALIES AND INJURIES 476 Losses Attributed to Exposure in Traps 477 Dental Anomalies 478 Anomalies in the Skull 478 FOOD HABITS 479 WATER CONSUMPTION 482 PARASITISM 491 PREDATION 493 DISCUSSION 495 Factors Affecting Population Densities 497 Adaptations to Environment 499 LITERATURE CITED 501 INTRODUCTION Centuries ago in southwestern Colorado the prehistoric Pueblo inhabitants of the Mesa Verde region expressed their interest in mammals by painting silhouettes of them on pottery and on the walls of kivas. Pottery occasionally was made in the stylized form of animals such as the mountain sheep. The silhouettes of sheep and deer persist as pictographs or petroglyphs on walls of kivas and on rocks near prehistoric dwellings. Mammalian bones from archeological sites reveal that the fauna of Mesa Verde was much the same in A. D. 1200, when the Pueblo Indians were building their magnificent cliff dwellings, as it is today. One of the native mammals is the ubiquitous deer mouse, _Peromyscus maniculatus_. The geographic range of this species includes most of the United States, and large parts of Mexico and Canada. Another species of the same genus, the pinyon mouse, _P. truei_, also lives on the Mesa Verde. The pinyon mouse lives mostly in southwestern North America, occurring from central Oregon and southern Wyoming to northern Oaxaca. This species generally is associated with pinyon pine trees, or with juniper trees, and where the pinyon-juniper woodland is associated with rocky ground (Hoffmeister, 1951:vii). _P. maniculatus rufinus_ of Mesa Verde was considered to be a mountain subspecies by Osgood (1909:73). The center of dispersion for _P. truei_ was in the southwestern United States, and particularly in the Colorado Plateau area (Hoffmeister, 1951:vii). The subspecies _P. truei truei_ occurs mainly in the Upper Sonoran life-zone, and according to Hoffmeister (1951:30) rarely enters the Lower Sonoran or Transition life-zones. _P. maniculatus_ and _P. truei_ are the most abundant of the small mammals in Mesa Verde National Park, which comprises about one-third of the Mesa Verde land mass. Under the auspices of the Wetherill Mesa Archeological Project, the flora of the park recently was studied by Erdman (1962), and by Welsh and Erdman (1964). These studies have revealed stands of several distinct types of vegetation in the park and where each type occurs. This information greatly facilitated my study of the mammals inhabiting each type of association. The flora and fauna within the park are protected, in keeping with the policies of the National Park Service, and mammals, therefore, could be studied in a relatively undisturbed setting. Thus, the abundance of these two species of _Peromyscus_, the botanical studies that preceded and accompanied my study, the relatively undisturbed nature of the park, and the availability of a large area in which extended studies could be carried on, all contributed to the desirability of Mesa Verde as a study area. My primary purpose in undertaking a study of the two species of _Peromyscus_ was to analyze a number of ecological factors influencing each species--their habitat preferences, how the mice lived within their habitats, what they ate, where they nested, what preyed on them, and how one species influenced the distribution of the other. In general, my interest was in how the lives of the two species impinge upon each other in Mesa Verde. Physiography The Mesa Verde consists of about 200 square miles of plateau country in southwestern Colorado, just northeast of Four Corners, where Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona and Utah meet. In 1906, more than 51,000 acres of the Mesa Verde were set aside, as Mesa Verde National Park, in order to protect the cliff dwellings for which the area is famous. The Mesa Verde land mass is composed of cross-bedded sandstone strata laid down by Upper Cretaceous seas. These strata are known locally as the Mesaverde group, and are composed, from top to bottom, of Cliff House sandstone, the Menefee formation, the Point Lookout sandstone, the well known Mancos shale, and the Dakota sandstone, the lowest member of the Cretaceous strata. The Menefee formation is 340 to 800 feet thick, and contains carbonaceous shale and beds of coal. There are surface deposits of Pleistocene and Recent age, with gravel and boulders of alluvial origin; colluvium composed of heterogeneous rock detritus such as talus and landslide material; and alluvium composed of soil, sand, and gravel. A layer of loess overlays the bedrock of the flat mesa tops in the Four Corners area. The earliest preserved loess is probably pre-Wisconsin, possibly Sangamon in age (Arrhenius and Bonatti, 1965:99). The North Rim of Mesa Verde rises majestically, 1,500 feet above the surrounding Montezuma Valley. Elevations in the park range from 8,500 feet at Park Point to about 6,500 feet at the southern ends of the mesas. The Mesa Verde land mass is the remnant of a plateau that erosion has dissected into a series of long, narrow mesas, joined at their northern ends, but otherwise separated by deep canyons. The bottoms of these canyons are from 600 to 900 feet below the tops of the mesas. The entire Mesa Verde land mass tilts southward; Park Headquarters, in the middle of Chapin Mesa (Fig. 1), is at about the same elevation as is the entrance of the park, 20 miles by road to the north. [Illustration: FIG. 1: Map of Mesa Verde National Park and vicinity, showing major trapping localities from 1961-1964. Trapping localities are designated in the text as follows: 1) North End Wetherill Mesa 2) Rock Springs 3) Mug House 4) Bobcat Canyon Drainage 5) North of Long House 6) Juniper-Pinyon-Bitterbrush Site 7) Navajo Hill 8) West of Far View Ruins 9) South of Far View Ruins, also general location of trapping grid 10) M-2 Weather Station 11) East Loop Road Site 12) Big Sagebrush Stand, Southern end Chapin Mesa 13) Grassy Meadow, Southern end Moccasin Mesa 14) Bedrock Outcroppings, Southern end Moccasin Mesa 15) 1/4 mi. SE Park Entrance 16) Meadow, 1 mi. SE Park Entrance 17) Morfield Ridge.] Vegetation and Climate Mesa Verde is characterized by pinyon-juniper woodlands that extend throughout much of the West and Southwest. Although the pinyon-juniper woodland dominates the mesa tops, stands of Douglas fir occur in some sheltered canyons and on north-facing slopes. Thickets of Gambel oak and Utah serviceberry cover many hillsides and form a zone of brush at higher elevations in the park. Aspens grow in small groups at the base of the Point Lookout sandstone and at a few other sheltered places where the supply of moisture suffices. Individual ponderosa pine are scattered through the park, and stands of this species occur on some slopes and in the bottoms of some sheltered canyons. Tall sagebrush grows in deep soils of canyon bottoms, and in some burned areas, and was found to be a good indicator of prehistoric occupation sites. The climate of Mesa Verde is semi-arid, and most months are dry and pleasant. Annual precipitation has averaged about 18.5 inches for the last 40 years. July and August are the months having the most rainfall. Snow falls intermittently in winter, and may persist all winter on north-facing slopes and in valleys. In most years, snow is melting and the kinds of animals that hibernate are emerging by the first of April. Because of the great differences in elevation between the northern and southern ends of the mesas, differences in climate are appreciable at these locations. Winter always is the more severe on the northern end of the park, owing to persistent winds, lower temperatures, and more snow. The northern end of the park is closer to the nearby La Platta Mountains where ephemeral storms of summer originate. They reach the higher elevations of the park first, but such storms dissipate rapidly and are highly localized. The northern end of the park therefore receives much more precipitation in summer and winter than does the southern end. The difference in precipitation and the extremes in weather between the northern and southern ends of the mesas affect the distribution of plants and animals. Species of mammals, plants, and reptiles are most numerous on the middle parts of the mesas, as also are cliff-dwellings, surface sites, and farming terraces of the prehistoric Indians. Anderson (1961) reported on the mammals of Mesa Verde National Park, and Douglas (1966) reported on the amphibians and reptiles. In each of these reports, earlier collections are listed and earlier reports are summarized. I lived in Mesa Verde National Park for 28 months in the period July 1961 to September 1964, while working as Biologist for the Wetherill Mesa Archeological Project, and the study here reported on is one of the faunal studies that I undertook. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study could not have been completed without the assistance and encouragement of numerous persons. I am grateful to Dr. Olwen Williams, of the University of Colorado, for suggesting this study and helping me plan the early phases of it. Mr. Chester A. Thomas, formerly Superintendent, and Mrs. Jean Pinkley, formerly Chief of Interpretation at Mesa Verde National Park, permitted me to use the park's facilities for research, issued collecting permits, and in 1965 appointed me as a research collaborator in order that I might complete my studies. Dr. H. Douglas Osborne, California State College, Long Beach, formerly Supervisory Archeologist of the Wetherill Mesa Project, took an active interest in my research and provided supplies, transportation and laboratory and field assistance under the auspices of the Wetherill Project. His assistance and encouragement are gratefully acknowledged. Mrs. Marilyn A. Colyer of Mancos, Colorado, ably assisted in analyzing vegetation in the trapping grid; Mr. Robert R. Patterson, the University of Kansas, assisted me in the field in October of 1963 and in August of 1965. Mr. James A. Erdman, United States Geological Survey, Denver, formerly Botanist for the Wetherill Mesa Project, and Dr. Stanley L. Welsh, Brigham Young University, identified plants for me in the field, and checked my identifications of herbarium specimens. I owe my knowledge of the flora in the park to my association with these two capable botanists. I am grateful to the following persons for identification of invertebrates: D. Eldon Beck, fleas and ticks; Paul Winston, mites; V. Eugene Nelson, mites; William Wrenn, mites; Wayne W. Moss, mites; William B. Nutting, mites (_Desmodex_); Marilyn A. Colyer, insects; John E. Ubelaker, endoparasites; Veryl F. Keen, botflies. George A. King, Architect, of Durango, Colorado, prepared the original map for Figure 1. Mr. Harold Shepherd of Mancos, Colorado, Senior Game Biologist, Colorado Department of Fish, Game and Parks, obtained permission for me to use the department's trapping grid near Far View Ruins, and provided me with preserved specimens of mice. Mr. Fred E. Mang Jr., Photographer, National Park Service, processed large numbers of photomicrographs of plant epidermis. Dr. Kenneth B. Armitage, The University of Kansas, offered valuable suggestions for the study of water consumption in the two species of _Peromyscus_, and permitted me to use facilities of the Zoological Research Laboratories at The University of Kansas. Dr. Richard F. Johnston, The University of Kansas, permitted me to house mice in his controlled-temperature room at the Zoological Research Laboratories. I am grateful to all of the above mentioned persons for their aid. I acknowledge with gratitude the guidance, encouragement, and critical assistance of Professor E. Raymond Hall throughout the course of the study and preparation of the manuscript. I also extend my sincere thanks to Professors Henry S. Fitch, Robert W. Baxter, and William A. Clemens for their helpful suggestions and assistance. To my wife, Virginia, I am grateful for encouragement and assistance with many time-consuming tasks connected with field work and preparation of the manuscript. Travel funds provided by the Kansas Academy of Science permitted me to work in the park in August, 1965. The Wetherill Mesa Project was an interdisciplinary program of the National Park Service to which the National Geographic Society contributed generously. I am indebted to the Society for a major share of the support that resulted in this report. This is contribution No. 44 of the Wetherill Mesa Project. DESCRIPTIONS OF MAJOR TRAPPING LOCALITIES Trapping was begun in September of 1961 in order to analyze the composition of rodent populations within the park. I used the method of trapping employed by Calhoun (1948) in making the Census of North American Small Mammals (N. A. C. S. M.). It consisted of two lines of traps, each 1,000 feet long having 20 trapping stations that were 50 feet apart. The lines were either parallel at a distance of 400 feet from each other, or were joined to form a line 2,000 feet long. Three snap traps were placed within a five-foot radius of each station, and were set for three consecutive nights. More than a dozen areas were selected for extensive trapping (Fig. 1). Some of these were retrapped in consecutive years in order to measure changes in populations. One circular trapline of 159.5 feet radius was established in November 1961, and was tended for 30 consecutive days to observe the effect of removing the more dominant species (Calhoun, 1959). Other mouse traps and rat traps were set in suitable places on talus slopes, rocky cliffs, and in cliff dwellings. Most of these traps were operated for three consecutive nights. In order to test hypotheses concerning habitat preferences of each of the species of _Peromyscus_, several previously untrapped areas that appeared to be ideal habitat for one species, but not for the other, were selected for sampling. In the summers of 1963 and 1964 snap traps were set along an arbitrary line through each of these areas. Traps were placed in pairs; each pair was 20 feet from the adjacent pairs. A mixture of equal parts of peanut butter, bacon grease, raisins, roman meal and rolled oats was used as bait. Rolled oats or coarsely ground scratch feed was used in areas where insects removed the mixture from the traps. Rodents trapped by me were variously prepared as study skins with skulls, as flat skins with skulls, as skeletons, as skulls only, or as alcoholics. Representative specimens were deposited in The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. In the course of my study, traps were set in the following areas: _Morfield Ridge_ In July 1959 a fire destroyed more than 2,000 acres of pinyon-juniper forest (_Pinus edulis_ and _Juniperus osteosperma_) in the eastern part of the park. The burned area extends from Morfield Canyon to Waters Canyon, encompassing several canyons, Whites Mesa, and a ridge between Morfield Canyon and Waters Canyon that is known locally as Morfield Ridge (Fig. 1). Beginning on September 4, 1961, three pairs of traplines were run on this ridge at elevations of 7,300 to 7,600 feet. Vegetation in the trapping area consisted of dense growths of grasses and herbaceous plants, which had covered the ground with seeds. In this and in the following accounts, the generic and specific names of plants are those used by Welsh and Erdman (1964). The following plants were identified from the trapping area on Morfield Ridge: _Lithospermum ruderale_ _Chenopodium pratericola_ _Achillea millefolium_ _Artemisia tridentata_ _Aster bigelovii_ _Chrysothamnus depressus_ _Chrysothamnus nauseosus_ _Helianthus annuus_ _Helianthella_ sp. _Lactuca_ sp. _Lepidium montanum_ _Quercus gambelii_ _Agropyron smithii_ _Bromus inermis_ _Bromus japonicus_ _Oryzopsis hymenoides_ _Calochortus nuttallii_ _Linum perenne_ _Sphaeralcea coccinea_ _Polygonum sawatchense_ _Solidago petradoria_ _Wyethia arizonica_ _Nicotiana attenuata_ _Fendlera rupicola_ _Penstemon linarioides_ Only _Peromyscus maniculatus_, _Perognathus apache_ and _Reithrodontomys megalotis_ were taken in this area (Table 1). Many birds inhabit this area, including hawks, ravens, towhees, jays, juncos, woodpeckers, doves, sparrows and titmice. Rabbits, badgers and mule deer also live in the area. Only two reptiles, a horned lizard and a collared lizard, were seen. _South of Far View Ruins_ Two parallel trap lines were established on October 4, 1961, in the area immediately south of Far View Ruins (Fig. 1). In altitude, latitude and geographical configuration the area is similar to that trapped in the Morfield burn, but the Chapin Mesa site had not been burned. Canopy vegetation is pinyon-juniper forest. A dense understory was made up of _Amelanchier utahensis_ (serviceberry), _Cercocarpos montanus_ (mountain mahogany), _Purshia tridentata_ (bitterbrush), and _Quercus gambelii_ (Gambel oak). The ground cover consisted of small clumps of _Poa fendleriana_ (muttongrass), and _Koeleria cristata_ (Junegrass), intermingled with growths of one or more of the following: _Artemisia nova_ _Solidago petradoria_ _Sitanion hystrix_ _Astragalus scopulorum_ _Lupinus caudatus_ _Eriogonum alatum_ _Penstemon linarioides_ _Eriogonum racemosum_ _Eriogonum umbellatum_ _Polygonum sawatchense_ _Amelanchier utahensis_ _Purshia tridentata_ _Comandra umbellata_ Seeds of _Cercocarpos montanus_ covered the ground under the bushes in much of the trapping area, and large numbers of juniper berries were on the ground beneath the trees. Individuals of _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_ were caught in this area (Table 1). Several deer, rabbits, one coyote, and numerous birds were seen in the area. No reptiles were noticed, but they were not searched for. A mountain lion was seen in this general area two weeks after trapping was completed. _West of Far View Ruins_ Three pairs of traplines were run west of Far View Ruins in an area comparable in vegetation, altitude, general topography, and configuration to the area previously described. The elevations concerned are typical of the middle parts of mesas throughout the park. This area differs from the trapping area south of Far View Ruins and the one on Morfield Ridge in being wider and on the western side of the mesa. The woody understory was sparse in most places, and where present was composed of _Cercocarpos montanus_, _Purshia tridentata_, _Fendlera rupicola_ (fendlerbush), _Amelanchier utahensis_, _Quercus gambelii_, and _Artemisia tridentata_ (sagebrush). The herbaceous ground cover was dominated by _Solidago petradoria_ (rock goldenrod), and grasses--including _Poa fendleriana_, _Oryzopsis hymenoides_, and _Sitanion hystrix_. Other herbaceous species were as follows: _Echinocercus coccineus_ _Achillea millefolium_ _Aster bigelovii_ _Wyethia arizonica_ _Lepidium montanum_ _Lupinus caudatus_ _Yucca baccata_ _Linum perenne_ _Eriogonum racemosum_ _Eriogonum umbellatum_ _Polygonum sawatchense_ _Delphinium nelsonii_ _Penstemon linarioides_ Fresh diggings of pocket gophers were observed along the trap lines. Badger tunnels were noted in numerous surface mounds that are remnants of prehistoric Indian dwellings, but no badgers were seen. Numerous deer and several rabbits were present. Juncos, two species of jays, and woodpeckers were seen daily. No reptiles were observed. Both _Peromyscus maniculatus_ and _P. truei_ were caught in this area (Table 1). _Big Sagebrush Stand, South Chapin Mesa_ A circular trapline, 1,000 feet in circumference, was established on November 16, 1961, in a stand of big sagebrush, and was operated for 30 consecutive nights. The vegetation of the trapping area was predominantly _Artemisia tridentata_ (big sagebrush), interspersed with a few scattered seedlings of pinyon and juniper. This stand was burned in 1858 (tree-ring date by David Smith) and some charred juniper snags still stood. The deep sandy soil also supported a variety of grasses and a few other small plants. The following species were common in this area: _Bromus inermis_ _Oryzopsis hymenoides_ _Poa fendleriana_ _Sitanion hystrix_ _Solidago petradoria_ _Orthocarpus purpureo-albus_ The 15 to 20 acres of sagebrush were surrounded by pinyon-juniper forest. The trapping station closest to the forest was approximately 100 feet from the edge of the woodland. More _P. truei_ than _P. maniculatus_ were caught here (Table 1). _East Loop Road, Chapin Mesa_ The trapping area lies north of Cliff Palace, eastward of the loop road, at elevations of 6,875 to 6,925 feet. Two pairs of traplines were run from January 9, 1962, to January 12, 1962, and from February 13 to 15, 1962. Vegetation was pinyon-juniper woodland with an understory of mixed shrubs. One to four inches of old snow covered the ground during most of the trapping period, but the ground beneath trees and shrubs was generally clear, providing suitable location for traps. Numerous juncos and jays were seen in this area; deer and rabbits also were present. Individuals of _P. truei_ and of _P. maniculatus_ were taken (Table 1). _Navajo Hill, Chapin Mesa_ Navajo Hill is the highest point (8,140 feet) on Chapin Mesa. The top of the hill is rounded and the sides slope gently southward and westward until they level out into mesa-top terrain at elevations of 7,950 to 8,000 feet. The northern and eastern slopes of the hill drop abruptly into the respective canyon slopes of the East Fork of Navajo Canyon and the West Fork of Little Soda Canyon. The gradually tapering southwestern slope of the hill extends southward for one mile and is bisected by the main highway, which runs the length of the mesa top. Heavy growths of grasses cover the ground; _Amelanchier utahensis_, _Cercocarpos montanus_, and _Fendlera rupicola_ comprise the only tall vegetation. Trees are lacking on this part of the mesa, except on the canyon slopes, where _Quercus gambelii_ forms an almost impenetrable barrier. Four traplines were run from May 4-7, 1962, and from May 9-12, 1962. _P. maniculatus_ was taken but _P. truei_ was not present here in 1962, or in 1964 or 1965 when additional trapping was performed as a check on populations (Table 1). Other species trapped include the montane vole, long-tailed vole, and Colorado chipmunk. Mule deer and coyotes were abundant in the area. Striped whipsnakes, rattlesnakes and gopher snakes are known to occur in this vicinity (Douglas, 1966). _North End Wetherill Mesa_ In 1934 a widespread fire deforested large areas of pinyon-juniper woodland on the northern end of Wetherill Mesa. The current vegetation consists of shrubs with a dense ground cover of grasses. Many dead trees still remain on the ground, providing additional cover for wildlife. The trapping area was a wide, grassy meadow, three and a half miles south of the northern end of the mesa. A pronounced drainage runs through this area and empties into Rock Canyon. Four traplines were run parallel to each other. The first lines were established on May 23, 1962, and the second pair on June 3, 1962. Another pair of lines was run in a grassy area two miles south of the northern escarpment of Wetherill Mesa. This area was one and a half miles north of the above-mentioned area. These lines ran along the eastern side of a drainage leading into Long Canyon. The vegetation was essentially the same in both areas, and they will be considered together. The vegetation was composed predominantly of grasses. _Quercus gambelii_ and _Amelanchier utahensis_ were the codominant shrubs. _Artemisia tridentata_ and _Chrysothamnus depressus_ (dwarf rabbitbrush), were common. Plants in the two areas included the following: _Juniperus scopulorum_ _Symphoricarpos oreophilus_ _Artemisia ludoviciana_ _Sitanion hystrix_ _Stipa comata_ _Astragalus scopulorum_ _Artemisia tridentata_ _Chrysothamnus depressus_ _Helianthus annuus_ _Tetradymia canescens_ _Quercus gambelii_ _Bromus tectorum_ _Poa fendleriana_ _Lupinus caudatus_ _Yucca baccata_ _Sphaeralcea coccinea_ _Eriogonum umbellatum_ _Amelanchier utahensis_ _Fendlera rupicola_ _Lomatium pinatasectum_ Individuals of _P. maniculatus_ and of _Reithrodontomys megalotis_ were caught (Table 1). TABLE 1--Major Trapping Localities in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. Vegetational Key as Follows: 1) Pinyon-Juniper-Muttongrass 2) Pinyon-Juniper-Mixed Shrubs 3) Juniper-Pinyon-Bitterbrush 4) Juniper-Pinyon-Mountain Mahogany 5) Grassland with Mixed Shrubs 6) Big Sagebrush 7) Pinyon-Juniper-Big Sagebrush 8) Grassland. Column headings: A: Date B: No. trap nights C: _P. truei_ D: _P. man._ E: Type of vegetation ========================+=============+=======+=====+=====+=== Locality | A | B | C | D | E ------------------------+-------------+-------+-----+-----+--- Morfield Ridge | Sept. 1961 | 1080 | 0 | 83 | 5 | Oct. 1963 | 360 | 0 | 13 | 5 | | | | | S. of Far View | Oct. 1961 | 360 | 10 | 13 | 2 | | | | | W. of Far View | Oct. 1961 | 1080 | 22 | 17 | 2 | | | | | South Chapin Mesa | Nov.-Dec. | 3600 | 16 | 9 | 6 | 1961 | | | | | | | | | East Loop Road | Jan. 1962 | 720 | 6 | 2 | 2 | | | | | Navajo Hill | May 1962 | 720 | 0 | 18 | 5 | Aug. 1964 | 20 | 0 | 2 | 5 | Aug. 1965 | 50 | 0 | 8 | 5 | | | | | N. Wetherill Mesa | May-June | 1080 | 0 | 57 | 5 | 1962 | | | | | | | | | Bobcat Canyon Drainage | June 1962 | 360 | 0 | 0 | 6 | | | | | N. of Long House | June 1962 | 1080 | 3 | 4 | 1 | | | | | Mug House--Rock Springs | Aug. 1962 | 720 | 8 | 14 | 4 | Aug. 1963 | 720 | 9 | 7 | 4 | | | | | S. Wetherill Mesa | Aug. 1962 | 720 | 0 | 5 | 3 | | | | | 1 mi. SE Park Entr. | June 1963 | 50 | 0 | 16 | 7 | | | | | 1/4 mi. SE Park Entr. | July 1963 | 100 | 0 | 7 | 8 | | | | | M-2 Weather Sta. | May 1964 | 25 | 2 | 0 | 1 | | | | | 8 mi. S North Rim | | | | | Moccasin Mesa | Aug. 1964 | 100 | 0 | 3 | 8 | | | | | 10 mi. S North Rim | | | | | Moccasin Mesa | Aug. 1964 | 25 | 2 | 0 | 2 ------------------------+-------------+-------+-----+-----+--- _Bobcat Canyon Drainage_ Bobcat Canyon, a large secondary canyon on the eastern side of Wetherill Mesa, is a major drainage for much of the mesa at its widest part. The mesa top drains southeast into a pour-off at the head of Bobcat Canyon. A stand of big sagebrush, _Artemisia tridentata_, grows in the sandy soil of the drainage, and extends northwest for several hundred yards from the pour-off. The sagebrush invades the pinyon-juniper forest at the periphery of the area. Two traplines were set in the drainage, with trapping stations at intervals of 25 feet. The lines traversed elevations of 7,000 to 7,100 feet, and were run from June 26 to 29, 1962. Grasses are the most abundant plants in the ground cover. _Artemisia dracunculus_ is common in the drainage, and _A. nova_ grows around the periphery of the drainage. Other species occurring in this stand include: _Aster bigelovii_ _Tetradymia canescens_ _Tragopogon pratensis_ _Bromus tectorum_ _Poa fendleriana_ _Sitanion hystrix_ _Stipa comata_ _Lupinus argenteus_ _Calochortus gunnisonii_ _Sphaeralcea coccinea_ _Phlox hoodii_ _Eriogonum umbellatum_ _Peraphyllum ramosissimum_ _Purshia tridentata_ _Penstemon linarioides_ No mice were caught in three nights of trapping (360 trap nights), and only one mammal, a _Spermophilus variegatus_, was seen. _North of Long House, Wetherill Mesa_ Pinyon-juniper forest with a dominant ground cover of _Poa fendleriana_ was described by Erdman (1962) as one of the three distinct types of pinyon-juniper woodland on Wetherill Mesa. Such a woodland occurs adjacent to the Bobcat Canyon drainage, and is continuous across the Mesa from above Long House to the area near Step House. Plants in the ground cover include: _Cryptantha bakeri_ _Opuntia rhodantha_ _Chrysothamnus depressus_ _Solidago petradoria_ _Koeleria cristata_ _Lupinus argenteus_ _Yucca baccata_ _Phlox hoodii_ _Eriogonum racemosum_ _Eriogonum umbellatum_ _Cordylanthus wrightii_ _Pedicularis centranthera_ _Penstemon linarioides_ _Penstemon strictus_ Two traplines were run from July 9 to 12, 1962, in the area south of the Bobcat Canyon drainage at an elevation of 7,100 feet. No mice were caught in three nights of trapping. Four additional lines were established on July 24, 1962, and were run for three nights, in the area north of the Bobcat Canyon drainage at elevations of 7,100 to 7,150 feet. _P. maniculatus_ and _P. truei_ were caught here (Table 1). This vegetational association may have few rodents because there is a shortage of places where they can hide. Although _Poa fendleriana_ is abundant, the lack of shrubs leaves little protective cover for mammals. _Mug House--Rock Springs_ A juniper-pinyon-mountain mahogany association extends from the area of Mug House to Rock Springs, on Wetherill Mesa. On that part of the ridge just above Mug House, the understory is predominantly _Cercocarpos montanus_ (mountain mahogany), but northward toward Rock Springs the understory changes to _Fendlera rupicola_, _Amelanchier utahensis_, _Cercocarpos_, and _Purshia tridentata_. The ground cover is essentially the same as that in the pinyon-juniper-muttongrass association described previously. Four traplines were run from July 31 to August 2, 1962, and from August 13 to 15, 1963. These lines ran northwest-southeast, starting 1,000 feet southeast of, and ending 3,000 feet northwest of, Mug House. The lines traversed elevations of 7,225 to 7,325 feet. Individuals of _P. maniculatus_ and _P. truei_ were caught here (Table 1). Deer and rabbits inhabit the trapping area. Bobcats have been seen, by myself and by others, near Rock Springs. Lizards of the genera _Cnemidophorus_ and _Sceloporus_, as well as gopher snakes were seen in this area. _Juniper--Pinyon--Bitterbrush_ Three pairs of traplines were run from August 7-9, 1962, in a juniper-pinyon-bitterbrush stand on the southern end of Wetherill Mesa, starting 200 yards southwest of Double House (Fig. 1). The forest on the southern end of the mesas consists of widely-spaced trees, which reflect the low amounts of precipitation at these lower elevations. Juniper trees are more numerous than pinyons, and both species are stunted in comparison to trees farther north on the mesa. _Purshia tridentata_ (bitterbrush) is the understory codominant. _Artemisia nova_ (black sagebrush) is present and grasses are the most abundant plants in the ground cover. Herbaceous species in the sparse ground cover include the following: _Opuntia polyacantha_ _Solidago petradoria_ _Lathyrus pauciflorus_ _Penstemon linarioides_ _Lupinus caudatus_ _Yucca baccata_ _Phlox hoodii_ Only _P. maniculatus_ was caught in this stand; all mice were caught in the first night of trapping. Five areas were selected for trapping in the summers of 1963 or 1964, in order to test hypotheses concerning habitat preferences of each of the species of _Peromyscus_. Four of these areas appeared to be ideal habitat for one species, but not for the other. The fifth area was expected to produce both species of _Peromyscus_. Each of these areas is discussed below. _One Mile Southeast of Park's Entrance_ A small stand of _Artemisia tridentata_, occurring one mile southeast of the entrance to the park, is bordered to the north and northeast by a grassy meadow, discussed in the following account. Kangaroo rats have been reported in this general area, and I wanted to determine whether _P. maniculatus_ and _Dipodomys_ occurred together there. Fifty trap nights in this sagebrush, on June 20, 1963, yielded only _P. maniculatus_ (Table 1). _Meadow, One-Quarter Mile Southeast of Park's Entrance_ A grassy meadow lies just to the east of the highway into the park, one-quarter of a mile southeast of the park's entrance. On July 30, 1963, one hundred traps were placed in two lines through the meadow, and were run for one night. Only individuals of _P. maniculatus_ were caught (Table 1). _M-2 Weather Station, Chapin Mesa_ The M-2 weather station of the Wetherill Mesa Archeological Project was on the middle of Chapin Mesa at an elevation of 7,200 feet. This site was in an old C. C. C. area, about one mile north of the park's U. S. Weather Bureau station. The vegetation surrounding the M-2 site was a pinyon-juniper-muttongrass association. It was thought that both species of _Peromyscus_ would occur in this habitat. On May 10, 1964, 25 traps were placed in this area and were run for one night. Only individuals of _P. truei_ were caught (Table 1). _Grassy Meadow, Southern End Moccasin Mesa_ This large meadow is located eight miles south of the northern rim of Moccasin Mesa. The meadow lies in a broad, shallow depression that forms the head of a large drainage (Fig. 1). To the south of the meadow the drainage deepens, then reaches bedrock as it approaches the pour-off. On August 23, 1964, one hundred traps were set in pairs in a line through the middle of the meadow; adjacent pairs were 20 feet from each other. Only individuals of _P. maniculatus_ were caught (Table 1). Grasses are dominant in the ground cover, and _Sphaeralcea coccinea_ (globe mallow) is codominant. The abundance of globe mallow is due to the present and past disturbance of this meadow by a colony of pocket gophers. Trees are absent in the meadow. Species of plants include the following: _Opuntia polyacantha_ _Chenopodium_ sp. _Artemisia ludoviciana_ _Chrysothamnus nauseosus_ _Koeleria cristata_ _Poa pratensis_ _Lupinus ammophilus_ _Calochortus gunnisonii_ _Erigeron speciosus_ _Gutierrezia sarothrae_ _Tetradymia canescens_ _Tragopogon pratensis_ _Bromus tectorum_ _Sphaeralcea coccinea_ _Eriogonum racemosum_ _Polygonum sawatchense_ _Comandra umbellata_ _Penstemon strictus_ _Bedrock Outcroppings, Southern End Moccasin Mesa_ Two miles south of the preceding site, much of the mesa is a wide expanse of exposed bedrock, which extends approximately 100 feet inward from the edges of the mesa. Pinyon-juniper-mixed shrub woodland adjoins the bedrock. On August 23, 1964, 25 traps were placed along the bedrock, near the edge of the forest. Only two mice, both _P. truei_, were caught. (Table 1). HOME RANGE In order to learn how extensively mice of different ages travel within their habitats, whether their home ranges overlap, and how many animals live within an area, it was necessary to determine home ranges for as many mice, of each species, as possible (Hayne, 1949; Mohr and Stumpf, 1966; Sanderson, 1966). In 1961, the Colorado Department of Fish, Game and Parks established a permanent trapping grid in the area south of Far View Ruins (Fig. 1). The grid was constructed and used by Mr. Harold R. Shepherd, Senior Game Biologist, and his assistant, in the summers of 1961 and 1962, in a study concerning the effect of rodents on browse plants used by deer. The Department of Fish, Game and Parks allowed me to use the grid during 1963 and 1964, and also permitted me to use its Sherman live traps. The grid is divided into 16 units, each with 28 stations (Fig. 2). Traps at four stations (1a, 1b, 1c, 1d) are operated in each unit at the same time, with two traps being set at each station. The traps are moved each day in a counter-clockwise rotation to the next block of four stations (2a, 2b, 2c, 2d) within each unit. The stations are arranged so that on any given night, traps in adjacent units are separated by at least 200 feet. As a result, animals are less inclined to become addicted to traps, for even within one unit they must move at least 50 feet to be caught on consecutive nights. [Illustration: FIG. 2: Diagram of trapping grid for small mammals, showing units of subdivision. Trapping stations were numbered in each unit as shown in unit A.] Traps were carefully shaded and a ball of kapok was placed in each trap to provide protection against the killing temperatures that can develop inside. In spite of these precautions, mice occasionally succumbed from heat or cold. The traps were baited with coarsely-ground scratch feed. Mammals trapped in the grid were inspected for molt, sexual maturity, larvae of botflies, anomalies, and other pertinent data. Each animal was marked by toe- and ear-clipping and then released. Four toes were used on each front foot, and all five toes were used on each hind foot; two toes were clipped on the right front foot to signify number nine. The tip of the left ear was clipped to signify number 100, and the tip of the right ear was clipped to signify 200. If 300 or more animals had been captured, the tip of the tail would have been clipped to represent number 300. A maximum of 799 animals could have been marked with this system, which was used by Shepherd. I continued with it, starting my listings with number one. Only two mice were caught that had been marked in the previous season by Shepherd. Live traps were operated in the trapping grid from July 9 through October 25, 1963, and from June 25 through August 21, 1964. Traps were rotated through all stations five different times (35 days) in 1963, and twice (14 days) in 1964. Approximately three man hours were required each day to service and rotate the traps to the next group of stations. By the autumn of 1964, a total of 282 mice had been captured, marked and released; these were handled 817 times. In 1963, 235 mice were caught for an average of 20 captures per day; in 1964, 47 mice were caught for an average of 9 captures per day. Calculations of Home Range A diagrammatic map of the trapping grid was drawn to scale with one centimeter equal to 100 linear feet. Trapping stations were numbered on the diagram to correspond with stations in the field. An outline of this drawing also was prepared to the same scale, but station numbers were omitted. Mimeographed copies of such a form could be placed over the diagrammatic map and marks made at each station where an animal was caught. A separate form was kept for each animal that was caught four or more times. In calculating home range, it was assumed that animals would venture half-way from the peripheral stations, at which they were caught, to the next station outside the range. A circle having a scaled radius of 25 feet (half the distance between stations) was inscribed around each station on the periphery of the home range by means of a drafting compass. The estimated range for each animal was then outlined on the form by connecting peripheries of the circles. Both the inclusive boundary-strip method and the exclusive boundary-strip method (Stickel, 1954:3) were used to estimate the ranges. The area encompassed within the home ranges was measured by planimetering the outline of the drawing. At least two such readings were taken for each home range; then these planimeter values were converted into square feet. The customary practice in delimiting home ranges on a scaled map of a grid is to inscribe squares around the peripheral stations at which the animal was trapped, and then to connect the exterior corners of these squares (Stickel, 1954:3). If the distance between stations was 50 feet, such squares would have sides 50 feet long. An easier method is to inscribe a circle having a scaled radius of 25 feet around the peripheral stations by means of a drafting compass. To my knowledge this method has not been used previously and consequently has not been tested by experiments with artificial populations. To test the accuracy of this method, a "grid of traps" was constructed by using 8-1/2 by 11 inch sheets of graph paper with heavy lines each centimeter. The intersects of the heavier lines were considered as trap stations. A "home range" of circular shape, 200 feet (4 cm.) in diameter, with an area of 31,146 square feet (0.71 acre), was cut from a sheet of transparent plastic. Another "home range" was made in an oblong shape with rounded ends. This range measured 2 by 65 centimeters (100 by 325 feet) and had an area of 32,102 square feet (0.74 acre). Each plastic range was tossed at random on sheets of graph paper for fifty trials each. The range was outlined on the graph paper, then circles having a scaled radius of 25 feet were inscribed around each "trap station" within the range. The peripheries of the inscribed circles were then connected and the estimated home range was delimited by the exclusive boundary-strip method. The estimated range was measured by planimetering, and the data were compared with the known home range (Table 2). It was found that when calculated by the exclusive boundary-strip method, the circular home range was overestimated by 2.22 per cent. The oblong home range was overestimated by only 1.50 per cent. Stickel (1954:4) has shown that the exclusive boundary-strip method is the most accurate of several methods of estimating home ranges, and in her experiments this method gave an overestimate of two per cent of the known range. Thus, my method of encircling the peripheral stations yields results that are, on the average, as accurate as the more involved method of inscribing squares about the trap stations, and saves a great deal of time as well. My method probably yields better accuracy; a perfect circle is easily drawn by means of a compass, whereas a perfect square is more difficult to construct without a template. It is generally understood that the estimated home range of an animal tends to increase in size with each additional capture; this increase is rapid at first, then slows. Theoretically, the more often an animal is captured, the more reliable is the estimate of its home range. Most animals, however, rarely are captured more than a few times. The investigator must decide how many captures are necessary before the data seem to be valid for estimating home ranges. An animal must be trapped at a minimum of three stations before its home range can be estimated, and even then the area enclosed in the triangle will be much less than the actual home range. Some investigators have plotted home ranges from only three captures (Redman and Selander, 1958:391), whereas others consider that far more captures are needed to make a valid estimate of range (Stickel, 1954:5). TABLE 2--Summary of Data from Experiments in Calculating Home Ranges for an Artificial Population. =======+========+=========+==========+========+================+======== | | | | Actual | Calculated | | No. | Trap | Shape | area | area of range | Series | of | spacing | of | of | by exclusive | ± S. D. | trials | in ft. | range | range | boundary-strip | | | | | in ft. | method | -------+--------+---------+----------+--------+----------------+-------- A | 50 | 50 | Circular | 31,146 | 31,782 | 9,600 B | 50 | 50 | Oblong | 32,102 | 32,583 | 9,466 -------+--------+---------+----------+--------+----------------+-------- In my study, 161 individuals of _P. truei_ were caught from one to 13 times each. The estimated home ranges of 10 individuals of _P. truei_, each caught from eight to 13 times, were plotted and measured after each capture from the fourth to the last. The percentage of the total estimated range represented by the fourth through tenth captures was, respectively, 52, 65, 73, 85, 88, 93, and 96 per cent. Ninety-seven individuals of _P. maniculatus_ were caught from one to 10 times each. For five individuals that were each caught from seven to 10 times, the percentage of total estimated range represented by the fourth through seventh captures was, respectively, 59, 69, 85, and 93 per cent. The above percentages do not imply that the true home range of individuals of these species can be reliably estimated after seven or 10 captures; the average percentages do, however, indicate a fairly rapid increase in known size of home ranges between the fourth and tenth captures. The estimated home ranges of _P. maniculatus_ tended to reach maximum known size at about seven captures, whereas the estimated ranges of _P. truei_ tended to attain maximum known size after nine or more captures. The controversy over the number of captures of an individual animal required for a reliable estimate of its home range was not settled by my data. I initially decided to estimate home ranges for animals caught five or more times and at three or more stations. Of the 282 animals caught and marked, only 48 were caught five or more times. Because of the small numbers of _P. maniculatus_ that were caught five or more times, I wanted to determine whether mice caught four times had an estimated range that was significantly smaller than that of mice caught five times. Eight individuals of _P. maniculatus_ were caught four times each, and it seemed desirable to use the data from these mice if such use was justified. Data from the 48 mice caught five or more times were used for this testing. By means of a T-test, I compared the estimated ranges of those 48 mice following their fourth capture with ranges estimated after the fifth capture. The results did not demonstrate significant differences between the two sets of estimates; therefore, I decided to use data resulting from four or more captures, and at three or more stations. Table 3 shows estimations of the home ranges of males and females of each species of _Peromyscus_. When the inclusive boundary-strip method is used, the area encompassed by the range tends to be larger than the area of the same range when estimated by the exclusive boundary-strip method. Stickel (1954:4) has shown that the inclusive boundary-strip method overestimates the home range by about 17 percent. Analysis of Home Range by Inclusive Boundary-Strip Method When all age groups were considered, the ranges of 16 males of _P. truei_ averaged 20,000 to 80,000 square feet (ave. 47,333; S. D. 19,286). The sizes of home ranges were not significantly different (P > 0.05) between adult and subadult (including juveniles and young) males. All females of _P. truei_ (22) had ranges encompassing 16,666 to 83,333 square feet (ave. 40,666; S. D. 17,566). Sizes of home ranges between adult and non-adult females did not differ significantly. The mean range of adult males of _P. truei_ did not differ from that of adult females (P > 0.05). Fifteen males of _P. maniculatus_ had ranges of 16,666 to 66,666 square feet (ave. 34,222; S. D. 16,000); six adult males had ranges of 33,333 to 53,333 square feet (ave. 38,666). Sizes of home ranges of adult and non-adult males of this species did not differ significantly. Five females of _P. maniculatus_ had ranges of 33,333 to 76,666 square feet (ave. 51,333; S. D. 15,913); of these, four adults had ranges of 33,333 to 53,333 square feet (ave. 45,000). Sizes of home ranges of adult males of this species did not differ (P > 0.05) from those of adult females. The ranges of adult males of _P. truei_ were compared with ranges of adult male of _P. maniculatus_; likewise the ranges of adult females of each species were compared. In each case no difference was demonstrable in sizes of ranges between the species. The largest home range of any _P. truei_ was that of animal number 18, a young male with an estimated home range of 133,333 square feet. This animal was caught only five times, and his home range appeared unusually large in relation to that of other young males of this species; hence some of the widely-spaced sites of capture probably represent excursions from the animal's center of activity, rather than the true periphery of his range. These data were, therefore, not used in further computations. Stickel (1954:13) pointed out the advisability of removing such records from data to be used in calculations of home range. Number eight had the largest home range of any female of _P. truei_; she was captured ten times, and had a range of 83,333 square feet. The vegetation within her range was pinyon-juniper woodland with understories of _Amelanchier_, _Artemisia nova_ and _Purshia_. Most of her home range was in the western half of unit H, but extended into parts of units D, I, G and N. The largest home range for adult males of either species was number three of _P. truei_; he had a range of 80,000 square feet. The largest range for an adult of _P. maniculatus_ was 66,666 square feet (Table 3). Analysis of Home Range by Exclusive Boundary-Strip Method Stickel (1954:4) has shown that under theoretical conditions the exclusive boundary-strip method is the most accurate of several methods of estimating home range. This method overestimates the known range by only two percent. Table 3 shows a comparison of home range calculations obtained for each species, when calculated by inclusive and exclusive boundary-strip methods. The data for males and for females of each species were compared in the same manner as in the inclusive boundary-strip method. The ranges of 16 male individuals of _P. truei_ encompassed 14,000 to 56,666 square feet (ave. 34,333; S. D. 13,266); of these, the ranges of 10 adult males were from 23,333 to 53,333 square feet (ave. 39,733). Twenty-two females of this species had ranges of 13,333 to 50,000 square feet (ave. 27,199; S. D. 8,820). Eighteen adult females had the same extremes, but the average size of range, 28,000 square feet, was larger. Sizes of home ranges of males and females did not differ significantly. The ranges of fifteen males of _P. maniculatus_ encompassed 13,333 to 46,666 square feet (ave. 26,666; S. D. 10,180). Of these, six adults had the same extremes in range, but an average size of 31,440 square feet. The ranges of five females of _P. maniculatus_ varied from 28,000 to 53,333 square feet (ave. 37,199; S. D. 10,140). All but one of these females were adults. The sizes of home ranges of males and females did not differ significantly. No differences were found when ranges of adult males, or adult females, of both species were compared. Adjusted Length of Home Range The adjusted length of the range also can be used as an expression of home range. In this method, one-half the distance to the next trapping station is added to each end of the line drawn between stations at either end of the long axis of the range (Stickel, 1954:2). The average length of home range for 15 males of _P. truei_ was 363 feet (S. D. 105 ft.); for 22 females of this species 326 feet (S. D. 94 ft.); for 14 males of _P. maniculatus_ 286 feet long (S. D. 94 ft.); and for four females of this species 347 feet (S. D. 83 ft.). The mean lengths of range of males and females differed significantly in _P. maniculatus_, but not in _P. truei_. However, no difference was demonstrable in mean sizes of ranges between males, or between females, of the two species. Distance Between Captures The distance between captures has been used by several investigators as an index of the extent of home range. More short than long distances tend to be recorded when traps are visited at random, and when inner traps of the range are more strongly favored (Stickel, 1954:10). TABLE 3--Summary of Data for Estimated Home Ranges of Mice from a Wild Population. ================+==================+=====+======+============+========= | | | | Estimated | Type of | Species | Sex | No. | home range | ± S. D. Estimate | | | | in sq. ft. | ----------------+------------------+-----+------+------------+--------- Inclusive | _P. truei_ | M | 16 | 47,333 | 19,286 boundary-strip | " " | F | 22 | 40,666 | 17,566 | | | | | | _P. maniculatus_ | M | 15 | 34,222 | 16,000 | " " | F | 5 | 51,333 | 15,913 ----------------+------------------+-----+------+------------+--------- Exclusive | _P. truei_ | M | 16 | 34,333 | 13,266 boundary-strip | " " | F | 22 | 27,199 | 8,820 | | | | | | _P. maniculatus_ | M | 15 | 26,666 | 10,180 | " " | F | 5 | 37,199 | 10,140 ----------------+------------------+-----+------+------------+--------- Adjusted Length | _P. truei_ | M | 16 | 363 | 105 | " " | F | 22 | 326 | 94 | | | | | | _P. maniculatus_ | M | 14 | 286 | 94 | " " | F | 4 | 347 | 83 ----------------+------------------+-----+------+------------+--------- It is important to know approximately how far mice travel in one night. The distances traveled between captures on successive nights were calculated for all mice. Even animals caught most frequently usually were caught only once or twice on successive nights. Data from animals caught less than four times, and hence not usable for calculations of home range, could be used in calculating the distance between captures on successive nights. Thus the data were sampled in a more or less random manner for each species. The mean distance traveled between captures on successive nights was determined for adult and non-adult animals (juvenile, young and subadult) of both sexes. Adult males of _P. maniculatus_ traveled an average of 151.66 feet (n = 24); young males of this species traveled an average of 134.28 feet (n = 7). Adult females of _P. maniculatus_ traveled 170.00 feet (n = 4); no data were available for young females. Adult males of _P. truei_ traveled an average of 169.47 feet (n = 38); and young males traveled 159.44 feet (n = 18). Adult females of this species traveled 155.71 feet between captures (n = 35), while young females traveled 140.66 feet (n = 15). The means were tested for differences in the distances traveled between young and adult males and between young and adult females of each species, as well as between males and between females of opposite species. In all cases, there were no demonstrable differences in the distance traveled between captures. One of the more striking journeys between captures was that of number 59, a juvenal male of _P. maniculatus_, which traveled 1,070 feet between captures on July 16 and 17, 1963. The route between the two capture sites was over the most rugged part of the trapping grid. This datum was excluded from further calculations. The only other animal that approached this distance was a young female _P. truei_ that traveled 750 feet between captures. Figure 3 shows the distribution of distances traveled by mice of each species between successive captures. Since there were no demonstrable differences between age groups or sexes in the distances traveled, these data represent a composite of the ages and sexes of each species. They show 101-125 feet to be the most prevalent of the distances traveled by both species, and 51-75 feet to have a higher percentage of occurrence among _P. maniculatus_. These distances indicate that if an animal was trapped on successive nights, it tended to be trapped within the same unit of the grid. It would have been necessary for an animal to travel 200 feet or more in order to be caught in traps in an adjoining unit of the grid. The distance between captures also was calculated by the more customary method of averaging the distances between sites of capture, regardless of the time intervening between captures. Only data from mice caught four or more times were used because these individuals probably had home ranges in the study area, whereas those caught fewer than four times may have been migrants. The mean distance between captures (n = 95) for 15 males and five females of _P. maniculatus_ was 161 feet. Sixteen males and 22 females of _P. truei_ traveled an average of 143 feet between captures (n = 248). For purposes of comparison, these average distances between captures could be considered as radii of the estimated home ranges. When the range for each species is calculated by considering average distance between captures as the radius of the estimated home range, the average range of _P. truei_ is 64,210 square feet, and that of _P. maniculatus_ is 81,392 square feet. Both of these estimations are larger than those made by the inclusive and exclusive boundary-strip method (Table 3), and smaller than those calculated by using adjusted length of range as the radius. Since it is known that ranges of some animals tend to be longer than wide (Mohr and Stumpf, 1966), calculations of estimated range based on average distance between captures probably are more accurate than those based on adjusted length of range. Usually the estimated home ranges were not symmetrical, and did not resemble oblongs or circles in outline. Rather, the ranges tended to follow parts of vegetational zones. Since trapping grids are geometrical in form, there is a tendency among investigators to consider home ranges of animals as conforming to geometrical design. This may or may not be the true situation; telemetric studies on larger animals indicate that home ranges do not conform to geometrical design. At present there is a poverty of knowledge concerning methods for determining the precise home ranges of small mammals. Telemetry appears to offer an unlimited potential for studies of this kind. [Illustration: FIG. 3: Graphs showing the distribution of distances between stations at which mice were captured on successive nights in Mesa Verde National Park. Graphs for each species represent records of both males and females.] Individuals of _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_ usually do not have mutually exclusive home ranges. When the home ranges for all females or males of one species are drawn on a single map of the trapping grid, almost every one of their ranges overlaps with the range of at least one other mouse. In some instances, the home range of an individual overlaps ranges of several other individuals. In extreme cases an animal's range lies completely within the estimated boundaries of another individual's range. Such an enclosed range was always that of a juvenile or of a young animal. However, an adult may have more than half of its range overlapping with that of another adult of the same sex and of the same, or different, species. In general, the two species tended to be restricted to certain areas of the trapping grid where the respective habitats were more favorable for their needs. Figure 4 shows the parts of the trapping grid utilized by each species. Of course there is overlap in the areas utilized by each species; a few individuals of _P. maniculatus_ may be found in what appears to be _P. truei_ habitat, and _vice versa_. In such cases, an inspection of the vegetation usually reveals an intermediate type of habitat--for example, an open sagebrush area in pinyon-juniper woodland--that is habitable for either or both species. The ranges of _P. truei_ tend to be clustered in the western half of the trapping grid, whereas the ranges of _P. maniculatus_ are clustered in the eastern half of the grid (Fig. 4). The vegetation of the grid and the preferred habitats of each species are discussed in following chapters. On the basis of the sizes of estimated home ranges, it is possible to compute the approximate number of individuals of each species that occur in each acre of appropriate habitat. [Illustration: FIG. 4: Diagram of trapping grid south of Far View Ruins, showing the preferred habitats of _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_.] On the basis of an average home range of 30,206 ± 25,545 square feet (one standard deviation) for both male and female individuals of _P. truei_, there should be approximately 0.781 to 9.345 individuals of this species per acre of pinyon-juniper woodland. An average home range of 29,400 ± 24,570 square feet for males and females of _P. maniculatus_ indicates that the density of this species is between 0.807 and 9.018 animals per acre in mixed shrub or shrub and sagebrush types of vegetation. Figure 4 shows that approximately 10 of the 16 units of the trapping grid are suitable habitat for _P. truei_; the remaining six units are habitat of _P. maniculatus_. From the preceding calculations of density one could expect to find between seven and 90 individuals of _P. truei_, and between five and 54 individuals of _P. maniculatus_ as residents within the 22.95 acres of the trapping grid. The higher estimates of density appear to be large enough to compensate for any overlapping of home ranges. The calculation of density of each species within the trapping grid is dependent upon the precision with which the home ranges of individuals can be estimated. At this time, home ranges of small rodents can not be measured with great precision, therefore any such calculations are, at best, only approximations. This does not imply that estimations of home range are of little value; however, calculations of density, using home ranges as a basis, tend to amplify the variance inherent in the data. This amplification is reflected in the wide range between low and high limits of the densities for each species within the trapping grid. In order to check on the accuracy of the above calculations, an estimate of density was made for each species on the basis of trapping data. Trapping records kept for each animal were checked for the year 1963. More data on home ranges were obtained in that year due to higher population densities than in 1964. If an animal was caught four or more times in 1963, it was considered to be a resident; animals caught in both 1963 and 1964 were considered to be residents even if caught fewer than four times. Mice caught three times, with at least a month elapsing between the first and third captures, were considered to be probable residents. Other animals caught three or fewer times were considered to be migrants. In 1963, 15 individuals of _P. truei_ were caught four or more times, or in both years, and considered to be residents; six other mice were classed as probable residents. Of _P. maniculatus_, 18 individuals were classed as residents, and two as probable residents. Thus the trapping data for 1963 indicate that 21 individuals of _P. truei_ and 20 of _P. maniculatus_ were residents of the trapping grid. These estimates lie well within the estimated limits of density of each species, as calculated from data on home range while taking into account the relative proportions of available habitat for each species within the trapping grid. Analyses of trapping data indicate that the density of each species probably is overestimated by calculations of density based on home range data. Males and females of both species of _Peromyscus_ appeared to be highly individualistic in the amount of area they utilized. Some adult males of _P. truei_ covered large areas, whereas others were relatively sedentary. The same was true of young males of _P. truei_, although the younger males tended to have smaller ranges than adult males. Most pregnant or lactating females, of both species, tended to use smaller areas for their daily activities than did non-pregnant or non-lactating females. There were notable exceptions to this generality, for some lactating females had exceptionally large home ranges. Size of home range apparently was not influenced by the location of an animal's range within the grid. Far more data would be needed to correlate minor differences in vegetational associations with sizes of ranges in different parts of the grid. It is surprising that adults of _P. truei_ do not have larger home ranges than adults of _P. maniculatus_. _P. truei_ is the larger, more robust animal, capable of rapid running and occasional saltatorial bounding; individuals of this species can traverse large areas with ease. The semi-arboreal nature of _P. truei_ may explain why individuals of this species do not have larger ranges than individuals of _P. maniculatus_. _P. truei_ has a three-dimensional home range, whereas _P. maniculatus_ has a range that is two-dimensional only (excluding the relatively minor amount of burrowing done by each species). VEGETATIONAL ANALYSIS OF HABITATS Detailed maps of vegetation within the trapping grid were needed to aid in analyzing distribution of mice within the grid. In preparing such maps, I recorded all plants within a 25 foot radius of each trapping station. The dominant and codominant plants in the overstory (trees or shrubs) were noted at each station. Next the three most abundant plants other than the dominant and codominants were rated for each station, where possible. Finally a listing was made of all remaining species of plants. On the basis of this analysis, four vegetational maps were prepared. One shows associations of dominant overstory and understory plants. Individual maps are devoted to the first, second and third most abundant plants in the ground cover within the trapping grid (Figs. 5-8). Approximately seven man-hours were required to analyze each trapping unit, and 112 man-hours to analyze the entire grid. The home range grid encompasses approximately one million square feet. At least four different vegetational stands occur within the grid: 1) pinyon-juniper woodland with various associations in the understory; 2) _Artemisia tridentata_ (big sagebrush), or _A. nova_ (black sagebrush); 3) _Quercus gambelii_ (Gambel oak); and 4) mixed shrubs--_Fendlera rupicola_ (fendlerbush), _Amelanchier utahensis_ (Utah serviceberry), and _Cercocarpos montanus_ (mountain mahogany). Flora in the ground cover is regulated, at least in part, by the canopy cover; hence different associations of pinyon-juniper woodland and each of the stands mentioned above have different plants, or a different distribution of the same kinds of plants, in their ground cover. Units A, B, E, and parts of D and G in the western third of the grid are in pinyon-juniper woodland (Fig. 5). A relatively pure understory of _Poa fendleriana_ (muttongrass), is typical of such woodland on the middle parts of the mesas. Woodland on the western third of the grid differs somewhat in that, when the area occupied by each plant is considered, _Artemisia tridentata_ is codominant there with _Poa fendleriana_. As far as individual plants are concerned, _Poa_ far outnumbers _Artemisia_. The next most abundant plants in the ground cover are _Solidago petradoria_ (rock goldenrod), _Chrysothamnus depressus_ (dwarf rabbitbrush), and _Penstemon linarioides_ (penstemon), in that order. In unit E there is a large depression, about 200 by 60 feet, created by removal of soil (Fig. 8). _Artemisia nova_ grows there, and pioneering plants adapted to early stages of succession are present. A zone of woodland, where _Artemisia nova_ replaces _A. tridentata_ as an understory codominant with _Poa fendleriana_, borders the pinyon-juniper-muttongrass community to the east. The next most abundant plants in the ground cover are _Solidago petradoria_, _Penstemon linarioides_ and _Comandra umbellata_ (bastard toadflax). _Koeleria cristata_ (Junegrass) is as abundant as _Comandra_, but probably is less important as a source of food for mice. A small strip of the pinyon-juniper-muttongrass community with an understory of _Artemisia nova_ and _Purshia tridentata_ (bitterbrush) adjoins the above area to the east (Figs. 5-8). _Solidago petradoria_, _Balsamorrhiza sagittata_ (balsamroot), and _Comandra umbellata_ are the three most abundant plants in the ground cover. The terrain slopes eastward from this zone into a large drainage. [Illustration: FIG. 5: Diagram showing the major associations of understory and overstory vegetation in a trapping grid located south of Far View Ruins, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado.] As the forest floor begins to slope into the drainage, the ground becomes rocky and shrubs assume more importance in the understory. Most of this shrubby zone is on the slope; on the western side this zone abuts pinyon-juniper woodland, and on the eastern side is bordered by _Artemisia tridentata_ in the sandy bottom of the drainage. Shrubs become more abundant and pinyon and juniper trees become less abundant as one approaches the drainage. In the vegetation maps, this brushy zone is delimited on the east by a heavy line passing vertically through the middle of the grid (Figs. 5-8). The codominant shrubs in the understory of this zone are _Amelanchier utahensis_, _Artemisia nova_ and _Purshia tridentata_. The three most abundant plants on the ground are _Artemisia ludoviciana_, _Chrysothamnus depressus_ and _Penstemon linarioides_. The drainage occupies most of unit N and parts of Units I, J and M. Unit N is at the head of the drainage; the ground slopes rapidly southward and the bottom of the drainage in unit J is approximately 50 feet lower than in unit N. The canopy cover of the drainage is _Artemisia tridentata_ (Fig. 5). The same three plants that are most abundant in the ground cover of the slope are also most abundant in the drainage. [Illustration: FIG. 6: Diagram showing the most abundant species of plants in the ground cover of the trapping grid south of Far View Ruins.] The eastern slope of the drainage is covered with oak chaparral (_Quercus gambelii_); this zone occupies parts of units J, L, M, and P. _Artemisia ludoviciana_, _Solidago petradoria_, and _Viguiera multiflora_ (goldeneye), are the most abundant plants of the ground cover. Mixed shrubs (_Amelanchier_, _Cercocarpos_, and _Fendlera_) form large islands in the oak chaparral, in units K, L and P. The brushy areas of oak and mixed shrub give way at the top of the slope to pinyon-juniper forest with an understory of _Artemisia nova_ and _Purshia tridentata_. The three most abundant plants in the ground cover of the shrub zones are _Solidago petradoria_, _Balsamorrhiza sagittata_, and _Comandra umbellata_. The eastern part of unit O has _Amelanchier utahensis_ in the understory, in addition to _Artemisia nova_ and _Purshia tridentata_ (Fig. 5). The northeastern corner of unit O is in pinyon-juniper woodland with an understory of _Cercocarpos montanus_. [Illustration: FIG. 7: Diagram showing the second most abundant species of plants in the ground cover of the trapping grid south of Far View Ruins.] There are two relatively pure stands of sagebrush in the grid: one is in unit N, and the other in unit F and part of unit G. As figures 5 to 8 show, unit N has a relatively pure stand of _Artemisia tridentata_ (big sagebrush), with _Artemisia ludoviciana_, _Agropyron smithii_ (western wheatgrass), and _Koeleria cristata_ (Junegrass), being most abundant in the ground cover. _Artemisia tridentata_ and _Artemisia nova_ form the overstory in unit F and part of G. The three most abundant plants in the ground cover there are _Chrysothamnus depressus_, _Solidago petradoria_, and _Penstemon linarioides_ (Figs. 6-8). [Illustration: FIG. 8: Diagram showing the third most abundant species of plants in the ground cover of the trapping grid south of Far View Ruins.] MICROCLIMATES OF DIFFERENT HABITATS Four microclimatic stations were established in units D, F, L and M of the trapping grid to record air temperatures and relative humidities at ground level. These sites were chosen as being representative of larger topographic or vegetational areas within the grid. Belfort hygrothermographs were installed on June 10, 1964, and were serviced once each week through October 31, 1964, at which time the stations were dismantled. Each station consisted of a shelter 18 by 9 by 11.5 inches, having a false top to minimize heating (Fig. 9). The shelters were painted white. Several rows of holes, each one inch in diameter, were drilled in all four sides of each shelter, to provide circulation of air. The holes were covered by brass window screening to prevent entry of insects and rodents. Preliminary tests with several U. S. Weather Bureau maximum and minimum thermometers, suspended one above the other, from the top to the bottom of the shelter, revealed that there was no stratification of air within the shelters. Nevertheless, each shelter was placed so that the sun did not strike the sensing elements of the hygrothermograph inside it. [Illustration: FIG. 9: (above) Photograph of microclimatic shelter built to house hygrothermograph. False top minimizes heating, and ventilation holes are covered with screening. (below) Photograph showing shelter in use.] Accuracy of the hair elements was checked by means of a Bendix-Friez battery driven psychrometer, in periods when humidity conditions were stable (on clear days the relative humidity is at its lowest limits and is "stable" for several hours during early afternoon). The four microclimatic stations were in the following places: 1) a stand of big sagebrush near Far View Ruins; 2) a pinyon-juniper-muttongrass association; 3) a stand of big sagebrush at the head of a drainage; and 4) a stand of Gambel oak on a southwest-facing slope of the drainage. Table 4 shows monthly averages of maximum and minimum air temperatures and relative humidities at each of the four sites. Vegetation and microclimates of the sites are discussed below. _Far View Sagebrush Site, 7,650 feet elevation_ The shelter housing the hygrothermograph was next to the stake of station F4a in the trapping grid (Fig. 10), in a stand of big sagebrush on the flat, middle part of the mesa top, approximately 100 yards southwest of Far View Ruins. The sagebrush extends approximately 200 feet in all directions from the station (Fig. 5). Pinyon pine and Utah juniper trees are encroaching upon this area, and scattered trees are present throughout the sagebrush. This area is one of the habitats of _P. maniculatus_. Sagebrush tends to provide less shade for the ground than pinyon-juniper woodland, and therefore the surface temperatures of the soil rise rapidly to their daily maximum. In mid-June, air temperatures rise rapidly from 6 A. M. until they reach the daily maximum between 2 and 4 P. M. Shortly after 4 P. M. the air temperatures decrease rapidly and reach the daily low by about 5 A. M. Relative humidities follow an inverse relationship to air temperatures; when air temperatures are highest, relative humidities approach their lowest values. Thus, on clear days, humidities decrease during the day, reaching a minimum slightly later than air temperatures attain their maximum. Unless it rains, the highest humidities of the day occur between midnight and 6 A. M. _Drainage Site, 7,625 feet elevation_ This site was in the bottom of the drainage that runs through the eastern side of the trapping grid, and through parts of units M, N, I, and J. The site was at station M4d on a level bench at the head of the drainage (Fig. 11). Southward from the station the drainage deepens rapidly, and the bottom loses approximately 25 feet in elevation for every 200 feet of linear distance. _P. maniculatus_ lives here. The microclimate of the drainage differs markedly from that of other stations. The major difference is attributable to the topography of the drainage itself. Nocturnal cold air flows from the surrounding mesa top to lower elevations. A lake of cold air forms in the bottom of the drainage; the depth of the lake depends in part upon the depth of the drainage. The same phenomenon occurs in canyons and causes cooler night time temperatures on the floor of canyons than on adjacent mesa tops (Erdman, Douglas, and Marr, in press). Drainage of cold air into lower elevations affects both nocturnal air temperatures and relative humidities. Table 4 shows that maximum air temperatures in the drainage did not differ appreciably from those at other stations. Mean minimum temperatures, however, were considerably lower in the drainage than at the other sites. This phenomenon is reflected also in the mean air temperatures at this station. [Illustration: FIG. 10: (above) Photograph of microclimatic station at the Far View Sagebrush Site, at trapping station F4a in the grid south of Far View Ruins. Dominant vegetation is _Artemisia tridentata_.] [Illustration: FIG. 11: (below) Photograph of microclimatic station at the Drainage Site, in the bottom of a shallow drainage at trapping station M4d of the grid south of Far View Ruins.] The drainage site had the highest humidities of all stations each month in which data were collected (Table 4). Relative humidities of 90 to 100 per cent were common in the drainage, but occurred at other stations only in rainy periods. For example, in the month of August, 26 of the daily maximum readings were between 95 and 100 per cent at the drainage site, but at the other stations relative humidities were above 95 per cent for an average of only nine nights. Minimum humidities were about the same for all stations, since they are affected by insolation received during the day, and not by the drainage of cold air at night. _Oak Brush Site, 7,640 feet elevation_ The station was in an oak thicket at trapping station L4a, 250 feet south and 50 feet east of the drainage site on a southwest-facing slope of about 30 degrees (Fig. 12). The station was on the lower third of the slope, approximately 15 feet higher than M4d, the station in the bottom of the drainage. _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_ occur together in this area. Air temperatures and relative humidities at this station did not differ appreciably from mean temperatures and humidities at the other stations. The unusual feature is the lack of evidence of cold air drainage. The lake of cold air in the bottom of the drainage apparently is too shallow to reach this station. This site is near the head of the drainage, and the cold, nocturnal air probably moves rapidly down slope into the deeper parts of the canyon, rather than piling up at the shallow head of the drainage. In spite of the shade afforded the ground by the oak brush, temperatures reached the same maximum values as at the drainage site, owing to the orientation of the slope. South-facing slopes receive more direct insolation throughout the day and throughout the year than north-facing slopes and mesa tops (Geiger, 1965:374). In Mesa Verde, south-facing slopes tend to be more arid; snow melts rapidly, and most of this moisture evaporates. As a consequence, south-facing slopes have less soil moisture and more widely-distributed vegetation than north-facing slopes where snows often persist all winter and melt in spring. (For a detailed discussion of climates on northeast-versus-southwest-facing slopes in Mesa Verde, see Erdman, Douglas, and Marr, in press.) _Pinyon-Juniper-Muttongrass Site, 7,600 feet elevation_ The station was in the trapping grid at D5b (Fig. 13). The pinyon-juniper woodland surrounding this site resembles much of the woodland on the middle part of the mesa. The forest floor is well shaded by the coniferous canopy, and muttongrass is the dominant plant in the ground cover. _P. truei_ lives in this habitat. The climate at this site is moderate. Shade from the canopy greatly moderates the maximum air temperatures during the day; minimum air temperatures, however, are about the same as at the other stations (Table 4). Mean temperatures are somewhat lower at this site than at the others because of the lower maximum temperatures. Relative humidities do not differ markedly from those at other stations. Figure 14 shows hygrothermograph traces at all stations for a typical week. An interesting phenomenon is illustrated by several of these traces. By about midnight, air temperatures have cooled to within a few degrees of their nightly low. At this time, heat is given up by the surface of the ground in sufficient quantities to elevate the air temperature at ground level. This release of reradiated energy lasts from one to several hours, then air temperatures drop to the nightly low just before sunrise. A depression in the percentage of relative humidity accompanies this surge of warmer air. On some nights winds apparently disturb, or mix, the layers of air at ground level. On such nights the reradiation of energy is not apparent in the traces of the thermographs. Reradiation of energy is restricted to ground level, and traces of hygrothermographs in standard Weather Bureau shelters, approximately four feet above the ground surface, at other sites on the mesa top did not record it. [Illustration: FIG. 12: (left) Photograph of microclimatic station at the Oak Brush Site, at trapping station L4a of the grid south of Far View Ruins. (right) General view of the stand of Gambel oak in unit L of the trapping grid.] [Illustration: FIG. 13: Photograph of microclimatic station at the Pinyon-Juniper-Muttongrass Site, at trapping station D5b of the grid south of Far View Ruins. Grass in the foreground is muttongrass, _Poa fendleriana_.] The instruments used in this study were unmodified Belfort hygrothermographs containing as sensing units a hair element for relative humidity and a Bourdon tube for air temperatures. The hair element, especially, does not register changes in humidity at precisely ground level; rather, it reflects changes in the layer of air from about ground level to about a foot above. Thus data from these instruments give only approximations of the conditions under which mice live while they are on the ground. Climatic conditions greatly influence trapping success. Larger numbers of mice generally were caught on nights when humidities were higher than average. Rain in part of the evening almost invariably resulted in more mice of each species being caught. This was probably due to increased metabolism, by the mice, to keep warm. Apparently the mice began foraging as soon as the rains subsided; mice were always dry when caught after a rain. Few mice were caught if rains continued throughout the night and into the daylight hours. TABLE 4--Monthly Averages of Daily Means for Maximum, Minimum, and Mean Air Temperatures and Relative Humidities at Four Sites in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. ===================+========================+======================== Site | Maximum Temps. | Maximum R. H. | J J A S O | J J A S O | | Far View Sagebrush | 89 91 86 77 74 | 68 84 82 88 71 Drainage | 86 91 85 78 78 | 87 94 93 96 84 Oak Brush | 86 88 82 76 81 | 57 78 80 80 66 Pinyon-Juniper-Poa | 75 80 74 66 64 | 59 83 82 88 58 | | | Minimum Temps. | Minimum R. H. | J J A S O | J J A S O | | Far View Sagebrush | 42 53 50 42 31 | 18 24 25 29 21 Drainage | 36 48 45 38 26 | 21 26 27 29 30 Oak Brush | 42 52 50 42 32 | 19 25 30 31 21 Pinyon-Juniper-Poa | 44 54 50 42 34 | 22 30 29 32 25 | | | Mean Temps. | Mean R. H. | J J A S O | J J A S O | | Far View Sagebrush | 66 72 68 60 52 | 43 54 54 48 46 Drainage | 61 70 65 58 52 | 54 60 60 62 52 Oak Brush | 64 70 66 59 56 | 38 51 55 56 44 Pinyon-Juniper-Poa | 60 67 62 54 49 | 41 56 55 60 42 -------------------+------------------------+------------------------ [Illustration: FIG. 14: Diagram of hygrothermograph traces showing daily progressions of air temperatures and relative humidities at each of four microclimatic stations, from the morning of July 1 through the morning of July 8, 1964. Slanting vertical lines on each chart designate midnight (2400 Hrs.) of each day.] Nights of high trapping success usually were associated with days having solar insolation below the average. Insolation was measured with a recording pyrheliometer at a regional weather station (M-2) on the middle of Chapin Mesa, at an elevation of 7,150 feet (Erdman, Douglas, and Marr, in press). This station was approximately one mile south of the trapping grid; isolation at this site would have been essentially the same as that received by the trapping grid. Below-average isolation for one day indicates cloudy conditions, which are accompanied by increased humidity, but may or may not be accompanied by precipitation. Trapping on nights preceded and followed by days of average or above average isolation with average humidities--indicative of clear days and clear moonlit nights--did not yield appreciably higher catches of mice than other nights. Hence there was no evidence that mice tended to avoid, or to seek out, traps on clear moonlit nights. On cold, humid nights in autumn numerous mice caught in Sherman live traps succumbed from exposure, even though nesting material (kapok or cotton) and food were in the traps. Occasionally mice succumbed to heat when traps were inadvertently exposed to too much sunlight. Apparently little heat is required to kill individuals of either species. Traps in which animals died due to excessive heat usually were not hot to the touch; in most instances the traps were checked before 9:00 A. M., several hours before the sun caused maximum heating. Such individuals may have licked the fur of their chests in an attempt to lower their body temperatures. Although mice characteristically salivate before succumbing from heat, these individuals had moist fur over the entire chest and upper parts of the front legs, indicating licking. Mice killed by exposure to heat or cold usually were juveniles or young; subadult and adult individuals of both species were more tolerant. Older animals would be expected to have better homeostatic controls than younger individuals. HABITAT PREFERENCE In Mesa Verde _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_ occur together only at the fringes of the pinyon-juniper woodland, where ecotonal areas provide less than optimum habitats for both species. Almost all individuals of _P. truei_ occur only in pinyon-juniper woodland, whereas _P. maniculatus_ occurs only in more open habitats, such as grassy meadows and stands of sagebrush. Pinyon mice were abundant in a variety of associations within the pinyon-juniper woodland. The highest population densities were in pinyon-juniper woodland having an understory of mixed shrubs. In such an association, _Poa fendleriana_ usually is the dominant grass in the ground cover. _P. truei_ was especially abundant along brushy slopes where mixed shrubs (_Amelanchier_, _Cercocarpos_ and _Fendlera_) were codominant with pinyon pines and Utah junipers. The pinyon-juniper-mixed shrub area west of Far View Ruins was almost optimum habitat for _P. truei_. _P. truei_ was abundant on the rocky ridge of Wetherill Mesa near Mug House; the pinyon-juniper woodland here has a _Cercocarpos_ understory, and appears to provide close to optimum conditions for this species. Not all associations of the pinyon-juniper woodland support large numbers of _P. truei_. Pinyon-juniper woodland having a ground cover of _Poa fendleriana_, and no shrubs, supports few mice; the woodland on Wetherill Mesa near Long House is an example. Juniper-pinyon woodland having a _Purshia tridentata_ understory also supports only a few mice. Such areas occur on the southern ends of the mesas and are characterized by widely-spaced trees and little ground cover--a reflection of the relatively low amounts of precipitation received by the southern end of the park. _P. truei_ was not found in grasslands on Navajo Hill, or in meadows at the southern end of Moccasin Mesa. The old burned areas on the northern end of Wetherill Mesa and on Morfield Ridge now support numerous grasses and shrubs, but _P. truei_ appears not to live there. _P. truei_ tends to avoid stands of sagebrush, or grasslands, lacking pinyon or juniper trees. _P. truei_ may venture into such areas while feeding. This species is found in thickets of Gambel oak and in areas with an overstory of mixed shrubs only when a living pinyon-juniper canopy is present, or when a woodland adjoins these areas. Rocky terrain apparently is not a requirement for _P. truei_, since much of the pinyon-juniper woodland that is free of rocks supports large numbers. Optimum habitat, however, had a rocky floor. In such places, rocks probably are of secondary importance, whereas the shrubs and other plants growing on rocky soils are important for food and cover. Rocks likely provide additional nesting sites, and allow a larger population to live in an area than might otherwise be possible. In Mesa Verde the deer mouse, _P. maniculatus_, prefers open areas having dense stands of grasses, or brushy areas adjoining open terrain. This species lives in stands of big sagebrush; in grassy areas having an oak-chaparral or mixed-shrub-overstory; and in grasslands without shrubs, such as on the southern end of Moccasin Mesa. Pure stands of sagebrush did not support large numbers of mice unless there was additional cover nearby in the form of shrubs or oak brush. Optimum habitats for _P. maniculatus_ were on Navajo Hill, in the burned areas on Morfield Ridge, on the northern end of Wetherill Mesa, and in the grassy areas near the entrance of the park. The trapping areas in the first three mentioned had heavy growths of grass and an overstory of shrubs. Some individuals of _P. maniculatus_ ventured into pinyon-juniper woodland and entered traps. Such animals usually were found in places having a heavy understory of sagebrush, or in disturbed places within the woodland. _P. maniculatus_, but not _P. truei_, was taken in the arid pinyon-juniper-bitterbrush stand on the southern end of Wetherill Mesa. _P. maniculatus_ also was present, in about equal numbers with _P. truei_, in a pinyon-juniper-muttongrass stand north of Long House. Both of these localities supported only a few mice. _P. maniculatus_ is found more frequently in pinyon-juniper woodland when the population density is high, and when such woodlands adjoin grasslands or sagebrush areas. As mentioned earlier, _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_ occur together in ecotonal areas between the forest and grassy or brushy areas. In Mesa Verde the deer mouse inhabits exposed grassy areas that have mostly shrubs in the open canopy. _P. maniculatus_ is the first to colonize areas that have been burned; this species invades such areas as soon as primary successional vegetation becomes established. It can be stated that in general, _P. maniculatus_ will be found in the harsher, more arid habitats. If the habitat is so inhospitable that only a few mice can survive there, _P. maniculatus_ will be present. _P. truei_ apparently requires the more moderate conditions found in the pinyon-juniper forest, and this species does not venture far from the edge of the forest. NESTING AND NEST CONSTRUCTION Ten individuals of _P. truei_ and three of _P. maniculatus_ were followed to their nesting places. Photographs were taken of the nesting sites before and after uncovering. Plants or other materials used in their construction and any commensal arthropods present were saved and later identified. Nests of _P. truei_ usually were associated with juniper trees. Dead branches and trunks of juniper trees decay from the inside, and the resulting hollows are favored sites for the nests. Pinyon pine trees tend to decay from the outside and were not used as nesting sites by _P. truei_. Nests of _P. truei_ were found in hollow trunks and branches of otherwise healthy juniper trees, and in hollow logs lying on the ground. The heartwood apparently rots rapidly in juniper trees, but the sapwood remains intact for many years--even after the tree is lying on the ground. For example, a part of the pinyon-juniper woodland on the southern end of Chapin Mesa was burned in 1858, and the hollow trunks of junipers were still standing in 1966. Almost all of the pinyon pine trees that were killed by that fire have since decayed; their former presence is verified only by the crumbling remnants of their trunks that lie on the ground throughout the burned area. The following accounts illustrate the preferences of the two species of mice in selection of nesting sites: No. 105, _P. truei_, adult. On July 22, 1964, after being released from a trap, this female ran to a serviceberry bush 10 feet south of station I4d, preened herself, ate a berry from the bush, and disappeared under a large rock at the base of the bush. Subsequent excavation revealed a large nest composed of grasses (_Poa fendleriana_, _Sitanion hystrix_, _Agropyron smithii_, _Koeleria cristata_), and a few leaves of serviceberry. There were three entrances to the nest, one on each side of the rock. This mouse was captured again on August 12, 1964, released and followed to a hollow juniper log 15 feet south of station C7b, and 245 feet from the above nest. This log was dismantled, but no nest was found. A large number of chewed juniper seeds around the log indicated that this mouse, or others, had frequented the area. On August 20, 1964, this female was followed to a large juniper log 20 feet northeast of station I4b. A small nest of shredded juniper bark was found inside the log, and there were numerous nuts of pinyon pine and seeds of Utah juniper that had been gnawed open. This site was about 320 feet from that at C7b, and about 240 feet from station I4d (Fig. 15). No. 118, _P. truei_, young. On August 29, 1963, this male ran into a hollow branch of a partly dead juniper tree 15 feet south of station C5d. Part of this branch had been sawed off at some earlier time, and a hole about one-and-a-half inches in diameter was present in the center of the remaining part. The branch was not dissected, but probing revealed that the hole extended far into the branch and enlarged as it approached the trunk. No. 177, _P. truei_, adult. This lactating female ran into the hollow trunk of a juniper 10 feet north of station G7a. Both lateral branches of the main trunk were rotten and hollow, but the tree appeared to be healthy. Chewed juniper seeds were present in the trunks and around the base of the tree. This female later ran to a juniper log 30 feet north of station N4d. Apparently there was no permanent nest at this site (Fig. 15). No. 178, _P. truei_, adult. This female ran into a hollow juniper tree 10 feet south of station H3c. Hundreds of old juniper seeds, with their embryos chewed out, were present at the base of the tree. The tree was not cut down. No. 238, _P. truei_, adult. This male ran into a dead juniper log 10 feet south of station O4b. Chewed juniper seeds were present on the ground, but no nest was found in the log. [Illustration: FIG. 15: Diagrams showing estimated home ranges of six individuals of two species of _Peromyscus_, and location of these ranges in the trapping grid. Nesting or hiding places are described in the text, and are indicated on each diagram by an X. Shaded areas represent home ranges estimated from trapping records for 1963; outlined, unshaded areas represent estimated home ranges for 1964.] No. 241, _P. truei_, adult. This male ran into a small hole at the base of a juniper tree 25 feet south of station G7c. The hole was at the fork of the tree, four inches above the ground, and led to a large subterranean chamber in the basal part of the trunk. This male later ran into a dead juniper log lying on the ground 20 feet southwest of station N3b. No nest was found in the log. After another capture, this mouse ran to a small juniper log 40 feet southeast of station G3d. There was a nest of shredded juniper bark and many juniper seeds inside the log (Figs. 15-17). No. 245, _P. truei_, adult. This female ran into a large, hollow juniper log 20 feet northwest of station D4d. No nest was seen, but chewed juniper seeds were noted in and around the log (Fig. 15). No. 251, _P. truei_, juvenile. This female ran into a dead juniper log beside station P4b. Chewed cones of pinyon pine and chewed juniper seeds were on the ground. A small nest of shredded juniper bark, and a few leaves of serviceberry, were found inside the log. Chewed pinyon nuts and juniper seeds also were present in the nest. [Illustration: FIG. 16: (above) Photograph of juniper log at station G3d, which contained the nest of _P. truei_ # 241.] [Illustration: FIG. 17: (below) Photograph of dissected juniper log at station G3d, showing the nest of _P. truei_ # 241, at end of mattock handle. The nest of shredded juniper bark contained chewed seeds of juniper trees.] No. 267, _P. truei_, juvenile. This male ran into a fallen juniper log 40 feet southwest of station P7a and then disappeared into a hole leading under an adjacent rock. Dissection of the log revealed many chewed juniper seeds inside and beneath the log, but no nest. I did not overturn the large rock or excavate under it. No. 268, _P. truei_, adult. This pregnant and lactating female ran into a hollow branch of a partly-dead juniper tree 10 feet south of station O7d. The limb and base of the tree were hollow, and there were large numbers of chewed juniper seeds nearby. Because of time limitations, the branch was not dissected. No. 74, _P. maniculatus_, juvenile. This female ran into a small circular hole in the ground 13 feet north of station J3a. Excavation revealed that this hole led into the abandoned tunnel of a pocket gopher (_Thomomys bottae_). The tunnel was followed for about four feet, but no nest was found and the tunnel led under a thicket of oak brush which made further excavation impractical (Fig. 15). No. 247, _P. maniculatus_, adult. This male was followed to a large nest situated at the base of a stump and under a juniper log lying beside the stump, five feet from station I2c. This large nest was built on the ground and was constructed of grasses (_Poa fendleriana_, _Stipa comata_, and _Koeleria cristata_), and contained a few leaves of Gambel oak. It was the largest nest found. Chewed pinyon nuts were in the nest. (Fig. 15). No. 276, _P. maniculatus_, juvenile. This male ran into a small hole at the base of a dead juniper tree 40 feet north of station O2c. It would have been necessary to cut the tree down to uncover the nest, and this was not deemed to be worthwhile. The preceding accounts indicate that, in Mesa Verde, nests of _P. truei_ usually are associated with hollow juniper logs or branches. In one instance a nest of _P. truei_ was found on the ground, under a rock. Shredded juniper bark, and, in one case, grasses were the materials most commonly used for nest building. Individuals of _P. maniculatus_ did not build nests in trees. One nest was found under a stump and adjacent log. Another site was in the abandoned tunnel of a pocket gopher, and a third was under a large rock. The only nest that was unquestionably built by a _P. maniculatus_ was constructed of grasses and a few leaves. It seems unlikely that competition for nesting sites between the two species of _Peromyscus_ affects the local distribution of each species. The analysis of nesting sites suggests that _P. truei_ is restricted, in Mesa Verde, by the availability of fallen logs, hollow branches, or hollow trunks of juniper trees. My observations lead me to think that within the pinyon-juniper woodland there is a surplus of nesting sites for individuals of _P. truei_. Many juniper trees have dead branches, and hollow juniper logs are abundant throughout the forest. It is inconceivable to me that the population of _P. truei_ could reach densities sufficient to saturate every nesting site available to them in the trapping grid. Sagebrush areas, or brushy zones adjacent to the pinyon-juniper woodland usually do not contain juniper logs; when hollow juniper trees or logs are not available, _P. truei_ is not found as resident of such areas. As mentioned earlier, individuals of _P. truei_ may venture into such areas to feed if they are adjacent to pinyon-juniper woodland. An individual of _P. truei_ may have more than one nest within its home range (for example Nos. 105 and 241 cited above). Each mouse probably has refuges, each containing a nest, strategically located in its home range. Thus, if a mouse is chased by a predator, or by another mouse, it need not return to its main nest, but can seek refuge in one of its secondary nests. These secondary nests were small and were invariably constructed from shredded juniper bark. Some of these nests were little more than a scant handful of shredded bark that formed a platform to sit upon. Other nests were larger and ball-shaped, with one opening on the side. All of the secondary nests that were found were inside hollow juniper logs. The bark used in construction of the nests had, in each case, been transported from nearby living trees. The logs had previously lost their bark through decay. The evidence indicates that these secondary refuges are prepared with considerable care. Not only is the bark transported for some distance, but it is shredded into a soft mass of fibers. When a mouse first establishes itself in a new area, perhaps it begins several such nests before settling upon the most favorable site. The less desirable sites, if still within the animal's range, are then available (barring competition by a new inhabitant) for outlying refuges. My data do not indicate whether individuals of _P. maniculatus_ use a similar arrangement of nests within their home ranges. The population of _P. maniculatus_ was sparse in the trapping grid, and the habitat these mice occupied was such as to make following them extremely difficult. In captivity, both species constructed nests that were indistinguishable to me, when the mice were given cotton, kapok, or pieces of burlap as building material. The cotton or kapok was used directly, but the burlap was shredded into a fine mass of fluffy fibers. The burlap seemed to me to be the best building material, for it maintained its shape best. Both species constructed nests that resembled inverted bowls. Solitary mice naturally built smaller nests than those built by females with young. The entrance to the closed nests varied; often the female would bolt through the side of the nest where there was no opening. Sometimes the mice would exit and enter through the top of the nest. In some cases it appeared that the entire nest was closed; probably the occupant had closed the entrance. Such a closed nest would have the advantage of greatly moderating the microenvironment within the nest, and would allow the animal within to remain comfortable with a minimum expenditure of energy. The larger nests found in the trapping grid resembled those built by captives. Nests built of grasses were always larger than those built of juniper bark. Juniper bark is as easily worked into nests as are grasses, in my judgment. Therefore, difficulty of construction of nests from this material probably does not account for the smaller size of the nests composed of bark. I think the difference in insulating characteristics between the two materials probably accounts for the difference in size of the nests. REPRODUCTION In Mesa Verde, _Peromyscus_ reproduces from April through September. Reproduction is greatly reduced in the autumn, and most females complete reproduction before October. Ten of the 20 females of _P. maniculatus_, taken in May, contained embryos; five others were lactating. Lactating and pregnant females were collected on May 5, 1962, indicating that reproduction in some females began in early April. In September, 15 of 34 females were pregnant or lactating, whereas in October only two out of 15 females of _P. maniculatus_ were reproducing. Only one female of _P. maniculatus_ was found to contain embryos in October. This large adult was taken on October 3, 1963, and had six embryos, each five millimeters long. She probably would have produced a litter later in October, and would have been nursing into November. A report of October breeding in north-central Colorado described nine of 23 females of _P. maniculatus_ as being in a reproductive state; seven were lactating and one was pregnant between October 26 and 31, 1952 (Beidleman, 1954:118). In the Museum of Natural History, the University of Kansas, there are 35 females of _P. maniculatus_ more than 144 millimeters in total length taken from Mesa Verde in November, 1957 (Anderson, 1961:53). None of these contained embryos, and no pregnant females have been taken from the park in November. _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_ reproduce at about the same time. A female of _P. truei_ prepared as a specimen on May 10, 1964, contained four embryos, each 20 millimeters long, indicating a breeding time in mid-April. Svihla (1932:19) reported the gestation period for non-lactating _P. truei_ to be 25 to 27 days and for lactating individuals, 40 days. Lactation tends to increase the gestation period of other _Peromyscus_ by about five days (Asdell, 1964:266). The gestation period of nine non-lactating females of _P. m. rufinus_ was reported by Svihla to be 23 to 24 days. Lactation increased the length of the period of gestation in this subspecies to between 23 and 32 days (mean for seven females 26.57 ± 0.73, Svihla, 1932:19). Females of _P. truei_ were observed in various stages of reproduction from June through September. Ten of the 20 females of _P. truei_ taken in September were reproducing; four contained embryos and the other six were lactating. In October, only one of 17 females caught in snap traps was lactating. Lactating females were caught in live-traps as late as October 23, although most females had ceased reproduction by then. No pregnant or lactating females were observed in November. In _P. maniculatus_, puberty has been placed at 32 to 35 days for females weighing 13 grams, and in males at from 40 to 45 days, at weights of 15 to 16 grams (Jameson, 1953:45). In _P. truei_, the weight of the testes is reported to rise in March and diminish through September, with accessory organs following the same cycle (Asdell, 1964:267). Young of _P. truei_ nurse for about one month, although some litters may not be weaned until 40 days of age. Young of _P. maniculatus_ are weaned between 22 and 37 days of age (Svihla, 1932:30). Twenty-six pregnant females of _P. maniculatus_, taken in the breeding seasons of 1961-1964, contained from one to eight embryos each; the mean was 4.65 ± 1.67. Other investigators have found similar mean values in this species (Asdell, 1964:266). Thirteen females of _P. truei_ taken in the breeding seasons of 1961-1964, contained from three to six embryos each; the mean was 4.0 ± .912. Svihla (1932:25) reported litter sizes, at birth, of two to five and a mean of 2.84, in 19 litters. Other investigators have reported litter sizes of one to five with a mean of 3.4, and one to six with a mean of 3.6 (Asdell, 1964:268). Apparently _P. truei_ does not have more than six young per litter. In captivity, females of both species began reproduction in early February. These captives had been kept for several months at a temperature of 21 degrees Centigrade, and on a daily photoperiod of 15 hours. Some captive males had enlarged, scrotal testes in January; the extended photoperiod and warm temperature probably influenced the breeding condition. In both species testes of wild males caught in autumn after late September and on through the winter were abdominal, except for one male of _P. maniculatus_ which had enlarged, scrotal testes on October 15. Dates at which different animals arrived at breeding condition varied, in part owing to subadults (young of the year) appearing in the catch from early summer to late autumn. Some adult females appeared to be pregnant or lactating throughout much of the summer and early autumn, whereas other females, that were caught a number of times, apparently reproduced only once in the summer. Some females may fail to breed even though they are mature enough to do so. One female of _P. truei_ captured eight times (August 30 to September 20) was a juvenile when first caught, and was classed as young (in postjuvenal molt) on September 10. She did not reproduce in her first breeding season, unless she did so after September 20, which is unlikely. Another female of _P. truei_ was an adult when first caught, and was caught 12 times (August 21 to October 25). At no time were her mammae enlarged and she was not lactating or pregnant. It is improbable that she reproduced earlier in the season, for teats of mice that have reproduced earlier usually are enlarged to such a degree that previous parturition is clearly indicated. It was surprising to catch a female, of any age, 12 times in two months without sign of reproductive activity. Only one female of _P. maniculatus_ did not show reproductive activity. She was a juvenile on July 19 when first caught; a subadult on August 28 when caught the third time, and an adult on October 23 when caught the fifth time. Burt reported a rest period of a month or more in the summer, in Michigan, during which many females of _P. leucopus_ did not reproduce. They began to breed again in late summer at about the time when young of the year began reproducing (Burt, 1940:17, 19). Abundant mast was correlated with reproductivity in autumn, according to Jameson (1953:54), who thought that "food is a basic determinant of the autumn reproduction" of _P. leucopus_. Little has been written about the length of time males remain in breeding condition. Difficulties in determining breeding condition are many. Fertility customarily is determined by sectioning testes and noting the presence or absence, and relative abundance, of sperm. This procedure necessarily sacrifices the individual and indicates the breeding condition at only one moment and for only the individuals sacrificed. My observations of males caught a number of times in live traps shed some light on the breeding condition of males, but the investigator is likely to err in extrapolating physiological data from morphology when he notes whether the testes are abdominal or scrotal and whether they are enlarged or small. It was assumed that testes that have not descended, and that lie within the abdominal cavity, are not capable of producing viable sperm. This is the condition in most juveniles, and in all males during winter. As the breeding condition is attained, testes descend into the scrotum. Soon the testes and their accessory organs enlarge and are readily apparent. Howard (1950:320) reported that numerous males of _P. leucopus_ sired litters when their testes appeared to be abdominal, and therefore questioned whether the criterion of descended testes is valid as an indicator of breeding condition. My captive males of _P. maniculatus_ and _P. truei_ did not sire litters when their testes were abdominal, even though such males were left with adult females for as long as four to five months (August through December). Captive pairs of both species yielded no evidence of reproductive activity until January when, as mentioned earlier, some of the males had scrotal testes. Young were born first in early February, although their parents had been confined together since the preceding August. Jameson reported the testes of fecund males of _P. maniculatus_ as almost always 8.0 millimeters or larger (Jameson, 1953:50). Testes that are at least partly scrotal must be considered as being capable of producing motile sperm, even though this may not be the case for all individuals. Toward the beginning and end of the breeding season the testes and accessory organs of wild mice were small and probably produced few if any sperm. At these times some males apparently were so frightened by being handled that the testes were retracted into the inguinal canals. It would have been easy to consider such males as having abdominal testes when in fact they did not. In such cases the scrotum usually was noticeably enlarged; it was found also that in many cases the testes returned to the scrotal position if the mouse was held gently for a few minutes. Careful handling of animals was found to prevent, or at least retard, retraction of the testes. Retraction of the testes from the scrotum was not a problem at the height of the breeding season when the testes were engorged. I had originally assumed that all adult males would be fertile throughout the breeding season, and that any males with abdominal testes would be subadults or young of the year. This assumption was an oversimplification; all adult males did not reach breeding condition at the same time of year. My data do not support a firm conclusion, for it is difficult to follow non-captive individuals throughout a breeding season, owing to sporadic appearance of animals in traps. Nevertheless, observations of mice that were trapped a number of times indicated the following: 1) Some adult males that had abdominal testes in the middle of July reached breeding condition as late as late August and even late September. 2) Some juvenal males had scrotal testes at the time their postjuvenal molt was just beginning to be apparent on their sides. Most juvenal males did not have scrotal testes, and many juveniles that appeared repeatedly in traps from mid-July through late October did not attain breeding condition. A mouse that was a juvenile in mid-July must have been born in mid-June. 3) Apparently animals born early in the breeding season may reproduce later in that season, whereas those born later in the breeding season tend not to breed until the following year. Possibly cooler evening temperatures in July and August, due to the relatively larger amounts of precipitation in those months, inhibit reproductive development of late-born young. Most plants have ceased vegetative growth and have produced seeds by this time; but the interrelationships between growing seasons, climatic conditions, and reproductive physiology are unknown. Only one adult of each species had scrotal testes after late September; the _P. truei_ had scrotal testes on October 24, 1963, and the _P. maniculatus_ had scrotal testes on October 15 of that year. GROWTH Growth of captive _P. maniculatus_ and _P. truei_ is discussed in several reports. One of the most complete is that of McCabe and Blanchard (1950) on _P. m. gambelii_ and _P. t. gilberti_ in California. A detailed discussion of the dentition in _P. truei_ and wear of the teeth in different age groups is given by Hoffmeister (1951). Molt in these species has been considered by a number of authors (Collins, 1918; McCabe and Blanchard, 1950; Hoffmeister, 1951; Anderson, 1961). The report by McCabe and Blanchard is valuable because molt is compared between the two species from the first to the twenty-first week of postnatal development. [Illustration: FIG. 18: Scatter diagram of postnatal growth of captive mice, showing increase in length of bodies from birth to 70 days of age. The records for _P. truei_ represent 11 individuals of five litters; those for _P. maniculatus_ represent 17 individuals of four litters.] The thoroughness of the above-mentioned studies is readily apparent to those who have worked with mice of the genus _Peromyscus_. Nevertheless, the ecology of local populations of _P. maniculatus_ and _P. truei_ as reported for the San Francisco Bay area (McCabe and Blanchard, 1950) has little relationship to the ecology of mice of other subspecies of these species, in southwestern Colorado. Indeed, the preferred habitats, and to some extent the behavior, differ strikingly in Colorado and California. [Illustration: FIG. 19: Graphs showing postnatal growth of solitary captive individuals of _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_, representing the only young in each of two litters.] Figures 18 and 19 show that some litters grow appreciably faster than others, but the end results are about the same. Since the young were measured at irregular intervals, statistical procedures for calculating confidence limits of the curves were not applicable. Solitary young reared by one female of each species, attained maximum size more rapidly than animals having litter mates (Fig. 19). Nevertheless, solitary individuals and individuals from litters all reach essentially the same size 50 days after birth. The gestation time of _P. truei_ is several days longer than that of _P. maniculatus_, and the young of _truei_ are fewer and heavier than those of _maniculatus_. As would be expected, _truei_ remains in the nest longer and nurses longer than _maniculatus_. Young of each species grow rapidly for the first month, and attain, in that time, the largest percentage of their adult size; they grow rapidly up to sometime between the thirtieth and fiftieth days. Thereafter the rate of growth diminishes and the animals begin to gain weight rather than continuing to extend the lengths of the body and appendages. Figure 19 reveals that the appendages of young _maniculatus_ attain most of their length about a week earlier than those of _truei_. Young _truei_ acquire mobility and coordination somewhat later than young _maniculatus_, but both species are seemingly equal in these respects by about the end of the second week. Length of gestation period, number and size of embryos, amount of time spent in the nest, and time required for bodily growth are all of major importance in determining the relative success of _truei_ and _maniculatus_. These parameters will be considered further in the discussion. PARENTAL BEHAVIOR In the laboratory, pregnant females were supplied with either kapok, cotton, or a piece of burlap with which to make a nest. The kapok or cotton was used directly by the mice in constructing a hollow, compact, moundlike nest. When burlap was used for nest building, the female first completely frayed the cloth by chewing it into a fluffy mass of fibers. When the top of a nest was opened to inspect young, the female would attempt to pull the nesting material back into shape by means of forefeet and teeth. The mother's defensive posture was to cover the young with her body, often lying over them and facing upward, toward the investigator. In this semi-recumbent position, the female would attack the investigator's fingers with her forefeet and teeth. Often the female would stand bipedally and use the forefeet and teeth to mount the attack. If at this time a young chanced to wander away from the mother, she would quickly pick it up and place it in the nest at her feet. When disturbed, females of both species, but especially _P. maniculatus_, often dove headlong under their nest or into the wood shavings on the floor of the cage. This type of retreat was most often used when young were nursing. Time is required even by the mother to disengage nursing young, and this mode of escape is the most expedient. The mother disengaged nursing young by licking around their faces and pushing with her paws. Nursing females of both species tolerated the male parent in the nest. A male and female often sat side by side in the nest and by means of their bodies participated in covering the young. Males were not observed to attempt any defense of the nest, or of the young. Females were tolerant of older young in the nest when another litter was born and was being nursed. In one nest, a female of _P. truei_ gave birth to a litter of three when her older litter was 29 days old. The three older young continued to nurse until they were 37 days old, at which time they were removed from the cage. The female appeared tolerant of this nursing by members of the older litter, but appeared to give preference to the wants of the younger offspring. One female of _P. truei_ lost or killed all but one young of her litter; at about the same time, a _P. maniculatus_ and all but one of her young inexplicably died. Since the remaining young _maniculatus_, a male, was just weaned and was considered expendable, I placed him in the cage with the female _truei_ and her 33-day-old, male offspring. The reaction to the newcomer was unexpected. The female immediately covered the _P. maniculatus_ and her own young and prepared to defend them against me. Later, when the _P. maniculatus_ was disturbed, he had only to emit a squeak and the female _truei_ would run to cover and protect him. When the young male of _P. truei_ was 69 days old the female kept him out of the nest, but still kept the male _maniculatus_ in the nest with her. Although the female was somewhat antagonistic to her own young, she did not injure him, but only kept him out of the nest. The male _truei_ was left in the cage with his mother and the _P. maniculatus_ from September 23 to December 10. None of the mice had any apparent cuts on the ears or tail to indicate fighting. As much as seven months after the _P. maniculatus_ was introduced into the cage, the female _truei_ continued to cover him with her body whenever there was a disturbance. The male _maniculatus_ not only tolerated this attention, but ran under the female _truei_ when frightened. "Adoption" of young of another species has been reported for a number of animals, but, without further evidence, it is not possible to postulate that such adoptions occur between species of _Peromyscus_ in nature. Young males are tolerated by their mothers after weaning. One young male _maniculatus_ was left in the cage with his mother from the time of his birth in autumn until late February of the following year. A litter was born on February 24. A young male _P. truei_ was also left in the cage with his mother until he had acquired most of his postjuvenal pelage; the female and male usually sat together in the cage. Females of both species sometimes eat their young when the young die shortly after birth. One female of each species killed three of her four young, and ate their brains and viscera. In one of these cases, the female, of _P. maniculatus_, also died; the female of _P. truei_ was the same one that adopted the surviving _P. maniculatus_. The female _truei_ continued to nurse her one remaining young for at least several days after killing three of his litter mates. A reason for this cannibalism might have been that I had fed these mice for several weeks on a mixture of grains low in protein content. Inadequacy of this diet for nursing females may have caused them to become cannibalistic. The feed of all captives was changed to Purina Laboratory Chow after the young were killed. Transportation of Young Females of both species transported their young either by dragging them collectively while the young were attached to mammae, or by carrying them one at a time in the mouth. Since mice of the subgenus _Peromyscus_ have three pairs of nipples, they probably transport only six young collectively. Svihla (1932:13) has stated that both pectoral and inguinal teats are used in transporting young, in contrast to Seton's reputed assertion that only inguinal nipples were used. But Svihla neglected to cite Seton's complete statement. Seton (1920:137) recorded a litter of three as using only the inguinal mammae, but on the following page recorded the use of both inguinal and pectoral mammae by another litter of four. My findings agree with those of Svihla. Nursing females of both species were removed periodically from cages by lifting them by the tail. The young would hang onto the mammae and the female would clutch the young to her with all four feet. Young two weeks old or older crawled behind the mother while nursing. The method of transporting young in the mouth has been mentioned by Seton (1920:136) and described by Lang (1925) and Hall (1928:256). These authors report that the mother picks the young up in her paws, and places it ventral-side up in her mouth, with her incisors around it. The young are not picked up by the skin on the nape of the neck, as are the juveniles of dogs and cats. I have found that females of both species of _Peromyscus_ carry their young ventral-side up in their mouth while the young are small, and sometimes when the young are older. Generally, when females of _P. truei_ moved young weighing more than 10 grams, the female grasped the young from the dorsal side, across the thorax just posterior to the shoulders, and held them with the incisors more or less around the animal. Perhaps this method was used with older young because of the observed tendency of the larger young to resist being turned over and grasped from the ventral side, and because their increased weight would have made it difficult, if not impossible, for the mother to pick them up with her paws. The young rarely resisted the efforts of the mother to move them by this method; when grasped across the thorax by the mother, the young would remain limp until released. Some females of _P. truei_ would drag almost fully grown young back into the nest in this manner. I have not observed older young of a comparable age to be moved by females of _P. maniculatus_. The females of _P. maniculatus_ appear to be somewhat less concerned than those of _P. truei_ for the welfare of their young once they are mobile and close to being weaned. The following listing describes changes in postnatal development of young, of each species, from birth to nine weeks of age. _P. maniculatus_ _P. truei_ ----------------------------------+------------------------------------- FIRST WEEK: At birth, young are | At birth, young are helpless, red helpless, red overall, small | overall, smaller than _P. truei_, with wrinkled skin. Pinna of ear | skin wrinkled. Ear, eyes, and folded over and closed; eyes | digits as in _P. truei_. closed; digits not separated | from rest of foot. | | Redness diminished by fourth day. | Redness decreases and disappears by | fourth day. | Hair apparent by fifth day; | Hair apparent by fourth day; body dorsal one-half or two-thirds of | bicolored by end of week. body more darkly pigmented than | venter by fourth day. | | Young squeak loudly and suck; | Young squeak loudly; sucking more sometimes crawl, but drag hind | pronounced than in _P. truei_; may legs. | crawl, but drag hind legs. ----------------------------------+------------------------------------- | SECOND WEEK: Appreciable increase | As in _P. truei_. in size; head about 60 percent | larger than at birth, by 14th | day, and still large in | proportion to body. | | Toes on hind foot separated more | As in _P. truei_, but somewhat more from foot. | advanced. | Body well haired by end of week; | Body well haired by end of week; dorsum dark gray, venter whitish; | dorsum dark gray with brownish tail bicolored in most, but not | tint; venter whitish; tail haired. | bicolored in most, but not haired. | Pinna of ear unfolded and open by | As in _P. truei_, but development end of week. | somewhat more advanced. | Through day 10, use hind legs to | Crawl well by end of week; push, but by end of week use legs | difficult to hold, squirm but do to crawl; difficult to hold, | not bite; agile. squirm but do not bite. | | Walk behind mother while nursing; | agile. | ----------------------------------+------------------------------------- | THIRD WEEK: Eyes open on 16th to | Eyes open on 16th to 20th day, 21st day. | partly open earlier. | Gray pelage of dorsum brownish. | Pelage of dorsum brownish; molt Apparently there is a molt line | line across shoulders progressing progressing posteriorly from | posteriorly; browner anterior to nose; the molt line has moved to | line, grayer posterior to it. shoulder region by end of week; | pelage anterior to line browner, | grayer posterior to it. | | Tail haired and weakly bicolored | Tail haired and bicolored in all in some individuals by end of | individuals. week. | | Young walk and jump well; squirm | Young walk and jump well; fight and but rarely bite. | bite when handled. ----------------------------------+------------------------------------- | FOURTH WEEK: Begin to eat solid | Some young eat grain by 24th day; foods at 23-29 days, but also | others continue to nurse. nurse. | | Molt line about 3/4 inch | Juvenal pelage complete; no sign of posterior to head. Juvenal pelage | postjuvenal molt. completed by end of week. Some | young have brownish hair on front | legs. | | Young roll over on backs and use | As in _P. truei_; also, all jump feet to ward off litter mates | well, and fight fiercely when that are dropped into nest, or | handled. into container, with them. | ----------------------------------+------------------------------------- | FIFTH WEEK: Young weaned on 30th | All young weaned before or by end to 40th day; some nurse beyond | of week; none observed to nurse 30th day if female is lactating. | beyond 30th day, even if female is | lactating. | Juvenal pelage complete and no | Juvenal pelage complete; postjuvenal molt apparent on | postjuvenal pelage not apparent on dorsum. | most, but probably present on all, | and concealed under juvenal pelage. ----------------------------------+------------------------------------- | SIXTH WEEK: Postjuvenal pelage | Postjuvenal molt apparent in most apparent in most individuals | young; almost complete in some, under juvenal pelage, especially | except above tail and on flanks. along lateral line. | ----------------------------------+------------------------------------- | SEVENTH WEEK: Postjuvenal pelage | Postjuvenal pelage apparent in all apparent in most young; in some | young; less distinct molt line than the molt line has progressed well | in _P. truei_. up on the sides, but not to | mid-dorsum. | ----------------------------------+------------------------------------- | EIGHTH WEEK: All individuals | Growth completed in some growing; total lengths of 156-170 | individuals; those in larger millimeters; weight 17-22 grams. | litters have total lengths of | 128-144 millimeters; weight | 14-17 grams. ----------------------------------+------------------------------------- | NINTH WEEK: Testes partly scrotal | Scrotum in season usually large, in one male on 59th day. | vaginae open, evidence of coitus | common. (McCabe and Blanchard, | 1950:39). | New brown pelage encroaching on | Postjuvenal molt completed in some saddle and on hind legs; | individuals by end of week. New postjuvenal molt completed in | pelage tends to be concealed under some individuals by eleventh | juvenal pelage longer than in _P. week. | truei_. ----------------------------------+------------------------------------- CHANGES OWING TO INCREASE IN AGE Increase in length of limb bones, changes in proportion of bones in the skull, eruption and degree of wear of teeth, and changes in pelage can be used to ascertain relative age. Different investigators might choose different limits for the three categories young, subadult, and adult. Museum specimens were assigned to one of five age groups listed below mostly on the basis of tooth wear, essentially as described by Hoffmeister (1951:1). Juvenile: M3 just breaking through bony covering of jaw or showing no wear whatsoever. Young: M3 worn smooth except for labial cusps, and M1 and M2 showing little or no wear. Subadult: M3 worn smooth; labial cusp may persist, but is well worn; M1 and M2 having lingual cusps worn, but not smooth; labial cusps showing little wear. Adult: Lingual cusps worn smooth and labial cusps showing considerable wear; labial cusp of M3 may persist. Old: Cusps worn smooth; not more than one re-entrant angle per tooth discernible, frequently none. For live animals examined in the field, criteria based on pelage and breeding condition were used, as follows: Juvenile: Only gray, juvenal pelage present. Young: Subadult pelage apparent on lateral line or on sides; body usually smaller than in adults. Subadults: Subadult pelage having mostly replaced juvenal pelage; mice often as large as adults; testes of males often abdominal in breeding season; gray juvenal pelage may persist on head of some individuals. Adult: Adult pelage present; body usually largest of all animals in population; females may have enlarged mammae from nursing previous litters; testes of males usually scrotal in breeding season; gray pelage may be present on head of some individuals. Old individuals in the field could not be distinguished from adults; hence any animals that appeared older, or more developed, than subadults were classified as adults. In _P. truei_, subadult pelage appears first on the lateral line or on the flanks; new pelage is ochraceous and contrasts markedly with the gray juvenal coat. In _P. maniculatus_, the subadult pelage contrasts less with the juvenal coat; the new pelage progresses from anterior to posterior over the body in the same manner as in _truei_, but replaces the juvenal coat in a less distinct manner than in _truei_. As a result, contrast often is lacking between juvenal and subadult pelages in _maniculatus_ making it difficult to assign an individual to one of these two age categories when examined in the field. In museum specimens, the subadult pelage is much more noticeable because it can be compared with the pelages of other specimens. The subadult pelage in _P. maniculatus_ is duller than the adult pelage: In _P. truei_ the subadult and adult pelages appear to have an equal sheen. In early winter, the postjuvenal pelage acquired by young individuals of _P. truei_ was thick and luxuriant and indistinguishable from the winter pelage of adults. My observations lead me to conclude that individuals born late in the breeding season molt from juvenal summer pelage directly into winter adult pelage. Technically, this new coat is the postjuvenal one, yet it cannot be distinguished as such after the molt is completed. ANOMALIES AND INJURIES Anatomical anomalies were rare in the individuals of _Peromyscus_ that I examined. When anomalies were found they were striking, principally because of their low rate of occurrence. One female of _P. truei_, born in captivity, had a congenital defect of the pinna of the right ear, noted on the fifteenth day after birth. Closer examination then and later revealed that the pinna was normal in all respects except that the tip was missing. The tip showed no evidence of injury. When the mouse was subadult, this defective pinna was approximately half as long as the normal pinna. The topmost part of the defective pinna was somewhat more constricted in circumference than the normal one. On September 11, 1963, a subadult male of _P. truei_ was captured that had five functional toes on its right front foot, the only one of more than 175 individuals caught and handled in the field that exhibited polydactyly. The front foot was examined closely in the field, but it could not be determined how or where the extra bones of the sixth toe articulated. _Peromyscus_ normally has four full-sized toes on each front foot, and a small inner toe hardly more than an enlarged tubercle, having no nail. A few mice of both species had broken toes or claws torn off. Such injuries were more common on toes of the hind foot. In several instances the toes were shortened, as if by marking, although the animals concerned had been marked earlier by clipping toes other than the injured toes. The reason for these injuries is not apparent, although they could have been caused by fighting, or from having been caught in doors of Sherman live traps. Toes of several mice were swollen and inflamed due to small glochids of cacti that were stuck in them. Apparently the mice had stepped on the glochids by chance, for I found no evidence that _Peromyscus_ of either species eats cacti. One _P. truei_ had a broken tail; three other individuals had tails about one-half normal length. One _P. maniculatus_ had a shortened tail. Some of these injuries probably were caused by the Sherman live traps; several individuals of _P. truei_ were released after having been caught by the tail by the spring-loaded door of these traps. On October 17, 1963, an adult _P. truei_ had a bleeding penis; when this mouse was recaptured on October 25, the injury was healed. Losses Attributed to Exposure in Traps Observations of wild mice caught in live traps suggest that metabolic maturity is reached later than physical and reproductive maturity. In such trapping, it became apparent that juvenal and young mice suffered from exposure to cold and to heat much more than did subadult or adult mice. Although traps were carefully shaded and ample nesting material and food provided, some mice died in the traps. An overwhelming majority of these mice were juveniles and young. Traps were checked in the morning, both in the summer and autumn, yet mice died in traps that were barely warm to the touch, in summer, and cool to the touch in autumn. Older mice frequently were found in traps that were warm, or even hot, to the touch; yet the older mice rarely died in such traps. Apparently the tolerance of adults is much greater to heating and chilling. Greater bulk and perhaps longer pelage in adults might provide sufficiently better insulation to account for this difference. Occasionally juvenal mice were found in traps in a sluggish and weakened condition, especially in autumn when nights were cool. In such cases the mice were either cupped in the hands and warmed until lively enough to fend for themselves, or, if especially weakened, were taken to the laboratory. None of such animals that were returned to the laboratory lived for more than two weeks. Most of those released in the field did not reappear in the traps. I conclude that juvenal and young mice placed under stress by overheating or cooling die immediately or live only a few days. Subadult and adult animals tolerate more extreme conditions of overheating or cooling, presumably because they are able to regulate their internal temperature better, by either losing or retaining heat more effectively. Mice found dead in overheated traps had salivated heavily, and may also have licked the fur on their chests to increase heat dissipation. One such adult, of _P. truei_, had a wet chest when he was taken from a warm trap; when released, this mouse ran to a nearby plant of _Comandra umbellata_, and ate a few of the succulent leaves before running off. This individual was trapped several times later in the summer, and apparently suffered no ill effects from the exposure. Dental Anomalies Abnormalities in the formation and occlusion, or decay of teeth, are relatively rare in wild mammals. Of all bodily structures, the teeth apparently are under the most rigid genetic controls; they form early in the embryo and follow rigidly specified patterns in their ontogeny. Apparently any deviation from the normal pattern of tooth formation is quickly selected against. All specimens of _P. m. rufinus_ and _P. t. truei_ in the collection of the Museum of Natural History at the University of Kansas, and in my collection, were examined for dental anomalies. A total of 317 specimens of _P. m. rufinus_ and 54 specimens of _P. t. truei_ were examined. The following specimens were found to have abnormalities: K. U. 69361, _P. maniculatus_, adult: Small bundles of plant fibers are lodged between all upper teeth and have penetrated the maxilla anterior to the left M1. The maxillary bone is eroded away from the roots of all teeth. The anteriormost roots of both lower first molars are almost completely exposed, because the dentary has been abraded away. K. U. 76041, _P. maniculatus_, young: A piece of plant fiber is wedged between the left M2 and M3. The maxillary bone has eroded away from around the roots of M3, indicating the presence of an abscess in this area. K. U. 69362, _P. maniculatus_, adult: All teeth in the lower right tooth-row are greatly worn, especially on the lingual side. The labial half of the right M1 is all that remains; decay is apparent both in the crown and roots on the lingual side of this tooth. K. U. 69397, _P. maniculatus_, old: The maxillae have eroded away from around the anterior roots of each first upper molar, leaving these roots unsupported. C. L. D. 231, _P. maniculatus_, old: The teeth in this female are greatly worn; re-entrant angles are not visible in any teeth. A circular hole, 0.1 millimeter in diameter, exists in the dentine immediately over (when viewed from the underside of the skull) the posterior root of the right M1. The crowns of the teeth are greatly reduced in height, and the dentine is thin. Anomalies in the Skull Wormian bones and other abnormalities in the roofing bones are noted, as follows: K. U. 76090, _P. maniculatus_, young: The interparietal is divided; the divided suture is in line with the suture between the parietals. The interparietal is 7.8 millimeters long. K. U. 76091, _P. maniculatus_, young: A wormian bone, 0.5 millimeter by 0.2 millimeter, lies between the anterior border of the interparietal and the posterior border of the left parietal, at a point midway between the center line of the skull and the posterolateral border of the parietal bone. C. L. D. 248, _P. maniculatus_, adult: An oval wormian bone, 1.1 millimeters long and 0.6 millimeter wide, lies between the parietals at their posterior margin; the long axis of the bone is parallel to the long axis of the skull. C. L. D. 246, _P. maniculatus_, juvenal: The interparietal is divided equally by a suture. An oval wormian bone, 0.3 millimeter long and 0.1 millimeter wide, lies between the frontals, midway between the anterior and posterior borders of these bones. C. L. D. 656, _P. maniculatus_, young: A small, rounded wormian bone lies between the right parietal and interparietal, lateral to the posterior junction of the suture between the parietals. This bone extends anteriorly into the parietal bone from the suture of the interparietal and parietal. This bone is 0.7 millimeter wide, and extends 0.6 millimeter into the parietal. C. L. D. 662, _P. maniculatus_, subadult: An elongated, diamond shaped wormian bone closes the suture between the parietal bones. This bone is 2.3 millimeters long and 0.8 millimeter wide. K. U. 34735, _P. truei_, old: The anterior one-quarter of the left parietal bone is slightly depressed; and the posterior one-third of the left frontal and anterior one-quarter of the left parietal are thin and sculptured. This malformation of the roofing bones posterior to the orbit probably is not the result of a break, for the orbital part of the frontal bone is normal. The frontal-parietal sutures are in the normal positions on both sides of the skull. The above-mentioned anomalies do not appear to be correlated with age or locality at which the specimens were taken. Apparently such anomalies are present throughout the population, but in a small percentage of specimens. FOOD HABITS Mice of the genus _Peromyscus_ are known to eat a wide variety of plants and arthropods, and to be highly opportunistic in selection of food (Cogshall, 1928; Hamilton, 1941; Williams, 1955, 1959a; Jameson, 1952; Johnson, 1962). In order to determine possible food preferences, captive mice of both species were fed plants indigenous to Mesa Verde. Entire plants were used whenever possible; available seeds also were offered (Tables 5, 6). All feeding experiments were replicated with at least six different individuals in order to minimize the trends resulting from individual preferences or dislikes. The mice of each species tended to be consistent in their feeding. The plant species listed in Tables 5 and 6 were those that were eaten or rejected by a majority of the individuals tested. Plant material eaten by _P. maniculatus_ and refused by _P. truei_ included only the leaves and stem of _Viguiera multiflora_. Plant material eaten by _P. truei_ and refused by _P. maniculatus_ included the leaves of _Calochortus gunnisonii_ and the leaves and stem of _Erigeron speciosus_. TABLE 5--Plants, or Parts of Plants, Eaten by Captive Individuals of _P. truei_ in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. 0 = not eaten, + = eaten, - = not offered. =============================+========+======+========+======= Species of Plant | Leaves | Stem | Flower | Seeds -----------------------------+--------+------+--------+------- _Amelanchier utahensis_ | - | - | - | + _Calochortus gunnisonii_ | + | + | - | + _Chaenactis douglasii_ | 0 | 0 | - | - _Chrysothamnus depressus_ | 0 | 0 | 0 | - _Chrysothamnus nauseosus_ | + | 0 | 0 | - _Comandra umbellata_ | + | + | - | - _Erigeron speciosus_ | + | + | - | - _Eriogonum alatum_ | - | - | - | + _Juniperus osteosperma_ | - | - | - | + _Lupinus caudatus_ | 0 | 0 | + | - _Lithospermum ruderale_ | 0 | 0 | - | 0 _Mellilotus alba_ | + | + | + | + _Mellilotus officinalis_ | + | + | + | - _Orthocarpus purpureo-albus_ | + | + | + | + _Pedicularis centranthera_ | + | + | - | - _Penstemon linarioides_ | + | + | - | + _Pinus edulis_ | - | - | - | + _Polygonum sawatchense_ | + | + | - | 0 _Solidago petradoria_ | 0 | 0 | 0 | - _Viguiera multiflora_ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 -----------------------------+--------+------+--------+------- Plant material eaten by captives of both species included _Calochortus gunnisonii_--stem and seeds; _Comandra umbellata_--leaves and stem; _Eriogonum alatum_--seeds; _Penstemon linarioides_--leaves and stem; _Pinus edulis_--seeds; and _Juniperus osteosperma_--seeds. Plant materials refused by both species of mice included the leaves and stem of _Chaenactis douglasii_, the leaves, stem and seeds of _Lithospermum ruderale_, and the leaves, stem and flowers of _Solidago petradoria_. Cricetine rodents chew plant and animal foods thoroughly; contents of their stomachs appear as finely-particulate fragments. These fragments invariably contain pieces of epidermis from ingested plants. Due to the presence of cutin in the cell walls, epidermis is last to be digested. Microscopic analysis of plant epidermis is useful in helping to determine food habits of various animals (Dusi, 1949; Williams, 1955, 1959a; Brusven and Mulkern, 1960; Johnson, 1962). The microscopic analysis of stomach contents provides a practical method of determining which plants are eaten by rodents. Contents of stomachs and intestines were removed from mice caught in snap traps, and from preserved specimens. The contents were placed on a piece of bolting silk, washed thoroughly with running water, stained with iron-hematoxylin and mounted on slides, or stored in 70 per cent ethanol (Williams, 1959a; Douglas, 1965). TABLE 6--Plants, or Parts of Plants, Eaten by Captive Individuals of _P. maniculatus_ in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. 0 = not eaten, + = eaten, - = not offered. =============================+========+======+========+======= Species of Plant | Leaves | Stem | Flower | Seeds -----------------------------+--------+------+--------+------- _Artemisia ludoviciana_ | 0 | 0 | - | - _Calochortus gunnisonii_ | 0 | + | - | + _Chaenactis douglasii_ | 0 | 0 | - | - _Comandra umbellata_ | + | + | - | - _Erigeron speciosus_ | 0 | 0 | - | - _Eriogonum alatum_ | - | - | - | + _Juniperus osteosperma_ | - | - | - | + _Lappula redowskii_ | 0 | 0 | - | + _Lithospermum ruderale_ | 0 | 0 | - | 0 _Orthocarpus purpureo-albus_ | 0 | 0 | + | + _Penstemon linarioides_ | + | + | + | - _Pinus edulis_ | - | - | - | + _Purshia tridentata_ | + | + | - | - _Sitanion hystrix_ | 0 | 0 | - | 0 _Solidago petradoria_ | 0 | 0 | 0 | - _Sphaeralcea coccinea_ | + | + | - | + _Stipa comata_ | 0 | 0 | - | + _Viguiera multiflora_ | + | + | - | - -----------------------------+--------+------+--------+------- In order to analyze these epidermal fragments, a collection of plants was made within the park. Slides of the epidermis of these plants were prepared and analyzed for diagnostic characters (Douglas, 1965:197-199). Features such as the stomatal arrangement in relation to subsidiary cells; the types of trichomes, scales and glands; the cellular inclusions such as starch grains, mucilage and resins are of taxonomic value (Metcalfe and Chalk, 1950). The configuration of the anticlinal cell walls is useful in separating species that are similar in other respects (Douglas, 1965:199). The following species of plants, and other food items, were identified in the stomach or intestinal contents of _Peromyscus maniculatus_: _Agropyron smithii_ _Artemisia_ sp. _Eriogonum umbellatum_ _Lupinus ammophilus_ _Penstemon linarioides_ _Phlox hoodii_ _Stipa comata_ Arachnid legs Stomach and intestinal contents of _P. truei_ contained the following food items: _Artemisia nova_ _Artemisia_ sp. _Penstemon_ cf. _barbatus_ _Penstemon_ cf. _linarioides_ _Poa fendleriana_ Arachnid legs _Eriogonum_ sp. _Gutierrezia sarothrae_ _Yucca_ sp. Chitin Feathers Many of the plants eaten by the mice had large numbers of crystals in the epidermis. Druses were the most abundant, but raphid crystals also were seen. Every slide contained at least one species of plant which contained druses. Such crystals are composed mostly of calcium oxalate (Esau, 1960:41). In Mesa Verde, families of plants having crystals include: Boraginaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Compositae, Cruciferae, Leguminosae, Liliaceae, Malvaceae, Ornargraceae, Rosaceae, and Saxifragaceae. Calcium oxalate is a highly insoluble compound and is innocuous if it passes through the gastro-intestinal tract without being absorbed. In rats of the genus _Neotoma_, some calcium oxalate passes through the intestines unchanged, but large amounts of calcium are absorbed through the intestine. The urine of pack rats is creamy in color and contains calcium carbonate. It is not understood how these rats metabolize the highly toxic oxalic acid, when converting calcium oxalate to calcium carbonate (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1964:147-148). Apparently calcium oxalate passes through the intestine unchanged in both species of _Peromyscus_, for their urine is clear and yellowish. Although both species of mice appear to prefer plants having soft leaves, some plants having coarse leaves also are eaten. Many of the slides contained isolated sclerids. The stomach contents of one individual of _P. truei_ contained a small fragment of the epidermis of _Yucca_. This fragment may have come from a young shoot. It is unlikely that _Peromyscus_ would eat the larger, coarser leaves of _Yucca_. Pinyon and juniper nuts were found in nests of all mice. Captive mice were especially fond of pinyon nuts, and these probably provide a substantial part of the diet of _Peromyscus_ in the autumn and early winter. The winter staple of _P. truei_ appears to be juniper seeds. Nesting sites of this mouse often could be located by the mounds of discarded seeds lying nearby. Both species eat pinyon and juniper seeds; since _P. truei_ lives in the forest, it has better access to these foods than does _P. maniculatus_. Mice remove the embryos of juniper seeds by chewing a small hole in the larger end of the seed. The seed coats of juniper are extremely hard, and a considerable amount of effort must be expended to remove the embryo. Captives discarded the resinous and pithy, outer layers of juniper berries. Individuals of _P. truei_ are adept climbers. Since many juniper berries remain on branches throughout the winter, the ability of these mice to forage in the trees would be especially advantageous when snow covers the ground. WATER CONSUMPTION _Peromyscus maniculatus_ is ubiquitous, occurring in habitats ranging from mesic boreal forests to arid southwestern deserts. Most subspecies of _P. maniculatus_ live in moderately mesic or near-mesic environments, but a few have adapted to arid conditions. It has been assumed that the success of _P. maniculatus_ in inhabiting such diverse habitats is associated with its adaptability to different kinds of food and varying amount of available water (Williams, 1959b:606). Throughout its range _P. maniculatus_ coexists with one or more other species of _Peromyscus_ that are more restricted in distribution. _Peromyscus truei_ is one such species. Both species live under xeric or near-xeric conditions, for the climate of Mesa Verde is semi-arid. Other than a few widely-scattered springs, there are no sources of free water on the top of the Mesa Verde land mass; thus animals inhabiting the park must rely upon moisture in the plants and other foods they eat, or upon dew. Several investigators have studied water consumption in mice of the genus _Peromyscus_ (Table 7). Dice (1922) did so for the prairie deer mouse, _P. m. bairdii_, and the forest deer mouse, _P. leucopus noveboracensis_, under varying environmental conditions. He found that both species drank about the same amounts of water per gram of body weight, and that food and water requirements did not differ sufficiently to be the basis for the habitat differences between these species. Neither of his samples was from an arid environment. Chew (1951) studied water consumption in _P. leucopus_, and recently reviewed the literature on water metabolism of mammals (Chew, 1965). In his studies of five subspecies of two species of _Peromyscus_, Ross (1930) found significant differences in water consumption between species but not between subspecies within a species. One of the subspecies of _P. maniculatus_ tested was from a desert region, whereas the other two were from mesic areas along the coast of California. Lindeborg (1952) was the first to measure water consumption of both _P. m. rufinus_ and _P. t. truei_, the species and subspecies with which my experiments are concerned. Lindeborg also tested the ability of five races of _Peromyscus_ to survive reduced water rations. Unfortunately, the subspecies chosen for these experiments did not include _P. t. truei_ or _P. m. rufinus_. Lindeborg (1952:25) found that the "amounts of water consumed by various species of _Peromyscus_ from different habitats within the same climatic region were not conclusively different." However, he did find significant differences between some subspecies from different geographical areas. For example, he found no significant difference in water consumption between _P. m. bairdii_ from Michigan and either _P. m. blandus_ or _P. m. rufinus_ from New Mexico, but he found a highly significant difference between _P. l. noveboracensis_ from Michigan and _P. l. tornillo_ from New Mexico. Lindeborg also found that the subspecies of _Peromyscus_ that consumed the least water, and that were best able to survive a reduced water ration, were those from the more xeric climatic areas. Some mammals may be able to change their diets in times of water stress, and thereby compensate for a shortage of water. At such times, _Dipodomys_ selects foods with high percentages of carbohydrates and conserves water by reducing the amounts of nitrogenous wastes to be excreted (Schmidt-Nielsen _et al._, 1948). Williams (1959b) found that _P. m. osgoodi_ from Colorado drank more water on a diet rich in protein than on one rich in carbohydrates. But, her mice on a high carbohydrate diet used less than a normal amount of water for a period of only five weeks; at the end of the five weeks they were drinking about as much as they had been when on the control diet of laboratory chow. Likewise, mice adjusted to the high protein diet by consuming more water; but by the end of the fifth week their daily water consumption approximated the amount drunk when fed on laboratory chow. Because of these results, Williams questioned the validity of the assumption that _P. maniculatus_ is able to inhabit a diversity of habitats because of its adaptability with respect to food and water requirements. I conducted a series of experiments on water and food consumption by individuals of _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_. It was thought that if there were differences in water or food consumption, or both, knowledge of them might help to explain the obvious differences in habitat preferences of these two species in Mesa Verde National Park. In August of 1965, 30 individuals of _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_ were trapped in Mesa Verde National Park at elevations of 7000-8400 feet, and transported to Lawrence, Kansas, where the experiments were carried out. Mice were housed in individual metal cages (10 x 7.5 x 5 inches), having removable tops of wire mesh, and an externally-mounted water bottle that had a drop-type spout extending into the cage. Cages were on one of five shelves of a movable tier of shelving, and were rotated randomly, from one shelf to another, each week. A layer of dry wood shavings covered the bottom of each cage. A control cage was similarly equipped. The mice were kept in a room in which temperature and photoperiod were controlled. The ambient air temperature of this room was 20 to 23 degrees Centigrade throughout the experiments, and averaged 21 degrees. Humidity was not controlled, but remained low throughout the experiments. The room was illuminated for eight hours each day, from about 9 A. M. to 5 P. M. The animals were fed at least once a week, at which time all remaining food was weighed and discarded, and the remaining water was measured. Tap water was used in all of the experiments. The cages were cleaned each week. Each time the cages containing mice were handled, the control cage was handled in the same way. The amount of evaporation was determined each week by measuring the water remaining in the bottle of the control cage. Water and food consumption of individuals of _P. maniculatus_ and _P. truei_ were measured when the mice were fed diets of differing protein content. To my knowledge, the only other study in which water consumption was measured for mice of the genus _Peromyscus_ on diets of different protein contents was by Williams (1959b). Because of the limited number of animals available, it was decided that the best results could be obtained by placing all individuals on the same diet for a predetermined number of weeks, then on a second diet for a certain period, and so on. Each mouse was weighed at the beginning, at the mid-point, and at the end of each experiment. The mice were weighed on the same days, at times when they were inactive. Because weights of individual mice differ, water and food consumption was calculated on the basis of the amount consumed per gram of body weight per day. All foods were air-dry and contained a negligible amount of water. First, food and water consumption was measured for nine individuals of each species on a diet of Purina Laboratory Chow. This chow contains not less than 23 per cent protein and 4.5 per cent fat, and about 57 per cent carbohydrate. Since the mice had been maintained on this diet for several months prior to the experiments, food and water consumption was measured for a period of only two weeks. Individuals of _P. truei_ consumed more total water and more water per gram of body weight than individuals of _P. maniculatus_ (Table 7). Next, 10 mice of each species were placed on a diet of Purina Hog Chow for a period of four weeks. This chow contains not less than 36 per cent protein and one per cent fat, and about 42 per cent carbohydrate. Both species increased their daily water consumption immediately after being placed on this diet (tables 7 and 11). On the high protein diet, _P. truei_ again consumed much more water than did _P. maniculatus_ (tables 7 and 9). TABLE 7--Food and Water Consumption of _Peromyscus maniculatus_ and _P. truei_ When Fed Diets of Different Protein Content. Food and Water Consumption Are Determined for the Grams, or Milliliters, Consumed per Gram of Body Weight per Day; Daily Totals Are also Given. ==================================================================== _Peromyscus maniculatus rufinus_ ------------+------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------- Diet | | Food | Total | Water | Total per cent | No. | /gram | grams | /gram | water protein | mice | /day ± S. D. | /day | /day ± S. D. | /day ------------+------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------- Lab Chow 23 | 9 | .201 .074 | 4.455 | .262 .183 | 5.751 ------------+------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------- Hog Chow 36 | 10 | .238 .060 | 5.232 | .496 .186 | 10.749 ------------+------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------- Corn 11 | 11 | .149 .044 | 3.144 | .174 .012 | 3.696 ------------+------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------- _Peromyscus truei truei_ ------------+------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------- Diet | | Food | Total | Water | Total per cent | No. | /gram | grams | /gram | water protein | mice | /day ± S. D. | /day | /day ± S. D. | /day ------------+------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------- Lab Chow 23 | 10 | .216 .070 | 6.353 | .373 .119 | 10.880 ------------+------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------- Hog Chow 36 | 10 | .230 .079 | 6.966 | .653 .189 | 19.571 ------------+------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------- Corn 11 | 10 | .158 .010 | 4.318 | .332 .016 | 9.034 ------------+------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------- The tendency of both species to eat more of the hog chow than they ate when fed standard laboratory chow may reflect a higher palatability of the hog chow. Both species consumed similar amounts of food per gram of body weight, on each of the diets (Table 7). The larger _P. truei_ requires more grams of food per day than the smaller _P. maniculatus_, but this slight difference in food consumption probably has no effect on the distribution of these species within Mesa Verde. The results obtained with the low protein diet were strikingly different from those of the first two experiments. In this experiment the same groups of mice were placed on a diet of whole, shelled corn for a period of six weeks. The corn contained less than 11 per cent protein, about three per cent fat, and about 80 per cent carbohydrate. By the end of the first week, on the low protein diet, all mice had reduced their water intake by about half the amount used per day on the high protein diet (Table 7). There was not a statistically significant difference, for either species, between the average amounts of water drunk in the first and in the sixth weeks of the experiment. The data in Table 7 show that on all three diets, individuals of _P. maniculatus_ drank less water per gram of body weight than individuals of _P. truei_. Variation in water consumption was high; some individuals of _P. maniculatus_ that drank more than the average amount for the species, consumed as much water as some individuals of _P. truei_ that drank less than the average amount. In general, individuals of _P. maniculatus_ drank about half as much water each day as individuals of _P. truei_. Individuals of both species were consistent in their day-to-day consumption. TABLE 8--Amounts of Mean Daily Water Consumption as Reported in the Literature for Species of _Peromyscus_. Figures in Parentheses are Means; Those Not in Parentheses Are Extremes. Column headings: A: Mean daily ml./gm. wt./day B: Water consumption total ml. per day C: Temperature D: Humidity E: Per cent dietary protein F: Investigator ================+===========+=============+=======+=======+====+===== | A | B | C | D | E | F ----------------+-----------+-------------+-------+-------+----+----- | (.262) | (5.70) | | | | _P. m. rufinus_ | .124-.699 | 2.71-15.07 | 20-23 | low | 23 | [A] | | | | | | _P. m. rufinus_ | (.101) | (2.39) | 20-25 | 24-47 | | [B] | | | | | | _P. m. osgoodi_ | .16-.25 | 3.2-4.3 | 18-22 | 10-20 | 23 | [C] | | | | | | | (.126) | (1.74) | | | | _P. m. bairdii_ | .082-.177 | 1.12-2.72 | 21 | 25-68 | | [D] | | | | | | _P. m. bairdii_ | .124-.182 | (2.37-3.17) | 20-25 | 24-47 | | [B] | | | | | | | (.372) | (10.80) | | | | _P. t. truei_ | .224-.561 | 7.0-16.92 | 20-23 | low | 23 | [A] | | | | | | _P. t. truei_ | (.085) | (2.77) | 20-25 | 24-47 | | [B] | | | | | | _P. l. nov._ | .057-.117 | 1.36-2.29 | 21 | 25-68 | | [D] | | | | | | _P. l. nov._ | | (5.36) | 18 | 62.5 | | [E] ----------------+-----------+-------------+-------+-------+----+----- [A] Douglas [B] Lindeborg, 1952 [C] Williams, 1959 [D] Dice, 1922 [E] Chew, 1951 Table 8 shows average water consumption for several species of _Peromyscus_ as reported in the literature, and as determined in my study. It is difficult to compare my results with most of the data in the literature, because of a lack of information as to protein, fat, carbohydrate, and mineral contents of foods used in other studies. Lindeborg (1952) and Dice (1922) fed mice on a mixture of rolled oats, meat scraps, dry skimmed milk, wheat germ, etc. described by Dice (1934). Their data on water consumption in _P. maniculatus_ indicate that this mixture probably is lower in protein content than Purina Laboratory Chow, that was used in my experiments and those of Williams' (tables 8 and 9). The amount of dietary protein consumed under natural conditions is not known for most wild animals. One index of the minimum amount of protein necessary is the amount required for an animal to maintain its weight. At best, this can be only an approximation of the required amount, for other factors, such as stress, disease, change in tissues during oestrus or gonadal descent, and changes in constituents of the diet other than protein, would all be expected to affect the body weight (Chew, 1965:145-147). The data in Table 7 show that both species vary their food intake with changes in diet. Table 10 shows weight changes that took place in individual mice when fed each of the three diets. A change in weight of one gram cannot be considered as important, for the weight of an individual mouse fluctuates depending upon when he last drank, ate, defecated or urinated. The only significant changes in weight occurred when mice were fed low protein food (Table 10). Individuals of _P. truei_ lost 15.72 per cent and individuals of _P. maniculatus_ lost 10.03 per cent of their total body weights on this diet. This indicates that food having a protein content of more than 10 per cent but less than 23 per cent is required for maintenance of weight in these animals. Although knowledge of the amount of water consumed, _ad libitum_, by adult mice is valuable information, maintenance of the population depends upon reproduction and dispersal of young individuals. My trapping data indicate that only two to three per cent of the adults live long enough to breed in consecutive breeding seasons. In spring, the breeding population is composed largely of mice that were juveniles or subadults during the latter parts of the breeding season. Therefore, the critical time for the population may well be the time when the season's young are being produced. Any unfavorable circumstances, such as a shortage of food or water, that would affect pregnant or lactating females would be of primary importance to the integrity of the population. TABLE 9--A Comparison of Mean Daily Water Consumption of Mice on High Protein Diets. Numbers in Parentheses Are Average Values; All Others Are Ranges of Values. Column headings: A: Temperature B: Relative humidity C: Investigator ================+===========================+=========+=======+========= | Mean daily H_{2}O | | | | consumption | | | Species +-------------+-------------+ A | B | C | cc./gm. wt. | Total cc. | | | ----------------+-------------+-------------+---------+-------+--------- _P. m. osgoodi_ | (0.27-0.54) | (4.6-9.3) | 18-22 C | 10-20 |Williams, | | | | | 1959 ----------------+-------------+-------------+---------+-------+--------- | (0.496) | (10.74) | | | _P. m. rufinus_ | 0.186-0.764 | 4.54-16.57 | 20-23 C | low |Douglas ----------------+-------------+-------------+---------+-------+--------- | (0.653) | (19.57) | | | _P. t. truei_ | 0.429-1.031 | 13.28-30.28 | 20-23 C | low |Douglas ----------------+-------------+-------------+---------+-------+--------- One would assume that pregnant and lactating females require more water than non-pregnant females. One might also assume that juveniles require different amounts of water and food than adults. Juveniles have less dense pelage than adults, and probably are affected more by their immediate environment because of their relatively poor insulation. Juveniles might also be in an unfavorable situation insofar as water conservation is concerned, because they are actively growing, and in most cases, acquiring new pelage; it is well known that these are times of stress for the individual. TABLE 10--Weights of Mice at Start and Finish of Experiments, Showing Changes in Weight and Mean Weights, and Means of Changes in Weight (mean delta). ======================================================================== _Peromyscus truei truei_ ----+---------------------+----------------------+---------------------- | Lab Chow | Hog Chow | Corn +------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------- No. |Start | End |[Delta]| Start | End |[Delta]| Start | End |[Delta] ----+------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------- 1 | 31.0 | 31.3 | 0.3 | 31.3 | 32.3 | 1.0 | 32.3 | 29.0 | 3.3 5 | 31.1 | 30.5 | 0.6 | 30.5 | 32.8 | 2.3 | 32.8 | 28.7 | 4.1 6 | 27.6 | 27.1 | 0.5 | 27.1 | 29.5 | 2.4 | 29.5 | 27.3 | 2.2 7 | 28.0 | 26.3 | 1.7 | 26.3 | 27.5 | 1.2 | 27.5 | 22.2 | 5.3 13 | 25.8 | 30.6 | 4.8 | 30.6 | 27.0 | 3.6 | 27.0 | 22.2 | 4.8 14 | 26.9 | 30.7 | 3.8 | 30.7 | 31.4 | 0.7 | 31.4 | 27.3 | 4.1 15 | 25.4 | 29.4 | 4.0 | 29.4 | 29.8 | 0.4 | 29.8 | 24.0 | 5.8 16 | 33.0 | 32.9 | 0.1 | 32.9 | 30.5 | 2.4 | 30.5 | 26.0 | 4.5 19 | 37.6 | 38.1 | 0.5 | 38.1 | 31.8 | 6.3 | 31.8 | 22.0 | 9.8 20 | 23.5 | 25.8 | 2.3 | 25.8 | 26.2 | 0.4 | 26.2 | 22.9 | 3.1 ----+------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------- [=Y]| 28.9 | 30.2 | 1.8 | 30.2 | 29.8 | 2.0 | 29.8 | 25.2 | 4.7 ----+------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------- _Peromyscus maniculatus rufinus_ ----+---------------------+----------------------+---------------------- | Lab Chow | Hog Chow | Corn +------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------- No. |Start | End |[Delta]| Start | End |[Delta]| Start | End |[Delta] ----+------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------- 2 | 23.0 | 20.7 | 2.3 | 20.7 | 21.1 | 0.4 | 21.1 | 18.6 | 2.5 3 | 22.7 | 23.1 | 0.4 | 23.1 | 23.8 | 0.7 | 23.8 | 20.7 | 3.1 4 | 22.0 | 21.1 | 0.9 | 21.1 | 21.8 | 0.7 | 21.8 | 21.3 | 0.5 8 | 26.3 | 28.1 | 1.8 | 28.1 | 15.8 | 2.3 | 25.8 | 23.8 | 2.0 9 | 21.5 | 24.0 | 2.5 | 24.0 | 25.1 | 1.1 | 25.1 | 21.8 | 3.3 10 | | | | | | | 22.5 | 20.0 | 2.5 11 | 21.0 | 22.1 | 1.1 | 22.1 | 20.8 | 1.3 | 20.8 | 19.0 | 1.8 12 | 22.3 | 23.2 | 0.9 | 23.2 | 21.3 | 1.9 | 21.3 | 20.4 | 0.9 17 | 18.9 | 20.0 | 1.1 | 20.0 | 19.2 | 0.8 | 19.2 | 19.4 | 0.2 18 | 17.0 | 17.5 | 0.5 | 17.5 | 19.5 | 2.0 | 19.5 | 17.3 | 2.2 21 | 18.9 | 18.1 | 0.8 | 18.1 | 20.2 | 2.1 | 20.2 | 17.3 | 2.9 ----+------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------- [=Y]| 21.4 | 21.8 | 1.2 | 21.8 | 21.8 | 1.3 | 21.9 | 19.9 | 2.2 ----+------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------- Lindeborg (1950:76) found that 15 days before parturition, pregnant and non-pregnant females of _P. m. bairdii_ drank about the same amounts of water, that females consumed more water after the young were born and until they were weaned, and that water consumption increased with an increase in weight in young, growing individuals. He found that in the later stages of pregnancy, females of _P. m. bairdii_ required 36 per cent more water than non-breeding females; at 14 days after parturition, nursing females required 111 per cent more water than non-breeding females, and at weaning time, 158 per cent more water. Dice (1922:35) reported a 217 per cent increase in drinking of _P. m. bairdii_ before parturition, and 171 per cent increase while nursing. Several females of both species were bred prior to the start of the experiments described herein. As a consequence, it was possible to determine water and food consumption for lactating females of each species, and later, for their litters. Pregnant and lactating females, and newly-weaned litters, were fed laboratory chow throughout this experiment. The litters were separated from their mothers as soon as the young were observed to be eating, or no later than 33 days after birth. Table 11 shows the amounts of water and food consumed by two females of each species while they were either in the later stages of pregnancy, or were nursing. Although the data in Table 11 do not cover the full developmental time of the litters involved, it is obvious that both lactating females of _P. truei_ and one female of _P. maniculatus_ consumed more water than the average for their species (Table 7). Water and food consumption was measured for both females of _P. truei_ while they were nursing. The female that gave birth to litter A was left in the cage with the male for several days after the litter was born, resulting in another litter being born about 27 days after the first. Therefore, the record of this female represents an extreme case of stress (probably a common occurrence in nature) in which a female is nursing one litter while she is pregnant with a second. The record of the female of _P. truei_ that gave birth to litter B is the most complete, including data from the fifth day after parturition until the young were weaned on the thirty-third day after parturition. The record of the female of _P. maniculatus_ that gave birth to litter C covers the last 10 days of nursing before the young were weaned. After being separated from her litter, this female drank more than the average amounts of water, on both high and low protein diets. Although the food and water were lost several times for the female of _P. maniculatus_ with litter D, the period of time covered by the 14 days when water and food consumption were measured includes times just prior to parturition and to weaning of the young. TABLE 11--Water and Food Consumed by Nursing Females of _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_. Consumption Is Calculated on the Basis of Amount (Milliliters or Grams) Consumed per Gram of Body Weight per Day, as well as Total Amounts Used per Day. Column headings: A: Water used B: No. days C: Average weight D: ml. H_{2}O/gm./day E: Total water/day F: No. in litter G: Food used H: gms. food/gm./day I: Total food/day =====================+=======+====+=======+======+=======+=== Female | A | B | C | D | E | F ---------------------+-------+----+-------+------+-------+--- _P. truei_ (A) | 447 | 17 | 33.00 | .796 | 26.29 | 3 _P. truei_ (B) | 676 | 28 | 32.70 | .738 | 24.14 | 3 _P. maniculatus_ (C) | 191 | 10 | 19.45 | .983 | 19.10 | 5 _P. maniculatus_ (D) | 133 | 14 | 24.35 | .224 | 5.46 | 6 ---------------------+-------+----+-------+------+-------+--- Female | G | B | C | H | I | F ---------------------+-------+----+-------+------+-------+--- _P. truei_ (A) | 214.7 | 26 | 33.00 | .250 | 8.26 | 3 _P. truei_ (B) | 120.5 | 24 | 32.70 | .153 | 5.02 | 3 _P. maniculatus_ (C) | 47.8 | 10 | 19.45 | .246 | 4.78 | 5 _P. maniculatus_ (D) | 180.1 | 21 | 27.42 | .312 | 8.58 | 6 ---------------------+-------+----+-------+------+-------+--- It is interesting that the female of _P. maniculatus_ with litter C used much more than the average amount of water for the species, and even more per gram of body weight than lactating females of _P. truei_. Conversely, water consumption of the female with litter D was within one standard deviation of the mean for all adults of _P. maniculatus_. I infer that at least some lactating females of _P. maniculatus_ are better adapted to aridity than are some lactating females of _P. truei_. Table 11 also shows food consumption of the four females discussed above. All females, with the exception of the female with litter D, consumed amounts of food that lie within one standard deviation of the means for their species. The female with litter D had the most young, consumed the most food but drank the least water of the four females. Later, when separated from her litter and placed on the low protein diet, this female drank only .046 milliliters of water per gram of body weight per day. This figure is less than one-third of the average amount (.174) for this species (Table 7). The records of water and food consumption for litters A, C, and D are given in Table 12; the mice in litter B persisted in placing wood shavings in the opening of the spout on their water bottle, causing loss of the water. The data show that mice in all three litters had an average water and food consumption within one standard deviation of the mean for adults of their respective species (Tables 7 and 12). It is interesting that juveniles of both species require no more food and water per gram of body weight than adults. This indicates that if a young animal survives the rigors of postnatal life until it is weaned, it is then at no disadvantage as far as food and water consumption are concerned. This would be greatly advantageous to the species, as a population, for the young could disperse immediately upon weaning, and go into any areas that would be habitable for adults of the species. TABLE 12--Food and Water Consumed by Young Mice in Litters, After Weaning. Consumption Is Calculated on the Basis of the Amount (Milliliters or Grams) Consumed per Gram of Litter Weight per Day; Total Amounts Are Shown and Can Be Divided by Litter Size for Average Individual Consumption. Litter Sizes Are as Follows: A=3; C=5; D=6. =====================+=======+=========+=====+=========+========+====== | Total | | | Average | ml. | Total Litter | water | Total | No. | total |H_{2}O/ | water | used |corrected|days | weight |gm./day | /day ---------------------+-------+---------+-----+---------+--------+------ _P. truei_ (A) | 1207 | 1120 | 57 | 58.30 | .337 | 19.64 _P. maniculatus_ (C) | 1427 | 1340 | 57 | 76.14 | .308 | 23.50 _P. maniculatus_ (D) | 700 | 670 | 31 | 58.80 | .367 | 21.61 ---------------------+-------+---------+-----+---------+--------+------ | Total | | Average | Gms./ | Total Litter | food | No. | total |gms. wt.| food | used |days | weight | /day | /day -----------------------------+---------+-----+---------+--------+------ _P. truei_ (A) | 651.2 | 50 | 58.30 | .223 | 13.02 _P. maniculatus_ (C) | 743.8 | 57 | 76.14 | .171 | 13.04 _P. maniculatus_ (D) | 471.1 | 31 | 58.80 | .258 | 15.19 -----------------------------+---------+-----+---------+--------+------ The young of pregnant and lactating females are the animals in the population most likely to be affected by a deficient supply of water. Drought could reduce the water content of the vegetation to such a level that pregnant or lactating females might find it difficult, if not impossible, to raise litters successfully. If such a drought persisted throughout an entire breeding season, the next year's population would be reduced in numbers, for even under normal climatic conditions it is almost exclusively the juveniles that survive from one breeding season to the next. If such a hypothetical drought occurred, lactating females of _P. truei_ would be in a more critical position than lactating females of _P. maniculatus_. In order to determine how much water was available to mice in the peak of the breeding season, samples of the three most common plants in the study area were collected each week for analysis of their moisture content. Plants were placed in separate plastic bags that were sealed in the field. About a dozen plants of each species were used in each determination. Only the new tender shoots of the plants were collected, for it was assumed that mice would eat these in preference to the tougher basal portions of the plants. The plants were taken immediately to the laboratory and were weighed in the bag. Then the bag was opened and it and the contents placed in an incubator at 85 degrees Fahrenheit for a period of at least 72 hours. About 48 hours were required to dry the plants to a constant weight. The dried plants were weighed and their percentages of moisture were determined. Plants lose some water upon being placed in a closed bag; small drops of water appear immediately on the inner surface of the bag. Therefore, the bag must be weighed at the same time as the plants and the weight of the dried bag must be subtracted later. The three kinds of plants chosen were among the most widely distributed species in the study area, and all three grow close to the ground, within reach of mice. Stems and leaves of two of the plants, _Comandra umbellata_ and _Penstemon linarioides_, were readily eaten by captive animals. Mice also were observed to eat leaves of _Comandra_ after being released from metal live traps. The third species, _Solidago petradoria_, differs from the other two in having a short woody stem that branches at ground level. The more succulent shoots arise from this woody stem. The leaves of _Solidago_ are coarse and were not eaten by captive mice. Nevertheless, this species was chosen because it is widely distributed and has the growth form of several other species of plants in the area. The graph in Figure 20 shows that _Comandra_ contains the highest percentage of water through most of the summer. Water content of both _Penstemon_ and _Comandra_ was greatly reduced in the dry period that occurred in early July. _Solidago_ maintained a relatively constant percentage of moisture; perhaps its woody stem serves for water storage. The rains of July and August increased the percentage of moisture in the plants, but not to the extent expected. Neither _Solidago_ nor _Comandra_ reached the levels of hydration of early June. All plants were collected at or about 11 A. M. At night, when mice are active, these plants would be expected to contain a higher percentage of water than in the daytime. The data in Figure 20 indicate that mice probably are not endangered by water shortages in most years. The average percentage of moisture in the plants studied was as follows: _Comandra umbellata_ 62.33 per cent; _Solidago petradoria_ 53.0 per cent; _Penstemon linarioides_ 49.28 per cent. If a mouse were to eat ten grams of plant material containing 50 per cent moisture, it would provide him with five grams of food and five grams of water, both of which exceed the minimum daily needs for non-pregnant adults of either species. The data indicate that there are sufficient differences in water consumption between _P. maniculatus_ and _P. truei_ to account for their habitat preferences in Mesa Verde National Park. In years having average precipitation, water present in the vegetation has the potential for providing enough moisture for the needs of both species. Extended drought would affect individuals of _P. truei_ more adversely than individuals of _P. maniculatus_. [Illustration: FIG. 20: Graph showing percentages of moisture contained during the summer of 1964, by three abundant and widely-distributed species of plants in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado.] PARASITISM Ectoparasites were collected by placing specimens of _Peromyscus_ in separate plastic bags soon after death, adding cotton saturated with carbon tetrachloride, closing the bag for about five minutes, then brushing the fur of the specimen above a sheet of white paper. The ectoparasites were sorted and sent to specialists for identification. Endoparasites were saved when stomach and intestinal contents were examined. Larvae of botflies were collected from mice in the autumn of 1962, placed in sand in containers, and kept over winter until they hatched. Eyelids of alcoholic specimens were inspected for mites by an authority on these organisms. In 1961, the incidence of parasitism by botflies was the highest for the period 1960-1966. _P. maniculatus_ was more heavily infected with warbles than was _P. truei_. In 84 individuals of _P. maniculatus_ taken in September 1961, from Morfield Ridge, 32.1 per cent had warbles. The average number of warbles per animal was 1.24, and it was not uncommon to find two or three warbles per mouse. Sixty-nine per cent of the warbles were in the third instar stage, and the rest were in the second instar stage. Warble infestation was higher in the first half of September (40 per cent of mice infected) than in the second half of the month (30 per cent infected), but a larger percentage of the warbles were found (69 per cent) in the second half of the month. In October 1961, 12.9 per cent of 62 _P. truei_ were infected with warbles. The average number of warbles per infected mouse was 1.37. Seventy-three per cent of the warbles were in the third instar stage; the rest were in the second instar stage. Warble infestation was higher in the first half of October (16 per cent of the mice infected) than in the second half of the month (5.5 per cent infected). These mice were collected from several localities on Chapin Mesa, in pinyon-juniper woodland. In Mesa Verde the greatest incidence of infestations is in late September and early October. This agrees with the finding of other investigators (Sealander, 1961:58). Sealander (1961) investigated hematological values in deer mice infected with botflies, and found that infected mice had significantly lower concentrations of hemoglobin than non-infected mice. Myiasis, associated with infection by _Cuterebra_, is likely to lead to a lowering of the physiological resistance of a segment of the population, and perhaps to a subsequent decline in the population (Sealander, 1961:60). Mice infected by warbles were less agile than non-infected mice. Other investigators also have reported awkwardness in locomotion in infected mice (Scott and Snead, 1942:95; Sealander, 1961:58). Test and Test (1943:507) noted that parasitized mice did not appear to be emaciated, and this was also true of parasitized mice at Mesa Verde. Healed wounds, where warbles had emerged, were apparent on a number of mice. The warbles, and wounds, usually were found on the flanks and backs of the mice. The large, third instar larvae weighed about one gram apiece; there is little doubt that such large larvae induce trauma in their hosts. The highest rate of infestation by botflies occurred in 1961, the year in which the population density of _P. maniculatus_ was near its peak. The population of this species was reduced considerably in 1962, and remained low through 1964. In 1965, the density of _P. maniculatus_ appeared to be increasing. Other investigators have reported that increased incidence of _Cuterebra_ infestation in deer mice coincides with lower population densities and with a downward trend in the population (Scott and Snead, 1942:95; Wilson, 1945). My data indicate that this may not be the situation in Mesa Verde. The intestines or stomachs of almost all individuals of _P. maniculatus_ contained parasites. Endoparasites were less abundant in individuals of _P. truei_. This heavier infestation of _P. maniculatus_ by tapeworms, roundworms, and spiny-headed worms probably reflects the larger proportion of insects eaten by _P. maniculatus_ than by _P. truei_. The most common endoparasite encountered was the nematode, _Mastophorus numidica_ Seurat, 1914; it was found in the stomachs of many individuals of both species of _Peromyscus_. This nematode has been reported from _Felis ocreata_ in Algeria, _Bitis arietans_ in the Congo, and from the following mammals in the United States: _Canis latrans_, _Peromyscus crinitus_, _P. gossypinus_, _P. maniculatus_, _P. truei_, _Onychomys leucogaster_, _Dipodomys ordii_, _Reithrodontomys megalotis_, and _Eutamias minimus_. Individuals of _P. maniculatus_ obtained on the northern end of Wetherill Mesa in May and June of 1962 had numerous ectoparasites. At this time, the population of _P. maniculatus_ was high, but on a downward trend. My data and observations lead me to conclude that individuals of _P. maniculatus_ are more heavily parasitized by both botflies and endoparasites than are individuals of _P. truei_. The reasons for this unequal amount of parasitism in two species of mice occurring in the same general area remain obscure. The kinds of endoparasites and ectoparasites collected from _P. maniculatus_ and from _P. truei_ are listed below (m = present in _P. maniculatus_, t = present in _P. truei_). ACARINA: Ixodidae: _Dermacentor andersoni_ mt, _Ixodes angustus_ mt, _Ixodes spinipalpis_ m. Laelaptidae: _Androlaelaps glasgowi_ m. Myobiidae: _Blarinobia_ sp. m. Trombiculidae: _Euschoengastia lanei_ mt, _Euschoengastia criceticola_ m, _Euschoengastia dicipiens_ t, _Euschoengastia peromysci_ m, _Leewenhoekia americana_ m, _Trombicula loomisi_ m. DIPTERA: Cuterebridae: _Cuterebra cyanella_ mt. SIPHONAPTERA: _Callistopsyllus deuterus_ m, _Catallagia decipiens_ m, _Epetedia stanfordi_ mt, _Malaraeus sinomus_ mt, _Malaraeus telchinum_ mt, _Megarthroglossus procus_ mt, _Monopsyllus wagneri wagneri_ mt, _Orchopeas leucopus_ mt, _Peromyscopsylla hesperomys adelpha_ mt, _Phalacropsylla allos_ t, _Rhadinopsylla sectilis goodi_ t, _Stenistomera macrodactyla_ m, _Stenoponia_ (_ponera_ or _americana_) mt. CESTODA: _Choanotaenia_ sp. m, _Hymenolepis_ sp. t. NEMATODA: _Mastophorus numidica_ mt, _Syphacia obvelata_ mt, _Trichuris stansburyi_ t. ACANTHOCEPHALA: _Moniliformis clarki_ mt. PREDATION In order to determine the relative numbers of each species of _Peromyscus_ that were taken on a seasonal basis by predators, scats of coyotes and foxes were collected from trails and roads at least twice each month, from September 1963 through August 1964. Scats were identified, labeled and dried; all bones and samples of hair were later removed from each scat. Scats that were intermediate in size between the droppings of foxes and coyotes, and that could not be identified readily in the field, were not collected. Bones from the scats were identified to species, and hair was identified to genus or species by comparing color patterns or cuticular patterns with samples from known mammals. More than 200 impression slides and whole mounts of guard hair and underfur were prepared. Seven individuals of _P. truei_ and three individuals of _P. maniculatus_ were represented in 114 coyote scats (Table 13). Both species of _Peromyscus_ comprised only 3.9 per cent of the 253 items of food represented in the 114 scats. Rabbits, _Sylvilagus_ sp. and mule deer, _Odocoileus hemionus_ were the major food items of coyotes. Mice of the genus _Peromyscus_ apparently were preyed upon mostly in autumn (September through November), when mouse populations were near their yearly peaks. Foxes also prey upon _Peromyscus_ in the park. One _P. truei_ was represented in the 16 scats of foxes that were analyzed. This individual was taken in the winter quarter (December through February). The bobcat may be an important predator upon _Peromyscus_ in this region, but few scats of this animal were found. Since these could not be assigned to a specific month, they were not saved for analysis. Anderson (1961:58) believed that bobcats and gray foxes were the most abundant predators in the park. My observations over a period of two years led me to conclude that coyotes were more abundant than foxes and that foxes were, in turn, more abundant than bobcats. TABLE 13--Food Present in 114 Coyote Scats Collected at Mesa Verde National Park each Month from September 1963 through August 1964. ============================+=============+============ | Number | Percentage Food Item | of | of total | occurrences | items ----------------------------+-------------+------------ _Sylvilagus_ sp. | 32 | 12.65 _Spermophilus variegatus_ | 5 | 1.97 _Eutamias_ sp. | 12 | 4.74 _Reithrodontomys megalotis_ | 4 | 1.58 _Peromyscus boylei_ | 2 | 0.79 _Peromyscus maniculatus_ | 3 | 1.18 _Peromyscus truei_ | 7 | 2.76 _Neotoma cinerea_ | 2 | 0.79 _Neotoma mexicana_ | 9 | 3.56 _Neotoma albigula_ | 5 | 1.97 _Neotoma_ sp. | 3 | 1.18 _Microtus longicaudus_ | 1 | 0.39 _Microtus mexicanus_ | 11 | 4.34 _Microtus montanus_ | 1 | 0.39 _Microtus_ sp. | 1 | 0.39 _Odocoileus hemionus_ | 59 | 23.32 Grass | 34 | 13.44 Juniper berries | 23 | 9.09 Pinyon needles | 14 | 5.53 Pinyon nuts | 1 | 0.39 Arthropods | 7 | 2.76 Juniper needles | 3 | 1.18 Rodent or Lagomorph bones | 5 | 1.97 _Sceloporus_ sp. | 1 | 0.39 Unidentified fruit | 2 | 0.79 Rocks | 3 | 1.18 Paper | 4 | 1.58 Soil | 3 | 1.18 Feathers | 5 | 1.97 +-------------+------------ Total | 253 | ----------------------------+-------------+------------ Hawks, owls and eagles live in the park. Red-tailed hawks were seen frequently in the burned area on the northern end of Wetherill Mesa. Both hawks and owls probably prey upon _Peromyscus_ in Mesa Verde, for they are well-known predators upon mice and small rodents in other areas. I tried to find owl and hawk nests that were occupied, but located only nests that were abandoned or impossible to reach. Captive gopher snakes, _Pituophis melanoleucus_, ate adults of both species of _Peromyscus_. Gopher snakes probably are the most abundant snake in the park; they feed mostly on mice and other rodents. Fur of _Peromyscus_ was found in the stomach of a striped whipsnake, _Masticophis taeniatus_ (Douglas, 1966:734). DISCUSSION Five species of _Peromyscus_ inhabit Mesa Verde National Park (Anderson, 1961). Two of these species, _P. crinitus_ and _P. difficilis_ are rare, and none was taken in more than 14,000 trap nights. Several individuals of _P. boylei_ were taken in live traps, but this species could not be regarded as common. The two remaining species, _P. truei_ and _P. maniculatus_, are the most abundant species in the park. Comparison of the habitats and life-cycles of these two forms and analyses of their interrelationships have been the objectives of this study. The distribution of _P. truei_ in the park is regulated by the presence of living pinyon-juniper woodland where logs and hollow trees of _Juniperus osteosperma_ provide nesting and hiding places, and where seeds of juniper trees and nuts of pinyon trees provide food. Several other investigators have reported _P. truei_ to be associated with trees, but apparently these findings have not assumed the importance they warrant in understanding the ecology of this species. Bailey (1931:152) observed an individual of _P. truei_ nesting in a tree on Conchas Creek, New Mexico, and thought that this species might be more arboreal than was generally supposed. The type specimen of _P. t. truei_ was taken by Shufeldt from a "nest protruding from an opening in the dead and hollow trunk of a small pinon, at least 2 feet above the ground.... The nest, composed of the fine fibers of the inner bark of the pinon, was soon pulled out, and its owner dislodged...." (Shufeldt, 1885:403). Individuals of _P. truei_ usually build nests in trees, or in hollow logs, and are therefore more abundant in pinyon-juniper woodland where there are many such nesting sites. Rocks and stones are not necessary in the habitat of _P. truei_, although this species was most abundant where there was stony soil. The coincidence of rock or stones and a high density of _P. truei_ is thought to be explainable in terms of vegetation. Stony soils support mixed shrubs as well as pinyon and juniper trees; the additional cover and source of food probably allow a greater abundance of _P. truei_ than would be possible without the shrubs. Secondarily, the rock provides nesting sites for more mice. Stands of mixed shrubs, lacking a pinyon-juniper canopy, do not support _P. truei_. Its absence was noteworthy on Navajo Hill and on the northern end of Wetherill Mesa where only _P. maniculatus_ lived among the mixed shrubs and grassland. On the Mesa Verde, pinyon and juniper trees must be present in order for _P. truei_ to live in an area; and, these trees must be alive. Dead pinyons and junipers still stand in the burned part of Morfield Ridge, but no _P. truei_ were found there. Although a few individuals of _P. truei_ were taken in stands of sagebrush adjacent to pinyon-juniper woodlands, this species does not ordinarily venture far from the forest. _P. maniculatus_ lives almost everywhere in Mesa Verde; the preferred habitats are open and grassy with an overstory of mixed shrubs. Individuals of _P. maniculatus_ venture into ecotonal areas lying between grasslands and pinyon-juniper forest, or between sagebrush and pinyon-juniper forest. _P. maniculatus_ is found also in disturbed areas and in stands of sagebrush that occur in clearings of the pinyon-juniper woodland. In such areas, _P. maniculatus_ and _P. truei_ are sympatric; their home ranges overlap and any inter-specific competition that might occur would be expected in these places. The ability of _P. maniculatus_ to live in many different habitats is correlated in part with its ability to build nests in a variety of sites. Whereas _P. truei_ usually builds nests only in dead branches or logs, _P. maniculatus_ builds nests in such varied places as spaces under rocks, at the bases of rotten trees, and in abandoned tunnels of pocket gophers. This adaptability is advantageous for the dispersal of young individuals and the movement of adults into new areas. Nesting sites have important bearing on survival of the young. In Mesa Verde the rainy season occurs in July and August, while both species of _Peromyscus_ are reproducing. It is reasonable to assume that young animals that remain dry survive better than those that become wet and chilled. The nestling young of _P. truei_ are in a more favorable position to remain dry and warm than are nestling young of _P. maniculatus_. Captives of each species differed in the amounts of water consumed per gram of body weight. Individuals of _P. truei_ consumed more water per gram of body weight than individuals of _P. maniculatus_. Animals may drink more water than they require when allowed to drink _ad libitum_, but Lindeborg (1952) has shown that species which consume less water when it is not restricted also fare better on a reduced ration. _P. maniculatus_ appears to be better adapted to aridity than _P. truei_. The preferred habitats of each species are in accord with these findings. Within the trapping grid, the most moderate microenvironment, in terms of temperature and humidity, was in the pinyon-juniper forest, where _P. truei_ lives. The temperature extremes were wider in the microenvironments of a thicket of oak brush and of two different stands of sagebrush, where _P. maniculatus_ lives, than in the forest. _P. maniculatus_ tends to live in the harsher, more arid parts of Mesa Verde. Because of its propensity to build nests under things, or in the ground, and because of its ability to use less water per gram of body weight, _P. maniculatus_ is better adapted to withstand harsh environments than is _P. truei_. _P. truei_ may be restricted to the pinyon-juniper woodland because of its need for more mesic conditions. Still, Mesa Verde is semi-arid and there are few permanent sources of water available for animals. The primary source of moisture for rodents must be their food. Analysis of the percentages of moisture contained in the three most common plants in the trapping grid showed that _P. truei_ could obtain the required moisture by eating about ten grams of these plants daily; individuals of _P. maniculatus_ would need to eat less in order to satisfy their water needs. Individuals of _P. truei_ died more frequently in warm live-traps than did individuals of _P. maniculatus_. This indicates that _P. truei_ can tolerate less desiccation, or a narrower range of temperatures, than can _P. maniculatus_. Both species of mice eat some of the same plants, but these plants occur widely. _P. truei_ seems to rely more upon the nuts of pinyons and the seeds of junipers than does _P. maniculatus_. Mounds of discarded juniper seeds were associated with all nesting sites of _P. truei_. Bailey (1931:153) also noticed the fondness of this species for pine nuts and juniper seeds. Apparently, the availability of these foods is one of the major factors affecting the distribution of _P. truei_. However, this is not the only factor, as is shown by the presence of _P. maniculatus_ but lack of _P. truei_ in a juniper-pinyon association with an understory of bitterbrush. This habitat was seemingly too arid for _P. truei_. Factors Affecting Population Densities The production of young, and success in rearing them, is essential to continuity of any population. _P. maniculatus_ is favored in this respect, because the females produce more young and wean them sooner than do females of _P. truei_. In addition, lactating females of _P. maniculatus_ require significantly less water than do females of _P. truei_. Since young mice of both species require no more water per gram of body weight than do adults, the young can disperse into any area that is habitable by their species. _P. maniculatus_ probably is affected less by prolonged drought than is _P. truei_. Since lactating females require the most water of any animal in the population, they are the weakest link in the system. Females of _Peromyscus_ are known to reabsorb embryos when conditions are unfavorable for continued pregnancy. If prolonged drought occurred in the reproductive season, and desiccated the vegetation upon which the mice depend for moisture, the populations should diminish the following year. Lactating females of _P. truei_ would be affected more seriously by a shortage of water than would lactating females of _P. maniculatus_. Of two species, the one producing the more young probably would be subjected to more parasitism and predation than the species producing fewer young. A favorable season for botflies, _Cuterebra_ sp., revealed that _P. maniculatus_ has a higher incidence of parasitism by these flies than has _P. truei_; possibly the adult flies concentrate in the open, grassy areas where _P. maniculatus_ is more abundant, rather than in the woodlands where _P. truei_ lives. Perhaps the lower parasitism of _P. truei_ by warbles is related to the physiology of this species of mouse. Near Boulder, Colorado, the incidence of infection by warbles is lower in _P. difficilis_, a species closely related to _P. truei_, than in _P. maniculatus_ (V. Keen, personal communication). Although predation by carnivores would be expected to be higher on _P. maniculatus_, because this species does not climb, my data show that more individuals of _P. truei_ were taken by coyotes. I lack confidence in these findings, suspecting that another sample might indicate the reverse. Birds of prey probably catch more individuals of _P. maniculatus_, because this species lives in more open habitats. My data do not warrant firm conclusions regarding predation. The length of time females must care for their young influences the rate at which individuals can be added to the population. Females of _P. truei_ nurse their young longer and keep them in the nest longer than do females of _P. maniculatus_. Although this may enhance the chances of survival of young of _P. truei_, it also reduces the number of litters that each female can have in each breeding season. Females of _P. maniculatus_ can produce more young per litter, and each female probably can produce more litters per year than females of _P. truei_. Captives of _P. truei_ were tolerant of other individuals of the same species, even when kept in close confinement. However, when there was slight shortage of food or water they killed their litter mates, or females killed their young. Only a short period of time was necessary for one mouse to dispatch all others in the litter. The attacked mice were bitten through the head before being eaten; the brains and viscera were the first parts consumed. The population might be decimated rapidly if drought forced this species to cannibalism. When the supply of food or water was restored, the captive mice resumed their tolerant nature. In captivity, _P. maniculatus_ is amazingly tolerant of close confinement with members of the same species; individuals did not tend to kill their litter mates, or their young, even during shortage of food and water. This tolerance, especially under stressful conditions, probably enables _P. maniculatus_ to persist in relatively unfavorable areas. Adaptations to Environment Each of the two species of _Peromyscus_ illustrates one or more adaptations to its environment. _P. truei_ is adapted to climbing by possession of long toes, a long tail, and large hind feet. The tail is used as a counterbalance when climbing (Horner, 1954). When frightened, individuals of _P. truei_ often ran across the ground in a semi-saltatorial fashion, bounding over clumps of grass that were as much as 18 inches high. Such individuals usually ran to the nearest tree and climbed to branches 10 to 20 feet above the ground. Large eyes are characteristic of the _truei_ group of mice, and may be an adaptation to a semi-arboreal mode of life. A similar adaptation is shared by some other arboreal mammals, and of arboreal snakes. The large eyes of _P. truei_ in comparison to those of _P. maniculatus_, probably increase the field of vision, and permit the animal to look downward as well as in other directions. The above-mentioned adaptations of _P. truei_ permit these graceful mice to use their environment effectively. By climbing, this species can nest above-ground in the hollow branches of trees, and can rear its young in a comparatively safe setting. The ability to climb also permits vertical as well as horizontal use of a limited habitat. Because of the three-dimensional nature of the home range of _truei_, its range is actually larger than that of _maniculatus_ although the standard trapping procedures makes the home range of the two appear to be about the same size. Finally, trees may offer safety from predators, and a source of food that probably is the winter staple of this species. _Peromyscus maniculatus_ has adapted differently to its environment. Small size of body and appendages permit this species to use a variety of nesting sites and hiding places even though it is restricted, by its anatomy, to life on the ground. The tail and hind feet are shorter than in _P. truei_, and _P. maniculatus_ is an inefficient climber. I have placed individuals in bushes, and found that many walk off into space from a height of several feet. Perhaps the relative smallness of their eyes accounts for their seeming lack of awareness of how high they are above the ground. When frightened, individuals of _P. maniculatus_ ran rapidly in a zig-zag path and dove into the nearest cover. Mice, released from live traps, often stuck their heads under leaves, leaving their bodies exposed. This species tends to hide as rapidly as possible, and remain motionless. This tactic would not be of much value as an escape from carnivores, but it could be effective against birds of prey. In Mesa Verde, _P. maniculatus_ inhabits the more arid, open areas. When the population is dense, individuals of this species are found also in pinyon-juniper woodland. Apparently _P. maniculatus_ prefers the grassy areas and the thickets of oak brush. Although such habitats have harsh climatic conditions, they offer innumerable hiding places, and thus have great advantage for a species confined to the ground. The low requirements of water per gram of body weight, the ability to eat diversified foods, the use of varied habitats, the high fecundity, and the ability to use any nook for retreat or nesting make _P. maniculatus_ a successful inhabitant of most parts of Mesa Verde, and indeed, of most of North America. LITERATURE CITED ANDERSON, S. 1961. Mammals of Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:29-67, 2 pls., 3 figs. ARRHENIUS, G., and E. BONATTI 1965. The Mesa Verde loess, pp. 92-100, _in_ Contributions of the Wetherill Mesa Archeological Project, Memoirs Soc. Amer. Archeol., 19; American Antiquity, 31, No. 2, Pt. 2. ASDELL, S. A. 1964. Patterns of mammalian reproduction. Comstock Publ. Co., Ithaca, viii + 1-670 pp. BAILEY, V. 1931. Mammals of New Mexico. N. Amer. Fauna, 53:1-412, 22 pls., 58 figs. BEIDLEMAN, R. G. 1954. October breeding of _Peromyscus_ in north central Colorado. Jour. Mamm., 35:118. BRUSVEN, M. A., and G. B. MULKERN 1960. The use of epidermal characteristics for the identification of plants recovered in fragmentary condition from the crops of grasshoppers. North Dakota Agricultural Exp. Sta., Fargo, Research Rept., 3:3-11. BURT, W. H. 1940. Territorial behavior and populations of some small mammals in southern Michigan. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 45: 1-58, 2 pls. CALHOUN, J. B., ed. 1948-1956. Annual reports of the North American census of small mammals. Distributed by the editor, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda 14, Maryland. 1959. Population dynamics of vertebrates release No. 10, Revised sampling procedure for the North American census of small mammals (NACSM). pp. 1-12, Distributed by the editor, Nat. Inst. Health, Bethesda 14, Maryland. CHEW, R. M. 1951. The water exchanges of some small mammals. Ecological Monographs, 21:215-225. 1965. Water metabolism of mammals, pp. 43-178, _in_ Physiological Mammology Vol. II Mammalian reactions to stressful environments, Mayer, W. V., and R. G. Van Gelder, eds., Academic Press, New York, xii + 1-326 pp. COGSHALL, A. S. 1928. Food habits of deer mice of the genus _Peromyscus_ in captivity. Jour. Mamm., 9:217-221. COLLINS, H. H. 1918. Studies of normal molt and of artificially induced regeneration of pelage in _Peromyscus_. Jour. Exptl. Zool., 27:73-99. DICE, L. R. 1922. Some factors affecting the distribution of the prairie vole, forest deer mouse, and prairie deer mouse. Ecology, 3:29-47. 1934. An improved _Peromyscus_ ration. Jour. Mamm., 15:160-161. DOUGLAS, C. L. 1965. Biological techniques in archeology, pp. 193-201, _in_ Contributions of the Wetherill Mesa Archeological Project, Memoirs Soc. Amer. Archeol., 19; American Antiquity, 31, No. 2, Pt. 2. 1966. Amphibians and reptiles of Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 15:711-744, 2 pls., 6 figs. DUSI, J. L. 1949. Methods for the determination of food habits by plant microtechnique and histology and their application to cottontail rabbit food habits. Jour. Wildlife Mgt., 13:295-298 ERDMAN, J. A. 1962. Ecology of the pinyon-juniper woodland of Wetherill Mesa, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. Unpublished M. A. thesis, Univ. Colorado. ERDMAN, J. A., C. L. DOUGLAS, and J. W. MARR 1968. The environment of Mesa Verde, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. Archeol. Res. Series, No. 7-D. Nat. Park Serv., Washington, D. C., in press. ESAU, K. 1960. Anatomy of Seed Plants. John Wiley and Sons, New York, xvi + 1-376 pp. GEIGER, R. 1965. The climate near the ground. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass., xiv + 1-611 pp. HALL, E. R. 1928. Note on the life history of the woodland deer mouse. Jour. Mamm., 9:255-256 HAMILTON, W. J., JR. 1941. The food of small forest mammals in eastern United States. Jour. Mamm., 22:250-263 HAYNE, D. W. 1949. Calculation of size of home range. Jour. Mamm., 30:1-18. HOFFMEISTER, D. F. 1951. A taxonomic and evolutionary study of the pinon mouse, _Peromyscus truei_. Illinois Biol. Monographs, Vol. 21, No. 4, ix + 1-104 pp. HORNER, B. E. 1954. Arboreal adaptations of Peromyscus with special reference to use of the tail. Cont. Lab. Vert. Biol., Univ. Michigan, 61:1-85. HOWARD, W. E. 1950. Winter fecundity of caged male white-footed mice in Michigan. Jour. Mamm., 31:319-321. JAMESON, E. W., JR. 1952. Food of deer mice _Peromyscus maniculatus_ and _P. boylei_ in the northern Sierra Nevada, California. Jour. Mamm., 33:50-60. 1953. Reproduction of deer mice (_Peromyscus maniculatus_ and _P. boylei_) in the Sierra Nevada, California. Jour. Mamm., 34:44-58. JOHNSON, D. R. 1962. Effects of habitat change on the food habits of rodents. Abstract of Ph. D. dissertation, Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. LANG, H. 1925. How squirrels and other rodents carry their young. Jour. Mamm., 6:18-24. LINDEBORG, R. G. 1950. An adaptation of breeding _Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii_ females to available water, and observations on changes in body weight. Jour. Mamm., 31:74-78. 1952. Water requirements of certain rodents from xeric and mesic habitats. Cont. Lab. Vert. Biol., Univ. Michigan, 58:1-32. MCCABE, T. T., and B. D. BLANCHARD 1950. Three species of _Peromyscus_. Rood Associates, Santa Barbara, California, v + 1-136 pp. METCALFE, C. R., and L. CHALK 1950. Anatomy of the dicotyledons I and II. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1500 pp. MOHR, C. O., and W. A. STUMPF 1966. Comparison of methods for calculating areas of animal activity. Jour. Wildlife Mgt., 30:293-304. OSGOOD, W. H. 1909. Revision of the mice of the American genus _Peromyscus_. N. Amer. Fauna, 28:1-285, 8 pls., 12 figs. REDMAN, J. P., and J. A. SEALANDER 1958. Home ranges of deer mice in southern Arkansas. Jour. Mamm., 39:390-395. ROSS, L. G. 1930. A comparative study of daily water-intake among certain taxonomic and geographic groups within the genus _Peromyscus_. Biol. Bull., 59:326-338. SANDERSON, G. C. 1966. The study of mammal movements--a review. Jour. Wildlife Mtg., 30:215-235. SCHMIDT-NIELSEN, K. 1964. Desert animals: physiological problems of heat and water. Oxford Univ. Press, London, xv + 1-277 pp. SCHMIDT-NIELSEN, K., B. SCHMIDT-NIELSEN, and A. BROKAW 1948. Urea excretion in desert rodents exposed to high protein diets. Jour. Cell. Comp. Physiol., 32:361-379. SCOTT, T. G., and E. SNEAD 1942. Warbles in _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis_. Jour. Mamm., 23:94-95. SEALANDER, J. A. 1961. Hematological values in deer mice in relation to botfly infection. Jour. Mamm., 42:57-60. SETON, E. T. 1920. Notes on the breeding habits of captive deer mice. Jour. Mamm., 1:134-138. SHUFELDT, R. W. 1885. Description of Hesperomys truei, a new species belonging to the subfamily Murinae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 8:403-408, 21 pls. STICKEL, L. F. 1954. A comparison of certain methods of measuring ranges of small mammals. Jour. Mamm., 35:1-15. SVIHLA, A. 1932. A comparative life history study of the mice of the genus _Peromyscus_. Univ. Michigan Mus. Zool., Misc. Publ., 24:1-39. TEST, F. H., and A. R. TEST 1943. Incidence of dipteran parasitosis in populations of small mammals. Jour. Mamm., 24:506-508. WELSH, S. L., and J. A. ERDMAN 1964. Annotated checklist of the plants of Mesa Verde, Colorado. Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull., Biol. Ser., 4(2):1-32. WILLIAMS, O. 1955. The food of mice and shrews in a Colorado montane forest. Univ. Colorado Studies, Ser. in Biol., 3:109-114. 1959a. Food habits of the deer mouse. Jour. Mamm., 40:415-419. 1959b. Water intake in the deer mouse. Jour. Mamm., 40:602-606. 1959c. Modified gum syrup. Turtox News, Vol. 37, No. 10. WILSON, L. W. 1945. Parasites collected from wood mouse in West Virginia. Jour. Mamm., 26:200. * * * * * Transcriber's Notes All obvious typographic errors corrected. The notation [=Y] in Table 10 represents the Mean Value for that column. The notation H_{2}O represents the water molecule where the _{2} represents the subscripted 2. The notation 8-1/2 represents 8 and one half. Page Correction ==== ============== 429 nuaseosus => nauseosus 430 Orthocarpos => Orthocarpus 450 ludovociana => ludoviciana 456 phrheliometer => pyrheliometer 480 rudale => ruderale 481 rates => rats 482 bases => basis 499 clumbs => clumps 
39372	----	UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 14, No. 15, pp. 363-473, 5 figs. May 20, 1963 The Recent Mammals of Tamaulipas, México BY TICUL ALVAREZ UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1963 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Institutional libraries interested in publications exchange may obtain this series by addressing the Exchange Librarian, University of Kansas Library, Lawrence, Kansas. Copies for individuals, persons working in a particular field of study, may be obtained by addressing instead the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. There is no provision for sale of this series by the University Library, which meets institutional requests, or by the Museum of Natural History, which meets the requests of individuals. However, when individuals request copies from the Museum, 25 cents should be included, for each separate number that is 100 pages or more in length, for the purpose of defraying the costs of wrapping and mailing. * An asterisk designates those numbers of which the Museum's supply (not the Library's supply) is exhausted. Numbers published to date, in this series, are as follows: Vol. 1. Nos. 1-26 and index. Pp. 1-638, 1946-1950. *Vol. 2. (Complete) Mammals of Washington. By Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text. April 9, 1948. Vol. 3. *1. The avifauna of Micronesia, its origin, evolution, and distribution. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 1-359, 16 figures in text. June 12, 1951. *2. A quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds. By George H. Lowery, Jr. Pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text. June 29, 1951. 3. Phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. By M. Dale Arvey. Pp. 473-530, 49 figures in text, 13 tables. October 10, 1951. 4. Birds from the state of Veracruz, Mexico. By George H. Lowery, Jr., and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 531-649, 7 figures in text, 2 tables. October 10, 1951. Index. Pp. 651-681. *Vol. 4. (Complete) American weasels. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 1-466, 41 plates, 31 figures in text. December 27, 1951. Vol. 5. Nos. 1-37 and index. Pp. 1-676, 1951-1953. *Vol. 6. (Complete) Mammals of Utah, _taxonomy and distribution_. By Stephen D. Durrant. Pp. 1-549, 91 figures in text, 30 tables. August 10, 1952. Vol. 7. Nos. 1-15 and index. Pp. 1-651, 1952-1955. Vol. 8. Nos. 1-10 and index. Pp. 1-675, 1954-1956. Vol. 9. 1. Speciation of the wandering shrew. By James S. Findley. Pp. 1-68, 18 figures in text. December 10, 1955. 2. Additional records and extension of ranges of mammals from Utah. By Stephen D. Durrant, M. Raymond Lee, and Richard M. Hansen. Pp. 69-80. December 10, 1955. 3. A new long-eared myotis (Myotis evotis) from northeastern Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker and Howard J. Stains. Pp. 81-84. December 10, 1955. 4. Subspeciation in the meadow mouse, Microtus pennsylvanicus, in Wyoming. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 85-104, 2 figures in text. May 10, 1956. 5. The condylarth genus Ellipsodon. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 105-116, 6 figures in text. May 19, 1956. 6. Additional remains of the multituberculate genus Eucosmodon. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 117-123, 10 figures in text. May 19, 1956. 7. Mammals of Coahuila, Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 125-335, 75 figures in text. June 15, 1956. 8. Comments on the taxonomic status of Apodemus peninsulae, with description of a new subspecies from North China. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 337-346, 1 figure in text, 1 table. August 15, 1956. 9. Extension of known ranges of Mexican bats. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 347-351. August 15, 1956. 10. A new bat (Genus Leptonycteris) from Coahuila. By Howard J. Stains. Pp. 353-356. January 21, 1957. 11. A new species of pocket gopher (Genus Pappogeomys) from Jalisco, Mexico. By Robert J. Russell. Pp. 357-361. January 21, 1957. 12. Geographic variation in the pocket gopher, Thomomys bottae, in Colorado. By Phillip M. Youngman. Pp. 363-387, 7 figures in text. February 21, 1958. 13. New bog lemming (genus Synaptomys) from Nebraska. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 385-388. May 12, 1958. 14. Pleistocene bats from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo León, México. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 389-396. December 19, 1958. 15. New subspecies of the rodent Baiomys from Central America. By Robert L. Packard. Pp. 397-404. December 19, 1958. 16. Mammals of the Grand Mesa, Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 405-414, 1 figure in text. May 20, 1959. 17. Distribution, variation, and relationships of the montane vole, Microtus montanus. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 415-511, 12 figures in text, 2 tables. August 1, 1959. 18. Conspecificity of two pocket mice, Perognathus goldmani and P. artus. By E. Raymond Hall and Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie. Pp. 513-518, 1 map. January 14, 1960. 19. Records of harvest mice, Reithrodontomys, from Central America, with description of a new subspecies from Nicaragua. By Sydney Anderson and J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 519-529. January 14, 1960. 20. Small carnivores from San Josecito Cave (Pleistocene), Nuevo León, México. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 531-538, 1 figure in text. January 14, 1960. 21. Pleistocene pocket gophers from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo León, México. By Robert J. Russell. Pp. 539-548, 1 figure in text. January 14, 1960. 22. Review of the insectivores of Korea. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., and David H. Johnson. Pp. 549-578. February 23, 1960. 23. Speciation and evolution of the pygmy mice, genus Baiomys. By Robert L. Packard. Pp. 579-670, 4 plates, 12 figures in text. June 16, 1960. Index. Pp. 671-690. (Continued on inside of back cover) UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 14, No. 15, pp. 363-473, 5 figs. May 20, 1963 The Recent Mammals of Tamaulipas, México BY TICUL ALVAREZ UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1963 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch, Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Volume 14, No. 15, pp. 363-473, 5 figs. Published May 20, 1963 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY JEAN M. NEIBARGER, STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1963 29-4228 The Recent Mammals of Tamaulipas, México BY TICUL ALVAREZ CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION 365 PHYSIOGRAPHY 366 CLIMATE 368 AFFINITIES OF TAMAULIPAN MAMMALS 370 PLANT-MAMMAL RELATIONSHIPS 371 BARRIERS AND ROUTES OF MOVEMENT 376 HISTORY OF MAMMALOGY 379 CONSERVATION 381 METHODS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 384 GAZETTEER 386 CHECK-LIST 388 ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES 393 LITERATURE CITED 467 INTRODUCTION From Tamaulipas, the northeasternmost state in the Mexican Republic, 146 kinds of mammals, belonging to 72 genera, are here reported. Mammals that are strictly marine in habit are not included. The state is crossed in its middle by the Tropic of Cancer. Elevations vary from sea level on the Golfo de México to more than 2700 meters in the Sierra Madre Oriental; most of the state is below 300 meters in elevation. Its area is 79,602 square kilometers (30,732 square miles). Tamaulipas, meaning "lugar en que hay montes altos" (place of high mountains), was explored in 1516 by the Spaniard Francisco Fernández de Córdoba, but it was not until the 18th century that José de Escandón established several villages in the new province of Nueva Santender from which, in the time of Iturbide's Empire, Tamaulipas was separated as a distinct political entity, with about the same boundaries that it now has. My first contact with the state of Tamaulipas, as a mammalogist, was in 1957, when in company with Dr. Bernardo Villa R. I visited the Cueva del Abra in the southern part of the state. On several occasions since then I have been in the state, especially when employed by the Dirección General de Caza of the Mexican Government. In 1960-1962 I had the opportunity of studying the mammalian fauna of Tamaulipas at the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas. The approximately 2000 specimens there represent many critical localities, but are not sufficient to make this report as complete as could be desired. Consequently the following account should be considered as a contribution to the knowledge of the mammals of México and is offered in the hope that it will stimulate future studies of the Mexican fauna, especially that of the eastern region. PHYSIOGRAPHY Tamaulipas can be divided into three physiographic regions, which from east to west are Gulf Coastal Plain, Sierra Madre Oriental, and Central Plateau or Mexican Plateau (Fig. 1). Gulf Coastal Plain This physiographic region covers most of the state and extends northward into Texas and a short distance southward into Veracruz. According to Tamayo (1949) and Vivo (1953), the Gulf Coastal Plain is formed by sedimentary rocks from Mesozoic to Pleistocene in age. The most common type of soil is Rendzin, especially in the coastal area. Elevations range from sea level to 300 meters. The area is in general a flat plain inclined to the sea but this plain is broken by several small sierras. The more important of these are the Sierra de Tamaulipas, which rises to more than 1000 meters, and the Sierra San Carlos, which has a maximum elevation of approximately 1670 meters. The Sierra de San José de las Rucias is smaller. Sierra Madre Oriental This physiographic region is represented in Tamaulipas by a small part of the long Sierra Madre Oriental that extends from the Big Bend area in Texas southward to the Trans-volcanic Belt of central México. The Sierra Madre Oriental is in the southwestern part of Tamaulipas. The Sierra was formed by folding of the Middle and Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic deposits that now are 400 to 2700 meters in elevation. In general, the soils are Chernozems. This physiographic region is situated between the other two physiographic regions in Tamaulipas and represents a barrier to the distribution of some tropical mammals on the one hand and to those from the Mexican Plateau on the other. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Three physiographic regions: 1 Coastal Plain; 2 Sierra Madre Oriental; 3 Central Plateau.] Central Plateau This physiographic region, commonly termed the Mexican Plateau, occupies only a small area of Tamaulipas in its southwesternmost part. The plateau is approximately 900 meters above sea level. In general, the Mexican Plateau was formed by Cretaceous sediments. The most common type of soil is Chestnut. CLIMATE Owing to the differences in elevations and varying distances from the sea, the climate of Tamaulipas is varied. Tamayo (1949), following the Koeppen System, assigned to Tamaulipas 10 different climate types that result principally from differences in temperature, precipitation, and humidity. Temperature The annual mean temperature for the lands less than 1000 meters in elevation, which make up most of the state, is between 20° and 25° C.; and the difference in monthly means is 5° C. In the areas above 1000 meters, the annual mean is between 15° and 20° C., and the difference in the monthly means is 15° C. The maximum temperature recorded in the state is 45° C. in the region of Ciudad Victoria, between the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra San Carlos, and the Sierra de Tamaulipas. Minima recorded are between O° and 5° C. on the southeastern coast, O° to -5° C. between 98° 20´ long. and 99° 00´ long., and -5° to -10° C. in the Sierra Madre Oriental. Precipitation Rainfall varies seasonally and can be described as follows: In January it amounts to 25 to 50 mm. in the coastal region and 10 to 25 mm. in the rest of the state. In April there is more than 25 mm. to the north of about 23° north latitude, 10 to 25 mm. in the Sierra de Tamaulipas and Sierra Madre Oriental, and less than 10 mm. in the extreme southwestern part of the state. In July rainfall amounts to less than 25 mm. in Nuevo Laredo and San Fernando, is from 25 to 50 mm. in the northeastern and central parts of the state, 50 to 100 mm. in the Sierra San Carlos and Sierra Madre Oriental, and 100 to 200 mm. in the area south of Soto la Marina and east of the Sierra Madre Oriental. In October rainfall is less than 50 mm. in the northern half of the state, including the Sierra de Tamaulipas, and 50 to 100 mm. in the rest of the state, except on the east side of the Sierra Madre Oriental and in the area near Tampico, which receive between 100 and 200 mm. The number of rainy days per year varies from 60 to 90 at Sierra San Carlos, Sierra Madre Oriental, and in the lowlands south of 23° north latitude; the rest of the state has about 60 rainy days, excepting the Mexican Plateau, which has fewer than 60. Although Tamayo (1949) followed the Koeppen System in classifying types of climate and thereby recognized 10 different kinds of climate in Tamaulipas, these can be grouped into three major categories as follows: Steppe Dry Climate (Clima Seco de Estepa) This kind of climate can be divided into two categories based on the average annual temperature. _Warm_ The average annual temperature exceeds 18° C. but the mean of the coolest month is less than 18° C. This sub-climate is characterized by a short rainy season in summer and occurs on the west side of the southern part of the Sierra Madre Oriental and on the Mexican Plateau; it occurs also in the area northwest of Reynosa and on the east side of the Sierra Madre Oriental but in these areas the rainfall is irregularly distributed in the year. _Cool_ The average annual temperature is less than 18° C. but the mean of the warmest month exceeds 18° C. This sub-climate occurs only on the west side of the northern part of the Sierra Madre Oriental. Moderate Rainy Temperature Climate (Clima Templado Moderato Lluvioso) This type of climate is characterized by the coolest month having a temperature of between -3° and 18° C. In the northeastern and central parts of Tamaulipas, including the Sierra de Tamaulipas, Ciudad Victoria, Gómez Farías, Rancho Pano Ayuctle, and Llera, the average temperature of the warmest month is less than 22° C.; the winters are dry and not rigorous, and the wettest month has ten times as much rain as the driest. In the Sierra San Carlos the average temperature of the warmest month is less than 22° C., and the rainy season is in the autumn. Tropical Rainy Climate (Clima Tropical Lluvioso) This climate is characterized by the average temperature of all months being above 18° C. and the mean-annual rainfall being above 75 cm. According to the distribution of precipitation this type of climate can be divided into: (1) areas having periodic rain and wet winters (southeastern Tamaulipas, south of 22° north latitude and east of 99° west longitude), and (2) areas having an irregular rainy season and dry winters (area around Ciudad Mante, between 99° 30´ and 98° 30´ west longitude and south of 22° 30´ north latitude). AFFINITIES OF TAMAULIPAN MAMMALS Owing to the differences in climate from one region to another, the flora and fauna also differ, especially in the southern part of the state as compared with the northern part. For expressing the taxonomic resemblance of mammalian faunas having nearly equal numbers of taxa, Burt (1959:139) recommended the following formula: C × 100/(N_{1} + N_{2} - C) (where C is the number of taxa common to the two faunas, N_{1} is the number of taxa in the smaller fauna, and N_{2} is the number of taxa in the larger fauna). For non-flying mammals the resemblance of the Tamaulipan fauna to that of Texas, adjacent to the north, and Veracruz, adjacent to the south, is as follows: _Genera._--Texas 65 per cent, Veracruz 60 per cent. _Species._--Texas 45 per cent, Veracruz 39 per cent. For bats the resemblance of the Tamaulipan fauna to those of Texas and Veracruz is as follows: _Genera._--Texas 40 per cent, Veracruz 51 per cent. _Species._--Texas 24, Veracruz 39. TABLE 1.--NUMBER OF GENERA AND SPECIES OF NON-INTRODUCED LAND MAMMALS IN THREE STATES. ==========+===========================+=========================== | Number of taxa | Number of taxa in common +-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- | genera | species | genera | species ----------+--------+----+--------+----+--------+----+--------+---- States |non-bats|bats|non-bats|bats|non-bats|bats|non-bats|bats ----------+--------+----+--------+----+--------+----+--------+---- Texas | 51 | 12 | 103 | 25 | 39 | 10 | 58 | 12 Tamaulipas| 48 | 23 | 83 | 36 | .. | .. | .. | .. Veracruz | 53 | 36 | 94 | 60 | 38 | 20 | 50 | 27 ----------+--------+----+--------+----+--------+----+--------+---- For all of the land mammals of Tamaulipas, the resemblance is as follows: _Genera._--Texas 58, Veracruz 57. _Species._--Texas 40, Veracruz 39. On the whole, the fauna of Tamaulipas resembles faunas of both the Brazilian Subregion and the North American part of the Nearctic Subregion (see Hershkovitz, 1958:611). Considering the 48 genera of non-flying land mammals of Tamaulipas, 24 genera occur in habitats from the North American part through habitats of northern México into the Brazilian Subregion. Of the remaining 24 genera, 16 occur in the North American part of the Nearctic Subregion or in it and the part of northern México north of the Brazilian boundary, whereas eight occur in the Brazilian Subregion or in it and the northern part of México. None occurs only in Tamaulipas or only in northern México. The non-flying fauna of the coastal plain east of the Sierra Madre Oriental and south of the Sierra de Tamaulipas and Soto la Marina is mainly tropical in affinities; only 27 per cent of that fauna (at the subspecific level) resembles the fauna north of Soto la Marina, which is Nearctic in its affinities. The fauna of the Sierra de Tamaulipas has a greater taxonomic resemblance (20.4 per cent at subspecific level) to that of the Sierra Madre Oriental, than does the fauna of the Sierra San Carlos (17.6 per cent). Taxonomic resemblance between the faunas from the Sierra San Carlos and the Sierra de Tamaulipas amounts to only 16.1 per cent. Therefore, the faunas of these two Sierras (both are included in the same zoogeographic unit) resemble each other less than either resembles the fauna of the Sierra Madre Oriental (in another zoogeographic unit). Of the three sierran faunas, those of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra de Tamaulipas have most in common. Migration from one to the other in relative recent time may account for the resemblance. The Sierra San Carlos may have been isolated for a long time and interchange between its fauna and those of the other two sierras, therefore, may have been slight. Study of the taxonomic resemblance shows that the dividing line, in eastern México, between Nearctic and Neotropical faunas is along the eastern base of the Sierra Madre Oriental, the southern base of the Sierra de Tamaulipas and thence to the coast at or near Soto la Marina. PLANT-MAMMAL RELATIONSHIPS Merriam (1898) assigned to Tamaulipas four Life-zones. There were: Transitional on the highest elevations of the Sierra Madre; Upper Austral at lower elevations on the Sierra Madre; Lower Austral over most of the state; and Tropical in the coastal areas. Dice (1943) outlined Biotic Provinces on a map of North America and in the northern part of Tamaulipas showed two Biotic Provinces, Tamaulipan and Potosian. He did not show the southeastern limits of the Chihuahuan Biotic Province nor any of the limits of the Veracruzian Biotic Province and in text mentioned nothing about the limits of these two provinces with reference to Tamaulipas. Later, Goldman and Moore (1946) divided Tamaulipas in three Biotic Provinces: Tamaulipas, Sierra Madre, and Veracruz. Still later (1949), Smith published a map of Mexican Biotic Provinces based on the herpetofauna of the Republic. He divided Tamaulipas among four Provinces. Two were Nearctic (Austro-oriental and Tamaulipan) and the other two were Neotropical (Veracruzian and Cordoban). Leopold (1950 and 1959) recognized five principal vegetational types in Tamaulipas as follows: Mesquite-grassland; Pine-oak Forest; Thorn Forest; Tropical Deciduous Forest; and Desert. For dealing with the mammals of Tamaulipas in the following accounts the four Biotic Provinces (Tamaulipan, Potosian, Veracruzian, and Chihuahuan) of Dice are the most useful. For dealing with types of vegetation in the accounts that follow, Leopold's (1950) system is employed although reference is made to other associations and formations that have been reported in Tamaulipas. Tamaulipan Biotic Province This Province is recognized by most authors who have written about the zoogeography of México. It is the most extensive in the state and includes the northern part of the Coastal Plain (see Fig. 2). The vegetation of the Tamaulipan Biotic Province is in general Mesquite-grassland but in the Sierra San Carlos and Sierra de Tamaulipas other types of vegetation are found. Two formations occur in the Mesquite-grassland. The first is the Mesquite Scrub, in which the dominant plant is the mesquite (_Prosopis juliflora_), associated with _Cordia boissieri_, several species of _Acacia_, and in some areas with _Opuntia_ and _Yucca treculeana_. The dominant grasses are of the genera _Bouteloua_ and _Andropogon_. The second formation is the Gulf Bluestem Prairie, where species of _Andropogon_ are the dominants on the well-drained sites. Sloughs and depressions are occupied by cordgrass, _Spartina spartinae_. Many areas have been invaded by mesquite and other shrubs. [Illustration: FIG. 2. Four biotic provinces: 1 Tamaulipan; 2 Potosian; 3 Chihuahuan; 4 Veracruzian.] Around the Sierra de Tamaulipas and in the area between it and the Sierra San Carlos the vegetation is Thorn Forest (Tropical Thorn Forest of Martin _et al._, 1954), in which the dominant plants are _Acacia_, _Ichthyomethia_, _Ipomea_, _Prosopis_, and _Cassia_. Another type of vegetation in the Sierra de Tamaulipas is the Tropical Deciduous Forest at 300 to 700 meters elevation, the trees of which are 20 meters high with a canopy averaging eight meters high (Martin _et al._, _op. cit._). The common species of trees belong to the genera _Tabebuia_, _Ipomea_, _Bombax_, and _Conzattia_. Species of _Bursera_, _Acacia_, and _Cassia_ are less abundant. In the low canyons _Bursera_, _Ceiba_, and _Psidium_, draped with lianas and various epiphytes, can be found. The Pine-oak Formation grows above an elevation of 800 meters in the Sierra de Tamaulipas and is characterized by _Pinus cembroides_, _P. nelsonii_, _P. teocote_, and _Quercus arizonica_. Martin _et al._ (_op. cit._) recorded Montane Scrub from the dry areas, between elevations of 600 and 900 meters. That scrub is formed by huisaches (_Acacia farnesiana_) along with a few oaks and some trees of the Tropical Deciduous Forest. The vegetation of the Sierra San Carlos was studied by Dice (1937) and divided into three life belts, each with several associations. For more information about the plants of each association and their related mammals see the publication of the mentioned author. Endemic mammals of the Tamaulipan Biotic Province, in the part of it that is in Tamaulipas, are the following: _Scalopus inflatus_; _Lepus californicus curti_; _Spermophilus spilosoma oricolus_; _Cratogeomys castanops tamaulipensis_; _Dipodomys ordii parvabullatus_; and _Sigmodon hispidus solus_. Other characteristic mammals of this Province in the state of Tamaulipas are: _Sylvilagus floridanus connectens_; _S. audubonii parvulus_; _Lepus californicus merriami_; _Perognathus merriami merriami_; _Dipodomys ordii compactus_; _Orzomys melanotis carrorum_; _Reithrodontomys fulvescens intermedius_; _Peromyscus boylii ambiguus_; _Canis latrans texensis_; _C. l. microdon_; _C. lupus monstrabilis_; _Taxidea taxus berlandieri_; _Mephitis mephitis varians_; _Felis pardalis albescens_; _Trichechus manatus latirostris_; and _Odocoileus virginianus texanus_. Many other kinds of mammals occur mainly in the Tamaulipan Province but are not listed above because they occur also in one or more of the other provinces. The Sierra de Tamaulipas is placed in the Tamaulipan Biotic Province because the fauna, especially of non-flying mammals, is closely related to that of the rest of the Province. Nevertheless, many mammals found in this Sierra are tropical in relationship. This is especially true of the bats. Therefore, most of the tropical bats that occur in Tamaulipas occur in the Veracruzian Biotic Province and in the Sierra de Tamaulipas. Potosian Biotic Province This Province occupies all of the Sierra Madre Oriental and, therefore, the southwestern part of the state. The vegetation in general is Pine-oak Forest, in which the most common trees are _Abies religiosa_, _Pinus flexilis_, _P. patula_, _P. montezumae_, _P. teocote_, _Populus tremuloides_, _Juniperus flaccida_, _Quercus arizonica_, _Q. clivicola_ and _Q. polymorpha_. In his study of plants of the Gómez Farías area, Martin (1958) recorded several different types of vegetation, which in part can be placed in the Potosian Biotic Province, especially those types that occur to the northwest of the Cloud Forest. In addition to the Cloud Forest, Martin recognized Humid Pine-oak Forest, Dry Oak-pine Forest, Chaparral, Thorn Forest and Scrub, and Thorn Desert. The only mammal endemic to the Potosian Province in Tamaulipas is _Cryptotis pergracilis pueblensis_. Other mammals that occur mainly in this Province are: _Sorex saussurei_; _Notiosorex crawfordi_; _Glaucomys volans herreranus_; _Cratogeomys castanops planifrons_; _Perognathus nelsoni_; _Liomys irroratus alleni_; _Reithrodontomys fulvescens griseoflavus_; _Microtus mexicanus subsimus_; _Ursus americanus eremicus_; _Conepatus leuconotus texensis_; and _Odocoileus hemionus_. The fauna of this Province is a mixture of elements with tropical affinities on the east side of the Sierra Madre and with those of the Mexican Plateau on the west side. Chihuahuan Biotic Province This Province occurs in Tamaulipas only in a small portion of the Central Plateau physiographic region and occupies the southwesternmost part of the state. The vegetation is of two types: Desert or Mesquite-grassland. The last is like that described for the Tamaulipan Biotic Province. In the Desert type the dominant plants are the cactus, _Opuntia leptocaulis_, and yuccas, _Yucca filifera_ and _Y. potosina_. Subdominants are mariola, guayule, _Agave lechugilla_, _A. stricta_ or _Larrea divaricata_. Along stream banks mesquite, _Prosopis juliflora_, can be found. No endemic mammals of the Chihuahuan Province are known in Tamaulipas. Mammals that occur principally in this Province are: _Dipodomys merriami atronasus_; _D. ordii durranti_; _Peromyscus melanophrys consobrinus_; _P. difficilis petricola_; _Onychomys torridus subrufus_; and _Neotoma albigula subsolana_. Veracruzian Biotic Province This Province includes the southern part of the Coastal Plain physiographic region, south of the Sierra de Tamaulipas and Soto la Marina. But the exact line between this Province and the Tamaulipan Province to the north is difficult to draw. The northern boundary of the Veracruzian Province is the line between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions in eastern México. Vegetation of most of the Veracruzian Biotic Province is Tropical Deciduous Forest. This Forest is made up of _Tabebuia_, _Ipomea_, _Bombax_, and _Conzattia_, along with some _Ceiba_, _Bursera_, and _Psidium_. The mammalia fauna of the Veracruzian Biotic Province is tropical in nature. This is especially true of the bats. Representatives of the tropical genera _Micronycteris_, _Sturnira_, _Artibeus_, _Enchistenes_, _Desmodus_, _Diphylla_, and _Molossus_ have their northern distributional limits in this Province. The non-flying mammals characteristic of the Province in Tamaulipas are: _Philander opossum pallidus_; _Marmosa mexicana_; _Ateles geoffroyi velerosus_; _Geomys tropicalis_; _Oryzomys melanotis rostratus_; _O. alfaroi huastecae_; _O. fulvescens engracie_ (endemic to this Province in Tamaulipas); _O. f. fulvescens_; _Reithrodontomys mexicanus_; _Peromyscus orchraventer_ (endemic); _Neotoma micropus angustapalata_; _Eira barbara senex_; _Felis wiedii oaxacensis_; and _Mazama americana temama_. BARRIERS AND ROUTES OF MOVEMENT The distributional patterns and affinities of the mammalian fauna of Tamaulipas suggest possible routes of migration and barriers that limited or controlled movements of the mammals. Mammals may have reached Tamaulipas by way of a Northern route, a Trans-plateau route, a Montane route, or a Tropical route (Fig 3). The Northern route permitted species of mammals from the temperate region to the north to enter the Tamaulipan Biotic Province from or via Texas. Several came from the Great Plains, and a few came from the eastern part of the United States. Also, a few mammals that may have originated in the Tamaulipan Province moved northwards. Some of these, according to Dice (1937:267) were _Liomys irroratus texensis_, _Peromyscus leucopus texensis_, and _Lepus californicus merriami_. Other mammals thought to have moved north by this route are _Didelphis marsupialis_, _Dasypus novemcinctus_, _Oryzomys palustris_, _Nasua narica_, and _Tayassu tajacu_. Some mammals that passed through Tamaulipas into Texas have extended their geographic ranges far north of Texas. Mammals that came _via_ the Trans-plateau route (name proposed by Baker, 1956:146) came no farther into Tamaulipas than the Chihuahuan Biotic Province. They encountered the barrier formed by the Sierra Madre Oriental. These mammals were listed in the account of the Chihuahuan Biotic Province. The route that Baker (1956:146) termed the "Southern Route" I here term the Montane route because I think it was used for movement southward as well as northward. [Illustration: FIG. 3. Routes of movement: 1 Northern; 2 Trans-Plateau; 3 Montane; 4 Tropical.] The Montane route was used by mammals of boreal affinities (_Microtus_ and _Neotoma_), that moved into Tamaulipas from the north; also in this category are bats of the family Vespertilionidae. For movement from south to north, the route was used by several species native to México, for example, _Cratogeomys castanops_. The seaward slope of the montane area has enabled some tropical mammals to move farther north than they have done at higher and lower elevations. _Philander opossum_ seems to be an example. The fourth route, the Tropical one, was used by mammals of tropical origin. Most moved into Tamaulipas only as far as the Veracruzian Biotic Province. The principal mammals that have used this route are the bats and marsupials, but _Sylvilagus brasiliensis_, _Ateles geoffroyi_, _Heterogeomys hispidus_, _Eira barbara_, and _Mazama americana_ also can be included here. Some tropical mammals, as was pointed out previously, not only reached Tamaulipas but have moved through the state and far northward. The major barriers to dispersal of mammals in Tamaulipas are three (see Fig. 2). Two of them, the Río Grande Barrier and the Sierra Madre Barrier, are physiographical, but the Tropical Barrier is maintained by a combination of environmental factors. The three barriers separate the four Biotic Provinces in Tamaulipas. The Sierra Madre Oriental, which forms the Potosian Biotic Province, lies between the Tamaulipan and Chihuahuan provinces. The Tropical barrier separates the Tamaulipan and Veracruzian biotic provinces. The Río Grande, as was pointed out by R. H. Baker (1956:146), has low banks, is relatively shallow, and does not form an effective barrier for most mammals. For only two species, insofar as I know, has the Río Grande constituted a barrier. _Cratogeomys castanops_ has not entered southeastern Texas from México, and _Spermophilus spilosoma_ has not entered México from southeastern Texas except on the coastal barrier beach. Alvarez (1962:124) postulated that the beach was the route by which _S. spilosoma_ arrived at La Pesca where the barrier beach meets the mainland. The Sierra Madre Barrier is a good filter for some small mammals, especially for those that occur on the Mexican Plateau and those of tropical origin. The mammals that occur on each side of the Sierra are listed in accounts of the Chihuahuan (west side), Veracruzian and Tamaulipan (east side) biotic provinces. The Tropical Barrier is formed mainly by a climatic complex (probably a change in temperature and rainfall) in the coastal region at or about the latitude of Soto la Marina, where no geographic barrier is found. In the western and central part of the Tropical Barrier, the climatic factor is supported by a geographic factor. The Sierra Madre Oriental is in the west and the Sierra de Tamaulipas is in the center. The several mammals that are affected by this barrier are listed in the accounts of the Veracruzian and Tamaulipan biotic provinces. A peculiar pattern of distribution is that presented by _Scalopus inflatus_ and _Geomys tropicalis_. Both are the only known species of their genera in northeastern México. Each is isolated from other species of its genus. The nearest known record of _Scalopus_ is 45 miles northward and the nearest record of _Geomys_ is approximately 165 miles northward. A possible explanation for the distribution of these two kinds is that each was widely distributed in one of the glacial periods and when the glacier receded to the north these animals remained in Tamaulipas, where they evolved and formed distinct species. The two species, _G. tropicalis_ and _S. inflatus_, are fossorial and for this reason probably were able to resist inhospitable climates better than non-burrowing species. HISTORY OF MAMMALOGY In Tamaulipas the first exploration directed in substantial measure toward finding out about the mammalian fauna, at least as far as I know, was made by Dr. L. Berlandier, who traveled mainly in the northern half of the state. His collections provided specimens of several previously unknown mammals, which were described by Baird (1858). The original manuscript of Berlandier never has been published. About 1880 Dr. E. Palmer collected mammals in the southern part of Tamaulipas, in the area around Tampico. The results of his exploration were reported by J. A. Allen (1881). E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman twice collected in Tamaulipas (Goldman, 1951). In 1898 they visited and collected mammals in the southern part of the state, around Tampico, Altamira, Victoria, Forlón, and Miquihuana. In 1901-1902 they visited the area between Nuevo Laredo and Bagdad, then went south to Soto la Marina and Victoria. From their collections several species and subspecies have been described. Between 1910 and the early 1920's little was done in the way of scientific exploration because of the Mexican Revolution. From 1930 on, several expeditions yielded new information about the native mammals. In that year L. B. Kellum visited the Sierra San Carlos. The results were reported by Dice (1937). Another important collection from Tamaulipas was made by Marian Martin in the area of Gómez Farías. Mammals collected by her were reported by Goodwin (1954). Hooper (1953) also reported specimens from Gómez Farías but included in his report records of mammals collected in other areas as well. In 1950 E. R. Hall and C. von Wedel made a trip to the barrier beach in the northeastern part of the state and collected several kinds of mammals among which three were described as new by Hall (1951). The report here presented is based upon specimens in the Museum of Natural History of The University of Kansas that were collected mainly by the persons named beyond. Gerd H. Heinrich and his wife Hilda collected in 1952 and 1953 in the areas around Miquihuana, Ciudad Victoria, Soto la Marina, Sierra de Tamaulipas, and Altamira. W. J. Schaldach collected in 1949 and 1950 in the Sierra Madre Oriental south of Ciudad Victoria; he returned to Tamaulipas in 1954 in company with V. Grissino and worked in the Sierra Madre Oriental south and north of Ciudad Victoria. In 1961 P. L. Clifton and J. H. Bodley collected in the northwestern part of the state and in the western part, around Tula, Nicolás, and Tajada. Some students and staff members of the Museum have occasionally collected in Tamaulipas. As a result of all the mentioned expeditions and others, 32 species and subspecies have been described with type localities in Tamaulipas. They are: Altamira _Lepus californicus altamirae_ Nelson _Sciurus aureogaster aureogaster_ (Cuvier) (by restriction) _Sciurus deppei negligens_ Nelson _Geomys tropicalis_ Goldman Antiguo Morelos, 8 mi. N of _Tadarida laticaudata ferruginea_ Goodwin Brownsville (Texas), 45 mi. from _Scalopus inflatus_ Jackson Charco Escondido _Perognathus hispidus hispidus_ Baird _Neotoma micropus micropus_ Baird El Carrizo _Peromyscus ochraventer_ Baker Gómez Farías _Heterogeomys hispidus negatus_ Goodwin Hacienda Santa Engracia _Oryzomys fulvescens engracia_ Osgood Jaumave _Dipodomys ordii durranti_ Setzer La Pesca, 1 mi. E of _Spermophilus spilosoma oricolus_ Alvarez Matamoros _Cryptotis parva berlandieri_ (Baird) _Lasiurus intermedius intermedius_ (H. Allen) _Dasypus novemcinctus mexicanus_ Peters (by restriction) _Cratogeomys castanops tamaulipensis_ Nelson and Goldman _Felis yagouaroundi cacomitli_ Berlandier Matamoros, 88 mi. S, 10 mi. W of _Lepus californicus curti_ Hall _Dipodomys ordii parvabullatus_ Hall _Sigmodon hispidus solus_ Hall Mier _Canis latrans microdon_ Merriam Miquihuana _Idionycteris mexicanus_ Anthony (_Plecotus phyllotis_) _Cratogeomys castanops planifrons_ Nelson and Goldman _Onychomys torridus subrufus_ Hollister _Neotoma albigula subsolana_ Alvarez _Odocoileus virginianus miquihuanensis_ Goldman and Kellogg Rancho del Cielo, 5 mi. NW Gómez Farías _Cryptotis mexicana madrea_ Goodwin _Reithrodontomys megalotis hooperi_ Goodwin Rancho Santa Ana, about 8 mi. SW Padilla _Oryzomys melanotis carrorum_ Lawrence Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra _Myotis keenii auriculus_ Baker and Stains Sierra San Carlos, 12 mi. NW San Carlos _Peromyscus pectoralis collinus_ Hooper CONSERVATION A relatively large number of the species of Mexican big game occurs in Tamaulipas because its geographic position permits it to have species from the tropics and those from the northern plains and mountains. Eight of the 11 Mexican species that are considered as Big Game are recorded from the state. Until this century Tamaulipas was not densely populated by man either in the pre-colonial period or thereafter. Therefore many species of game are still relatively abundant. Of the eight species that originally lived in Tamaulipas, the mule deer, brocket, and black bear never have been abundant there and now are in danger of extirpation. The pronghorn was also rare in the state and now has been extirpated as it has been in many other parts of México. The white-tailed deer, javalin, jaguar, and puma are still abundant in suitable habitats. The white-tailed deer is found almost everywhere in the state; in some areas it damages cornfields, and for this reason is killed by natives who eat the meat and sell the skins. The price of skins is low; in 1959 at Ciudad Mante tanners paid natives less than one dollar (10.00 Mexican pesos) per hide. Some idea of the abundance of deer in Tamaulipas is provided by our having found in one tanner's shop, in 1959 at Ciudad Mante, about 500 deer skins. Besides these, we found about 65 skins of other species--jaguar, bear, ocelot, puma, margay, and raccoon. Additionally there was a large number of coati skins. Considering that México has no professional trappers and that commerce in skins of wild animals is illegal, it is felt that the number of skins found in the tanner's shop indicated a relative large population of game mammals. The number of species of small game also is large. Some species are killed by natives for food, but most are killed in order to protect the cultivated crops, which are injured mainly by rabbits and squirrels. Baker (1958) pointed out that the future of the game species in the northern part of México was not encouraging. He gave valid reasons for his view. In Tamaulipas, however, in some respects the outlook is more encouraging because there are many areas in which with a minimum of effort the authorities can save a good number of species. As Baker (_op. cit._) remarked, the fauna in México is declining mainly because many areas recently have been cultivated for the first time. Also, better roads have enabled hunters to reach areas that formerly were natural refuges for wild animals. Many times it has been said that the populations of wild animals were declining in México because the number of game wardens is too small to protect game in all parts of the country. In some ways this is true but it seems that the problem is really one of education. The people do not realize that the animals are part of nature and therefore have the same right to live that man has. Most people see only the bad side of the animals' activities and never consider the benefit that wild mammals provide for man. A typical case is that of the coyote, which is oftentimes killed only because it is a coyote. Sometimes individual coyotes do kill domestic animals, but the people seem never to understand that the coyote destroys a large number of mice, rabbits, and insects as has been shown by studies of the contents of coyote stomachs. The Mexican Government at this time is making a concentrated effort to provide schools in all parts of the country and is formulating new programs of education. In this official program some lectures in conservation are needed with reference to the animal life. I know that some education now is given to people with respect to conservation of the water, soil, and forest, but gather that there is little that covers also conservation of animals. I do not deny the necessity for some natives to kill wild animals. People need to eat fresh meat and for some it is almost impossible to obtain meat in any other way than by killing wild animals. Some natives cannot afford to purchase meat in the markets or they live too far from any village or city to do so. Also, natives need to protect their cultivated areas; some of them have only four to six acres of land, on which corn is the only crop. When one deer in a night can destroy part of the corn, and in some areas not only one deer but several invade a field, and when one considers that besides deer there are rabbits, squirrels, raccoons, and coati, to name only some animals that feed on the corn, we find that the small cornfield at the end of the season may not contain any corn to harvest. It is understandable, therefore, that the natives kill the animals. In this way they protect their cultivated fields, obtain food and sometimes money for the skins. Many natives, however, destroy the wildlife only for pleasure or to obtain money for skins and meat, which sometimes is sold to restaurants. Probably the best solution for the problem of conservation of wild animals is the establishment of wildlife refuges. In Tamaulipas, at least three refuges are needed in order to preserve the mammalian wildlife. These areas would serve also as a refuge for game birds and other vertebrates. A large area with suitable habitat for white-tailed deer, brocket, jaguar, puma, javalin, and fox could be established in the Sierra de Tamaulipas, which presents favorable habitat for all of the species named. A second area that does not need to be so large as the first could be established in the Sierra Madre Oriental, probably including some part of Nuevo León, where the black bear and the mule deer find suitable habitat. Probably the beaver can be introduced in the streams of the high mountains; beaver live in the same Sierra a little farther north in Nuevo León. The three species mentioned are in imminent danger of disappearing from Tamaulipas, if they have not already disappeared. The third refuge could be in some area of the northern part of the state near the Río Grande. This refuge should give protection to the beaver--a rare animal in México and in danger of extirpation over all the country. The pronghorn also would find suitable habitat in this area, but would have to be reintroduced there. With the establishment of these three refuges and with good management the fauna of Tamaulipas could be saved from extinction, would provide some recreation for sportsmen, and especially for the people in general who wish to study, photograph, or merely observe the native animal life. The time is excellent for the establishment of the wildlife refuges in Tamaulipas because large areas are still in Federal ownership and because a considerable number of animals remain. Other favorable factors are that roads are not yet good in the areas proposed for refuges, the human population is low, and agriculture consequently is not practiced. But, with the rapid increase in population in México, these favorable conditions will change in a few years and it will be almost impossible to establish the refuges then. METHODS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The families, genera, and species recorded in this report are arranged following Hall and Kelson (1959). Subspecies are in alphabetical order under the species. Remarks are given on natural history in each species account, if information is available. Discussion of subspecies known from the state is included. Under each subspecies, the citation to the original description is given with mention of type locality. Next is the citation to the first usage of the current name-combination. Then, synonyms are listed if there be such in the sense that original descriptions of the alleged species or subspecies had type localities in Tamaulipas. Measurements, unless otherwise noted, are of adults and are given in millimeters. External measurements are in the following order: total length; length of tail vertebrae; length of hind foot; length of ear from notch. Capitalized color terms are those of Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912. Capital letters designate teeth in the upper jaws and lower case letters designate teeth in the lower jaws; for example, M2 refers to the second upper molar and m2 refers to the second lower molar. The localities of specimens examined and additional records are listed from north to south and their geographic positions can be found in the gazetteer and on the map (Fig. 4). Most of the specimens examined are in the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas. Unless otherwise indicated, catalogue numbers relate to that collection. A few specimens from other collections were seen. Abbreviations identifying those collections are: UMMZ, the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology; AMNH, the American Museum of Natural History; and GMS, George M. Sutton collection (University of Oklahoma). I am grateful to Prof. E. Raymond Hall and Dr. J. Knox Jones, Jr., for their advice and kind help that have enabled me to complete this work. I thank Dr. William E. Duellman for his advice concerning Zoogeography and Biologist Gastón Guzmán for help with the names of plants. For the loan of specimens I am grateful to Dr. George M. Sutton of the University of Oklahoma, to Dr. David H. Johnson and Dr. Richard H. Manville of the United States National Museum, to Drs. William H. Burt and Emmet T. Hooper of the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, and to Dr. Richard Van Gelder of the American Museum of Natural History. I thank, also, Dr. William Z. Lidicker, Jr., for information about the locality called Lulú, and the collectors from the Museum of Natural History, especially Gerd H. Heinrich, William J. Schaldach, Percy L. Clifton, and John H. Bodley. I am grateful also to Charles A. Long and to several other persons, not named here, who helped me in some way to complete my study of the mammals of Tamaulipas. Most of the field work was financed by the Kansas University Endowment Association. Some laboratory work was done when the author was half-time Research Assistant under Grant No. 56 G 103 from the National Science Foundation. GAZETTEER The specimens examined and additional records are listed with reference to the following place names. The geographic position of each was taken from the maps of the American Geographical Society of New York, scale 1:1,000,000, and the Atlas Geográfico de la República Mexicana, scale 1:500,000. Acuña.--23°26´, 98°25´. Agua Linda.--23°05´, 99°14´. Aldama.--22°55´, 98°04´. Alta Cima.--23°05´, 99°11´. Altamira.--22°23´, 97°56´. Antiguo Morelos.--22°33´, 99°05´. Aserradero del Infernillo [Infiernillo].--23°04´, 99°13´. Aserradero del Paraiso.--22°59´, 99°15´. Bagdad.--25°57´, 97°09´. Camargo.--26°20´, 98°50´. Cerro del Tigre.--23°04´, 99°17´. Chamal.--22°49´, 99°14´. Charco Escondido.--25°46´, 98°22´. Ciudad Victoria.--23°45´, 99°07´. Cueva de Quintero.--22°39´, 99°02´. Cueva La Esperanza.--23°55´, 99°17´. Cueva La Mula.--see La Mula. Cueva Los Troncones.--23°49´, 99°15'. Cues.--22°58', 98°13´. Ejido Santa Isabel.--23°14´, 99°00´. El Carrizo.--23°15´, 99°05´. El Encino.--23°08´, 99°07´. El Mante (Cd. Mante).--22°45´, 99°01´. El Mulato.--24°54´, 98°57´. El Pachón.--22°36´, 99°03´. Forlón.--23°14´, 98°49´. Gómez Farías.--23°02´, 99°10´. Guemes.--23°55´, 99°00´. Guerrero.--26°48´, 99°20´. Hacienda Santa Engracia.--24°02´, 99°12´. Hidalgo.--24°15´, 99°26´. Jaumave.--23°24´, 99°23´. Joya de Salas.--23°11´, 99°17´. Joya Verde.--23°35´, 99°14´. La Azteca (Ejido).--23°05´, 99°08´. La Mula.--23°36´, 99°17´. La Pesca.--23°47´, 97°48´. La Purisima.--24°18´, 99°28´. La Vegonia.--24°40´, 99°05´. Limón.--22°49´, 99°00´. Marmolejo.--24°38´, 99°00´. Matamoros.--25°55´, 97°30´. Mesa de Llera.--23°20´, 99°01´. Mier.--26°27´, 99°09´. Miquihuana.--23°27´, 99°46´. Nicolás.--23°21´, 100°04´. Nuevo Laredo.--27°30´, 99°30´. Ocampo.--22°50´, 99°21´. Ojo de Agua.--22°35´, 98°58´. Padilla.--24°01´, 98°46´. Palmillas.--23°18´, 99°33´. Piedra.--23°30´, 98°06´. Rancho del Cielo.--23°04´, 99°12´. Rancho Pano Ayuctle.--23°07´, 99°13´. Rancho Santa Rosa.--23°58´, 99°16´. Rancho Tigre.--22°54´, 99°20´. Rancho Viejo.--23°02´, 99°13´. Reynosa.--26°06´, 98°15´. Río Bravo (Town).--26°04´, 98°08´. Río Corono [Corona].--23°50´, 98°50´. San Antonio.--23°08´, 99°23´. San Carlos.--24°35´, 98°57´. San Fernando.--24°51´, 98°09´. San José.--24°41´, 99°06´. San Miguel.--24°45´, 99°05´. Santa María.--23°31´, 98°41´. Santa Teresa.--25°27´, 97°29´. Savinito.--(?)23°43´, 98°51´. Soto la Marina.--23°46´, 98°15´. Tajada.--23°16´, 99°55´. Tamaulipeca.--24°45´, 99°05´. Tampico.--22°12´, 97°51´. Tula.--23°00´, 99°42´. Villagran.--24°29´, 99°29´. Villa Mainero.--24°34´, 99°36´. Washington Beach.--25°53´, 97°09´. Xicotencatl.--23°00´, 98°57´. Zamorina.--23°20´, 97°58´. [Illustration: FIG. 4. Place names, in Tamaulipas, mentioned in text.] CHECK-LIST The 146 kinds of native mammals of 120 species found in Tamaulipas belong to 72 genera of 25 families of 10 orders. Non-native mammals introduced by man are not included. Class MAMMALIA Order MARSUPIALIA Family Didelphidae PAGE _Didelphis marsupialis californicus_ Bennett 393 _Didelphis marsupialis texensis_ J. A. Allen 394 _Philander opossum pallidus_ (J. A. Allen) 394 _Marmosa mexicana mexicana_ Merriam 395 Order INSECTIVORA Family Soricidae _Sorex saussurei saussurei_ Merriam 396 _Cryptotis parva berlandieri_ (Baird) 396 _Cryptotis pergracilis pueblensis_ Jackson 396 _Cryptotis mexicana madrea_ Goodwin 396 _Notiosorex crawfordi_ (Coues) 397 Family Talpidae _Scalopus inflatus_ Jackson 397 Order CHIROPTERA Family Phyllostomatidae _Pteronotus rubiginosus mexicana_ (Miller) 398 _Pteronotus davyi fulvus_ (Thomas) 398 _Choeronycteris mexicana_ Tschudi 399 _Mormoops megalophylla megalophylla_ (Peters) 399 _Micronycteris megalotis mexicana_ Miller 400 _Glossophaga sorocina leachii_ (Gray) 400 _Leptonycteris nivalis nivalis_ (Saussure) 401 _Sturnira lilium parvidens_ Goldman 401 _Artibeus jamaicensis jamaicensis_ Leach 402 _Artibeus lituratus palmarum_ Allen and Chapman 402 _Artibeus toltecus_ (Saussure) 403 _Artibeus aztecus_ Andersen 403 _Enchistenes hartii_ (Thomas) 404 _Centurio senex_ Gray 404 Family Desmodontidae _Desmodus rotundus murinus_ Wagner 405 _Diphylla ecaudata_ Spix 406 Family Natalidae _Natalus stramineus saturatus_ Dalquest and Hall 407 Family Vespertilionidae _Myotis velifer incautus_ (J. A. Allen) 407 _Myotis keenii auriculus_ Baker and Stains 408 _Myotis californicus mexicanus_ (Saussure) 408 _Myotis nigricans dalquesti_ Hall and Alvarez 409 _Pipistrellus subflavus subflavus_ (F. Cuvier) 409 _Pipistrellus hesperus potosinus_ Dalquest 410 _Eptesicus fuscus miradorensis_ (H. Allen) 410 _Lasiurus borealis borealis_ (Müller) 411 _Lasiurus borealis teliotis_ (H. Allen) 412 _Lasiurus cinereus cinereus_ (Palisot and Beauvois) 412 _Lasiurus intermedius intermedius_ H. Allen 412 _Lasiurus ega xanthinus_ (Thomas) 413 _Nycticeus humeralis humeralis_ (Rafinesque) 413 _Nycticeus humeralis mexicanus_ Davis 413 _Rhogeëssa tumida tumida_ H. Allen 414 _Plecotus phyllotis_ (G. M. Allen) 415 _Antrozous pallidus pallidus_ (Le Conte) 415 Family Molossidae _Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana_ (Saussure) 415 _Tadarida aurispinosa_ (Peale) 415 _Tadarida laticaudata ferruginea_ Goodwin 416 _Molossus ater nigricans_ Miller 417 Order PRIMATES Family Cebidae _Ateles geoffroyi velerosus_ Gray 417 Order EDENTATA Family Dasypodidae _Dasypus novemcinctus mexicanus_ Peters 418 Order LAGOMORPHA Family Leporidae _Sylvilagus brasiliensis truei_ (J. A. Allen) 418 _Sylvilagus audubonii parvulus_ (J. A. Allen) 418 _Sylvilagus floridanus chapmani_ (J. A. Allen) 419 _Sylvilagus floridanus connectens_ (Nelson) 419 _Lepus californicus altamirae_ Nelson 420 _Lepus californicus curti_ Hall 420 _Lepus californicus merriami_ Mearns 421 Order RODENTIA Family Sciuridae _Spermophilus mexicanus parvidens_ Mearns 421 _Spermophilus spilosoma oricolus_ Alvarez 422 _Spermophilus variegatus couchii_ Baird 422 _Sciurus aureogaster aureogaster_ Cuvier 423 _Sciurus deppei negligens_ Nelson 424 _Sciurus alleni_ Nelson 424 _Glaucomys volans herreranus_ Goldman 425 Family Geomyidae _Geomys personatus personatus_ True 425 _Geomys tropicalis_ Goldman 426 _Heterogeomys hispidus negatus_ Goodwin 427 _Cratogeomys castanops planifrons_ Nelson and Goldman 428 _Cratogeomys castanops tamaulipensis_ Nelson and Goldman 428 Family Heteromyidae _Perognathus merriami merriami_ J. A. Allen 429 _Perognathus hispidus hispidus_ Baird 429 _Perognathus nelsoni nelsoni_ Merriam 430 _Dipodomys ordii durranti_ Setzer 431 _Dipodomys ordii parvabullatus_ Hall 431 _Dipodomys ordii compactus_ True 431 _Dipodomys merriami atronasus_ Merriam 432 _Liomys irroratus alleni_ (Coues) 433 _Liomys irroratus texensis_ Merriam 433 Family Castoridae _Castor canadensis mexicanus_ V. Bailey 434 Family Cricetidae _Oryzomys palustris aquaticus_ J. A. Allen 435 _Oryzomys palustris peragrus_ Merriam 435 _Oryzomys melanotis carrorum_ Lawrence 436 _Oryzomys melanotis rostratus_ Merriam 437 _Oryzomys alfaroi huastecae_ Dalquest 437 _Oryzomys fulvescens fulvescens_ (Saussure) 438 _Oryzomys fulvescens engracie_ Osgood 438 _Reithrodontomys megalotis hooperi_ Goodwin 438 _Reithrodontomys fulvescens griseoflavus_ Merriam 438 _Reithrodontomys fulvescens intermedius_ J. A. Allen 439 _Reithrodontomys fulvescens tropicalis_ Davis 439 _Reithrodontomys mexicanus mexicanus_ (Saussure) 440 _Peromyscus maniculatus blandus_ Osgood 440 _Peromyscus melanotis_ J. A. Allen and Chapman 440 _Peromyscus leucopus texanus_ (Woodhouse) 441 _Peromyscus boylii ambiguus_ Alvarez 443 _Peromyscus boylii levipes_ Merriam 443 _Peromyscus pectoralis collinus_ Hooper 444 _Peromyscus pectoralis eremicoides_ Osgood 445 _Peromyscus melanophrys consobrinus_ Osgood 445 _Peromyscus difficilis petricola_ Hoffmeister and de la Torre 446 _Peromyscus ochraventer_ Baker 446 _Baiomys taylori taylori_ (Thomas) 447 _Onychomys leucogaster longipes_ Merriam 447 _Onychomys torridus subrufus_ Hollister 448 _Sigmodon hispidus berlandieri_ Baird 449 _Sigmodon hispidus solus_ Hall 450 _Sigmodon hispidus toltecus_ (Saussure) 450 _Neotoma albigula subsolana_ Alvarez 450 _Neotoma angustapalata_ Baker 451 _Neotoma micropus littoralis_ Goldman 453 _Neotoma micropus micropus_ Baird 453 _Microtus mexicanus subsimus_ Goldman 454 Order CARNIVORA Family Canidae _Canis latrans microdon_ Merriam 454 _Canis latrans texensis_ V. Bailey 455 _Canis lupus monstrabilis_ Goldman 455 _Urocyon cinereoargenteus scottii_ Mearns 455 Family Ursidae _Ursus americanus eremicus_ Merriam 456 Family Procyonidae _Bassariscus astutus flavus_ Rhoads 456 _Procyon lotor fuscipes_ Mearns 457 _Procyon lotor hernandezii_ Wagler 457 _Nasua narica molaris_ Merriam 458 _Potos flavus aztecus_ Thomas 458 Family Mustelidae _Mustela frenata frenata_ Lichtenstein 458 _Mustela frenata tropicalis_ (Merriam) 459 _Eira barbara senex_ (Thomas) 459 _Taxidea taxus berlandieri_ Baird 460 _Taxidea taxus littoralis_ Schantz 460 _Spilogale putorius interrupta_ (Rafinesque) 461 _Mephitis mephitis_ varians Gray 461 _Mephitis macroura macroura_ Lichtenstein 461 _Conepatus mesoleucus mearnsi_ Merriam 462 _Conepatus leuconotus texensis_ Merriam 462 Family Felidae _Felis concolor stanleyana_ Goldman 462 _Felis onca veraecrucis_ Nelson and Goldman 463 _Felis pardalis albescens_ Pucheran 463 _Felis wiedii oaxacensis_ Nelson and Goldman 464 _Felis yagouaroundi cacomitli_ Berlandier 464 _Lynx rufus texensis_ J. A. Allen 464 Order SIRENIA Family Trichechidae _Trichechus manatus latirostris_ (Harlan) 465 Order ARTIODACTYLA Family Tayassuidae _Tayassu tajacu angulatus_ (Cope) 465 Family Cervidae _Odocoileus hemionus crooki_ (Mearns) 465 _Odocoileus virginianus miquihuanensis_ Goldman and Kellogg 466 _Odocoileus virginianus texanus_ (Mearns) 466 _Odocoileus virginianus veraecrucis_ Goldman and Kellogg 466 _Mazama americana temama_ (Kerr) 466 Family Antilocapridae _Antilocapra americana mexicana_ Merriam 467 ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES =Didelphis marsupialis= Opossum The opossum occurs throughout Tamaulipas but is commonest in the south, especially in the areas of tropical forest and along water courses. Most of the specimens examined were caught in steel traps baited with remains of small animals (mostly mammals and birds, but one trap was baited with the head of a black bass). At Villa Mainero five individuals were caught in one night in five of seven traps scented with spilogale musk. These traps were set in runways along a thick thorn-brush fence, which separated a cornfield from thorn-brush desert. Along the Río Purificación 36 kilometers north and 10 kilometers west of Victoria an opossum was eaten in a trap by a small carnivore, probably a felid judging from tracks around the trap. A female with 14 pouch young was taken in June in the Sierra de Tamaulipas and weighed 1350 grams; a March-taken female with nine small young in her pouch, from Soto la Marina, weighed 1800 grams. A male from the Sierra de Tamaulipas also weighed 1800 grams. =Didelphis marsupialis californica= Bennett 1833. _Didelphis Californica_ Bennett, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 40, May 17, type locality restricted to Sonora by Hershkovitz (_infra_). 1951. _Didelphis marsupialis californica_, Hershkovitz Fieldiana-Zool., Chicago Nat. Hist. Mus., 31(47):548, July 10. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southeastern part of state, north at least to Soto la Marina. In studying Tamaulipan specimens, I was mindful that Hershkovitz (1951:550) regarded all opossums of this species in México as a single subspecies, even though J. A. Allen (1901) recognized two subspecies in the northeastern part of the Republic. According to Allen (p. 172), _D. m. texensis_ (to which he ascribed a distribution in Texas and adjoining Tamaulipas) was described as: "Similar in coloration to _D. marsupialis_ (_typica_) [_D. m. californica_], but with a relatively longer tail, longer nasals, usually terminating posteriorly in an acute angle, instead of being rounded or more or less abruptly truncated on the posterior border." The available material from Tamaulipas can be divided into two groups on the basis of shape and proportion of the nasals. In opossums from the southeast the nasals are truncate posteriorly and average 47.0 (45.1-48.4) per cent of the condylobasal length, whereas in specimens from elsewhere the nasals are acute posteriorly and average 50.7 (49.7-51.8) per cent of the condylobasal length. Tentatively, therefore, I follow Allen in recognizing two subspecies in northeastern México. I note no especial difference in length of tail between _texensis_ and _californica_. Hooper (1951:3) followed Hershkovitz in reporting as _californica_ a specimen from Rancho del Cielo; to me, specimens from this area are referable to _texensis_. One of the specimens from two miles south and 10 miles west of Piedra (54917) has a supernumerary tooth lingual and anterior to the last upper molar. The tooth is small (2.7 mm. long) and peglike. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 8: 3 mi. N Soto la Marina, 1; 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 12,000 ft., 7. Additional records: Matamoros (Baird, 1858:234); Altamira (J. A. Allen, 1901:167). =Didelphis marsupialis texensis= J. A. Allen 1901. _Didelphis marsupialis texensis_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Hist., 14:172, June 15, type from Brownsville, Cameron County, Texas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Northern, central and southwestern parts of state. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 7: San Fernando, 180 ft., 1; Villa Mainero, 1700 ft., 2; 36 km. N, 10 km. W Cd. Victoria (1 km. E El Barretal), on Río Purificación, 1; 12 km. N, 4 km. W Cd. Victoria, 1; Ejido Santa Isabel (12 km. S Llera), 2 km. W Pan-American Highway, 2000 ft., 1; 4 mi. N Jaumave, 2500 ft., 1. Additional records: Matamoros (J. A. Allen, 1901:173); El Mulato, San Carlos Mts. (Dice, 1937:249); Rancho del Cielo (Hooper, 1953:3). =Philander opossum pallidus= (J. A. Allen) Four-eyed Opossum 1901. _Metachirus fuscogriseus pallidus_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:215, July 3, type from Orizaba, Veracruz. 1955. _Philander opossum pallidus_, Miller and Kellogg, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 205:8, March 3. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from along eastern side of Sierra Madre Oriental, north to vicinity of La Purisima. In Tamaulipas, the four-eyed opossum is seemingly common at relatively low elevations in the Tropical Deciduous Forest along the eastern side of the Sierra Madre Oriental, but the species is not restricted to this area as one specimen is available from a place seven kilometers southwest of La Purisima, in the drier forest of west-central Tamaulipas. The highest elevation at which individuals have been taken in the state is approximately 2500 feet. Specimens obtained two kilometers west of El Carrizo were caught in steel traps that were baited with the bodies of small birds and mammals and that were set in trails leading through a fence of piled logs that separated a cornfield from adjacent forest. At Rancho Pano Ayuctle, some individuals were trapped in steel sets baited with scraps of meat; others were shot at night in the forest along the Río Sabinas. Schaldach reported in his notes that four-eyed opossums robbed trap lines set for small mammals at Rancho Pano Ayuctle. W. W. Dalquest trapped an individual seven kilometers southwest of La Purisima using the body of an armadillo as bait. The natives of southern Tamaulipas refer to this animal as "tlacuache cuatrojos." Tamaulipan specimens of _P. o. pallidus_ differ from topotypes and other specimens from the vicinity of the type locality in averaging somewhat paler dorsally and slightly smaller in cranial dimensions when specimens of equal age are compared. They differ also in having a longer terminal area of white on the tail, 53.1 per cent (43.3-62.8) of the length of the tail in 13 specimens from Tamaulipas, and 38.7 (30.9-48.2) per cent in 14 specimens from the vicinity of the type locality of _pallidus_ in Veracruz; specimens from northern Veracruz are intermediate between the two mentioned populations in amount of white on the tail. Baker (1951:210) noted that the specimens from two kilometers west of El Carrizo had "proportionately longer tails than typical _P. o. pallidus_ from central Veracruz," but I do not find this character to be consistent in the more abundant material now available. _Measurements._--External and cranial measurements of three adults, a male and female from Rancho Pano Ayuctle and a male from two kilometers west of El Carrizo, respectively, are as follows: 577, 580, 568; 294, 288, 290; 46, 43, 43; 40, 42, 37; condylobasal length, ----, 70.1, 69.9; palatal length, 43.2, 42.3, 41.9; lambdoidal breadth, 23.6, 22.0, 22.7; alveolar length of maxillary tooth-row, 29.5, 28.4, 29.0. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 15: 7 km. SW La Purisima, 1; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 1; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N Mante and 3 km. W Pan-American Highway, 300 ft., 7; 10 km. N, 8 km. W El Encino, 400 ft., 3; 2 km. W El Carrizo, 2500 ft., 3 (one specimen deposited in Instituto de Biología, México). =Marmosa mexicana mexicana= Merriam Mexican Mouse-opossum 1897. _Marmosa murina mexicana_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:44, March 16, type from Juquila, 1500 m., Oaxaca. 1902. _Marmosa mexicana_, Bangs, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 39:19, April. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Aserradero del Infernillo (Goodwin, 1954:3) in southwestern part of state. _Marmosa_ has been reported from Tamaulipas only by Goodwin (1954:3), who examined "15 rami, and one fragment of maxillary" that were found in a cave. Possibly they were remains from owl pellets. =Sorex saussurei saussurei= Merriam Saussure's Shrew 1892. _Sorex saussurei_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 7:173, September 29, type from N slope Sierra Nevada de Colima, approximately 8000 ft., Jalisco. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Miquihuana. Jackson (1928:156) reported four specimens from Miquihuana, which he incorrectly located in Nuevo León. =Cryptotis parva berlandieri= (Baird) Least Shrew 1858. _Blarina berlandieri_ Baird, Mammals, _in_ Repts. Expl. Surv. ..., 8(1):53, July 14, type from Matamoros, Tamaulipas. 1941. _Cryptotis parva berlandieri_, Davis, Jour. Mamm., 22:413, November 13. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Throughout state. A female taken on July 5, one mile south of Altamira, carried three embryos 5 mm. in crown-rump length. A female from the same locality and another taken on June 6 in the Sierra de Tamaulipas were lactating. Weight of each of six males was 5.0 grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 9: Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 1; 1 mi. S Altamira, 8. Additional records: Matamoros (Baird, 1858:53); 9 km. N Rancho Tigre (Goodwin, 1954:3). =Cryptotis pergracilis pueblensis= Jackson Slender Small-eared Shrew 1933. _Cryptotis pergracilis pueblensis_ Jackson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 46:79, April 27, type from Huachinango, 5000 ft., Puebla. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Aserradero del Paraiso. The only report from Tamaulipas of this small shrew is that of Goodwin (1954:3) who listed a cranium and mandible, possibly of the same individual, found on the floor of a cave. Goodwin referred the remains to _pueblensis_ because of the "noticeably broader and heavier rostrum than in ... _C. parva berlandieri_ from Rancho Tigre." =Cryptotis mexicana madrea= Goodwin Mexican Small-eared Shrew 1954. _Cryptotis mexicana madrea_ Goodwin, Amer. Mus. Novit., 1670:1, June 28, type from Rancho del Cielo, 5 mi. NW Gómez Farías, 3500 ft., Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from the type locality and vicinity thereof. This subspecies is known only from two complete specimens, six crania and four rami collected in two different localities--the type locality and Aserradero del Infernillo, only seven kilometers from the type locality. All the specimens were examined and reported by Goodwin (1954:1; 1954:4). The type specimen "was taken in a low section of an overgrown ditch" and the other complete specimen was trapped in a stone wall that separated an orchard from a pasture. The six skulls were found in owl pellets. =Notiosorex crawfordi= (Coues) Crawford's Desert Shrew 1877. _Sorex (Notiosorex) crawfordi_ Coues, Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Territories, 3:651, May 15, type from near old Fort Bliss, approximately 2 mi. above El Paso, El Paso Co., Texas. 1895. _Notiosorex crawfordi_, Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:32, Dec. 31. _Distribution in Tamaulipas_.--Known only from two localities in southwestern part of state. The two specimens examined were collected in July, one in tropical forest and the other in pine-oak forest; each was a lactating female and each weighed 5 grams. Judging from Merriam's (1895:32) description, the two females differ from the type and three specimens from San Diego, Texas, in having a unicolored tail and in being slightly larger externally. When more abundant material is available the _Notiosorex crawfordi_ of northeastern México probably will be found to represent a new subspecies; for the present I follow Findley (1955:616) in referring Tamaulipan specimens to _N. crawfordi_. _Measurements._--External measurements of the specimens from Jaumave and Palmillas, respectively: 90, 90; 28, 31; 11, 11.5; 8, 8. For cranial measurements see Findley (1955:32). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 2: Jaumave, 2400 ft., 1; Palmillas, 4400 ft., 1. =Scalopus inflatus= Jackson Tamaulipan Mole 1914. _Scalopus inflatus_ Jackson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:21, February 2, type from Tamaulipas, 45 miles from Brownsville, Texas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from the type locality. _Scalopus inflatus_ is known only from the type specimen, which is imperfect and lacks complete data according to Jackson (1914:21). The type locality is in Tamaulipas, 45 miles from Brownsville, Texas, but the exact direction from Brownsville is unknown; probably the locality was on the road between that town and San Fernando, Tamaulipas, which is south-southwest of Brownsville. =Pteronotus rubiginosus mexicanus= (Miller) Mustached Bat 1902. _Chilonycteris mexicana_ Miller, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 54:401, September 12, type from San Blas, Nayarit. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southern part of state in areas of tropical forest. Most individuals of this species were taken in mist nets. Northwest of El Encino for example, bats were collected from a net placed in "a strategic position across a narrow opening" (Schaldach, fieldnotes) in a cave near the headwaters of the Río Sabinas; along the same river at Rancho Pano Ayuctle some were taken in a net stretched across a little creek (arroyo). In the cave near El Encino the collector (Schaldach) estimated the population of _P. rubiginosus_ at between two and three hundred; at Ojo de Agua this bat was found in the deepest part of a cave in association with _Myotis nigricans_. Two June-taken females from the Sierra de Tamaulipas were lactating, and weighed 17 and 18 grams. The generic name _Pteronotus_ is employed instead of _Chilonycteris_ following Burt and Stirton (1961:24-25). The specific name _rubiginosus_ is used in accordance with de la Torre (1955:696). Tamaulipan specimens are assigned to _P. r. mexicana_ because they do not differ from specimens of that subspecies from Nayarit, except that the coloration of Tamaulipan specimens averages slightly darker in both color phases. Specimens of this subspecies from the Sierra de Tamaulipas, previously recorded by Anderson (1956:349), are the northernmost reported in eastern México. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 31: Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1400 ft., 3; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N El Mante, 3 mi. W Pan-American Highway, 300 ft., 3; Ojo de Agua, 20 mi. N El Mante, and 3 km. W Pan-American Highway, 300 ft., 2; 10 km. N, 8 km. W El Encino, 400 ft., 22. Additional records (Goodwin, 1954:4): Aserradero del Paraiso; El Pachón. =Pteronotus davyi fulvus= (Thomas) Davy's Naked-backed Bat 1892. _Chilonycteris davyi fulvus_ Thomas, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, 10:410, November, type from Las Peñas, Jalisco. 1912. _Pteronotus davyi fulvus_, Miller, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 79:33, December 31. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from the two localities reported in this paper. According to field-notes of Schaldach _et al._, individuals of _P. d. fulvus_ appear when it is almost dark (about 6:30 p. m. in December and January), ordinarily fly about 25 feet above the ground, but occasionally are seen at heights of between 60 and 70 feet (near tops of the largest cypress trees). Most bats flew in a straight line for 10 to 20 yards, then zig-zagged, and repeated the same movements. All specimens examined are in the brown color phase. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 11: Rancho Santa Rosa, 25 km. N, 13 km. W Cd. Victoria, 260 m., 10; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 1. =Choeronycteris mexicana= Tschudi Mexican Long-tongued Bat 1844. _Choeronycteris mexicana_ Tschudi, Untersuchungen über die fauna Peruana ..., p. 72, type from México. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--East side of Sierra Madre in southwestern part of state. Specimens from La Mula were obtained in a small cave, which was inhabited also by _Desmodus rotundus_ and _Tadarida brasiliensis_. The specimens from Miquihuana were captured in a mine by a native. Those from four kilometers north of Joya Verde also were taken from a mine. Females obtained in August at La Mula were lactating. Specimens examined are indistinguishable from _C. mexicana_ from Oaxaca and Jalisco. Baker (1956:172) found no differences between Coahuilan and Tamaulipan specimens. Most Tamaulipan specimens are dark grayish, but some are brownish and some are intermediate between the two colors mentioned. Fourteen adults weighed an average of 16.0 (12-18) grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 19: 4 km. N Joya Verde, 4000 ft., 3; La Mula, 13 mi. N Jaumave, 4; Cueva La Mula, 10 km. W Joya Verde, 2400 ft., 2; Miquihuana, 6500 ft., 10. =Mormoops megalophylla megalophylla= (Peters) Peters' Leaf-chinned Bat 1864. _Mormops megalophylla_ Peters, Monatsb. preuss. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, p. 381, type from southern México. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Throughout state, except possibly west of the Sierra Madre Oriental. Specimens from the Sierra de Tamaulipas were taken in mist nets in which _Pteronotus rubiginosus_, _Lasiurus borealis_, or _Centurio senex_ also were captured. The specimen from Rancho Santa Rosa was shot as it flew at a height of six feet. Tamaulipan specimens of _Mormoops megalophylla_ are here assigned to _M. m. megalophylla_ instead of to _M. m. senicula_ following Villa and Jimenez (1961:503), who regarded _senicula_ as indistinguishable from _megalophylla_. Weight of four specimens from the Sierra de Tamaulipas averaged 16.2 (15-18) grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 5: Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 16 mi. W Piedra, 1300 ft., 2; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 14 mi. W Piedra, 1400 ft., 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1400 ft., 1; Rancho Santa Rosa, 25 km. N, 13 km. W Cd. Victoria, 260 m., 1. Additional records: Cueva de Los Troncones, 7.5 km. NNW, 3.5 km. S Cd. Victoria (Villa and Jimenez, 1961:503); Cueva de Quintero, 15 km. SSW Cd. Mante (_ibid._); Tampico (Davis and Carter, 1962:67). =Micronycteris megalotis mexicana= Miller Brazilian Small-eared Bat 1898. _Micronycteris megalotis mexicana_ Miller, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 50:329, August 2, type from Platanar, Jalisco. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Rancho Pano Ayuctle (Goodwin, 1954:4). The single specimen of this species presently known from Tamaulipas was shot while it was roosting in a ranch house. =Glossophaga soricina leachii= (Gray) Pallas' Long-tongued Bat 1844. _Monophyllus leachii_ Gray, _in_ The zoology of the voyage of H. M. S. Sulphur ..., 1 (1, Mamm.): 18, April, type from Realego, Chinandega, Nicaragua. 1913. _Glossophaga soricina leachii_, Miller, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 46:419, December 31. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Tropical region of southern part of state. Specimens from the Sierra de Tamaulipas were taken in a cave along with _Desmodus rotundus_ and _Tadarida laticaudata_. Specimens from 20 miles north of El Mante were collected from a cave about 50 yards deep. Weights of two females from the Sierra de Tamaulipas were 9 and 12 grams. Tamaulipan specimens examined do not differ from specimens from Nicaragua that were used in comparison. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 6: Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 16 mi. W Piedra, 1400 ft., 2; 10 km. N, 8 km. W El Encino, 400 ft., 1; Ojo de Agua, 20 mi. N El Mante, and 3 km. W Highway, 300 ft., 2; 8 km. NE Antiguo Morelos, 500 ft., 1. Additional records: 5 mi. NE Antiguo Morelos, near El Pachón (de la Torre, 1954:114); Altamira (Miller, 1913:420). =Leptonycteris nivalis nivalis= (Saussure) Long-nosed Bat 1860. _M. [= Ischnoglossa] nivalis_ Saussure, Revue et Mag. Zool., Paris, ser. 2, 12:492, November, type from near snow line of Mt. Orizaba, Veracruz. 1900. _Leptonycteris nivalis_, Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:126, April 6. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably throughout southern part of state, but presently known only from one locality. The specimens herein reported were taken in a cave. They provide the first record of the species from Tamaulipas and are assigned to the subspecies _nivalis_ on the basis of their brownish color and small size in comparison with specimens of _L. n. longala_ from Coahuila (see also description and measurements of _longala_ given by Stains, 1957:356). None of the specimens suggests intergradation in color between _nivalis_ and _longala_, but some are slightly larger than specimens of the former from Veracruz. Twelve females taken on August 27, 1961, were pregnant. Each carried a single embryo, the embryos averaging 15.7 (12-20) mm. in crown-rump length. The average weight of the 12 females was 26.9 (24.5-30.0) grams; 10 males weighed an average of 24.6 (21-28) grams. _Measurements._--Average and extremes of ten specimens (5 males and 5 females) are as follows: 78.2 (76-80); 0.0; 16.4 (15-17); 16.7 (16-19); length of forearm, 48.4 (45.2-54.3); length of third finger, 100.8 (99.2-103.7); greatest length of skull, 26.8 (25.9-27.6); zygomatic breadth (6 only), 10.9 (10.7-11.1); least interorbital constriction, 4.6 (4.5-4.9); mastoid breadth, 10.8 (10.5-11.2); length of maxillary tooth-row, 8.7 (8.4-9.0). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 28: all from 6.5 mi. N, 13 mi. W Jimenez, 1250 ft. =Sturnira lilium parvidens= Goldman Yellow-shouldered Bat 1917. _Sturnira lilium parvidens_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 30:116, May 23, type from Papayo, about 25 mi. NW Acapulco, Guerrero. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known presently only from Rancho Pano Ayuctle. The two specimens from Tamaulipas were reported by de la Torre (1954:114) and in eastern México are the northernmost yet reported of the genus. =Artibeus jamaicensis jamaicensis= Leach Jamaican Fruit-eating Bat 1821. _Artibeus Jamaicensis_ Leach, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, 13:75, type from Jamaica. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Tropical region of southern part of state. The specimens from northwest of El Encino were shot deep (250 yards) in a cave; specimens of _Myotis nigricans_ were obtained in the same cave. A female taken on May 24 carried a single embryo that was 43 mm. in crown-rump length. Six March-taken females reported by de la Torre (1954:114) had one embryo each that varied from 20 to 38 mm. in length. _Artibeus jamaicensis_ and _A. lituratus_ are the largest bats known from Tamaulipas. In addition to the differences between the two species pointed out by Lukens and Davis (1957:9), I note, in Tamaulipas at least, that the postorbital constriction is narrower in relation to the condylobasal length in _lituratus_, 24.6 (23.7-26.0) per cent as compared to 27.9 (26.7-29.9) per cent in _jamaicensis_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 19: 10 km. N, 8 km. W El Encino, 400 ft., 10; Aserradero del Paraiso, 19 km. N Chamal (by road), 8 (AMNH); Cueva El Pachón, 5 mi. N Antiguo Morelos, 1 (AMNH). Additional records: Rancho Pano Ayuctle (de la Torre, 1954:114); 4 mi. N Antiguo Morelos, near El Pachón (_ibid._). =Artibeus lituratus palmarum= J. A. Allen and Chapman Big Fruit-eating Bat 1897. _Artibeus palmarum_ J. A. Allen and Chapman, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:16, February 26, type from Botanical Gardens at Port of Spain, Trinidad. 1949. _A[rtibeus]. l[ituratus]. palmarum_, Hershkovitz, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 99:447, May 10. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Tropical region in southern part of state. Two specimens from the Río Sabinas were taken in a mist net placed across the small, crevicelike entrance to a cave. Ten pregnant females taken in late May each contained a single embryo; average crown-rump length of the 10 embryos was 43 (35-55) mm. Tamaulipan specimens of _lituratus_ do not differ appreciably in color from topotypes except that the facial stripes are narrow and, in three individuals, poorly marked. Lukens and Davis (1957:9) reported that females from Guerrero were paler than the males, but the male examined in this study does not differ in color from the females seen. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 15: Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 13; cave at headwaters of Río Sabinas, 10 km. N, 8 km. W El Encino, 400 ft., 2. =Artibeus toltecus= (Saussure) Toltec Fruit-eating Bat 1860. _Stenoderma toltecus_ Saussure, Revue et Mag. Zool., Paris, ser. 2, 12:427, October, type from México. Type locality restricted to Mirador, Veracruz, by Hershkovitz, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 99:449, May 10, 1949. 1908. _Artibeus toltecus_, Andersen, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 296, April 7. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably lowlands of southern part of state; known presently only from Rancho Pano Ayuctle. _Artibeus toltecus_ is closely related to another species, _A. aztecus_, that occurs also in Tamaulipas. Externally, _toltecus_ differs from _aztecus_ in being smaller and darker; cranially, _toltecus_ also is the smaller and the P2 and M2 are more angular lingually than in _aztecus_, in which the teeth are rounded. One of the most important differences between these two species is that they occur at different altitudes. Davis (1958:165) reported that _toltecus_ occurred at elevations below 5000 feet at more southerly localities in México, whereas _aztecus_ occurred above 5000 feet. In Tamaulipas the two species probably have parallel distributions from south to north but _A. toltecus_ is known from Rancho Pano Ayuctle at an elevation of 300 feet in rain forest, whereas _A. aztecus_ is known from Rancho del Cielo at an elevation of 3300 feet in cloud forest. The two localities are only four miles apart. One of the specimens examined (GMS 10640) is smaller, cranially and externally (see beyond), than any recorded by Davis (1958:165). _Measurements._--Some external and cranial measurements of two females and a male (GMS 10668, 10646 and 10640) are, respectively, as follows: length of hind foot, 12.5, 12.0, 11.0; length of ear from notch, 15, 17, 15; length of forearm, 40.5, 40.0, 36.5; greatest length of skull, 20.9, 20.7, 19.7; zygomatic breadth, 12.3, 12.3, 11.7; least interorbital constriction, 5.2, 5.0, 5.0; length of maxillary tooth-row, 6.8, 6.8, 6.5; breadth of braincase, 9.3, 9.2, 9.1. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 3 from Río Sabinas, near Gómez Farías (Rancho Pano Ayuctle) (GMS). =Artibeus aztecus= Andersen Aztec Fruit-eating Bat 1906. _Artibeus aztecus_ Andersen, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, 18:422, December, type from Tetela del Volcán, Morelos. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably higher areas of southern part of state; known presently only from Rancho del Cielo. I follow Davis (1958:165) in treating _A. aztecus_ and _A. toltecus_ as distinct species. Differences between the two are discussed in the preceding account of _toltecus_. One specimen examined (AMNH 146980) is distinctly larger than the others here assigned to _A. aztecus_, but does not exceed the maximal measurements given by Davis (_loc. cit._) for the species. This specimen also has a narrower M2, and relatively and actually narrower braincase than other specimens (see measurements). Specimens from Rancho del Cielo were collected in a limestone cave in the cloud forest. A female taken on July 2 carried a small embryo and another obtained on August 14 had an embryo that appeared to be nearly ready for birth. _Measurements._--Respective external and cranial measurements of three males (AMNH, uncatalogued) and a female (AMNH 146980) are as follows: total length, 58, 65, 66, 73; length of hind foot, 13, 12, 12, 13; length of forearm, --, 43, 40, 41; greatest length of skull, 21.6, 22.4, 21.5, 23.0; zygomatic breadth, 13.0, 12.8, 13.0, 12.4; least interorbital constriction, 5.2, 5.7, 5.5, 6.0; length of maxillary tooth-row, 7.0, 7.1, 6.9, 7.1; breadth of braincase, 10.0, 9.8, 10.0, 9.5. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 7, all from Rancho del Cielo, 3300 ft., (AMNH). =Enchistenes hartii= (Thomas) Little Fruit-eating Bat 1892. _Artibeus hartii_ Thomas, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, 10:409, November, type from Trinidad, Lesser Antilles. 1908. _Enchistenes hartii_, Andersen, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 2:224, September 7. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Aserradero del Infernillo. _Enchistenes hartii_ is known from Tamaulipas only by the cranium reported by Goodwin (1954:5), and this is the northernmost known occurrence. The bat has not been reported from any other Mexican state bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. =Centurio senex= Gray Wrinkle-faced Bat 1842. _Centurio senex_ Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 10, 10:259, December, type locality erroneously given as Amboyna, East Indies; subsequently restricted to Realejo, Chinandega, Nicaragua, by Goodwin (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 87:327, December 31, 1946). _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Tropical areas of southern part of state. The single specimen examined, a female weighing 23 grams that carried an embryo (17 mm. crown-rump length), was taken on June 14 in a mist net stretched between oak trees in the Sierra de Tamaulipas. One other female and one cranium have been reported from Tamaulipas. The specimen examined differs from two seen from southern México (5 mi. SW Teapa, Tabasco, and 2 mi. S Tollosa, Oaxaca) in being brownish instead of grayish, but resembles in color two specimens from Cozumel Island, Quintana Roo. _Measurements._--A female from the Sierra de Tamaulipas affords the following measurements: Total length, 67; length of hind foot, 13; length of ear from notch, 15; length of forearm, 43.1; condylobasal length, 15.0; zygomatic breadth, 5.1; palatal length, 4.1; least interorbital constriction, 5.3; length of maxillary tooth-row, 5.1. _Records of occurrence._--Specimen examined, one from the Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 14 mi. W Piedra, 1300 ft. Additional records: Rancho Pano Ayuctle (de la Torre, 1954:114); Aserradero del Infernillo (Goodwin, 1954:5). =Desmodus rotundus murinus= Wagner Vampire 1840. _D[esmodus]. murinus_ Wagner, _in_ Schreber, Die Säugthiere ..., Suppl., 1:337, type from México. 1912. _Desmodus rotundus murinus_, Osgood, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Publ. 155, Zool. Ser., 10:63, January. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southern part of state, north at least to vicinity of Jiménez. Hall and Kelson (1959:151) listed a place 12 kilometers west and 8 kilometers north of Ciudad Victoria as the northernmost locality of record for _Desmodus_, but three specimens from Cueva La Esperanza, 6 kilometers southwest of Rancho Santa Rosa, are from a site slightly to the northwestward (12 mi.) of the locality first mentioned and a specimen from 13 miles west and six and a half miles north of Jiménez represents the northeasternmost known occurrence of _Desmodus_ in eastern México. Most of the vampires examined in this study were taken in caves; those from four miles southwest of Padilla were obtained from a hollow tree. Nine specimens were collected in a small cave 70 kilometers south of Ciudad Victoria on January 18, when water on the floor of the cave was frozen; the bats were congregated on the ceiling at a height of 20 feet. In a cave in the Sierra de Tamaulipas, 16 miles west and three miles south of Piedra, females and young were found some 50 yards from the entrance; _Natalus stramineus_ and _Glossophaga soricina_ were obtained from the same cave. In another cave only half a kilometer distant, 12 males were collected. In Cueva La Mula, _Desmodus_ was found near the mouth, whereas _Choeronycteris mexicana_ and two _Tadarida brasiliensis_ were collected in the deepest part. At Cueva La Esperanza, 300 feet deep and on the east side of the Sierra Madre Oriental, four different congregations of vampires were found along with about 400 _Natalus_. A male _Desmodus_ obtained in a cave 13 miles west and six and a half miles north of Jiménez also was associated with _Natalus_. Females with embryos or in lactation were collected as follows: Rancho Pano Ayuctle, March 10, one pregnant female (embryo 40 mm. in crown-rump length); Río Sabinas, May 23, two pregnant females (embryos 36 and 43 mm.); Sierra de Tamaulipas, June 13, five lactating females and one female taken alive that gave birth on June 16 to one young; Cueva La Mula, August, nine lactating females. A male from the Sierra Madre that was obtained on January 5 had testes 8 mm. long. The average weight of 21 adults from four miles southwest of Padilla was 39.1 (32.0-44.5) grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 107: 3 mi. W, 6.5 mi. N Jiménez, 1250 ft., 1; Río Soto la Marina, 4 mi. SW Padilla, 800 ft., 23; Cueva La Esperanza, 6 km. SW Rancho Santa Rosa, 360 m., 3; Cueva Los Troncones, 8 km. N, 12 km. W Cd. Victoria, Sierra Madre Oriental, 2500 ft., 2; Cd. Victoria, 1; Sierra Madre Oriental, 1900 ft., 5 mi. S, 3 mi. W Cd. Victoria, 3; La Mula, 13 mi. N Jaumave, 19; Cueva La Mula, 10 km. W Joya Verde, 2400 ft., 16; Joya Verde, 35 km. SW [Cd.] Victoria, 3800 ft., 6; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 1400 ft., 3 mi. S, 16 mi. W Piedra, 10; 70 km. S Cd. Victoria (_via_ Highway), 6 km. W of Highway, 5; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 7; cave near headwaters Río Sabinas, 10 km. N, 8 km. W El Encino, 400 ft., 11. Additional records (Malaga and Villa, 1957:539): Cueva La Sepultura, 7.5 km. NNW and hence 7 km. SSW (_via_ highway) Cd. Victoria; El Ojo de Agua, at km. 10 on Valles-Tampico highway; Cueva del Abra, 2 km. SSW Cd. Mante. =Diphylla ecaudata= Spix Hairy-legged Vampire 1823. _Diphylla ecaudata_ Spix, Simiarum et vespertilionum Brasiliensium ..., p. 68, type locality, Brazil, restricted to Rio San Francisco, Baía, by Cabrera (Rev. Mus. Argentino Cien. Nat., 4:94, March 27, 1958). _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southern and central parts of state. The hairy-legged vampire was first reported from Tamaulipas by de la Torre (1954:114), who recorded a male from five miles northeast of Antiguo Morelos, near El Pachón. Later in the same year Martin and Martin (1954:585) listed another male from El Pachón. Subsequently, Malaga and Villa (1957:543) reported specimens from two additional localities in the state, one of which (Cueva de la Sepultura) provides the northernmost place from which the species has been recorded. Malaga and Villa remarked that the species was abundant at Cueva de la Sepultura, being found in small groups clinging to the roof of the cave. Two females taken there on November 11 carried one embryo each; a lactating female was taken on November 14. The vampire, _Desmodus rotundus_, also was taken at Cueva de la Sepultura. I follow Burt and Stirton (1961:37) in treating _Diphylla ecaudata_ as a monotypic species. _Records_: Cueva de la Sepultura, 7.5 km. NNW and hence 7 km. SSW (_via_ highway) Cd. Victoria (Malaga and Villa, 1957:543); 5 mi. NE Antiguo Morelos, near El Pachón (de la Torre, 1954:114); El Pachón (Martin and Martin, 1954:585); Cueva de Quintero, 4 km. SSW Quintero (Malaga and Villa, 1957:543). =Natalus stramineus saturatus= Dalquest and Hall Mexican Funnel-eared Bat 1949. _Natalus mexicanas saturatus_ Dalquest and Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 62:153, August 23, type from 3 km. E San Andrés Tuxtla, 1000 ft., Veracruz. 1959. _Natalus stramineus saturatus_, Goodwin, Amer. Mus. Novit., 1977:7, December 22. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Central and southwestern parts of state. All specimens examined were obtained from caves. At Cueva la Esperanza, approximately 400 individuals were found along with individuals of _Desmodus rotundus_; _Natalus_ and _Desmodus_ also were collected together in a cave approximately 30 yards deep three miles south and 14 miles west of Piedra, and in a cave six and a half miles north and 13 miles west of Jiménez, the northernmost locality from which _N. stramineus_ is presently known. Tamaulipan specimens do not differ significantly in external or cranial measurements in comparison with the specimens from Veracruz reported by Dalquest and Hall (1949:154), but do differ in color. Most are in the gray phase and are Avellaneus (grayish with yellowish hairs mixed) instead of Clay Color as are specimens from Veracruz; those few in the red phase are between Clay Color and Tawny-Olive instead of between Burnt Sienna and Chestnut. By consequence, bats from Tamaulipas resemble in color the smaller _N. s. mexicanus_ of western México to a greater degree than they resemble _N. s. saturatus_, but I follow Goodwin (1959:7). Dalquest and Hall (1949:154) reported the specimen from eight kilometers northeast of Antiguo Morelos as from San Luis Potosí, from which state the collector (Dalquest) evidently thought it had originated. Actually the place eight kilometers northeast of Antiguo Morelos is in Tamaulipas. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 64: 6.5 mi. N, 13 mi. W Jiménez, 1250 ft., 14; Cueva de la Esperanza, 6 km. SW Rancho Santa Rosa, 360 m., 20; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 16 mi. W Piedra, 1400 ft., 7; 3 mi. S, 14 mi. W Piedra, 2; Ejido Ojo de Agua, 20 mi. N, 3 km. W El Mante, 300 ft., 20; 8 km. NE Antiguo Morelos, 500 ft., 1. Additional records (Goodwin, 1959:8): Antiguo Morelos; El Pachón. =Myotis velifer incautus= (J. A. Allen) Cave Myotis 1896. _Vespertilio incautus_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 8:239, November 21, type from San Antonio, Bexar Co., Texas. 1928. _Myotis velifer incautus_, Miller and Allen, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 144:92, May 25. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably most of northern part of state; presently known only from three localities. The two specimens examined from the Sierra de Tamaulipas were taken in a mist net in which _Eptesicus fuscus_, _Myotis keenii_, and _Tadarida brasiliensis_ also were captured. Both are females, one of which was lactating (June 20). Specimens from San Fernando probably were taken in houses by natives, who brought the bats to the collectors (Clifton and Bodley). The maxillary tooth-row and tibia are shorter, breadth across M3 narrower, and ear slightly longer in Tamaulipan specimens than in those for which measurements were given by Miller and Allen (1928:95), but the Tamaulipan specimens do not differ otherwise. The color in general is slightly more brownish than in Texan _incautus_, but about as in Oklahoman specimens examined. Three from San Fernando, Tamaulipas, are darker than others from that state. The average weight of 12 non-pregnant females from San Fernando was 11.0 (9.5-13) grams. The only male obtained at the same locality weighed 12 grams. _Measurements._--Six females from San Fernando afford the following measurements: 100.0 (95-107); 42.5 (38-46); 10.3 (10-11); 15.3 (14.5-16); length of tibia, 17.4 (16.5-18.9); length of forearm, 44.8 (43.4-45.7); greatest length of skull, 16.5 (16.1-16.9); condylobasal length, 15.6 (15.3-15.8); least interorbital constriction, 4.0 (3.9-4.1); mastoid breadth, 8.3 (8.1-8.6); length of maxillary tooth-row, 6.5 (6.3-6.7); breadth across M3, 6.5 (6.0-6.9). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 15: San Fernando, 180 ft., 13; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 2. Additional record: Soto la Marina (Miller and Allen, 1928:93). =Myotis keenii auriculus= Baker and Stains Keen's Myotis 1955. _Myotis evotis auriculus_ Baker and Stains, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:83, December 10, type from 10 m. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., Sierra de Tamaulipas, Tamaulipas. 1960. _Myotis keenii auriculus_, Findley, Jour. Mamm., 41:18, February. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from type locality (2 specimens), but probably widely distributed in western part of state. The two specimens known from Tamaulipas were caught in a mist net stretched across a narrow, brush-bordered arroyo in the Sierra de Tamaulipas. I tentatively follow Findley (1960) in arranging _auriculus_ as a subspecies of _M. keenii_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, the holotype and one topotype. =Myotis californicus mexicanus= (Saussure) California Myotis 1890. _V[espertilio]. mexicanus_ Saussure, Revue et Mag. Zool., Paris, ser. 2, 12:282, July, type from an unknown locality, but Dalquest (Louisiana State Univ. Studies, Biol. Ser., 1:49, December 28, 1953) restricted the type locality to the "desert (warmer part) of the state of México, México." 1897. _Myotis californicus mexicanus_, Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:73, October 16. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Western mountains of state in pine-oak forest. Only ten specimens of this species, five from Nicolás, two from Miquihuana and the other three, each from a different locality, have been reported from Tamaulipas. The specimen examined from 14 miles north and six miles west of Palmillas, a young female that still has deciduous incisors, was obtained on July 24. Of the five specimens from Nicolás, which represent the largest series of _M. californicus_ ever reported from eastern México, some were caught in mist nets and others were shot over a water-hole. _Measurements._--Five skins and four skulls from Nicolás afford the following measurements: 86.0 (80-94); 39.0 (36-41); 7.4 (7-8.5); 13.7 (13.5-14.0); length of forearm, 33.0 (31.8-34.2); weight, 3.6 (3-4) grams; greatest length of skull, 13.9 (13.8-14.1); least interorbital constriction, 3.2 (3.1-3.3); breadth of braincase, 6.5 (6.4-6.5); length of maxillary tooth-row, 5.2 (5.1-5.3); breadth across M3, 5.1 (5.0-5.3). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 6: Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft., 5; 14 mi. N, 6 mi. W Palmillas, 5500 ft., 1. Additional records: San José (Dice, 1937:249); Miquihuana (Miller and Allen, 1928:160); La Joya de Salas (Goodwin, 1954:5). =Myotis nigricans dalquesti= Hall and Alvarez Black Myotis 1961. _Myotis nigricans dalquesti_ Hall and Alvarez, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:71, December 29, type from 3 km. E of San Andrés Tuxtla, 1000 ft., Veracruz. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Tropical part of state, presently known only from two localities. For taxonomic remarks concerning this bat see Hall and Alvarez (1961:72). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 5, from 8 km. W, 10 km. N El Encino, 400 ft. Additional record: Cave in canyon of Río Boquillas, 8 km. SW Chamal (Goodwin, 1954:6). =Pipistrellus subflavus subflavus= (F. Cuvier) Eastern Pipistrelle 1832. _V[espertilio]. subflavus_ F. Cuvier, Nouv. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, 1:17, type locality restricted to 3 mi. SW Riceboro, Liberty Co., Georgia, by W. H. Davis, Jour. Mamm., 40:522, November 20, 1959. 1897. _Pipistrellus subflavus_, Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:90, October 16. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Presently known only from three localities, but probably occurs in most of eastern part of state. Specimens examined are intermediate in color and measurements between _Pipistrellus subflavus subflavus_ and _P. s. veraecrucis_, but the color resembles that of individuals of _subflavus_ from Kansas more than that of specimens of _veraecrucis_ from Las Vigas, Veracruz. The two males from eight kilometers west and 10 kilometers north of El Encino represent the southernmost record of the subspecies. _Measurements._--External measurements of two males (58849, 58848) from 8 km. west and 10 km. north of El Encino and a male (60296) from Rancho Pano Ayuctle are, respectively, as follows: 78, 81, 83; 36, 38, 36; 10, 10, 9; 11, 11, 11; length of forearm, 33.1, 32.0, --; length of tibia, 14.6, 13.4, 13.0. Some cranial measurements of the two specimens from northwest of El Encino are: greatest length of skull, 12.8, 12.9; breadth of braincase, 6.5, 6.5; length of maxillary tooth-row, 4.0, 4.1. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 3: 8 km. W, 10 km. N El Encino, 400 ft., 2; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 1. Additional record: Matamoros (H. Allen, 1894:128). =Pipistrellus hesperus potosinus= Dalquest Western Pipistrelle 1951. _Pipistrellus hesperus potosinus_ Dalquest, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 64:105, August 24, type from Presa de Guadalupe, San Luis Potosí. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably occurs throughout southwest part, but presently known only from Joya Verde. The specimens reported herein were shot in July in a canyon that contained some standing water. According to the field notes of the collector (Schaldach), individuals of this bat in Tamaulipas flew later, in his experience, than bats of the same species in Sonora, Arizona and Coahuila, not emerging until it was almost fully dark. _Pipistrellus hesperus_ from Tamaulipas is identified as _P. h. potosinus_ owing to the dark color, but the averages of some measurements differ slightly from those given by Dalquest (1951:106) for _potosinus_ as follows: tail and ear shorter; foot larger; condylobasal length and cranial breadth less. _Measurements._--Average and extreme external and cranial measurements of five males from Joya Verde are: 73.2 (70-75); 27 (26-28); 7 (7); 12.4 (12-13); length of forearm, 31.0 (29.5-31.5); greatest length of skull, 12.4 (12.2-12.8); condylobasal length, 11.8 (11.4-12.3); breadth of braincase, 6.3 (6.0-6.5). Corresponding measurements of three females (60204, 60209, 60210) from the same locality are: 72, 78, 76; 27, 33, 35; 7, 7, 7; 12, 12, 12; 31, 31, 32; 12.3, 12.9, 13.5; 11.7, 12.2, --; 6.0, 6.6, 6.1. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 8, from Joya Verde, 35 km. SW Cd. Victoria, 3800 ft. =Eptesicus fuscus miradorensis= (H. Allen) Big Brown Bat 1866. _S[cotophilus]. miradorensis_ H. Allen, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 18:287, type from Mirador, Veracruz. 1812. _Eptesicus fuscus miradorensis_, Miller, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 79:62, December 31. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southern part of state, north at least to Miquihuana. Specimens from Miquihuana, Palmillas, and Nicolás were shot in flight at dusk; those from the Sierra de Tamaulipas were collected in a mist net. Five females, all taken in June, were lactating. Judging from Hall and Kelson's (1959:185) distribution map for the species, two subspecies, _E. f. fuscus_ and _E. f. miradorensis_, possibly occur in Tamaulipas, the former in the north and the latter in the south. Comparison of specimens presently available from the state (all from the southern part) with typical individuals of the two subspecies mentioned reveal that they resemble _miradorensis_ to a greater degree than _fuscus_ and they accordingly are assigned to the former. In measurements, the Tamaulipan specimens agree closely with _miradorensis_; in color, some resemble _miradorensis_ but others approach _fuscus_, possibly indicating intergradation between the two subspecies in the material at hand. Probably _E. f. fuscus_ will be found in the northern part of the state. _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of nine females from the Sierra de Tamaulipas and three males, two from Miquihuana (55137, 55138) and one from Palmillas (55139), are respectively: 121.3 (111-127), 115, 107, 115; 51.9 (50-56), 50, 45, 52; 10.9 (9.5-11.0), 10, 10, 11; 17.8 (17-18), 18, 18, 18; length of forearm, 49.6 (48-52.6), 48.9, 49.1, 49.1; length of tibia, 18.8 (18.2-19.3), 20.5, 17.3, 18.0; condylobasal length, 18.9 (18.5-19.3), 19.3, --, 18.8; zygomatic breadth, 13.1 (12.7-13.5), --, 13.0, 13.3; interorbital constriction, 4.2 (3.7-4.4), 4.0, 4.3, 4.1; length of maxillary tooth-row, 7.3 (7.1-7.5), --, 7.2, 7.2. Five lactating females weighed 20 (17-23) grams, and three males 17.5 (17-8) grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 17: Miquihuana, 6200 ft., 2; 14 mi. N, 6 mi. W Palmillas, 5500 ft., 1; Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft., 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 12; Joya Verde, 35 km. SW [Cd.] Victoria, 3800 ft., 1. Additional record: Aserradero del Paraiso (Goodwin, 1954:186). =Lasiurus borealis= Red Bat Two subspecies of _Lasiurus borealis_ have been reported from Tamaulipas. One, _L. b. borealis_, is known only from Matamoros, whereas the other, _L. b. teliotis_, is widely distributed in the central and southern parts. A young animal from Ciudad Victoria was captured inside a house. All specimens taken in the Sierra de Tamaulipas were caught in mist nets, in which _Centurio senex_, _Pteronotus parnelli_, and _Mormoops megalophyla_ also were taken. =Lasiurus borealis borealis= (Müller) 1776. _Vespertilio borealis_ Müller, Des Ritters Carl von Linné ... vollständiges Natursystem ..., Suppl., p. 20, type from New York. 1897. _Lasiurus borealis_, Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:105, October 16. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only by two specimens from Matamoros (Miller, 1897:108). =Lasiurus borealis teliotis= (H. Allen) 1891. _Atalapha teliotis_ H. Allen, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 29:5, April 10, type from an unknown locality, probably some part of California. 1897. _Lasiurus borealis teliotis_, Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:110, October 16. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Generally distributed in higher parts of state. Eight June-taken females, all lactating, from the Sierra de Tamaulipas averaged 10.0 (8-12) grams; five males from there weighed 9.2 (8-10) grams. According to Hall and Kelson (1959:188), males of this species usually are more brightly colored than females but this phenomenon is not evident in the Tamaulipan specimens. Males do, however, average slightly smaller than females. The name _Lasiurus borealis teliotis_ is employed following Handley (1960:472); formerly _L. b. ornatus_ Hall was applied (Hall and Kelson, 1959:190) to bats here referred to as _teliotis_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 7: Cd. Victoria, 1800 ft., 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 14 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 16 mi. W Piedra, 1400 ft., 4. =Lasiurus cinereus cinereus= (Palisot de Beauvois) Hoary Bat 1776. _Vespertilio cinereus_ (misspelled _linereus_) Palisot de Beauvois, Catalogue raisonné du muséum de Mr. C. W. Peale, Philadelphia, p. 18, type from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 1864. _Lasiurus cinereus_ H. Allen, Smiths. Misc. Coll., 7 (publ. 165): 21, June. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably state-wide but so far reported only from Matamoros (Miller, 1897:114), and Aserradero del Infernillo (Goodwin, 1954:6--cranium only). =Lasiurus intermedius intermedius= H. Allen Northern Yellow Bat 1862. _Lasiurus intermedius_ H. Allen, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 14:246, "April" (between May 27 and August 1), type from Matamoros, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Eastern half of state, known only from three localities. The three specimens examined were taken in mist nets along with _Lasiurus ega_, _Pteronotus rubiginosus_ and _Mormoops megalophylla_. The generic name _Lasiurus_ is used instead of _Dasypterus_ following Hall and Jones (1961). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 3: Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 16 mi. W Piedra, 1400 ft., 2. Additional record: Matamoros (H. Allen, 1862:246). =Lasiurus ega xanthinus= (Thomas) Southern Yellow Bat 1897. _Dasypterus ega xanthinus_ Thomas, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, 20:544, December, type from Sierra Laguna, Baja California. 1953. _Lasiurus ega xanthinus_, Dalquest, Louisiana State Univ. Studies, Biol. Ser., 1:61, December 28. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably occurs in southern and western parts of state; certainly known only from the Sierra de Tamaulipas. Three June-taken females, all captured in mist nets, were lactating. Hall and Jones (1961:91) assigned all Mexican specimens of the southern yellow bat to _Lasiurus ega xanthinus_, but remarked that specimens from western México were paler than those from the east. Of the six specimens examined from Tamaulipas, four are dark, resembling in color specimens from Veracruz, Yucatán and Costa Rica, and the other two are somewhat paler, approaching specimens from Baja California, Zacatecas and Coahuila. In measurements, Tamaulipan specimens of _Lasiurus ega_ generally resemble specimens from the west, but differ from any other _L. ega_ seen in having a longer tail, longer ear, and shorter maxillary tooth-row. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 6: Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 4; 10 mi. W, 3 mi. S. Piedra, 1200 ft., 1; 16 mi. W, 3 mi. S. Piedra, 1400 ft., 1. =Nycticeius humeralis= Evening Bat _Nycticeius humeralis_ has the same distributional pattern in Tamaulipas as has _Lasiurus borealis_ in that both are represented there by two subspecies, one known only from Matamoros and the other occurring in the rest of the state. Bats of this species (_N. h. mexicanus_) from Ciudad Victoria and some from the Sierra de Tamaulipas were shot in flight in evening; others from the last-mentioned locality were taken in mist nets. Lactating females (22 specimens) were collected in June and July. =Nycticeius humeralis humeralis= (Rafinesque) 1818. _Vespertilio humeralis_ Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag., 3(6):445, October, type from Kentucky. 1819. _N[ycticeius]. humeralis_ Rafinesque, Jour. Phys. Chim. Hist. Nat. et Arts, Paris, 88:417, June. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Matamoros (Miller, 1897:120), one specimen. =Nycticeius humeralis mexicanus= Davis 1944. _Nycticeius humeralis mexicanus_ Davis, Jour. Mamm., 25:380, December 12, type from Río Ramos, 1000 ft., 20 km. NW Montemorelos, Nuevo León. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known certainly only from central part, but probably occurs at suitable places in all but extreme northern Tamaulipas. Twenty-seven of 37 adults of _N. humeralis_ examined from Tamaulipas are pale as is _N. h. mexicanus_, but 10 are darker and approach _N. h. humeralis_ in this respect. Twenty-two females averaged 10.3 (9-13) grams and eight males averaged 9.5 (8-11) grams in weight. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 45: Cd. Victoria, 10; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2-3 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 31; 3 mi. S, 16 mi. W Piedra, 1400 ft., 4. =Rhogeëssa tumida tumida= H. Allen Little Yellow Bat 1866. _R[hogeëssa]. tumida_ H. Allen, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 18:286, type from Mirador, Veracruz. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southeastern part of state. Specimens obtained from the vicinity of La Pesca were shot as were some from the Sierra de Tamaulipas. Others from the Sierra de Tamaulipas were taken in mist nets that were stretched across a small pool in an arroyo; _Eptesicus fuscus_, _Myotis velifer_, _M. keenii_ and _Nycticeus humeralis_ were captured in the same nets. Females evidently bear young in Tamaulipas in April and May. Fourteen of 15 females collected at La Pesca in May were lactating, as were five of 31 taken in the Sierra de Tamaulipas in June. The weight of 46 females averaged 5.5 (4-7) grams, and that of nine males, 4.5 (4-5) grams. Comparison of specimens from Tamaulipas with individuals from Veracruz reveals little difference in general color between the two samples. Most Tamaulipan specimens examined are dull yellowish brown, but some are darker. Goodwin (1954:6) reported a specimen from Santa María as being dark brown. Measurements of 10 females (see below) from the Sierra de Tamaulipas average a little larger than those reported by Miller (1897:123-124), Hall (1952:232), and Goodwin (1958:10-12). I follow the last author in using the specific name _R. tumida_ for this bat. _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of 10 females from the Sierra de Tamaulipas are as follows: 80.1 (78-83); 35.5 (33-37); 7.9 (7.5-8.0); 13.1 (13-14); length of forearm, 31.9 (30.6-33.0); greatest length of skull, 13.4 (13.1-13.8); zygomatic breadth, 8.6 (8.2-8.8); mastoid breadth, 5.6 (5.3-5.8); breadth across M3, 5.7 (5.5-6.0); length of maxillary tooth-row, 4.8 (4.7-4.9). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 59: 4 mi. N La Pesca, 1; 3 mi. N La Pesca, 3; 2 mi. N La Pesca, 11; 1 mi. N La Pesca, 4; La Pesca, 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 39. Additional record: Santa María (Goodwin, 1958:3). =Plecotus phyllotis= (G. M. Allen) Allen's Big-eared Bat 1916. _Corynorhynus phyllotis_ G. M. Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 60:352, April, type from San Luis Potosí, probably near city of same name. 1959. _Plecotus phyllotis_, Handley, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 110:130, Sept. 3. 1923. _Idionycteris mexicanus_ Anthony, Amer. Mus. Novit., 54:1, January 17, type from Miquihuana, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Miquihuana. The only specimen of this bat known from Tamaulipas was reported by Anthony (1923:1), and formed the basis of his description of _Idionycteris mexicanus_, a synonym of _Plecotus phyllotis_ according to Handley (1956:53 and 1959:130). =Antrozous pallidus pallidus= (Le Conte) Pallid Bat 1856. _V[espertilio]. pallidus_ Le Conte, Proc. Acad. Nat Sci. Philadelphia, 7:437, type from El Paso, El Paso Co., Texas. 1864. _Antrozous pallidus_, H. Allen, Smiths. Misc. Coll., 7 (Publ. 165): 68, June. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from a single ramus from Aserradero del Infernillo (Goodwin, 1954:6). =Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana= (Saussure) Brazilian Free-tailed Bat 1860. _Molossus mexicanus_ Saussure, Revue et Mag. Zool., Paris, ser. 2, 12:283, July, type from Cofre de Perote, 13,000 ft., Veracruz. 1955. _Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana_, Schwartz, Jour. Mamm., 36:108, February 28. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably state-wide, but presently known from only five localities. A female taken on June 21 in a mist net on the Sierra de Tamaulipas carried an embryo that was 29 mm. in crown-rump length. Two specimens were shot in flight in the deepest part of Cueva La Mula. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 4: 8 km. S Cd. Victoria, 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 1; Cueva La Mula, 10 km. W Joya Verde, 2400 ft., 2. Additional records: Río Bravo (town) (Villa, 1956:8); Rancho "La Isla," 3 km. N El Limón (Malaga and Villa, 1957:560); Cueva del Abra (_ibid._); no specific locality (Shamel, 1931:6). =Tadarida aurispinosa= (Peale) Peale's Free-tailed Bat 1848. _Dysopes aurispinosus_ Peale, U. S. Expl. Exp., 8:21, type taken on board the U. S. S. Peacock at sea, approximately 100 mi. S Cape San Roque, Brazil. 1931. _Tadarida aurispinosa_, Shamel, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 78:11, May 6. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Cueva del Abra, six miles north-northeast of Antiguo Morelos. Carter and Davis (1961) recorded for the first time this species from North America, on the basis of five specimens collected at Cueva del Abra. From the same locality P. L. Clifton collected several owl pellets which provide, besides many skulls of _Tadarida laticaudata_, four crania of _T. aurispinosa_. Available measurements of three, of the four _T. aurispinosa_, resemble those given by Carter and Davis (_op. cit._) for their specimens. Measurements of the fourth cranium are smaller (greatest length of skull, 19.4; zygomatic breadth, 11.1; interorbital constriction, 3.7; cranial breadth, 9.1; mastoid breadth, 10.7; basal length, 16.3; length of maxillary tooth-row, 7.4; breadth across M3, 7.9), but not outside the expected range of individual variation if we can judge by the range recorded by Jones and Alvarez (1962) for the related _Tadarida laticaudata_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 4, from [Cueva del Abra], 6 mi. (by road) NNE Antiguo Morelos. =Tadarida laticaudata ferruginea= Goodwin Geoffroy's Free-tailed Bat 1954. _Tadarida laticaudata ferruginea_ Goodwin, Amer. Mus. Novit., 1670:2, June 28, type from 8 mi. N Antiguo Morelos, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from southeastern part of state. Specimens from three miles south and 16 miles west of Piedra were found in a crevice inside a cave. Two days previously _Desmodus rotundus_ and _Natalus stramineus_ were obtained from the same cave. All other specimens from the Sierra de Tamaulipas were caught in mist nets. _Nycticeus humeralis_, _Myotis velifer_, _Eptesicus fuscus_, _Lasiurus borealis_ and _L. intermedius_ were taken in nets that also captured _T. laticaudata_. All specimens taken (June 19-23) in the Sierra de Tamaulipas were females, except one. Of 33 females taken, 27 carried a single embryo each, the embryos averaging 27.0 (25-28) mm. in crown-rump length; the other five were lactating. Weight of the pregnant females averaged 16.0 (13-18) grams and that of the five lactating individuals averaged 13.0 (12-14) grams. A male weighed 22 grams. For the taxonomic status of this species in North America see Jones and Alvarez (1962). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 65: Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 27; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 16 mi. W Piedra, 1400 ft., 7; 5 mi. S El Mante, 8 (AMNH); 11 mi. S El Mante, 13 (AMNH); 10 km. NNE Antiguo Morelos, 1; 8 mi. N Antiguo Morelos, 7 (5 AMNH, 2 KU); 20 mi. SW El Mante, 2 (AMNH). =Molossus ater nigricans= Miller Red Mastiff Bat 1902. _Molossus nigricans_ Miller, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 54:395, September 12, type from Acaponeta, Nayarit. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southern part of state, north at least to Guemes. At Rancho Pano Ayuctle, according to the field notes of the collector (Schaldach), the red mastiff bat was common, and found daytime retreats in hollows in cypress trees. Schaldach twice found groups of bats in such hollows. _M. a. nigricans_ is an early forager and most individuals seen were in flight before sunset, usually flying in a more or less straight line at heights of 25 to 60 feet above the ground. The odor of the chest gland was described by Schaldach as "strong" and "geranium-like." A female obtained three miles northeast of Guemes on August 19 carried a single embryo that was 33 mm. in crown-rump length. Specimens examined average slightly smaller than the type specimen, especially in total length, length of hind foot, length of skull and length of maxillary tooth-row. Davis (1951:219) also noted some of these same differences in a specimen examined by him from two miles south of Ciudad Victoria. The variation in color is great among Tamaulipan specimens. Of the 15 examined, two are Dark Mummy Brown, six are Mummy Brown, six are Sudan Brown, and one is paler than Sudan Brown. I follow Goodwin (1960:6) in using the specific name _ater_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 15: 3 mi. NE Guemes, 2; Rancho Santa Rosa, 25 km. N, 13 km. W Cd. Victoria, 260 m., 2; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 1; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N El Mante and 3 km. W Pan-American Hwy., 2200 ft., 8; 8 km. W, 10 km. N El Encino, 400 ft., 2. Additional records (Davis, 1951:219): 2 mi. S Cd. Victoria; Altamira. =Ateles geoffroyi velerosus= Gray Spider Monkeys 1866. _Ateles vellerosus_ Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 773 (for 1865), April, type locality "Brasil?"; restricted to Mirador, 2000 ft., about 15 mi. NE Huatusco, Veracruz, by Kellogg and Goldman, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 96:33, November 2, 1944. 1944. _Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus_, Kellogg and Goldman, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 96:32, November 2. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably extreme southern part. No specimens of this monkey have been taken in Tamaulipas although Kellogg and Goldman (1944:34) pointed out that it probably occurred in the tropical forest of the southern part of the state. Later, Villa (1958:347) reported that A. Malaga Alba saw monkeys in 1954 at Barranca de Caballeros, approximately 25 kilometers north-northwest of Ciudad Victoria. No other report of their occurrence in the state has been forthcoming. =Dasypus novemcinctus mexicanus= Peters Nine-banded Armadillo 1864. _Dasypus novemcinctus_ var. _mexicanus_ Peters, Montsb. preuss Akad. Wiss., Berlin, p. 180, type from Matamoros, Tamaulipas (see Hollister, Jour. Mamm., 6:60, February 9, 1925). 1920. _D[asypus]. novemcinctus mexicanus_, Goldman, Smiths. Misc. Coll., 69 (5):66, April 24. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably state-wide except on Mexican Plateau; presently known only from five localities. A 13-pound female from four kilometers west-southwest of La Purisima was captured after it was forced by the collector (Dalquest) and his dog out of the burrow that was under a log. A young specimen examined from seven kilometers southwest of La Purisima was captured by a dog. A partial skeleton including the skull was picked up on the barrier beach at a place 33 miles south of Washington Beach. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 3 (see text immediately above). Additional records: Matamoros (Hollister, 1925:60); Rancho del Cielo (Hooper, 1953:11). =Sylvilagus brasiliensis truei= (J. A. Allen) Forest Rabbit 1890. _Lepus truei_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:192, December 10, type from Mirador, Veracruz. 1950. _Sylvilagus brasiliensis truei_, Hershkovitz, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 100:351, May 26. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southern part of state; known only from Rancho del Cielo (Goodwin, 1954:7). =Sylvilagus audubonii parvulus= (J. A. Allen) Desert Cottontail 1904. _Lepus (Sylvilagus) parvulus_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 20:34, February 29, type from Apam, Hidalgo. 1909. _Sylvilagus audubonii parvulus_, Nelson, N. Amer. Fauna, 29:236, August 31. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Western part of state. The specimen examined, a male that weighed 646 grams, was shot at night. This species occurs only in western Tamaulipas. Hall and Kelson (1959:267, map 187) mistakenly plotted El Mulato, as being in the eastern part of the state; actually this locality is in the San Carlos Mountains of the west, near the boundary between Tamaulipas and Nuevo León. _Records of occurrence._--One specimen examined from 4 mi. SW Nuevo Laredo, 900 ft. Additional records (Nelson, 1909:237, unless otherwise noted): Nuevo Laredo; Guerrero; Mier; Camargo; El Mulato (Dice, 1937:256); Miquihuana. =Sylvilagus floridanus= Eastern Cottontail This species occurs throughout Tamaulipas. A female from Soto la Marina, obtained on May 17, was lactating; another from 12 miles northwest of San Carlos, on August 23, carried two embryos that were 15 mm. in crown-rump length. =Sylvilagus floridanus chapmani= (J. A. Allen) 1899. _Lepus floridanus chapmani_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 12:12, March 4, type from Corpus Christi, Nueces Co., Texas. 1904. _Sylvilagus (Sylvilagus) floridanus chapmani_, Lyon, Smith. Misc. Coll., 45:336, June 15. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Northern two-thirds of state. A male and pregnant female from 12 miles northwest of San Carlos weighed, respectively, 650 and 690 grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 17: San Fernando, 180 ft., 3; 12 mi. NW San Carlos, 1300 ft., 3; La Pesca, 3; Soto la Marina, 500 ft., 6; Ejido Eslabones, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 2. Additional record: Jaumave (Nelson, 1909:178). =Sylvilagus floridanus connectens= (Nelson) 1904. _Lepus floridanus connectens_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:105, May 18, type from Chichicaxtle, Veracruz. 1909. _Sylvilagus floridanus connectens_, Lyon and Osgood, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 62:32, January 28. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southern part of state. This subspecies has been reported previously from Tamaulipas only from Altamira. Specimens from 10 kilometers north and eight kilometers west of El Encino and 70 kilometers south of Ciudad Victoria, judging by their large size, dark color, and ochraceous brown (rather than pale ochraceous as in _S. f. chapmani_) upper sides of the hind feet are assignable to _connectens_. Goodwin (1954:7) reported specimens from Chamal, Joya de Salas, Gómez Farías, and Pano Ayuctle as _S. f. chapmani_, remarking that they were intergrades between _chapmani_ and _connectens_. Specimens reported by Goodwin are here assigned to _S. f. connectens_ because the measurements of the specimen from eight kilometers west of El Encino are typical of that subspecies. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 4: 10 km. N, 8 km. W El Encino, 400 ft., 1; 2 km. W El Carrizo, 2; 9 mi. SW Tula, 5200 ft., 1. Additional records (Goodwin, 1954:7, unless otherwise noted): Chamal; La Joya de Salas; Gómez Farías; Rancho Pano Ayuctle; Altamira (Nelson, 1909:186). =Lepus californicus= Black-tailed Jack Rabbit The black-tailed jack rabbit is the only species of _Lepus_ known from Tamaulipas and is represented there by three subspecies, _L. c. merriami_ of the northern part of the state, _L. c. altamirae_ of the southeastern coastal plains, and _L. c. curti_ of the barrier beach south of Matamoros. The known ranges of the three subspecies are not presently known to meet in Tamaulipas. =Lepus californicus altamirae= Nelson 1904. _Lepus merriami altamirae_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:109, May 18, type from Altamira, Tamaulipas. 1951. _Lepus californicus altamirae_, Hall, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:45, October 1. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southern coastal plain north certainly to vicinity of Soto la Marina. The two specimens examined in this study (see below) are intermediate between _L. c. altamirae_ and _L. c. curti_, but show greater resemblance to the former. In measurements they resemble _altamirae_ rather than the smaller _curti_. They approach the latter in length of hind foot and are intermediate between the two subspecies in basilar length; in one specimen, the dimensions of the rostrum are as in _curti_ and the other has the black patch on the posterior surface of the ear well developed, as in _altamirae_, but in the other the black is reduced. _L. c. altamirae_ has been known previously only from Altamira. _Measurements._--Two male adults (55415, 55416) from north of Soto la Marina, afford the following external measurements: 610, 590; 100, 100; 124, 125; 124, 122 (length of ear from notch, dry, 114, 110). Cranial measurements are: basilar length, 75.1, 74.4; length of nasals, 46.1, 41.9; width of rostrum at PM, 25.1, 28.7; height of rostrum in front of PM, 25.2, 21.5; diameter of auditory bulla, 14.1, 13.0. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 2: 3 mi. N Soto la Marina, 1; 2 mi. NW Soto la Marina, 1. Additional record: Altamira (Nelson, 1904:109). =Lepus californicus curti= Hall 1951. _Lepus californicus curti_ Hall, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:42, October 1, type from barrier beach 88 mi. S, 10 mi. W Matamoros, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only by the three specimens mentioned in the original description from two barrier islands in northeastern part of state. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 3: 88 mi. S, 10 mi. W Matamoros, 2; 90 mi. S, 10 mi. W Matamoros, 1. =Lepus californicus merriami= Mearns 1896. _Lepus merriami_ Mearns, Preliminary diagnoses of new mammals from the Mexican border of the United States, p. 2, March 25, type from Fort Clark, Kinney Co., Texas. 1909. _Lepus californicus merriami_, Nelson, N. Amer. Fauna, 29:148, August 31. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Northern and western parts of state. The two specimens examined, an adult female and a young male, from the barrier beach 33 miles south of Washington Beach are intergrades between _L. c. merriami_, reported from the mainland from as near as Matamoros, and _L. c. curti_, which occurs farther to the south on the same series of barrier beaches. Of seven characters that seem to differentiate the two subspecies, the adult female from 33 miles south of Washington beach resembles _merriami_ in four as follows: tips of ears black (white in _curti_); nasals long; hind foot long; and supraoccipital process broad. The specimen resembles _curti_ in shortness of tail and in having small auditory bullae. Breadth of rostrum above premolars, the seventh character, is less than in typical specimens of either of the two subspecies. More material is needed from the barrier beach in order to establish with certainty the relationships between jack rabbits occurring there. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 4: 33 mi. S Washington Beach, 2; 12 mi. NW San Carlos, 1300 ft., 2. Additional records: Nuevo Laredo (Nelson, 1909:150); Mier (_ibid._); Camargo (_ibid._); Matamoros (Hall, 1951:185); Tamaulipeca, San Carlos Mts. (_ibid._). =Spermophilus mexicanus parvidens= Mearns Mexican Ground Squirrel 1896. _Spermophilus mexicanus parvidens_ Mearns, Preliminary diagnoses of new mammals from the Mexican border of the United States, p. 1, March 25, type from Fort Clark, Kinney Co., Texas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Northern part of state, south at least to Xicotencatl. Most of the specimens examined from Tamaulipas are in the brown phase (Howell, 1938:121) and differ from _S. m. parvidens_ from Texas, Coahuila, and Nuevo León in being darker dorsally. Nevertheless, some individuals are as pale as those examined from the mentioned states. Measurements of Tamaulipan specimens average smaller than those given by Howell (1938:121) and Baker (1956:205) for _parvidens_. Specimens from San Fernando differ slightly from those from Soto la Marina in having a relatively long tail (average 69.2 instead of 62.1 per cent of length of head and body) and in having the upper parts of the hind feet ochraceous instead of nearly white. Two May-taken females from Soto la Marina carried 5 and 7 embryos that were 10 mm. in crown-rump length; another taken there was lactating. Weight of six non-pregnant females from San Fernando averaged 160.6 (129-197) grams. Two males from the same locality weighed 164 and 145 grams. _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of four males and three females from Soto la Marina are, as follows: 312.6 (296-330); 119.8 (110-130); 41.6 (38-43). Average cranial measurements of five specimens (two males, three females) from same locality are: greatest length of skull, 44.7 (43.7-47.4); zygomatic breadth, 26.9 (25.3-28.6); breadth of braincase, 19.4 (19.2-19.5); interorbital constriction, 13.3 (12.5-14.1); length of nasals, 15.9 (14.6-17.5); length of maxillary tooth-row, 8.3 (8.0-8.5). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 20: San Fernando, 180 ft., 12; Soto la Marina, 500 ft., 8. Additional records (Howell, 1938:121 unless otherwise noted): Nuevo Laredo; Mier; Camargo; Reynosa; Bagdad; Victoria; Xecotencatl [= Xicotencatl] (J. A. Allen, 1891:223). =Spermophilus spilosoma oricolus= Alvarez Spotted Ground Squirrel 1962. _Spermophilus spilosoma oricolus_ Alvarez, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:123, March 7, type from 1 mi. E La Pesca, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from the type locality and from parts of the barrier beach, but possibly occurs at other places in northeastern parts of state. The 10 specimens from the type locality were trapped or shot on the beach, which was covered by thick, low, scattered bushes and grass. Of the many holes found there, some probably were used by ground squirrels and others by crabs. A female, taken on July 7 with two young at a place 33 miles south of Washington Beach, weighed 133 grams and had six placental scars. This specimen (reported as _Spermophilus spilosoma annectens_ by Selander _et al._, 1962:335) resembles others examined from the barrier beach (see Alvarez, 1962:124) and is therefore assigned to _S. s. oricolus_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 24: 33 mi. S Washington Beach, 1; 88 mi. S, 10 mi. W Matamoros, 12; 89 mi. S, 10 mi. W Matamoros, 1; 1 mi. E La Pesca, 10. =Spermophilus variegatus couchii= Baird Rock Squirrel 1855. _Spermophilus couchii_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1:332, April, type from Santa Catarina, a few miles west of Monterrey, Nuevo León. 1955. _Spermophilus variegatus couchii_, Baker, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist, 9:207, June 15. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Possibly in southwestern part; reported only from Ciudad Victoria (Howell, 1938:141). Since Baird (1855:332) described _S. v. couchii_ and mentioned a specimen from Ciudad Victoria that was obtained by Berlandier, no other record from Tamaulipas has come to light. Probably the species obtained by Berlandier was introduced at Ciudad Victoria by man. =Sciurus aureogaster aureogaster= Cuvier Red-bellied Squirrel 1829. [_Sciurus_] _aureogaster_ Cuvier, _in_ Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, and F. Cuvier, Hist. Nat. Mamm., 6, livr. 59 pl. with text, September (binomen published only at end of work, table générale et méthodique, 7:4, 1842), type locality "California"; restricted to Altamira, Tamaulipas, by Nelson (Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 1:38, May 9, 1899). _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Tropical forest of southern part; north at least to Rancho Santa Rosa. According to one collector (Schaldach), natives referred to _Sciurus aureogaster_ as "ardilla pinta" or "ardilla colorada." He recorded in his field notes that _S. aureogaster_ was most active between 7:00 and 9:00 a. m. and again from 3:00 to 5:00 p. m., that the nest was constructed of green oak leaves, and that the nest resembles somewhat in size and form that of _S. carolinensis_. Of 53 specimens examined, 17 are black and one from 70 kilometers south of Ciudad Victoria is clearly more whitish than the others. Specimens from the northeastern part of the range of the species (= southeastern Tamaulipas) average darker than those from the south and west. In individuals that are not black, the ventral reddish color covers the shoulders and in some it extends between the shoulders to the median dorsal area. Among females collected from December through May, only one, taken 43 kilometers south of Ciudad Victoria on March 17, was pregnant (one embryo). The weight of seven adult males from Soto la Marina and the Sierra de Tamaulipas averaged 492.5 (400-575) grams. Specimens herein reported from San Fernando provide the northernmost record of the species. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 53: San Fernando, 180 ft., 5; 9-1/2 mi. SW Padilla, 800 ft., 3; Rancho Santa Rosa, 25 km. N, 13 km. W Cd. Victoria, 260 m., 8; 3 mi. NE Guemes, 5; Soto la Marina (3 mi. N), 500 ft., 6; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 8 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 6; 43 km. S Cd. Victoria, 1; Ejido Santa Isabel, 2 km. W Pan-American Highway, 2000 ft., 5; 70 km. (by highway) S Cd. Victoria, 6 mi. W of Pan-American Highway, 3; 2 mi. W El Carrizo, 7; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 2; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N, 3 km. W El Mante, 300 ft., 1; 8 km. W, 10 km. N El Encino, 400 ft., 1. Additional records: Río Corono (= Corona) (J. A. Allen, 1891:222); Victoria (Kelson, 1952:249); Santa María (Goodwin, 1954:8); 3 mi. NW Acuña, 3500 ft. (Hooper, 1953:4); Forlón (Nelson, 1899:42); NE Zamorina (Hooper, 1953:4); Gómez Farías (Goodwin, 1954:8); Altamira (Nelson, 1899:42); Tampico (J. A. Allen, 1891:222). =Sciurus deppei negligens= Nelson Deppe's Squirrel 1898. _Sciurus negligens_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:147, June 3, type from Altamira, Tamaulipas. 1953. _Sciurus deppei negligens_, Hooper, Occas. Papers Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 544:4, March 25. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Tropical forest in southern part of state, north to Rancho Santa Rosa and Padilla. In Tamaulipas this squirrel is called "ardilla chica" or "ardilla barcina," and is abundant in areas where tall trees and dense brush prevail. This species evidently does not have restricted periods of activity, as does _S. aureogaster_, but is active throughout the day. At El Carrizo a nest, nine to 10 inches in diameter and constructed of leaves and small sticks, was in a thick tangle of branches 25 feet above the ground. A male having testes 11 mm. long was in the nest. Among 16 females collected in the months of February, May and June, only two, taken in February, were lactating. A female from 70 kilometers south of Ciudad Victoria, had four placental scars, three on the right side and one on the left, along with a resorbed embryo on the right side; according to the collector "the scars appeared quite recent, as evidenced by the fact that not all of the blood had been resorbed yet." The northernmost localities from which _S. d. negligens_ has been reported are nine and a half miles southwest of Padilla in the east, and Rancho Santa Rosa in the west. Three males from the vicinity of Padilla weighed 309, 276, and 261 grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 92: 9-1/2 mi. SW Padilla, 800 ft., 3; Rancho Santa Rosa, 25 km. N, 13 km. W Cd. Victoria, 260 m., 8; 3 mi. NE Guemes, 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 3; Ejido Santa Isabel, 2 km. W Pan-American Highway, 2000 ft., 20; 70 km. (by highway) S Cd. Victoria and 6 mi. W Pan-American Highway, 43; 2 km. W El Carrizo, 12; 8 km. W, 10 km. N El Encino, 400 ft., 2. Additional records: Victoria (Nelson, 1898:147); Santa María (Goodwin, 1954:8); Rancho Viejo (_ibid._); Rancho del Cielo (_ibid._); 3 mi. NW Acuña (Hooper, 1953:4); Pano Ayuctle (_ibid._); Gómez Farías (Goodwin, 1954:8); Mesa de Llera, 10 mi. NE Zamorina (Hooper, 1953:4); Altamira (Nelson, 1898:147). =Sciurus alleni= Nelson Allen's Squirrel 1898. _Sciurus alleni_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:147, June 3, type from Monterrey, Nuevo León. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Along Sierra Madre Oriental in southwestern part of state. This squirrel occurs in stands of oak and "nogalillos" (hickory) trees that grow along streams and arroyos. Individuals are active from sunrise to about 10:00 a. m. and again late in the afternoon. They give a soft "chirring" call. Nelson (1899:92) noted that specimens from Miquihuana were smaller than those from the type locality. Among specimens I have examined, some are as large as topotypes and two females are larger (total length, 486 and 490) than measurements given for the species by Nelson (_op. cit._). _Record of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 11, from Joya Verde, 35 km. SW Cd. Victoria, 3800 ft. Additional records: Near Victoria (Nelson, 1899:92); Miquihuana (_ibid._); Joya de Salas (Goodwin, 1954:8). =Glaucomys volans herreranus= Goldman Southern Flying Squirrel 1936. _Glaucomys volans herreranus_ Goldman, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 26:463, November 15, type from Mts. of Veracruz. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Aserradero del Infernillo (Goodwin, 1954:9 and 1961:9). =Geomys personatus personatus= True Texas Pocket Gopher 1889. _Geomys personatus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 11:159 for 1888, January 5, type from Padre Island, Cameron County, Texas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from the barrier beach in northeastern part of state. The specimens examined are referred, tentatively, to _Geomys personatus personatus_ on geographic grounds. They average smaller in all measurements than _personatus_ (but are larger than _G. p. megapotamus_), do not have the sagittal crest that usually is present in _personatus_, and the shape of the pterygoid bones is distinctive. In _personatus_ and _megapotamus_ the ventral border of the pterygoids (in lateral view) is convex instead of nearly straight as in specimens from the barrier beach. The specimens recorded here are all that are known of _G. personatus_ (see account of _G. tropicalis_) from México. _Measurements._--Average and extreme external measurements of five females from 73 miles south of Washington Beach are as follows: 266.8 (263-271); 94.8 (91-98); 34 (33-35). Cranial measurements of two males (89038, 89032) and average and extremes of five females are respectively: basal length, 49.1, 46.6, 45.9 (44.2-46.8); basilar length, 42.9, 40.0, 39.8 (38.0-40.8); zygomatic breadth, 29.6, 28.3, 28.0 (25.7-29.9); squamosal breadth, 27.8, 25.9, 26.2 (23.8-25.4); interorbital constriction, 7.4, 6.9, 7.3 (6.7-7.8); alveolar length of maxillary tooth-row, 10.3, 9.2, 9.4 (9.1-9.7). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 17: 35 mi. SSE Matamoros, 8; 33 mi. S Washington Beach, 1; 73 mi. S Washington Beach, 8. Additional record: 4 mi. S Washington Beach (Selander _et al._, 1962:335--possibly fragmentary skeletal remains never catalogued in any research collection). =Geomys tropicalis= Goldman Tropical Pocket Gopher 1915. _Geomys personatus tropicalis_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:134, June 29, type from Altamira, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from vicinity of type locality, in southeastern part of state. _Geomys tropicalis_ was named as a subspecies of _G. personatus_ in 1915 by E. A. Goldman. To my knowledge, no one other than Goldman has critically studied specimens of this pocket gopher, nor have specimens other than those listed in the original description been reported up to now. In 1953, Gerd H. Heinrich collected a series of 19 individuals one mile south of Altamira. These specimens were compared (by E. R. Hall in March, 1962) with the holotype and paratypes of _G. p. tropicalis_ and were found to be indistinguishable. Careful comparisons of the specimens from one mile south of Altamira with topotypes of _G. personatus personatus_ (and specimens of other subspecies) indicate that _tropicalis_ differs from _personatus_ in a number of important characters, some of which _tropicalis_ shares with _Geomys arenarius_ of the Rio Grande Valley and adjacent areas in Texas, New Mexico, and Chihuahua (see Table 2). TABLE 2.--DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THREE SPECIES OF GEOMYS. =========================+==============+===============+============== |_G. arenarius_|_G. personatus_|_G. tropicalis_ -------------------------+--------------+---------------+-------------- Zygomatic arches | parallel | narrower | narrower | | posteriorly | posteriorly Sagittal crest | absent | present | small Squamosal knob | present | absent | present Interparietal | subquadrant | triangular | triangular Mesopterygoid fossa | V-shaped | U-shaped | V-shaped Ratio, zygomatic breadth | | | to basal length | 63.7-66.6 | 66.3-67.2 | 60.8-66.2 Ratio, mastoid breadth | | | to basal length | 58.0-60.4 | 59.8-63.1 | 58.0-59.6 Border of premaxilla at | | | incisive foramina | wedge-shaped | subquadrate | subquadrate -------------------------+--------------+---------------+-------------- As can be seen in the accompanying table _tropicalis_ resembles _arenarius_ in half of the eight characters considered, especially in the presence of a knob on the zygomatic process of the squamosal (the diagnostic character of _arenarius_ according to Merriam, 1895:140) and in the shape of the mesopterygoid fossa. _G. tropicalis_ differs from _arenarius_ principally in having a low sagittal crest in adult males (lacking in _arenarius_) and in the shape of the interparietal bone, which in _tropicalis_ is small (in some skulls difficult to see) and triangular instead of being relatively large and subquadrate as in _arenarius_. _G. tropicalis_ resembles _personatus_ in half of the characters considered, notably in shape of the interparietal bone, outline of zygomatic arches, and constriction of the premaxillae where they border the incisive foramina. Considering the distinctive combination of characters possessed by _tropicalis_, and its isolated, restricted geographic range (the nearest known record of _Geomys_ is approximately 165 miles to the north), _tropicalis_ is here regarded as a full species. A skull alone examined from 10 miles northwest of Tampico does not differ from those of other specimens studied. The average weight of five non-pregnant July-taken females was 189.4 (180-200) grams. Weights of three males were 280, 270, and 255 grams. Females are in all measurements smaller than males. _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of five females and three males from one mile south of Altamira are, respectively, as follows: 243.5 (235-250), 260, 260, 265; 82.0 (78-85), 87, 93, 89; 32.2 (31-33), 35, 35, 33; ear from notch in both sexes, 5; condylobasal length, 42.3 (41.3-43.1), 46.0, 48.0, 46.2; zygomatic breadth, 26.6 (25.1-27.7), 30.4, 31.2, 30.5; interorbital constriction, 6.2 (6.1-6.3), 6.0, 6.2, 6.3; length of nasals, 14.6 (14.0-15.3), 17.0, 16.8, 15.9; alveolar length of maxillary tooth-row, 9.0 (8.6-9.3), 9.9, 10.0, 9.4. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 19: 1 mi. S Altamira, 18; 10 mi. NW Tampico, 1. Additional record: Altamira (Goldman, 1915:134). =Heterogeomys hispidus negatus= Goodwin Hispid Pocket Gopher 1953. _Heterogeomys hispidus negatus_ Goodwin, Amer. Mus. Novit., 1620:1, May 4, type from Gómez Feras [Farías], 1300 ft., Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from the vicinity of the type locality. Specimens of this pocket gopher were taken in large Macabee traps, at night with the aid of a dog, and by natives using slingshots. Mounds of _H. hispidus_ were common two miles west of El Carrizo near banana trees; the mouths of burrows were four to five inches in diameter. Two females collected at this locality on April 16 and 17 were lactating. Specimens examined of _H. hispidus_ from Tamaulipas resemble the description of _H. h. negatus_ more than that of _H. h. concavus_, and are referred, therefore, to _negatus_. I assume, on geographic grounds, that the individuals reported by Hooper (1953:5) as _concavus_ are _negatus_; they are here referred to as _negatus_. If this referral is correct, the subspecies _concavus_ probably does not occur in Tamaulipas. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 6: Ejido Santa Isabel, 2 km. W Pan-American Highway, 2000 ft., 1; 2 km. W El Carrizo, 1; 5 km. W El Carrizo, 4. Additional records: Rancho Pano Ayuctle (Hooper, 1953:5); Gómez Farías (Goodwin, 1953:1). =Cratogeomys castanops= Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher Two subspecies of _Cratogeomys castanops_ occur in Tamaulipas, _C. c. planifrons_ in the higher elevations of the Sierra Madre Oriental in the western part of the state, and _C. c. tamaulipensis_ on the plains of the Río Grande. Specimens from Miquihuana were trapped in tunnels at 6400 feet elevation. At Palmillas, individuals were trapped in an area of mesquite, other bushes and "lechuguilla." Three specimens from southeast of Reynosa were collected in traps set along the dikes of irrigation ditches. Most specimens from Nicolás were brought by natives to the collector, but some were caught in traps set in tunnels among the desert bushes. =Cratogeomys castanops planifrons= Nelson and Goldman 1943. _Cratogeomys castanops planifrons_ Nelson and Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 47:146, June 13, type from Miquihuana, 5000 ft., Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Higher elevations in southwestern part of state. Specimens from four miles north of Jaumave do not differ from specimens from Miquihuana. The weights of nine females averaged 146.4 (110-210) grams; three males weighed 178, 203, and 215 grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 29: Miquihuana, 6400 ft., 9; 4 mi. N Jaumave, 2500 ft., 5; Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft., 15. =Cratogeomys castanops tamaulipensis= Nelson and Goldman 1934. _Cratogeomys castanops tamaulipensis_ Nelson and Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 47:141, June 13, type from Matamoros, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from two localities in extreme northern part of state, but probably occurs throughout northeastern part of state. Three specimens from three miles southeast of Reynosa are referred to _C. c. tamaulipensis_ on geographic grounds. They are tawny brown dorsally instead of cinnamon brown or pinkish cinnamon as Nelson and Goldman (1943:141) described _tamaulipensis_, and the basioccipital bone (in one male) is parallel-sided instead of wedge-shaped. Possibly this difference is owing to sex; Nelson and Goldman studied only one adult, a female (the type), and the only adult seen by me was a male. _Measurements._--An adult male (58118) from three miles southeast of Reynosa, measured as follows: 301; 81; 40; 7; condylobasal length, 57.0; zygomatic breadth, 41.2; palatal length, 36.1; breadth of rostrum, 11.8; length of nasals, 22.0; squamosal breadth, 34.0; alveolar length of maxillary tooth-row, 10.8. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 3, from 3 mi. SE Reynosa. Additional record: Matamoros (Nelson and Goldman, 1934:140). =Perognathus merriami merriami= J. A. Allen Merriam's Pocket Mouse 1892. _Perognathus merriami_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 4:45, March 25, type from Brownsville, Cameron Co., Texas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--State-wide except southwestern part. Most of the available specimens of _P. m. merriami_ were collected in the semi-arid areas of mesquite and grasses. At Soto la Marina _P. m. merriami_ was abundant in open fields surrounded by brush. One female, collected on July 4, one mile south of Altamira was lactating. Weights of 16 adults from Soto la Marina and that of nine adults from the vicinity of San Fernando are, respectively: 8.2 (7-10) and 8.1 (7-9) grams. Specimens from Tamaulipas are darker than those examined from Coahuila and southern Texas. A skull picked up on the barrier beach, 73 miles south of Washington Beach, differs from all other skulls examined in having the rostrum (3.6 mm.) and M1 (4.3) wider, auditory bullae relatively smaller, and glenoid fossa larger (2.6 instead of less than 2.3 in specimens from Soto la Marina). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 46: 4-4.5 mi. S Nuevo Laredo, 900 ft., 4; 10 mi. S, 11 mi. E Nuevo Laredo, 600 ft., 2; 1 mi. S Santa Teresa, 1; San Fernando, 180 ft., 1; 2 mi. W San Fernando, 180 ft., 14; 73 mi. S Washington Beach, 1; 12 mi. NW San Carlos, 1300 ft., 1; Soto la Marina, 19; Ciudad Victoria, 1; 17 mi. SW Tula, 3900 ft., 1; 1 mi. S Altamira, 1. Additional records (Osgood, 1900:22, unless otherwise noted): Mier; Reynosa; Matamoros; 40 mi. S Matamoros (Hooper, 1953:5); Hidalgo; Altamira. =Perognathus hispidus hispidus= Baird Hispid Pocket Mouse 1858. _Perognathus hispidus_ Baird, Mammals, in Repts. Expl. Surv. ..., 8(1):421, July 14, type from Charco Escondido, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Central and northern parts of state. Two specimens examined from the vicinity of Nuevo Laredo were trapped in weeds and tall grass along an irrigation ditch that ran between desert and a cornfield. One was a lactating female (November 15) and weighed 31 grams; the other, an immature male, weighed 23 grams. A May-taken specimen from Soto la Marina possesses a broader and more ochraceous lateral line than the other three individuals examined from Tamaulipas and the Texan specimens seen. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 4: 10 mi. S, 11 mi. E Nuevo Laredo, 600 ft., 2; Soto la Marina, 500 ft., 1; 9-1/2 mi. SW Padilla, 800 ft., 1. Additional records (Osgood, 1900:44, unless otherwise noted): Mier; Matamoros; Charco Escondido (Baird, 1858:422); 3 mi. W Soto la Marina (Hooper, 1953:5). =Perognathus nelsoni nelsoni= Merriam Nelson's Pocket Mouse 1894. _Perognathus (Chaetodipus) nelsoni_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 46:266, September 27, type from Hacienda La Parada, about 25 mi. NW Cd. San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from the west side of the Sierra Madre Oriental in southwestern part of state. Most of the specimens examined were taken in semi-arid habitats where the dominant plants were cactus, weeds and bushes. In Tamaulipas, specimens from the southern localities (places labeled with reference to Tula) are darker than those from the two northernmost localities (Miquihuana and four miles north of Jaumave). Most measurements are about equal in the southern and northern specimens, but in some measurements southern specimens average slightly smaller than those from the north. Greatest length of skull is a case in point. The difference in size is reflected in the weights. Average weights of nine males and nine females from southern localities are, respectively, 14.7 (12-16.5) and 13.8 (12-15.5) instead of 18.5 (17-20) and 17.0 (15-18) grams for four males and six females from the northern localities. In general, Tamaulipan specimens average somewhat smaller than those from other localities in eastern México (see measurements given by Baker, 1956:238, Dalquest, 1953:107, and Osgood, 1900:53). _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of six specimens (2 males and 4 females) from Miquihuana, three males from four miles north of Jaumave, and five (3 males and 2 females) from nine miles southwest of Tula are, respectively, as follows: 176.2 (163-185), ----, 170, 173, (4 specimens only) 179.0 (165-186); 99.8 (97-105), ----, 90, 93, (4 specimens only) 96.7 (88-104); 22.5 (21-23), 23, 23, 24, 22.6 (22-23); 8 (8), 8, 8, 8, 8.8 (8-9); greatest length of skull, 26.1 (25.6-26.6), 25.8, 26.5, 26.9, 25.2 (24.9-25.7); mastoid breadth, 13.3 (12.9-13.6), 13.2, 13.8, 13.6, 13.1 (12.9-13.4); interorbital constriction, 6.4 (6.1-6.6), 5.9, 6.3, 6.3, 6.3 (6.1-6.8); interparietal breadth, 7.4 (6.8-7.9), 7.7, 7.2, 7.2, 7.6 (7.3-7.9); alveolar length of maxillary tooth-row, 3.7 (3.5-4.0); 3.6, 3.5, 3.6, 3.6 (3.5-3.8). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 42: Miquihuana, 6300 ft., 7; 4 mi. N Jaumave, 2500 ft., 5; Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft., 10; Tajada, 23 mi. NW Tula, 5200 ft., 6; 8 mi. N Tula, 4500 ft., 1; 9 mi. SW Tula, 3900 ft., 13. Additional record: Jaumave (Miller, 1924:284). =Dipodomys ordii= Ord's Kangaroo Rat This species has a restricted geographic distribution in Tamaulipas, although three subspecies occur in the state; two of them occur in the extreme northeast and the other in the far west. =Dipodomys ordii durranti= Setzer 1949. _Dipodomys ordii fuscus_ Setzer, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 1:555, December 27, type from Jaumave, Tamaulipas. 1952. _Dipodomys ordii durranti_ Setzer, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 42:391, December 17, a renaming of _D. o. fuscus_ Setzer, 1949. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Semi-desert areas in western part of state. The specimen examined from four miles north of Jaumave was trapped in a xeric area in which the vegetation consisted of mesquite, high palmlike yuccas, and "lechugilla." Specimens from the vicinity of Tula were trapped along bushy fence rows and adjacent to clumps of bushes and cactus, or shot at night in an area in which the soil was a sandy loam having relatively large amounts of gravel. The average weight of seven specimens from Nicolás was 50.3 (42-60) grams. According to Lidicker (1960:178 and in _litt._), the place called Lulú that was ascribed to Tamaulipas by Setzer (1949:550), and from which _D. o. durranti_ was reported, actually is in Zacatecas. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 19: Miquihuana, 6200 ft., 2; 4 mi. N Jaumave, 2500 ft., 3; Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 12; 8 km. N Tula, 4500 ft., 2. Additional records (Setzer, 1949:556): Nuevo Laredo; Jaumave. =Dipodomys ordii parvabullatus= Hall 1951. _Dipodomys ordii parvabullatus_ Hall, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:38, October 1, type from 88 mi. S and 10 mi. W Matamoros, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from two islands off the barrier beach. Weight of four adults averaged 49.2 (44-60) grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 17: 33 mi. S Washington Beach, 4; 88 mi. S, 10 mi. W Matamoros, 7; 90 mi. S, 10 mi. W Matamoros, 6. =Dipodomys ordii compactus= True 1889. _Dipodomys compactus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 11:160, January 5, type from Padre Island, Cameron Co., Texas. 1942. _Dipodomys ordii compactus_, Davis, Jour. Mamm., 23:332, August 13. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Reported only from Bagdad (Hall, 1951:41). =Dipodomys merriami atronasus= Merriam Merriam's Kangaroo Rat 1894. _Dipodomys merriami atronasus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 9:113, June 21, type from Hacienda La Parada, about 25 mi. NW San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Mexican Plateau in western part of state. Specimens examined are tentatively assigned to _Dipodomys merriami atronasus_. They differ from typical _atronasus_ as pointed out by Lidicker (1960:177). He noted that individuals from the eastern edge of the range of _D. m. atronasus_ were slightly paler than typical specimens, but I found Tamaulipan material to be much darker, especially behind the nose and ears (blackish instead of brownish), than specimens from Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas. Specimens examined were collected under the same conditions and in the same areas as _D. ordii durranti_. The average weight of 20 adults (11 females and nine males) was 46.6 (38-50) grams. _Records of occurrences._--Specimens examined, 27: Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft., 16; Tajada, 23 mi. NW Tula, 5200 ft., 4; 15 mi. N Tula, 1; 8 mi. N Tula, 4500 ft., 3; 9 mi. SW Tula, 3900 ft., 3. Additional record: Tula (Lidicker, 1960:178). =Liomys irroratus= Mexican Spiny Pocket Mouse This species is probably the most common rodent in Tamaulipas. It was taken at almost every locality sampled and was associated with many other kinds of rodents. Its distribution is state-wide with the exception of the extreme northwestern part. Two subspecies are represented in Tamaulipas, _L. i. alleni_, which occurs in the western side of the Sierra Madre Oriental in the southwest part of the state, and _L. i. texensis_, which occupies the rest of the range of the species in the state. At Soto la Marina specimens were taken in dense brush, around the cultivated fields; no burrows were seen and all specimens were trapped before 10:00 p.m. On the Sierra de Tamaulipas, _Liomys_ was collected in practically all microhabitats. In the vicinity of San Fernando, individuals were trapped in a dry area in which vegetation consisted of mesquite, cactus and chollas; the ground there was covered with dry leaves and small sticks, and burrows were found near the base of the mesquite bushes. One specimen was taken near the house of a woodrat. Two kilometers west of El Carrizo, where _Liomys irroratus_ is called "ratón tuza," specimens were collected on rocks inclined at an angle of about twenty-five degrees that were covered with zacatón grass and some bushes. Some individuals were taken in a sugar cane field that was surrounded by bushes and tall grass; _Baiomys taylori_, _Sigmodon hispidus_, and _Peromyscus leucopus_ were taken in the line of traps. One specimen was caught in a trap baited with banana. Some dates concerning reproduction of _Liomys irroratus_ in Tamaulipas are as follows: La Pesca, May 25, one female lactating and one female pregnant with 4 embryos that measured 8 mm.; Jaumave, July 26-29, three females lactating and three pregnant females that carried 6 embryos (6 mm.), 6 embryos (15 mm.), and 5 embryos (15 mm.); Palmillas, July 23, a female with 1 embryo measuring 6 mm.; Nicolás, October 19, a female carrying 4 embryos measuring 3 mm. =Liomys irroratus alleni= (Coues) 1881. _Heteromys alleni_ Coues, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 8:187, March, type from Río Verde, San Luis Potosí. 1911. _Liomys irroratus alleni_, Goldman, N. Amer. Fauna, 34:56, September 7. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Extreme southwestern part of state. This subspecies is easily distinguished from _L. i. texensis_ by the following features: hind foot larger, 31.5 (30-33.5) instead of 27.8 (27-29); skull longer, 34.2 (32.4-36.4) instead of 31.5 (30.0-32.5); maxillary tooth-row longer, 5.4 (5.0-5.8) instead of 5.0 (4.8-5.1); interorbital constriction relatively narrower in _alleni_. Intergradation between _L. i. alleni_ and _L. i. texensis_ takes place at Rancho Santa Rosa (where, of the two specimens, one is conspicuously larger than the other), eight kilometers northeast of Antiguo Morelos, El Encino, and Ejido Santa Isabel. All specimens from the localities mentioned are here assigned to _texensis_. Weight of three pregnant females averaged 68.9 (64-78) grams, that of non-pregnant females, 65.6 (64-68), and that of six males 73.0 (65-80). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 34: Villa Mainero, 1700 ft., 2; Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft., 6; Jaumave, 2400 ft., 23; 16 mi. N, 6 mi. W Palmillas, 5500 ft., 1; 14 mi. N, 6 mi. W Palmillas, 5500 ft., 2. Additional records: Miquihuana (Goldman, 1911:56); Tula (Hooper and Handley, 1958:18). =Liomys irroratus texensis= Merriam 1902. _Liomys texensis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:44, March 5, type from Brownsville, Cameron Co., Texas. 1911. _Liomys irroratus texensis_, Goldman, N. Amer. Fauna, 34:59, September 7. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--State-wide except extreme southwestern and northwestern parts. Intergradation occurs between _L. i. texensis_ and _L. i. pretiosus_ in southeastern Tamaulipas as noted previously by Hooper (1953:5). Individuals from Altamira and one mile south thereof are small and dark as in _pretiosus_, but cranial measurements are as in _texensis_ to which they are here assigned. Specimens from the vicinity of Tampico are typical _texensis_. Average weight of the specimens from three different localities are as follows: Soto la Marina, seven males, 42.7, 14 females, 36.9; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 12 males, 47.3, 20 females, 40.7; Sierra Madre Oriental, eight males, 45.5, nine females, 37.0 grams. The specimens reported by Ingles (1959:394) from two miles south of El Mante as _L. irroratus_ are here referred to _texensis_ on geographic grounds. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 121: 7 km. S, 2 km. W San Fernando, 7; 7 km. SW La Purisima, 1; Rancho Santa Rosa, 25 km. N, 13 km. W Cd. Victoria, 260 m., 2; 36 km. N, 10 km. W Cd. Victoria, 1; 15 mi. N Cd. Victoria, 2; 4 mi. N La Pesca, 5; Soto la Marina, 25; Sierra Madre Oriental, 5 mi. S, 3 mi. W Cd. Victoria, 1900 ft., 18; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 36; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 1; Ejido Santa Isabel, 2 km. W Pan-American Highway, 2000 ft., 3; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N, 3 km. W El Mante, 300 ft., 1; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 8; 10 km. N, 8 km. W El Encino, 400 ft., 1; 2 km. W El Carrizo, 6; 53 km. N El Limón, 4; 8 km. NE Antiguo Morelos, 2; Altamira, 1; 1 mi. S Altamira, 3; 10 mi. NW Tampico, 1; 7 km. N Tampico, 2. Additional records: Hidalgo (Goldman, 1911:59); Matamoros (_ibid._); Bagdad (_ibid._); Sierra de San Carlos (Hooper and Handley, 1948:20); 3 mi. W Soto la Marina (Hooper, 1953:5); [Cd.] Victoria (Goldman, 1911: 59); Acuña (Hooper and Handley, 1948:20); Mesa de Llera (Hooper, 1953:5); Gómez Farías (Goodwin, 1954:9); 2 mi. S Cd. Mante (Ingles, 1959:394); Antiguo Morelos (Hooper and Handley, 1948:20). =Castor canadensis mexicanus= V. Bailey Beaver 1913. _Castor canadensis mexicanus_ V. Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:191, October 23, type from Ruidoso Creek, 6 mi. below Ruidoso, Lincoln Co., New Mexico. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably in the Río Grande drainage. The beaver has been reported in Tamaulipas only from Matamoros (Baird, 1858:355--three specimens) and from 12 miles below, south of, Matamoros (V. Bailey, 1905:124). In Tamaulipas the beaver may occur only in the Río Grande drainage. =Oryzomys palustris= Marsh Rice Rat Previous to this report only one subspecies of _Oryzomys palustris_ had been recorded from Tamaulipas. Careful examination of the available material from the state shows that _O. p. aquaticus_ occurs in the east and _O. p. peragrus_ lives in the southwestern part of the state. In general, specimens examined were trapped in dense brush alongside waterholes as at Altamira, or around cornfields as at the place 36 kilometers north and 10 kilometers west of Ciudad Victoria, where the bushes were mesquite and other kinds of Acacias. There the ground was covered by cat claw, and no grass was seen near the traps in which _O. palustris_ was caught. In the Sierra de Tamaulipas a specimen was caught among rocks and bushes. Ingles (1959:395) reported that his specimens were trapped alive in dense brush and "tules." A female taken at Jaumave on July 25 had 5 embryos, each 20 mm. in crown-rump length. =Oryzomys palustris aquaticus= J. A. Allen 1891. _Oryzomys aquaticus_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:289, June 30, type from Brownsville, Cameron Co., Texas. 1918. _Oryzomys couesi aquaticus_, Goldman, N. Amer. Fauna, 43:39, September 23. 1960. _Oryzomys palustris aquaticus_, Hall, The Southwestern Nat., 5:173, November 1. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--North part of state, and coastal area south to Tampico. Weights of two males were 80 and 82, and of a female 66 grams. _Oryzomys palustris aquaticus_ differs from _O. p. peragrus_ in having a rich cinnamon, reddish color and the interorbital region constricted to less than 14.7 per cent of the greatest length of the skull. _O. p. peragrus_ is ochraceous and grayish. The least width of its interorbital region is more than 14.5 per cent of the greatest length of the skull. Individuals studied from the Sierra de Tamaulipas are typical _aquaticus_. Of those from Altamira, one has the color as in _aquaticus_, but the color of the other two resembles that of _peragrus_; nevertheless, all of the mentioned specimens are here assigned to _aquaticus_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 4: Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 1; 6 mi. N, 6 mi. W Altamira, 2; 5 mi. N, 5 mi. W Altamira, 1. Additional records: Camargo (Goldman, 1918:40); Matamoros (_ibid._); near Cd. Tampico (Ingles, 1958:395). =Oryzomys palustris peragrus= Merriam 1901. _Oryzomys mexicanus peragrus_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 3:283, July 26, type from Río Verde, San Luis Potosí. 1918. _Oryzomys couesi peragrus_, Goldman, N. Amer. Fauna, 43:39, September 23. 1960. _Oryzomys palustris peragrus_, Hall, The Southwestern Nat., 5:173, November 1. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Western part of state, along Sierra Madre Oriental. Two males from Jaumave weighed 62 and 65 and one pregnant female weighed 67 grams. Most records of _O. p. peragrus_ are from places along the Sierra Madre Oriental, but Lawrence (1947:103) recorded a specimen from the Río Corona, which is east of, but not far from the mentioned Sierra. Baker (1951:215) reported two specimens from two different localities labeled with reference to Ciudad Victoria (same specimens reported here) as _O. p. aquaticus_, but pointed out that they tended "toward the darker _O. c. peragrus_." Examination of more material and taking into consideration the relation between the interorbital constriction and the greatest length of skull, cause me here to refer those specimens to _peragrus_. Hooper (1953:8) reported three young specimens from Rancho Pano Ayuctle as of the subspecies _aquaticus_, but study of two adults from the same locality reveals that this locality should be included within the geographic range of _peragrus_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 9: 36 km. N, 10 km. W Cd. Victoria, 1; Jaumave, 2400 ft., 5; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N, 3 km. W El Mante, 2; 70 km. S Cd. Victoria (by highway) and 6 km. W of Highway, 1. Additional records: Río Corana (Lawrence, 1947:103); Pano Ayuctle (Hooper, 1953:8). =Oryzomys melanotis= Black-eared Rice Rat _Oryzomys melanotis_ occurs in Tamaulipas from Soto la Marina southward. Two subspecies are recorded: _O. m. carrorum_ in the north and _O. m. rostratus_ in the tropical area from Rancho Pano Ayuctle to Altamira. Specimens from the Sierra de Tamaulipas were trapped along a stream, edged with trees, bushes and rocks; at Rancho Pano Ayuctle the animals were in grass between banana groves. The specimen from 70 kilometers south of Ciudad Victoria was taken in tall grass near a field of sugar cane in a line of traps that yielded also _Peromyscus leucopus_, _Sigmodon hispidus_, _Liomys irroratus_, and _Oryzomys fulvescens_. Hooper (1953:8) and Ingles (1959:395) reported _O. melanotis_ as caught at the edges of cane fields. =Oryzomys melanotis carrorum= Lawrence 1947. _Oryzomys rostratus carrorum_ Lawrence, Proc. New England Zool. Club, 24:101, May 29, type from Rancho Santa Ana, about 8 mi. SW Padilla, Río Soto la Marina, Tamaulipas. 1959. _Oryzomys melanotis carrorum_, Hall and Kelson, The Mammals of North America, 2:560, March 21. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southeast part of state; known only from the type locality and the Sierra de Tamaulipas. The original description of this subspecies was based on three specimens collected at Rancho Santa Ana. Specimens examined from the Sierra de Tamaulipas extended the known range 45 miles southeast of the type locality, and also extend the previously known altitudinal range of 300-350 feet elevation to 1200 feet. Specimens examined correspond in color and measurements to those recorded by Lawrence (1947:102-103). Of 12 specimens studied, the tympanic bullae of six touch the surface of the table when the skull rests on the tips of the incisors and the occipital condyles. In the other six the bullae are 0.3 to 1.3 mm. above the table top. The mesopterygoid space in the specimens examined are broad and U-shaped and not V-shaped as in the three specimens examined by Lawrence (_op. cit._). Weight of six males was 52.5 (48-63) and of four females 44.7 (40-49) grams. _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of six males are as follows: 255.3 (240-269); 135.7 (120-147); 135.7 (120-147); 30.4 (30-31); 21 (20-22); greatest length of skull, 31.6 (30.9-32.5); zygomatic breadth, 15.3 (14.7-16.1); interorbital constriction, 4.8 (4.5-5.1); breadth of skull, 31.6 (30.9-32.5); length of nasals, 12.9 (12.4-13.4); length of anterior palatine foramina, 5.5 (5.2-5.7); length of palatal bridge, 6.1 (5.8-6.4); length of maxillary tooth-row, 4.0 (3.9-4.1). The females average slightly smaller. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 12 from Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft. Additional record: Type locality (Lawrence, 1947:102). =Oryzomys melanotis rostratus= Merriam 1901. _Oryzomys rostratus_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 3:293. July 26, type from Metlatoyuca, Puebla. 1953. _Oryzomys melanotis rostratus_, Hooper, Occ. Papers Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 544:8, March 25. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Extreme southeastern part of state, in tropical area. Ingles (1959:395) reported one specimen from two miles north of Ciudad Mante as _O. melanotis_; here it is referred to _O. m. rostratus_ on geographic grounds. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 2: 2 km. W El Carrizo, 1; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N El Mante and 3 km. W Highway, 1. Additional records: 2 mi. N Cd. Mante (Ingles, 1959:395); Altamira (Goldman, 1918:54). =Oryzomys alfaroi huastecae= Dalquest 1951. _Oryzomys alfaroi huastecae_ Dalquest, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 41:363, November 14, type from 10 km. E Platanito, San Luis Potosí. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Rancho del Cielo (Hooper, 1953:8). =Oryzomys fulvescens= Pygmy Rice Rat The pygmy rice rat in Tamaulipas was collected in grass. Two kilometers west of El Carrizo in grass around a sugar cane field, traps, baited with scraps of deer meat, caught _Oryzomys fulvescens_, _Sigmodon hispidus_, _Peromyscus leucopus_ and _Liomys irroratus_. Seven kilometers north of Tampico, _O. fulvescens_ was taken along with _Peromyscus leucopus_, _Sigmodon hispidus_ and _Baiomys taylori_. A female obtained on March 2, at Rancho Pano Ayuctle, had 4 embryos 16 mm. in crown-rump length. =Oryzomys fulvescens fulvescens= (Saussure) 1860. _H[esperomys]. fulvescens_ Saussure, Revue et Mag. Zool., Paris, ser. 2, 12:102, March, type from Veracruz; fixed by Merriam (Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 3:295, July 26, 1901) at Orizaba. 1897. _Oryzomys fulvescens_, J. A. Allen and Chapman, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:204, June 16. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Reported only from Rancho del Cielo (Goodwin, 1954:10). =Oryzomys fulvescens engracie= Osgood 1945. _Oryzomys fulvescens engracie_ Osgood, Jour. Mamm., 26:300, November 14, type from Hacienda Santa Engracia (32 km. N), NW of Cd. Victoria, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Central and southeast parts of state. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 13: 2 km. W El Carrizo, 5; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N, 3 km. W El Mante, 6; 10 km. N, 8 km. W El Encino, 1; 7 km. N Tampico, 1. Additional record: Altamira (Osgood, 1945:300). =Reithrodontomys megalotis hooperi= Goodwin Western Harvest Mouse 1954. _Reithrodontomys megalotis hooperi_ Goodwin, Amer. Mus. Novit., 1660:1, May 25, type from Rancho del Cielo, 5 mi. NW Gómez Farías, 3500 ft., Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from type locality. =Reithrodontomys fulvescens= Fulvous Harvest Mouse This is the most common species of _Reithrodontomys_ in Tamaulipas; it occurs in almost all parts of the state, from sea level to high up in the mountains and from the tropical forest to the desert plain. The three subspecies in the state are _R. f. intermedias_ in the northern half, _R. f. griseoflavus_ in the high parts of the Sierra Madre Oriental, and _R. f. tropicalis_ in the southeast. The lines between these subspecies are difficult to establish because the zones of intergradation are broad. Characters for separating the three subspecies in Tamaulipas are listed by Hooper (1952). =Reithrodontomys fulvescens griseoflavus= Merriam 1901. _Reithrodontomys griseoflavus_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 3:553, November 29, type from Ameca, 4000 ft., Jalisco. 1952. _Reithrodontomys fulvescens griseoflavus_, Hooper, Miscl. Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 77:98, January 16. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Jaumave. Only specimens from Jaumave are clearly _R. f. griseoflavus_; all others east of this locality are intergrades between _griseoflavus_ and _tropicalis_, under which latter subspecies they are included. In _griseoflavus_ the tail is longer in relation to the head and body, 141.2 (135-153) per cent, than in the other two subspecies that occur in Tamaulipas. The average weight of 14 males was 14 (12-16) grams. _Record of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 15, from Jaumave, 2400 ft. =Reithrodontomys fulvescens intermedius= J. A. Allen 1895. _Reithrodontomys mexicanus intermedius_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 7:136, May 21, type from Brownsville, Cameron Co., Texas. 1914. _Reithrodontomys fulvescens intermedius_, A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 36:47, June 5. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Northern half of state. No specimen of this subspecies has been examined. Jones and Anderson (1958:447) reported specimens from Rancho Pano Ayuctle as _R. f. intermedius_, but here those same specimens are assigned to _R. f. tropicalis_. J. A. Allen (1891:223) recorded specimens from Santa Teresa as _Ochetodon mexicanus_. According to Hooper (1952:142) that name was used by Allen for _R. fulvescens_. Allen's specimens from Santa Teresa are here referred to _R. f. intermedius_ on geographic grounds. _Records_ (Hooper, 1952:108): Camargo, 200 ft.; 20 mi. S Reynosa, Charco Escondido; Matamoros, 30 ft.; 7.5 mi. S Matamoros; 29 mi. S Cd. Victoria, 800 ft.; Hacienda Santa Engracia, 800 ft.; Santa Teresa (50 mi. SW Matamoros); Sierra San Carlos (El Mulato, Tamaulipeca, 1500 ft.). =Reithrodontomys fulvescens tropicalis= Davis 1944. _Reithrodontomys fulvescens tropicalis_ Davis, Jour. Mamm., 25:393, December 12, type from Boca del Río, 8 km. S city of Veracruz, Veracruz. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Tropical area in southeastern part of state. Most of the specimens examined of _R. fulvescens_ are included in this subspecies, principally because of their reddish coloration that is characteristic of _R. f. tropicalis_. According to the original description by Davis (1944:393) this subspecies is smaller than _griseoflavus_ and the posterior border of the incisive foramina terminate anterior to the plane of the molars. But, these characteristics are not found in any specimen examined from Tamaulipas and the average of external measurements is more than those given by Hooper (1952:109) for _tropicalis_. Of all specimens from Tamaulipas, those from the vicinity of Altamira and Tampico are most nearly typical of _tropicalis_. Weights of seven males and five females, from the Sierra de Tamaulipas, were, respectively, 13 (11-15), and 11 (9-14) grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 51: Rancho Santa Rosa, 25 km. N, 13 km. W Cd. Victoria, 1; Cd. Victoria, 3; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 12; 2 km. W El Carrizo, 1; Ejido Santa Isabel, 2 km. W Pan-American Highway, 2000 ft., 14; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N, 3 km. W El Mante, 300 ft., 4; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 4; 6 mi. N, 6 mi. W Altamira, 2; 1 mi. S Altamira, 3; 16 km. N Tampico, 3; 7 km. N Tampico, 4. Additional records: Hidalgo (Hooper, 1952:110); 5 mi. NE Gómez Farías, 1100 ft. (_ibid._); La Azteca, 5 km. NNE Gómez Farías (Goodwin, 1954:11); Gómez Farías (_ibid._); Antiguo Morelos (Hooper, 1952:110); 2 mi. W Tampico (Ingles, 1959:396). =Reithrodontomys mexicanus mexicanus= (Saussure) Mexican Harvest Mouse 1860. _R[eithrodon]. mexicanus_ Saussure, Revue et Mag. Zool., Paris, ser. 2, 12:109, type from mountains of Veracruz; restricted to Mirador, Veracruz, by Hooper, Miscl. Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 77:140, January 16. 1914, _Reithrodontomys mexicanus mexicanus_, A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 36:70, June 5. Not _Reithrodontomys mexicanus_ (Saussure), being instead of J. A. Allen, 1895:135, which in part equalled _Reithrodontomys fulvescens difficilis_. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known from two localities, but probably occurs in all tropical areas in south part of state. As noted before, J. A. Allen (1891:223) reported specimens from Rancho Santa Rosa as _Ochetodon mexicanus_, but he used this name for the species now known as _R. fulvescens_. The specimen examined, previously reported by Jones and Anderson (1958:447), represents the northernmost occurrence of the species. _Records of occurrence._--One specimen examined from Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft. Additional record: Rancho del Cielo, 3500 ft. (Hooper, 1952:144). =Peromyscus maniculatus blandus= Osgood Deer Mouse 1904. _Peromyscus sonoriensis blandus_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:56, March 21, type from Escalón, Chihuahua. 1909. _Peromyscus maniculatus blandus_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:84, April 17. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Reported only from Miquihuana (Osgood, 1909:86). =Peromyscus melanotis= J. A. Allen and Chapman Black-eared Mouse 1897. _Peromyscus melanotis_ J. A. Allen and Chapman, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:203, June 16, type from Las Vigas, Veracruz. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Miquihuana (Osgood, 1909:112). =Peromyscus leucopus texanus= (Woodhouse) White-footed Mouse 1853. _Hesperomys texana_ Woodhouse, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 6:242, type probably from vicinity of Mason, Mason Co., Texas. 1909. _Peromyscus leucopus texanus_, Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:127, April 17. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Over all of state. This is the most common species of the genus _Peromyscus_ in Tamaulipas. It and _Liomys irroratus_ are the two rodents most easily trapped throughout the state. In general _P. l. texanus_ occurs in forested and brushy areas especially under 1200 feet in elevation, as was noted in the Sierra de Tamaulipas, where _P. l. texanus_ was taken commonly at elevations of up to 1200 feet. Above this elevation the species was rare and _P. pectoralis_ and _P. boylii_ were more abundant than at lower elevations. The three specimens of _P. l. texanus_ from 12 kilometers north and four kilometers west of Ciudad Victoria were trapped in a line of 110 traps set near tree stumps. Small burrows in the ground were noted here. The forest at this locality was composed of mesquite, ebony, acacias, a few yuccas and "nopales" (= cactuses); the ground was covered by cat claw. Of the many young taken, 15 specimens were saved from Ejido Santa Isabel where _P. leucopus_ was abundant in an area of chaparral consisting of wild "tomate," "zapote," "huizache" and "salvadora." Most of the specimens caught at this locality were taken between 7:30 and 9:30 p. m. in traps baited with a mixture of rolled oats, peanut butter and banana. Specimens from 53 kilometers north of El Limón were taken along with _Liomys irroratus_; the specimen from two kilometers west of El Carrizo was trapped near a dead mesquite log. _Reitrodontomys fulvescens_ was taken in the same area. Four specimens of _P. leucopus_ were taken at Rancho Pano Ayuctle, around a big pile of old firewood in an abandoned sugar mill. At the locality six miles north and six miles west of Altamira, _P. leucopus_ was found in cultivated fields and along the grassy roadsides; in the vicinity of Tampico specimens were taken in an area of forested cactus-thorn. The specimen from seven kilometers south and two kilometers west of San Fernando was found in a trap set at the base of "nopal" cactus, which was surrounded by bushes and small trees (10-12 feet high). Breeding records are as follows: Rancho Pano Ayuctle, on February 15, one female carried 2 embryos of 23 mm. in crown-rump length; Jaumave, July 26 to 29, five females, averaging 4.6 (3-6) embryos of 7 (3-15) mm., two females lactating, one on May 25 and the other on July 26; Ejido Santa Isabel, on January 20 to 25, three females lactating; Soto la Marina, on May 16, one female lactating. Average weights were as follows: from Jaumave four pregnant females, 28.0 (25-33), eight males, 23.4 (21-27); from the Sierra de Tamaulipas, eight females non-pregnant, 21.2 (18-26), 14 males, 22.0 (19-27); from 6 mi. N, 6 mi. W Altamira, six males, 23.5 (21-27). All specimens examined from Tamaulipas are assigned to _P. l. texanus_ because their coloration is pale. Even so the color varies some according to locality; specimens from Rancho Pano Ayuctle and the Sierra de Tamaulipas have much of the cinnamon color that is characteristic of _P. l. incensus_ from farther south, but even so specimens from the two localities last mentioned are paler than those from Veracruz that are typical _incensus_. Goldman (1942:158) reported specimens from Altamira as _P. l. incensus_, in which subspecies Ingles (1959:397) included specimens from two miles west of Tampico, but specimens examined from the same area do not differ from individuals from far north thereof; for this reason I identify specimens from these localities as _texanus_. Osgood (1909:131) and Hooper (1953:7) also referred specimens from the southern part of Tamaulipas to _texanus_. These two authors examined 156 specimens and did not find any intergradation between _texanus_ and _incensus_, but to me, the cinnamon tones of specimens from Rancho Pano Ayuctle and the Sierra de Tamaulipas, suggest intergradation between the two subspecies. Osgood's (1909:265) measurements of _P. l. texanus_, from Brownsville, Texas, and those of 40 specimens from different localities in Tamaulipas are about the same except that the anterior palatine foramina average longer in Tamaulipas. Baker's (1956:262) specimens from Coahuila, averaged larger even than Tamaulipan specimens. Another difference between Osgood's measurements and Baker's was the shorter 3.4 (3.0-3.7) maxillary tooth-row in Tamaulipan specimens. Hooper (1953:7) recorded specimens from General Terán, as in Tamaulipas; actually this locality is in Nuevo León. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 149: 4.5 mi. S Nuevo Laredo, 1; 3 mi. SE Reynosa, 2; 7 km. S, 2 km. W San Fernando, 1; Villa Mainero, 1700 ft., 1; Rancho Santa Rosa, 25 km. N, 13 km. W Cd. Victoria, 260 m., 2; 9.5 mi. SW Padilla, 800 ft., 2; 15 mi. N Cd. Victoria, 2; 4 mi. N La Pesca, 1; Soto la Marina, 11; La Pesca, 1; 12 km. N, 4 km. W Cd. Victoria, 3; 7 km. NE Cd. Victoria, 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, and 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 31; Ejido Eslabones, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 6; Jaumave, 20; Ejido Santa Isabel, 2 km. W Pan-American Highway, 2000 ft., 15; 53 km. N El Limón, 12 km. S Río Guayalejo, 5; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N El Mante, 3 km. W Highway, 300 ft., 16; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 7; 8 km. W, 10 km. N El Encino, 400 ft., 3; 8 mi. N Tula, 4500 ft., 2; 2 km. W El Carrizo, 3; 6 mi. N, 6 mi. W Altamira, 9; 16 km. N Tampico, 1; 7 km. N Tampico, 3. Additional records (Osgood, 1909:131, unless otherwise noted): Nuevo Laredo; Mier; Camargo; near Bagdad; Sierra San Carlos (Hooper, 1953:7); Matamoros-Victoria Highway (_ibid._); Charco Escondido (Baird, 1858:464); Hidalgo; Cd. Victoria; 10 mi. NE Zamorina (Hooper, 1953:7); Gómez Farías (Goodwin, 1954:12); Chamal (_ibid._); Tula (Hooper, 1953:7); Antiguo Morelos (_ibid._); Altamira (Goldman, 1942:158); 2 mi. W Tampico (Ingles, 1959:397); Tampico. =Peromyscus boylii= Brush Mouse Specimens examined were obtained at higher elevations in the oak-tree zone of the Sierras in traps set among rocks, trees and in grassy areas. _Peromyscus boylii_ was trapped in the same area as was _P. pectoralis_ and no habitat distinction between the two was noted. Some behavioral differences, however, are pointed out in the account of _P. pectoralis_. Morphological differences between these two species in Tamaulipas were reported by Hooper (1952:372). A female taken on August 5 in the Sierra Madre Oriental carried two embryos 15 mm. in crown-rump length. For the taxonomic status of _P. boylii_ in Tamaulipas see Alvarez (1961). =Peromyscus boylii ambiguus= Alvarez 1961. _Peromyscus boylii ambiguus_ Alvarez, Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:118, December 29, type from Monterrey, Nuevo León. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from the Sierra San Carlos. _Record of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 7 (UMMZ), all from La Vegonia, Sierra San Carlos. =Peromyscus boylii levipes= Merriam 1898. _Peromyscus levipes_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:123, April 30, type from Mt. Malinche, 8400 ft., Tlaxcala. 1909. _Peromyscus boylii levipes_, Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:153, April 17. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Central and southern parts of state. Weights of 19 males and 18 females from the Sierra Madre Oriental are, respectively, 25.2 (22-30) and 23.6 (20-29); weights of eight males and five females from the Sierra de Tamaulipas are 24.9 (22-32) and 29.6 (24-31). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 54: Sierra Madre Oriental, 8 mi. S, 6 mi. W Victoria, 4000 ft., 37; 5 mi. S, 3 mi. W Victoria, 1900 ft., 2; Ejido Eslabones, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 11 mi. W, 8 mi. S Piedra, 2000 ft., 13; 2 km. W El Carrizo, 1. Additional records: Rancho del Cielo (Hooper, 1953:7); 3 mi. NW Acuña (_ibid._); Rancho Viejo (Goodwin, 1954:12); Santa María (_ibid._); Joya de Salas (_ibid._). =Peromyscus pectoralis= White-ankled Mouse _Peromyscus pectoralis_ and _P. boylii_ are closely related morphologically and seem to occupy the same habitat. In the Sierra Madre Oriental, according to the field notes of the collector (Heinrich, June 6 to August 5, 1953), individuals of _P. pectoralis_ had a pinkish coloration on the mouth and forefeet produced by the juice of the "nopal" cactus fruit, on which obviously the mice feed, whereas only a few specimens of _boylii_ were thus discolored. It was noted that _boylii_ was feeding on acorns. Furthermore, the two species may differ in time of breeding; in August, males of _pectoralis_ had the testes well developed when those organs were small in _boylii_ collected at the same locality. A specimen from 53 kilometers north of El Limón, was shot at a height of 10 feet on a concrete underpass. Other specimens were taken in a trap line that yielded _Peromyscus boylii_, _P. leucopus_ and _Liomys irroratus_. Two subspecies of _P. pectoralis_ occur in Tamaulipas: _P. p. collinus_ is widely distributed in the central and western parts of the state and _P. p. eremicoides_ occurs only in the western "corner" of the state. =Peromyscus pectoralis collinus= Hooper 1952. _Peromyscus pectoralis collinus_ Hooper, Jour. Mamm., 33:372, August 19, type from San José, 2000 ft., Sierra San Carlos, 12 mi. NW San Carlos, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Along the central and western mountains. A female obtained on January 21 at a place 53 kilometers north of El Limón, contained three embryos. A lactating female was taken on August 2 in the Sierra Madre Oriental. Males, as previously noted, had well-developed testes in August. The weights of 17 males and 20 females from the Sierra de Tamaulipas were, respectively, 26.6 (24-33), and 25.6 (21-31) grams. Measurements of specimens from different localities in Tamaulipas averaged about the same, except that those of specimens from Palmillas, averaged smaller. The small size suggests intergradation between the subspecies _collinus_ and _eremicoides_. The latter occurs to the west and differs from _collinus_ in smaller size, more grayish coloration, completely white tarsal joint and relatively longer tail. Hooper (1952:374) reported specimens from Jaumave as intergrades between the two subspecies before mentioned and Osgood (1909:164) identified two specimens from there as _eremicoides_. In the present account, individuals from Palmillas and Jaumave are referred to _collinus_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 101: 7 km. SW La Purisima, 1; Sierra Madre Oriental, 5 mi. S, 3 mi. W Victoria, 1900 ft., 12; Sierra Madre Oriental, 8 mi. S, 6 mi. W Victoria, 4000 ft., 16; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 36; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 3 mi. S, 14 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 14; 14 mi. N, 6 mi. W Palmillas, 5500 ft., 1; Palmillas, 4400 ft., 3; 53 km. N El Limón, 12 km. S Río Guayalejo, 5; Joya Verde, 35 km. SW Victoria, 3800 ft., 9; 10 km. N, 8 km. El Encino, 400 ft., 1; 8 km. NE Antiguo Morelos, 500 ft., 3. Additional records (Hooper, 1952:374, unless otherwise noted): Sierra San Carlos (Marmolejo, 1700 ft., San José, 2000 ft., Tamaulipeca, 1500 ft., La Vegonia, 2900 ft.); Villagran, 1300 ft.; Cd. Victoria; near Jaumave, 2400 ft.; Sierra de Tamaulipas, near Acuña, 1600 ft.; La Joya de Salas (Goodwin, 1954:12). =Peromyscus pectoralis eremicoides= Osgood 1904. _Peromyscus attwateri eremicoides_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:60, March 21, type from Mapimi, Durango. 1909. _Peromyscus pectoralis eremicoides_, Lyon and Osgood, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 62:128, January 28. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Miquihuana and vicinity of Tula. The two specimens from Miquihuana are typical _P. pectoralis eremicoides_ in external and cranial measurements. Specimens from nine miles southwest of Tula are characteristic of _eremicoides_ in cranial measurements but the tail is shorter than usual for this subspecies, in this respect approaching _P. p. lacianus_. _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of 10 specimens from nine miles southwest of Tula and measurements of two males (56169, 56415) from Miquihuana are, respectively, as follows: 181.5 (173-197), 180, 197; 96.2; (87-110), 103, 113; 20.2 (19.0-21.5), 21, 21; 18.1 (16.5-19.0), 18, --; greatest length of skull, 24.8 (24.1-25.6), 25.5, 25.6; length of nasals, 9.0 (8.6-9.3), 9.3, 9.3; zygomatic breadth, 12.2 (11.7-12.8), 12.3, 12.9; interorbital constriction, 3.8 (3.7-4.0), 3.7, 3.9; length of maxillary tooth-row, 3.6 (3.5-3.7), 3.6, 3.8. Weights of the 10 specimens from nine miles southwest of Tula average 17.9 (16-24) grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 28: Miquihuana, 6200 ft., 2; Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft., 1; Tajada, 23 mi. NW Tula, 5200 ft., 1; 8 mi. N Tula, 4500 ft., 2; 9 mi. SW Tula, 3900 ft., 19; 17 mi. SW Tula, 3900 ft., 3. =Peromyscus melanophrys consobrinus= Osgood Plateau Mouse 1904. _Peromyscus melanophrys consobrinus_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:66, March 21, type from Berriozabal, Zacatecas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Mexican Plateau part of state. A lactating female caught on July 20 and four males from Miquihuana weighed, respectively, 51, and 50.2 (47-54) grams. A female, taken on July 24, 14 miles north and six miles west of Palmillas in a valley covered by mesquite and other bushes, had 3 embryos 10 mm. in crown-rump length, and weighed 60 grams. One specimen from nine miles southwest of Tula was caught in an outcrop of rocks and two others were taken among bushes on the desert. A female on October 10 carried 4 embryos 2 mm. in crown-rump length. Specimens of _P. melanophrys_ here listed are the first to be reported from Tamaulipas. They are assigned to the subspecies _consobrinus_ on the basis of dark color and because their size closely corresponds to that of the holotype. The specimen from the vicinity of Palmillas and one from Miquihuana (56408) are larger than the others and grayish. A specimen (56413) from Miquihuana lacks all the molariform teeth. Its alveoli in one maxilla are closed and those in the opposite maxilla are more open than is normal. _Measurements._--Average and extreme measurements of four males, two females (56413, 56408) from Miquihuana, and a female (56414) from 14 miles north and 6 miles west of Palmillas, are, respectively, as follows: total length (two males only), 249, 245, 265, 247, 280; length of tail vertebrae (two males only), 137, 134, 141, 131, 157; length of hind foot, 26.7 (26-27), 27, 27, 27; ear from notch, 23.7 (23-24), 25, 24, 25; greatest length of skull, 30.3 (29.5-31.0), 31.2, 31.8, 32.2; interorbital constriction, 4.8 (4.7-4.9), 4.9, 4.8, 5.0; length of palatine slits, 6.6 (6.2-6.8), 6.9, 6.9, 6.8; length of diastema, 8.1 (8.0-8.3), --, 8.5, 8.5; alveolar length of maxillary tooth-row, 4.5 (4.3-4.7), --, 4.3, 4.6. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 16: Miquihuana, 6200 ft., 6; 14 mi. N, 6 mi. W Palmillas, 5500 ft., 1; Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft., 6; 9 mi. SW Tula, 3900 ft., 3. =Peromyscus difficilis petricola= Hoffmeister and de la Torre Zacatecan Deer Mouse 1959. _Peromyscus difficilis petricola_ Hoffmeister and de la Torre, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 72:167, November 4, type from 12 mi. E San Antonio de las Alazanas, 9000 ft., Coahuila. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Westernmost part of state. The three specimens from Miquihuana were collected among rocks and stumps, in an oak forest. The specimens from 20 miles north of Tula were collected after midnight on a hillside covered mainly with juniper brush. A female (October 11) carried 3 embryos 26 mm. in crown-rump length. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 6: Miquihuana, 8500 ft., 3; 20 mi. N Tula, 5800 ft., 3. =Peromyscus ochraventer= Baker El Carrizo Deer Mouse 1951. _Peromyscus ochraventer_ Baker, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:213, December 15, type from 70 km. (by highway) S Ciudad Victoria, 6 km. W Pan-American Highway at El Carrizo, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Vicinity of the type locality. The series of specimens examined was the same used by the original describer of the species. He (1951:214-215) pointed out that the mice were taken in junglelike forest among rocks and adjacent to logs. Burrows extended beneath large blocks of limestone, and each burrow where a mouse was caught was marked by a pile of excavated earth resembling a tiny mound left by a pocket gopher. These burrows were at an elevation of approximately 2800 feet above sea level on the steep sides of a small hill in an area where the vegetation was intermediate between that of the arid and humid subdivisions of the tropical region. Each of two females, captured on January 13, carried five placental scars; one of the females was lactating. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 24, from the type locality. Additional records (Goodwin, 1954:12): Gómez Farías; Rancho del Cielo; Joya de Salas. =Baiomys taylori taylori= (Thomas) Northern Pygmy Mouse 1887. _Hesperomys (Vesperimus) taylori_ Thomas, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, 19:66, January, type from San Diego, Duval Co., Texas. 1907. _Baiomys taylori_ Mearns, U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 56:381, April 13. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--All of state, except southwestern desert part. The species of this genus have been revised recently by Packard (1960) and the specimens from Tamaulipas are arranged according to his systematic findings. The weight of 35 specimens labeled with reference to Altamira are 7.6 (6.0-9.0) grams; 15 from Jaumave weigh 6.9 (6.0-9.0) grams. Pregnant females were collected as follows: February 22, Ejido Santa Isabel, 3 (embryos x 4 mm. in crown-rump length); March 2, Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 x 16; July 9, six miles north and six miles west of Altamira, 1 x 4; July 28 and 29, Jaumave, 2 x 8 and 3 x 9. The average number of embryos was 2.8 (1-5). _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 83: 4 mi. N La Pesca, 1; Cd. Victoria, 3; Jaumave, 2400 ft., 17; Ejido Santa Isabel, 2 km. W Pan-American Highway, 2000 ft., 7; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N, 3 km. W El Mante, 300 ft., 4; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 1; Río Sabinas, 8 km. N El Encino, 400 ft., 1; 2 km. W El Carrizo, 2; 6 mi. N, 6 mi. W Altamira, 33; 5 mi. N, 5 mi. W Altamira, 4; 1 mi. S Altamira, 3; 16 km. N Tampico, 4; 10 mi. NW Tampico, 1; 7 mi. S Altamira, 1; 1 km. N Tampico, 1. Additional records (Packard, 1960:654): Camargo; Charco Escondido, 20 mi. S Reynosa; Matamoras (= Matamoros); Hidalgo; 29 mi. N Cd. Victoria; Antiguo Morelos. =Onychomys leucogaster longipes= Merriam Northern Grasshopper Mouse 1889. _Onychomys longipes_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 2:1, October 30, type from Concho County, Texas. 1913. _Onychomys leucogaster longipes_, Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:216, December 20. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--From Ciudad Victoria northward. Only a young female was examined; she weighed 22 grams and extends the known range 59 miles eastward from Ciudad Victoria. _Record of occurrence._--One specimen examined from Soto la Marina, 500 ft. Additional records (Hollister, 1914:253): Camargo; Reynosa; [Cd.] Victoria. =Onychomys torridus subrufus= Hollister Southern Grasshopper Mouse 1914. _Onychomys torridus subrufus_ Hollister, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 47:472, October 29, type from Miquihuana, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--West of Sierra Madre Oriental. The six specimens examined were collected in the desert area west of the Sierra Madre Oriental. At Nicolás a trap set in front of a hole held one specimen, and another was trapped beneath a brush fence that inclosed a cornfield. _Dipodomys merriami_ and _Perognathus penicillatus_ also were trapped beneath the fence. A subadult from Nicolás is slightly larger (see measurements) than either of two subadults from four miles north of Jaumave and an old specimen from eight miles north of Tula, except in the interorbital constriction, which is narrower. Nevertheless measurements of Tamaulipan _Onychomys torridus_ resemble those given by Hollister (1914:483) for _O. t. subrufus_. A specimen from Nicolás is also darker than other individuals examined. A female taken on July 15, four miles north of Jaumave, was lactating. _Measurements._--Measurements of a female from Nicolás, a male from eight miles north of Tula, and a female and a male from four miles north of Jaumave are as follows: 158, 147, 145, 144; 59, 58, 55, 55; 22, 21, 22, 22; 21, 20.5, 18, 18; condylobasal length, 24.4, 23.1, 23.9, 23.7; interorbital constriction, 4.1, 4.4, 4.3, 4.5; length of nasals, 10.6, 10.5, 10.5, 10.1; length of maxillary tooth-row, 3.8, 3.6, 3.7, 3.7; breadth of braincase, 11.8, 11.3, 11.3, 11.0; weight in grams, 32.5, 26.0, 25.0, 25.0. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 6: 4 mi. N Jaumave, 2; Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft., 2; Tajada, 23 mi. NW Tula, 5200 ft., 1; 8 mi. N Tula, 4500 ft., 1. Additional records (Hollister, 1914:475): Miquihuana; Jaumave. =Sigmodon hispidus= Hispid Cotton Rat This species, as is known, is active by day and by night. It occurs mainly in grassy areas and most of the specimens examined were trapped there. But, one mile east of La Pesca, specimens were taken on a beach having sparse grass. _Neotoma micropus_ and _Spermophilus spilosoma_, but no smaller rodents, were taken there. Also, many crabs were found in the traps. Possibly only the relatively large rodents are able to compete successfully with the crabs. The specimen from one kilometer east of El Barretal was caught in a rat-trap set in front of small hole in a fence of dead brush that surrounded a cornfield. The area outside the fence supported mesquite and ebony trees (10-12 feet high) and the ground was covered with cat claw. Six miles north and six miles west of Altamira, the two young specimens were taken on a small grassy island surrounded by mud. According to natives, _Sigmodon_ injures corn and sugar cane. Probably other species of rodents are responsible for some or all of such damage since other kinds of rodents were taken in the same areas. Dice (1937:245) reported females from the Sierra San Carlos that carried 8 embryos of 18 mm., 5 × 33, 7 embryos very small, and 8 × 20. Females were collected on July 22, 29, and 30. =Sigmodon hispidus berlandieri= Baird 1855. _Sigmodon berlandieri_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:333, type from Río Nazas, Coahuila. 1902. _Sigmodon hispidus berlandieri_, V. Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:106, June 2. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--From Jaumave and Llera to north. This subspecies is distinguished from _S. h. toltecus_ by larger size and paler, grayish coloration. TABLE 3.--DATA ON REPRODUCTION. =========================+=============+=========+============= LOCALITY | Date | Embryos | Size in mm. -------------------------+-------------+---------+------------- 4 mi. N La Pesca | May 26 | 4 | 30 Sierra de Tamaulipas | June 10 | 3 | 10 Sierra de Tamaulipas | June 11 | 4 | 10 Sierra de Tamaulipas | June 20 | 2 | 20 Ciudad Victoria | July 12 | 5 | 5 Jaumave | July 28 | 4 | 14 Jaumave | July 29 | 6 | 25 San Fernando | August 30 | 7 | 20 San Fernando | August 31 | 8 | 11 Vicinity of Nuevo Laredo | November 15 | 3 | 5 Vicinity of Nuevo Laredo | November 16 | 5 | 2 -------------------------+-------------+---------+------------- Baker (1951:216) reported a specimen from 35 kilometers north and 10 kilometers west of Ciudad Victoria (= 1 km. E El Barretal) as _S. h. toltecus_. Comparison of its skull with those from the vicinity of Altamira (_S. h. toltecus_) and those from Jaumave (_S. h. berlandieri_) shows that the skull from El Barretal closely resembles those from Jaumave, in having the zygomatic arches more nearly parallel and the braincase more rounded than in skulls from Altamira. Therefore the specimen from the vicinity of El Barretal is here assigned to _S. h. berlandieri_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 64: 4-1/2 mi. S Nuevo Laredo, 600 ft., 1; 10 mi. S, 11 mi. E Nuevo Laredo, 8; San Fernando, 180 ft., 8; 4 mi. N La Pesca, 10; 3 mi. N La Pesca, 1; 1 mi. E La Pesca, 3; Soto la Marina, 500 ft., 1; 36 km. N, 10 km. W Cd. Victoria, 1 km. E El Barretal, Río Purificación, 1; Cd. Victoria, 1; 2 km. W Pan-American Highway (12 km. S Llera), Ejido Santa Isabel, 2000 ft., 1; Jaumave, 2400 ft., 29. Additional records: Matamoros (Baird, 1858:506); Sierra San Carlos (El Mulato, Tamaulipeca, San Miguel) (Dice, 1937:254); Mesa de Llera (Hooper, 1953:9); Tamaulipas [state?] (Baird, 1858:506). =Sigmodon hispidus solus= Hall 1951. _Sigmodon hispidus solus_ Hall, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:42, October 1, type from island 88 mi. S, 10 mi. W Matamoros, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from two specimens from the type locality. =Sigmodon hispidus toltecus= (Saussure) 1860. [_Hesperomys_] _toltecus_ Saussure, Revue et Mag. Zool., Paris, ser. 2, 12:98, type from mountains of Veracruz [probably near Mirador, Dalquest, Louisiana State Univ. Studies, Biol. Sci. Series, 1:163, December 28, 1953]. 1902. _Sigmodon hispidus toltecus_, V. Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:110, June 2. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Tropical region in southern part of state. The specimen reported by Baker (1951:216) from one mile east of El Barretal is here referred to _S. h. berlandieri_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 69: Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 24; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 11 mi. W, 8 mi. S Piedra, 2000 ft., 1; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N El Mante, 3 km. W highway, 300 ft., 3; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 6 mi. N Gómez Farías, 300 ft., 3; 8 km. W, 10 km. N El Encino, 400 ft., 2; 2 km. W El Carrizo, 2100 ft., 20; 6 mi. N, 6 mi. W Altamira, 8; 6 mi. N, 4 mi. W Altamira, 1; 5 mi. N, 5 mi. W Altamira, 3; 1 mi. S Altamira, 1; 16 km. N Tampico, 3. Additional records: Rancho del Cielo, 15 to 20 mi. S Mesa de Llera (Hooper, 1953:9); Cd. Mante (Ingles, 1959:398); Tampico (Booth, 1957:15). =Neotoma albigula subsolana= Alvarez White-throated Woodrat 1962. _Neotoma albigula subsolana_ Alvarez, Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:141, April 30, type from Miquihuana, 6400 ft., Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Western side of Sierra Madre Oriental. At Nicolás specimens were taken in traps set along a thorn fence and at Tajada two specimens were trapped along a rock wall. At other places some specimens were brought in by natives who captured the rats by tearing apart their houses. Five females taken on October 18 at Nicolás carried embryos (one to two per female), which averaged 22.2 (11-45) mm. in crown-rump length. Another female, taken nine miles southwest of Tula on October 13, carried 2 embryos that were 35 mm. in crown-rump length. The average weight of the five pregnant females was 196.7 (183-207) grams. The average weights of nine adult males and six non-pregnant females from Miquihuana were, respectively, 215.6 (175-250) and 162.5 (155-175) grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 51: Miquihuana, 6400 ft., 22; Joya Verde, 35 km. SW Cd. Victoria (on Jaumave Road) 3800 ft., 2; Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft., 10; Tajada, 23 mi. NW Tula, 5200 ft, 2; 9 mi. SW Tula, 3900 ft., 15. Additional record: Jaumave (Goldman, 1910:37). =Neotoma angustapalata= Baker Tamaulipas Wood Rat 1951. _Neotoma angustapalata_ Baker, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:217, December 15, type from 70 km. by highway S Ciudad Victoria, and 6 km. W Pan-American highway at El Carrizo, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southern part of state; presently known from two localities. Baker (1951:218) reported that specimens from the type locality were taken in crevices among rocks on a small hillside that supported a sparse cover of vegetation growing from a deep layer of humus. The specimen from eight kilometers west and 10 kilometers north of El Encino was shot about 40 yards from the entrance to a large cave, but no sign of wood rats were found there. Hooper (1953:9) reported that _N. angustapalata_ occupied caves at Rancho del Cielo, where a female with two nursing young was taken. When Baker (_op. cit._) described _Neotoma angustapalata_ on the basis of two specimens from El Carrizo, he assigned the species to the _N. mexicana_ group because of the deep anterointernal re-entrant angle of M1. The deep angle found in _N. mexicana_ differs markedly from the typical condition in either _N. micropus_ or _N. albigula_. Study of the cranial characters and bacula of specimens of _N. micropus_ and _N. angustapalata_ tends to corroborate the statement of Hooper (1953:10), who commented on the taxonomic relationships of _N. angustapalata_ as follows: "It should be pointed out that all characters considered ... the specimens [_angustapalata_] appear to be large, deeply pigmented examples of the species _N. micropus_ notwithstanding the deep anterior fold in M1. The presence of that deep fold is far from an absolute character in the _mexicanus_ [_sic_] group." My study of 48 crania of _N. micropus_ from Tamaulipas reveals that the depth of the re-entrant angle of M1 is extremely variable, from almost absent in some individuals to deep (as in _angustapalata_) in others. Four specimens, one (56958) from the Sierra de Tamaulipas and three (56960, 56965, 56966) from the vicinity of Altamira, have the re-entrant angle as deep as in the holotype and topotype of _angustapalata_. Comparison of the bacula of the holotype and one topotype of _angustapalata_ with 15 bacula of _N. micropus_ reveal that on the average the baculum of _angustapalata_ differs from that of _micropus_ in being longer, and narrower at the base (greatest length, 7.1, width at base, 3.4 mm., in the topotype). One specimen of _N. micropus littoralis_ from the vicinity of Altamira, however, has a baculum of the same shape as in _angustapalata_ (this same specimen is one of the three from there in which the re-entrant angle of the M1 is deep). The shape of the baculum among specimens of _micropus_ is highly variable and bacula of specimens from different localities frequently are slightly different (see Fig. 5). [Illustration: FIG. 5. Bacula of _Neotoma_. All × 4. A, _Neotoma angustipalata_ (topotype, 37062). B, _Neotoma micropus micropus_ (4 mi. SW Nuevo Laredo, 89147). C, _Neotoma micropus littoralis_ (Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 56957). ] The known distributions of _N. micropus_ and _N. angustapalata_ do not overlap (neither does the distribution of _N. albigula_ overlap with either in Tamaulipas). The four specimens of _N. micropus_ having the deep re-entrant angle in M1 are from localities near where the ranges of _angustapalata_ and _micropus_ probably meet. This could be interpreted in two ways: (1) these four specimens can be regarded as intergrades between _angustapalata_ and _micropus_, in which case the former species should be placed as a subspecies of the latter. Or the four specimens, which were collected along with other specimens that lack deep re-entrant angles in the M1, can be assigned, on the basis of the deep angle, to _angustapalata_, in which case the species _micropus_ and _angustapalata_ would be in part sympatric. Until more material from critical areas is available for study, I continue to recognize _angustapalata_ as a monotypic species. I agree with Hooper that it is closely related to _N. micropus_. _Measurements._--A female (58865) from 8 km. west and 10 km. north of El Encino, measured as follows: 404; 198; 41; 32; greatest length of skull, 49.7; basilar length, 40.8; zygomatic breadth, 25.9; length of nasals, 18.8; length of incisive foramina, 10.8; length of maxillary tooth-row, 9.9; greatest breadth of interpterygoid space, 4.0. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 3: 8 km. W, 10 km. N El Encino, 400 ft., 1; type locality, 2. =Neotoma micropus= Southern Plains Wood Rat Most of the specimens examined were trapped in brushy areas. On the Sierra de Tamaulipas, wood rats were caught in steel traps set near or between rocks. In the vicinity of La Pesca, specimens were trapped on the beach where _Spermophilus spilosoma_ and _Sigmodon hispidus_ were taken also. Two females, obtained on May 19 and June 10 at Soto la Marina and on the Sierra de Tamaulipas, respectively, each carried 2 embryos that were 40 mm. in crown-rump length. Dice (1937:254) reported that two females collected on July 24 and August 16 on the Sierra San Carlos each carried 2 embryos that ranged from 34 to 36 mm. in crown-rump length. _Neotoma micropus_ occurs throughout the Tamaulipan Biotic Province and is represented in Tamaulipas by two subspecies, each of which has its type locality in the state. Intergradation between the two takes place at Soto la Marina. =Neotoma micropus littoralis= Goldman 1905. _Neotoma micropus littoralis_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 18:31, February 2, type from Altamira, 100 ft., Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--From the Sierra de Tamaulipas southward. Weight of two males and three non-pregnant females was 248, 254, 185, 210, 240 grams, respectively. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 14: Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 6; 6 mi. N, 6 mi. W Altamira, 8. Additional record: Altamira (Goldman, 1910:29). =Neotoma micropus micropus= Baird 1855. _Neotoma micropus_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:333, April, type from Charco Escondido, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--From Soto la Marina northward. The weight of five males and four females from Soto la Marina averaged, respectively, 256.4 (210-317) and 233.0 (195-274) grams. A specimen (56924) from La Pesca differs from all other specimens of _N. micropus_ examined in being smaller, having a conspicuously shorter rostrum, broader intraorbital canal, and lower broader braincase. External measurements of this specimen are as follows: 347; 155; 39; --. Its cranial measurements are: greatest length, 44.8; basilar length, 34.3; zygomatic breadth, 23.6; interorbital constriction, 6.2; incisive foramina, 6.5; length of maxillary tooth-row, 8.7; width of mesopterygoid fossa, 4.1. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 58: 4 mi. SW Nuevo Laredo, 900 ft., 14; 4-1/2 mi. S Nuevo Laredo, 1; 3 mi. SE Reynosa, 1; 3 mi. S Matamoros, 2; 33 mi. S Washington Beach, 1; San Fernando, 180 ft., 1; 7 km. S, 2 km. W San Fernando, 2; 12 mi. NW San Carlos, 1300 ft., 4; 9-1/2 mi. SW Padilla, 800 ft., 3; 3 mi. N Soto la Marina, 3; Soto la Marina, 500 ft., 12; 4 mi. N La Pesca, 3; 1 mi. E La Pesca, 1; La Pesca, 2; 3 mi. NE Guemes, 1; 7 mi. NE Cd. Victoria, 1; Cd. Victoria, 6. Additional records (Goldman, 1910:28, unless otherwise noted): Nuevo Laredo; 10 mi. S Nuevo Laredo (Booth, 1957:15); Camargo; Matamoros; Bagdad; 40 mi. S Matamoros (Hooper, 1953:9); Sierra San Carlos (El Mulato, Tamaulipeca) (Dice, 1937:254); San Fernando (J. A. Allen, 1891:224); Forlón. =Microtus mexicanus subsimus= Goldman Mexican Vole 1938. _Microtus mexicanus subsimus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 19:494, November 14, type from Sierra Guadalupe, southeastern Coahuila. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Reported only from mountains near Miquihuana (Goldman, 1938:495). =Canis latrans= Coyote In Tamaulipas two and possibly three subspecies of _Canis latrans_ occur. _C. l. texensis_ is known only from the northwesternmost part of the state, and _C. l. microdon_ occurs from Camargo south to Nicolás. Hall and Kelson (1959:845) guessed that _C. l. cagottis_ would be found in the southern third of the state; as yet specimens from there have not been obtained and the subspecific identity of the coyotes there, if any are present, remains in doubt. =Canis latrans microdon= Merriam 1897. _Canis microdon_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:29, March 15, type from Mier, on Río Grande, Tamaulipas. 1932. _Canis latrans microdon_, Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 45:224, November 26. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably state-wide, reported only from the northern half of the state. Three specimens were examined. One is a pup from the vicinity of Padilla which is assigned to this subspecies on geographic grounds. The other two are skins, collected at Nicolás by natives, who deceived the collector by providing dog skulls with the coyote skins. These two specimens are referred to _C. l. microdon_ on the basis of their dark color and dusky shading on the throat and chest. One has a rufous over-all color and the other is ochraceous yellowish. This difference in color suggests intergradation at this place between _C. l. microdon_ that ranged to the northeast, _C. l. cagottis_ to the south, and probably with _C. l. impavidus_ distributed to the west. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 3: 9-1/2 mi. SW Padilla, 800 ft., 1; Nicolás, 53 km. N Tula, 2. Additional record: Camargo (Jackson, 1951:305); 20 mi. W Reynosa (Ingles, 1959:401); Matamoros (Jackson, 1951:305); Bagdad (_ibid._); Sierra San Carlos (San Miguel, El Mulato) (Dice, 1937:251). =Canis latrans texensis= V. Bailey 1905. _Canis nebrascensis texensis_ V. Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 25:175, October 24, type from 45 mi. SW Corpus Christi at Santa Gertrudis, Kleberg Co., Texas. 1932. _Canis latrans texensis_ V. Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 53:312, March 11. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Extreme northwest, known only from Nuevo Laredo (Jackson, 1951:279). =Canis lupus monstrabilis= Goldman Gray Wolf 1937. _Canis lupus monstrabilis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 18:42, February 11, type from 10 mi. S Rankin, Upton Co., Texas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably extinct, recorded only from Matamoros (Goldman, 1944:468). On the maps of distribution of _C. l. monstrabilis_ published by Leopold (1959:400) and Baker and Villa (1960:370), Tamaulipas is included in the region in which the wolf is considered to be extinct. =Urocyon cineroargenteus scottii= Mearns Gray Fox 1891. _Urocyon virginianus scottii_ Mearns, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:236, June 5, type from Pinal Co., Arizona. 1895. _Urocyon cinereo-argenteus scottii_, J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 7:253, June. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--All of state in suitable habitats. The specimen from the Sierra Madre Oriental was obtained by a collector who used a rabbit call. Leopold (1959:408) reported that the highest elevation [about 2800 feet] at which he found gray fox in México was at Hacienda de Acuña, in the Sierra de Tamaulipas, where "dense, brushy draws and oak openings made ideal habitat." At this place Leopold saw, in early August, a family of foxes, four well-grown young and their parents. Dice (1937:250) reported _U. c. texensis_ (a junior synonym of _U. c. scottii_), as abundant in the Sierra San Carlos. The six specimens examined do not present any significant difference in size and shape of the skull from specimens of _scottii_ from Arizona, except that one skull from the Sierra de Tamaulipas is smaller than the others, suggesting intergradation between the subspecies _scottii_ and _tropicalis_ from farther south. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 6: 2 mi. W San Fernando, 180 ft., 1; 15 km. W Rancho Santa Rosa, Sierra Madre Oriental, 4500 ft., 1; Ejido Santa Isabel, 2000 ft., 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 2; Joya Verde, 35 km. SW Victoria, 3800 ft., 1. Additional records: Near Marmolejo, San Carlos Mts. (Dice, 1937:250); Hacienda Acuña, Sierra de Tamaulipas (Leopold, 1959:408, only seen); La Joya de Salas (Goodwin, 1954:14). =Ursus americanus eremicus= Merriam Black Bear 1904. _Ursus americanus eremicus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:154, October 6, type from Sierra Guadalupe, Coahuila. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably in high and remote parts of the Sierra Madre Oriental; recorded only from Agua Linda (Goodwin, 1954:14). =Bassariscus astutus flavus= Rhoads Ringtail 1894. _Bassariscus astutus flavus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 45:417, January 30, type from Texas, exact locality unknown. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Western half of state. The two specimens examined provide the second record of this species in Tamaulipas; they were shot in the bottom of an arid canyon. One animal was about 30 feet up from the ground in an oak tree, and the other was along a small arroyo containing pools of water. From Rhoads' paper (1893:416-417) on the genus _Bassariscus_ it would seem that _B. astutus flavus_ differs from _B. a. astutus_ in smaller size, especially of the skull, shorter tail (shorter than head and body in _flavus_ and longer than head and body in _astutus_) and the presence of fulvous color. Comparison of 10 specimens of _B. a. flavus_ from Coahuila and Texas with two of _B. a. astutus_ (Distrito Federal, 1; Las Vigas, Veracruz, 1) from central México reveals that the skulls do not differ qualitatively and that the skull of _flavus_ tends to be smaller and relatively wider, but that there is overlap in size. In all _flavus_ that I measured and in the two adults of _astutus_ the tail is shorter than the head and body. The only real difference is the color; ringtails from Texas are deep fulvous instead of grayish as is _astutus_ from the Distrito Federal and Veracruz. But the specimen from Veracruz has much fulvous and on the other hand specimens from Coahuila are more grayish than those from Texas. The two specimens from Tamaulipas can be assigned to either subspecies _astutus_ or _flavus_ with almost equal propriety. Here they are referred to _B. a. flavus_ on the basis of their relatively small skull, short tail, and presence of some fulvous color. _Measurements._--Measurements of female and male (60239, 60240), both adult, from Joya Verde, are, respectively: 745, 760; 370, 385; 70, 75; 47, 56; greatest length of skull (excluding incisors), 81.9, 83.1; zygomatic breadth, 46.1, 51.9; interorbital constriction, 16.3, 16.3; postorbital constriction, 19.5, 18.5; breadth of braincase, 33.7, 36.6; length of maxillary tooth-row, 31.5, 32.0; breadth across postorbital processes (tip to tip), 25.3, 26.8. _Records of occurrence._--Two specimens examined from Joya Verde, 35 km. SW Victoria, 3800 ft. Additional record: Joya de Salas (Goodwin, 1954:14). =Procyon lotor= Racoon Racoons occur all through the state. The one specimen examined was shot about 11:00 p. m. in a cypress tree. Its mouth contained fresh corn. The animal was notably fat and weighed 11 pounds. According to the natives the racoons do much damage in cornfields. =Procyon lotor fuscipes= Mearns 1914. _Procyon lotor fuscipes_ Mearns, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:63, March 20, type from Las Moras Creek, 1011 ft., Fort Clark, Kinney Co., Texas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Practically all of state, except western part. _Records_ (Goldman, 1950:51, unless otherwise noted): Camargo; Matamoros; Bagdad; Marmolego; Camp 2 (= 73 mi. S Washington Beach, Selander _et al._, 1962:338, recorded only two species); Gómez Farías (Goodwin, 1954:14); Altamira. =Procyon lotor hernandezii= Wagler 1831. _Pr[ocyon]. hernandezii_ Wagler, Isis von Oken, 24:514, type from Tlalpan, Valley of Mexico. 1890. _Procyon lotor hernandezi_, J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:176, December 10. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Western part of state; known only from Rancho Santa Rosa. The specimen examined is identified as _P. l. hernandezii_ because the animal differs from specimens of _P. l. fuscipes_ from southern Texas and Coahuila in the same way that Goldman (1950:50) noted that _P. l. hernandezii_ differs from _P. l. fuscipes_. For example, in the specimen from Rancho Santa Rosa the interorbital region is lower, the braincase is less depressed near the fronto-parietal suture, the postorbital process is longer and more pointed, and the upper carnassial is longer. The color is the same as in specimens of _fuscipes_ from Texas except that the postauricular spot is smaller, and the ground color is slightly more grayish. The median dorsal area is black, forming a longitudinal band about 3 cm. wide. _Record of occurrence._--One specimen examined from Rancho Santa Rosa, 25 km. N, 13 km. W Cd. Victoria. =Nasua narica molaris= Merriam Coati 1902. _Nasua narica molaris_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:68, March 22, type from Manzanillo, Colima. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Over all of state. A male and female, both adults, from the same locality in the Sierra de Tamaulipas weighed, respectively, 3,150 grams and 4,836 grams. Three young from the same place weighed 2,250, 2,250, and 2,650 grams. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 7: Sierra de Tamaulipas, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 5; Rancho Pano Ayuctle, 25 mi. N El Mante, 3 km. W Pan-American Highway, 2200 ft., 1; 2 km. W El Carrizo, 1. Additional records: Sierra San Carlos (San José, El Mulato) (Dice, 1937:249); Soto la Marina (Goldman, 1942:81); Cd. Victoria (_ibid._); 10 mi. NE Zamorina (Hooper, 1953:3); 3 mi. NW Acuña (_ibid._); 19 km. SW Mante (Davis, 1944:381). =Potos flavus aztecus= Thomas Kinkajou 1902. _Potos flavus aztecus_ Thomas, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, 9:268, April, type from Atoyac, Veracruz. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Uncertain; one specimen was seen by Leopold (1959:437) near Acuña. =Mustela frenata= Long-tailed Weasel This species occurs in practically all of the state, but as in most other areas actual records are few; only two specimens, both males, have been examined. One was taken at Jaumave, in a steel-trap baited with fresh egg. It weighed 325 grams. The other was taken in the vicinity of Altamira and weighed 434 grams. Two subspecies have been reported from Tamaulipas; _Mustela frenata frenata_ that occurs in the central and northern parts of the state and _M. f. tropicalis_ that occurs in the tropical area in the southern part of the state. =Mustela frenata frenata= Lichtenstein 1831. _Mustela frenata_ Lichtenstein, Darstellung neuer oder wenig bekannter Säugethiere ..., pl. 42 and corresponding text, unpaged, type from Ciudad México, México. 1877. _Putorius mexicanus_ Coues, Fur-bearing animals, U. S. Geol. Surv. Territories, Misc. Publ., 8:42, a _nomen nudum_ [cited by Coues in synonymy as "_Putorius mexicanus_, Berlandier, MMS. ic. ined. 4 (Tamaulipas and Matamoras)"]. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Central and northern parts of state. The specimen from Jaumave is clearly _M. f. frenata_, but the other from northwest of Altamira has many characters of the subspecies _M. f. tropicalis_ and is an intergrade between the two subspecies. In cranial features and in measurements the animal is like _frenata_. For example: least width of palate more than length of P4; distance between anterior border of auditory bulla and foramen ovale equal to the width of four (including I3) upper incisors; depth of tympanic bulla less than distance between it and foramen ovale; length of tail amounting to 82 per cent of length of head and body. The coloration is more nearly like that of _tropicalis_. For example, the region between the ears and the region behind the ears as far as the shoulders is almost black; hairs of the soles of the forefeet are of the same color as in _tropicalis_. But, width of the whitish underparts amounts to 53 per cent of the circumference of the body; in this respect the specimen is like _frenata_. I refer the specimen to _frenata_ because, to me, it is slightly more nearly like it. _Measurements._--The male from 6 mi. N, 6 mi. W Altamira affords measurements as follows: 500; 226; 53; 23; basilar length (Hensel), 49.5; breadth of rostrum, 14.3; interorbital constriction, 11.9; orbitonasal length, 15.2; mastoid breadth, 27.2; zygomatic breadth, 32.4; tympanic bullae, length, 16.8; breadth, 7.5; length of m1, 5.7; P4, lateral length, 5.4, medial, 5.8; M1, breadth, 4.6, length, 2.4; depth of skull at anterior edge of basioccipital, 14.7. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 2: Jaumave, 2400 ft., 1; 6 mi. N, 6 mi. W Altamira, 1. Additional records (Hall, 1951:347): Matamoros; Miquihuana. =Mustela frenata tropicalis= (Merriam) 1896. _Putorius tropicalis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:30, June 30, type from Jico, Veracruz. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Tropical area in south part of state; reported only from 50 mi. south of Ciudad Victoria (Hall, 1951:366). =Eira barbara senex= (Thomas) Tayra 1900. _Galictis barbara senex_ Thomas, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, 5:146, January, type from Hacienda Tortugas, approximately 600 ft., Jalapa, Veracruz. 1951. _Eira barbara senex_, Hershkovitz, Fieldiana-Zool., 31:561, July 10. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from Pano Ayuctle (Hooper, 1953:4). =Taxidea taxus= Badger The badger in Tamaulipas is poorly known because only a few specimens have been reported from the state. I have examined only two; one is the skull of a juvenile picked up in the sea along the barrier beach and the other is the skull of an adult male taken in a steel-trap baited with a bird body and rabbit meat. The trap was set in front of a hole in the semidesert area 12 miles south of San Carlos. On their map 471 Hall and Kelson (1959:927) show a total of five subspecies of _Taxidea taxus_. They include the northern part of Tamaulipas in the geographic range of _T. t. berlandieri_. On page 926 Hall and Kelson (_op. cit._) list ten additional subspecies described by Schantz. One of them _T. t. littoralis_ (Schantz, 1949:301) was based on specimens from southeastern Texas and Matamoros, Tamaulipas. Of the two specimens examined by me the one from the barrier beach is here assigned to _T. l. littoralis_ on geographic grounds, and the other one from the vicinity of San Carlos to _T. l. berlandieri_. =Taxidea taxus berlandieri= Baird 1858. _Taxidea berlandieri_ Baird, Mammals, in Repts. Expl. Surv. ..., 8(1):205, July 14, type from Llano Estacado, Texas, near boundary of New Mexico. 1895. _Taxidea taxus berlandieri_, J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 7:256, June 29. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Reported from only one locality, in northwestern part of state. The skull examined, of an adult male, differs from Coahuilan and New Mexican skulls in having a broad rostrum, better developed sagittal and lambdoidal crests, and smaller tympanic bullae. The measurements are greater than those given by Schantz (1949:302) for _T. l. littoralis_ and it is for that reason that the skull examined is assigned to _T. l. berlandieri_. _Measurements._--The adult male measured as follows: 710; 115; 110; 55; condylobasal length, 123.1; zygomatic breadth, 81.1; mastoid breadth, 75.5; interorbital constriction, 29.3; least postorbital constriction, 27.6; length of maxillary tooth-row, 42.7; P4, length, 11.9, width, 10.7; M1, length, 11.7, width, 11.7; tympanic bulla, length, 23.3, depth (from basioccipital), 12.8. _Record of occurrence._--One specimen examined from 12 mi. S San Carlos, 1300 ft. =Taxidea taxus littoralis= Schantz 1949. _Taxidea taxus littoralis_ Schantz, Jour. Mamm., 30:301, August 17, type from Corpus Christi, Nueces Co., Texas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Known only from two localities in northeastern part of state. _Records of occurrence._--One specimen examined from 33 mi. S Washington Beach. Additional record: Matamoros (Schantz, 1949:302). =Spilogale putorius interrupta= (Rafinesque) Eastern Spotted Skunk 1820. _Mephitis interrupta_ Rafinesque, Ann. Nat. ..., 1:3. Type locality, Upper Missouri River?. 1952. _Spilogale putorious interrupta_, McCarley, Texas Jour. Sci., 4:108, March 30. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--From Sierra de Tamaulipas northward. The young male from La Pesca weighed 480 grams. In the Sierra de Tamaulipas a lactating female was taken (June 9) in a steel trap. A young male from there weighed 275 grams. The young male from three miles north of La Pesca weighed 520 grams. Specimens from Tamaulipas are assigned to the subspecies _interrupta_ following Van Gelder (1959:270-279). He regarded specimens from Tamaulipas as intergrades between _S. p. interrupta_ and _S. p. leucoparia_. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 6: 9-1/2 mi. SW Padilla, 1; 3 mi. N La Pesca, 1; La Pesca, 1; Rancho Santa Rosa, 2 km. N, 13 km. W Cd. Victoria, 260 m., 1; Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra, 1200 ft., 2. Additional records (Van Gelder, 1959:279): "Tamaulipas"; Cd. Victoria. =Mephitis mephitis varians= Gray Striped Skunk 1837. _Mephitis varians_ Gray, Charlesworth's Mag. Nat. Hist., 1:581. Type locality, Texas. 1936. _Mephitis mephitis varians_, Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ., 473:66, November 20. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--North half of state. _Measurements._--An adult female from San Fernando measured as follows: 710; 360; 70; 30; basilar length, 56.2; condylobasal length, 64.2; zygomatic breadth, 41.3; interorbital constriction, 19.0; length of maxillary tooth-row, 20.7. _Records of occurrence._--One specimen examined from San Fernando, 180 ft. Additional records: Mier (A. H. Howell, 1901:32); Matamoros (_ibid._); 2 mi. up stream from Marmolejo (Dice, 1937:250). =Mephitis macroura macroura= Lichtenstein Hooded Skunk 1832. _Mephitis macroura_ Lichtenstein, Darstellung neuer oder wenig bekannter Säugethiere ..., pl. 46, type from mountains northwest of the city of México. 1877. _Mephitis edulis_ Coues, Berlandier Mss., Fur-bearing Animals: ..., U. S. Geol. Surv. Territories, Miscl. Publ., 8:236. Type locality, "Inhabits most of Mexico. I have found it around San Fernando de Bexar...." _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--West of Sierra Madre Oriental. The two specimens from Jaumave are young; they were taken on different nights but in the same place. Weights of male and female, respectively, are 195 and 290 grams. The other three specimens, two young and an adult male, were brought to the collector (Bodley) by natives. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 5: San Fernando, 180 ft., 2; Jaumave, 2400 ft., 2; Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft., 1. =Conepatus mesoleucus mearnsi= Merriam Hog-nosed Skunk 1902. _Conepatus mesoleucus mearnsi_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:163, August 6, type from Mason, Mason Co., Texas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably western part of state, but presently known only from Nicolás. The specimens herein assigned to this species, represented by the skull only, differ conspicuously from those assigned to _C. leuconotus_ only in breadth of M1. _Measurements._--Measurements of a skull (sex undetermined) from Nicolás are as follows: condylobasal length, 77.1; zygomatic breadth, 52.9; postorbital constriction, 21.1; mastoid breadth, 43.7; length of maxillary tooth-row, 23.4; breadth of M1, 7.1. _Records of occurrence._--Two specimens examined from Nicolás, 56 km. NW Tula, 5500 ft. =Conepatus leuconotus texensis= Merriam Eastern Hog-nosed Skunk 1902. _Conepatus leuconotus texensis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:162, August 6, type from Brownsville, Cameron Co., Texas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--State-wide, except western part. Three specimens are assigned to this species on the basis of the breadth of M1. In comparison with skulls from the type locality, those of Tamaulipan specimens are slightly smaller and narrower. _Measurements._--Some cranial measurements of a male adult (old) from ten miles west and two miles south of Piedra are: condylobasal length, 79.0; zygomatic breadth, 52.3; postorbital constriction, 22.0; mastoid breadth, 44.2; length of maxillary tooth-row, 24.4; breadth of M1, 9.3. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 2: La Pesca, 1; Ejido Eslabones, 10 mi. W, 2 mi. S Piedra, 1200 ft., 1. Additional record: Near El Mulato (Dice, 1937:250). =Felis concolor stanleyana= Goldman Puma 1938. _Felis concolor stanleyana_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 51:63, March 18 (renaming of _F. c. youngi_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 49:137, August 22, type from Bruni Ranch, near Bruni, Webb Co., Texas). _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Restricted to mountains of state. The two specimens examined are skulls only, which were picked up in the field. In general the measurements are like those given by Goldman (1946:233) for the males of _Felis concolor stanleyana_. But the skull from Miquihuana yielded measurements that suggest intergradation between _F. c. stanleyana_ and _F. c. azteca_ of the western mountains of Tamaulipas. _Measurements._--Two skulls, one from Miquihuana and the second from 9-1/2 mi. SW Padilla, yield measurements as follows: greatest length, 214.0, 213.0; condylobasal length, 195.0, 190.0; zygomatic breadth, 146.0, 140.1; height of skull (frontals to palate), 70.0, 72.4; interorbital constriction, 41.6, 41.4; breadth of nasals (at posterior union between premaxilla and maxilla), 20.1, 17.9; length of maxillary tooth-row, 62.7, 63.3; crown length of P3, 23.3, ----; breadth of P3, 11.9, 12.2; anteroposterior diameter of upper canine, 15.1, 15.3. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 2: 9-1/2 mi. SW Padilla, 800 ft., 1; Miquihuana, 6400 ft., 1. Additional records: Matamoros (Goldman, 1946:234); Zamorina (Hooper, 1953:4). =Felis onca veraecrucis= Nelson and Goldman Jaguar 1933. _Felis onca veraecrucis_ Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 14:236, August 17, type from San Andrés Tuxtla, Veracruz. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Originally all of state; now restricted to sparsely populated areas. Only one cranium, from the Sierra de Tamaulipas, was examined. It is in good condition but lacks all the teeth except P3 and P4 on the right side. The measurements are larger than those given by Goodwin (1954:15) for a skull from five miles north of Gómez Farías. _Measurements._--The cranium, sex undetermined, from the Sierra de Tamaulipas, affords measurements as follows: greatest length, 238.0; condylobasal length, 204.0; zygomatic breadth, 166.0; breadth of rostrum, 66.1; interorbital constriction, 48.2; mastoid breadth, 100.7; crown length of carnassial, 24.1. _Records of occurrence._--One specimen examined from Sierra de Tamaulipas, 2 mi. S, 10 mi. W Piedra. Additional records: between Aldama and Soto la Marina (Nelson and Goldman, 1933:237); 5 km. N Gómez Farías (Goodwin, 1954:15). =Felis pardalis albescens= Pucheran Ocelot 1855. _Felis albescens_ Pucheran, in I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Mammiferes, in Petit-Thoaurs, Voyage autor du monde sur ... _la Venus_ ..., Zoologie, p. 149, type locality, Arkansas. 1906. _Felis pardalis albescens_, J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 22:219, July 25. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--All of state, except part west of Sierra Madre Oriental. Hall and Kelson (1959:961) reported from Tamaulipas two subspecies of _Felis pardalis_. According to Goldman (1943:379) the more northern of the two, _F. p. albescens_, is smaller than the more southern one, _F. p. pardalis_. The skull examined, of a young female, from 10 miles north of Altamira, in southern Tamaulipas, is small, smaller even than skulls of _albescens_ from Texas used in comparison. For this reason I here assign the specimen examined to _F. p. albescens_ instead of _F. p. pardalis_ as did Hall and Kelson (_op. cit._). Hooper (1953:4) and Dice (1937:251) report as _F. p. pardalis_ specimens from 10 miles northeast of Zamorina and others from the Sierra San Carlos. I assume that specimens from these two places should be referred to _albescens_ since the specimen from 10 miles north of Altamira, the southernmost locality represented in Tamaulipas, is here referred to _albescens_. _Measurements._--Skull, from 10 mi. N of Altamira, measured as follows: condylobasal length, 97.3; zygomatic breadth, 77.6; squamosal constriction, 50.5; interorbital constriction, 22.2; postorbital constriction, 32.1; length of maxillary tooth-row, 34.7; length of upper carnassial crown (outer side), 13.6. _Records of occurrence._--One specimen examined, from 10 mi. N Altamira. Additional records: Matamoros (Goldman, 1943:379); Sierra San Carlos (El Mulato and San José) (Dice, 1937:251); Soto la Marina (Goldman, 1943:379); 10 mi. NE Zamorina (Hooper, 1934:4). =Felis wiedii oaxacensis= Nelson and Goldman Margay 1931. _Felis glaucula oaxacensis_ Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 12:303, August 24, type from Cerro San Felipe, 10,000 ft., near Oaxaca, Oaxaca. 1943. _Felis wiedii oaxacensis_, Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 24:383, August 17. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably along Sierra Madre Oriental; known only from Rancho del Cielo (Goodwin, 1954:15). =Felis yaguaroundi cacomitli= Berlandier Yaguaroundi 1895. _Felis cacomitli_ Berlandier, _in_ Baird, Mammals of the boundary, _in_ Emory, Rept. U. S. and Mexican boundary survey 2(2):12, January, type from Matamoros, Tamaulipas. 1905. _Felis yaguaroundi cacomitli_, Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 105, Zool. Ser., 6:370, December 6. 1901. _Felis apache_ Mearns, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:150, August 9, type from Matamoros, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Eastern and northern parts of Sierra Madre Oriental; known only from type locality and near Gómez Farías (Goodwin, 1954:15). =Lynx rufus texensis= J. A. Allen Bobcat 1895. _Lynx texensis_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 7:188, June 20, based on the description of a bobcat by Audubon and Bachman, The viviparous quadrupeds of North America, 2:293, 1851, from "the vicinity of Castroville, on the headwaters of the Medina [River]," Medina Co., Texas. 1897. _Lynx rufus texensis_, Mearns, Preliminary diagnoses of new mammals ... from the Mexican boundary line, p. 2, January 12 (preprint of Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 20:458, December 24). _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably occurs in western half of state; known only from two localities. The specimen examined was shot at night at about 3:00 a. m. in the beam of a headlight in typical scrub "monte." The native name for this bobcat in Tamaulipas is "gato rabón." _Measurements._--A male, from Rancho Santa Rosa, measured as follows: 885; 170; 172; 71; condylobasal length, 105.2; interorbital constriction, 22.5; postorbital constriction, 34.6; zygomatic breadth, 83.5; squamosal constriction, 51.7; length of maxillary tooth-row (C-P2), 38.2; length of upper carnassial (outer side), 14.5. _Record of occurrence._--One specimen examined from Rancho Santa Rosa, 360 m. Additional records: Matamoros (Baird, 1858:96); El Mulato (Dice, 1937:251). =Trichechus manatus latirostris= (Harlan) Manatee 1823. _Manatus latirostris_ Harlan, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 3(1):394. Type locality, near the capes of East Florida. 1934. _Trichechus manatus latirostris_, Hatt, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 66:538, September 10. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Reported from mouth of Río Grande (Miller and Kellogg, 1955:791); probably extirpated in state. =Tayassu tajacu angulatus= (Cope) Collared Peccary 1889. _Dicotyles angulatus_ Cope, Amer. Nat., 23:147, February, type from Guadalupe River, Texas. 1953. _Tayassu tajacu angulatus_, Dalquest, Louisiana State Univ. Studies, Biol. Sci. Ser., 1:207, December 28. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--All of state, in suitable habitats. Records: Near El Mulato (Dice, 1937:256); Alta Cima (Goodwin, 1954:15); Rancho del Cielo (_ibid._); approx. 10 mi. N Cues (Leopold, 1947:443 map). =Odocoileus hemionus crooki= (Mearns) Mule Deer 1897. _Dorcelaphus crooki_ Mearns, Preliminary diagnoses of new mammals of the genera _Mephitis_, _Dorcelaphus_ and _Dicotyles_, from the Mexican border ..., p. 2, February 11, type locality summit Dog Mtns., 6129 ft., Hidalgo Co., New Mexico. 1939. _Odocoileus hemionus crooki_, Goldman and Kellogg, Jour. Mamm., 20:507, November 14. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Reported only from Cerro del Tigre (Leopold, 1959:504), but probably throughout western part of state. Now rare in the state. =Odocoileus virginianus= White-tailed Deer This species is relatively abundant in Tamaulipas from where three subspecies have been reported. Two specimens examined were shot at night. =Odocoileus virginianus miquihuanensis= Goldman and Kellogg 1940. _Odocoileus virginianus miquihuanensis_ Goldman and Kellogg, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 53:84, June 28, type from Sierra Madre Oriental, 6000 ft., near Miquihuana, Tamaulipas. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Throughout Sierra Madre Oriental. An adult male, having two points on each antler, and a young male were examined and identified as this subspecies because of their small size and dark color. _Measurements._--A male from 15 km. W Rancho Santa Rosa affords measurements as follows: 1385; 245; 330; 154; condylobasal length, 234; length of maxillary tooth-row, 76.3; width across orbits at frontal-jugal suture, 100.9. _Records of occurrence_.--Specimens examined, 2: 15 km. W Rancho Santa Rosa, 4500 ft., 1; Ejido Santa Isabel, 2000 ft., 1. Additional records (Goodwin, 1954:15): San Antonio, 11 km. SW Joya de Salas; Rancho Pano Ayuctle. =Odocoileus virginianus texanus= (Mearns) 1898. _Dorcelaphus texanus_ Mearns, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:23, January 27, type from Fort Clark [north of Eagle Pass on Big Bend of Rio Grande], Kinney Co., Texas. 1902. _Dama v[irginiana]. texensis_ [_sic_], J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:20, February 1. 1901. _Odocoileus texensis_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:17, December 27, an accidental renaming of _texanus_. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Probably all of northern part of state. Two fragments of lower jaw from the barrier beach were examined and assigned to this subspecies on geographic grounds. _Records of occurrence._--Specimens examined, 2, fragments from 33 mi. S Washington Beach. Additional records: Sierra San Carlos (El Mulato and Sardinia) (Dice, 1937:256). =Odocoileus virginianus veraecrucis= Goldman and Kellogg 1940. _Odocoileus virginianus veraecrucis_ Goldman and Kellogg, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 53:89, June 28, type from Chijol, 200 ft., Veracruz. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Tropical area, reported only from Soto la Marina (Miller and Kellogg, 1955:806) and Savinito Tierre [= Tierra] Caliente (J. A. Allen, 1881:184) and Tampico (_ibid._) as _Cariacus virginianus mexicanus_. =Mazama americana temama= (Kerr) Red Brocket 1782. _Cervus temama_ Kerr, The Animal kingdom ..., p. 303. Type locality, restricted to Mirador, Veracruz, by Hershkovitz (Fieldiana-Zool., Chicago Nat. Hist. Mus., 31:567, July 10, 1951). 1951. _Mazama americana temama_, Hershkovitz. Fieldiana-Zool., Chicago Nat. Hist. Mus., 31:567, July 10. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Southern part of state in tropical area. The specimen examined is conspicuously darker than specimens from Veracruz and Chiapas, being especially more brownish and less reddish. _Records of occurrence._--One specimen examined from Rancho Pano Ayuctle (skin only). Additional records: Alta Cima (Goodwin, 1954:15); Rancho del Cielo (Hooper, 1953:10). =Antilocapra americana mexicana= Merriam Pronghorn 1901. _Antilocapra americana mexicana_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:31, April 5, type from Sierra en Media, Chihuahua. _Distribution in Tamaulipas._--Originally in the northern part of state; now absent from Tamaulipas. _Antilocapra_ is here included on the basis of a skull recorded by Baird (1858:669) from Matamoros. J. A. Allen (1881:184) doubted the occurrence of this animal in Tamaulipas because Dr. Palmer found no indications of the presence of _Antilocapra_ in any portion of the area that he traversed, which apparently was only southern Tamaulipas. I am sure that the pronghorn is extinct in Tamaulipas, but its occurrence in the northern part of the state in relatively recent time (more than 100 years ago) seems possible because the habitat in northern Tamaulipas is suitable for the pronghorn. LITERATURE CITED ALLEN, H. 1862. Descriptions of two new species of Vespertilionidae, and some remarks on the genus Antrozous. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, pp. 246-248, between May 27 and August 1. 1894. A monograph of the bats of North America. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 43:ix + 198, 38 pls., March 14. ALLEN, J. A. 1881. _List of mammals collected by Dr. Edward Palmer in northeastern Mexico, with field-notes by the collector._ Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 8:183-189, March. 1891. _On a collection of mammals from southern Texas and northeastern Mexico._ Bull. Amer. Nat. Hist., 3:219-229, December. 1891. A preliminary study of the North American opossums of the genus Didelphis. _Ibid._, 14:149-188, 4 pls., June 15. ALVAREZ, T. 1961. Taxonomic status of some mice of the Peromyscus boylii group in eastern México, with description of a new subspecies. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:111-120, 1 fig., December 29. 1962. A new subspecies of ground squirrel (Spermophilus spilosoma) from Tamaulipas, México. _Ibid._, 14:121-124, March 7. ANDERSON, S. 1956. Extensions of known ranges of Mexican bats. _Ibid._, 9:347-351, August 15. ANTHONY, H. E. 1923. Mammals from Mexico and South America. Amer. Mus. Novit., 54:1-10, 2 figs., January 17. BAILEY, V. 1895. Biological survey of Texas. N. Amer. Fauna, 25:1-222, 23 figs., 8 pls., October 24. BAIRD, S. T. 1855. _Characteristics of some new species of Mammalia, collected by the U. S. and Mexican Boundary Survey, Major W. H. Emory, U. S. A. Commissioner._ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:331-333, April. 1858. Mammals. _In_ General report upon the Zoology of the Several Pacific railroad routes. U. S. P. R. R. Exp. and Surveys, pp. xlviii + 757, 60 pls., July 14. BAKER, R. H. 1951. Mammals from Tamaulipas, México. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:207-218, December 15. 1956. Mammals of Coahuila, México. _Ibid._, 9:125-335, 75 figs., June 15. 1958. El futuro de la fauna silvestre en el norte de México. Anal. Inst. Biol., México, 28:349-357, June 14. BAKER, R. H., and VILLA R., B. 1960. Distribución geographica y población actuales del lobo gris en México. _Ibid._, 30:369-374, 1 map, March 31. BOOTH, E. S. 1957. Mammals collected in Mexico from 1951 to 1956 by the Walla Walla College Museum of Natural History. Walla Walla College Publ., 20:1-19, 3 maps, July 10. BURT, W. H. 1959. The history and affinities of the Recent land mammals of western North America. _In_ Zoogeography. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Publ., 116, February 10. BURT, W. H., and STIRTON, R. A. 1961. The mammals of El Salvador. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 117:1-69, 2 figs., September 22. CARTER, D. C., and DAVIS, W. B. 1961. _Tadarida aurispinosa_ (Peale) (Chiroptera: Molossidae) in North America. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 74:161-165, August 11. DALQUEST, W. W. 1951. Two new mammals from Central Mexico. _Ibid._, 64:105-107, August 24. 1953. Mammals of the Mexican state of San Luis Potosí. Louisiana St. Univ. Press, pp. 1-133, 1 fig., December 28. DALQUEST, W. W., and HALL, E. R. 1949. A new subspecies of funnel-eared bat (Natalus mexicanus) from eastern Mexico. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 62:153-154, August 23. DAVIS, W. B. 1944. Notes on Mexican mammals. Jour. Mamm., 25:270-403, December 12. 1951. Bat, _Molossus nigricans_, eaten by the rat snake, _Elaphe laeta_. _Ibid._, 32:219, May 21. 1958. Review of Mexican bats of the Artibeus "cinereus" complex. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 71:163-166, December 31. DAVIS, W. B., and CARTER, D. C. 1962. Notes on Central American bats with description of a new subspecies of Mormoops. Southwestern Nat., 7:64-74, 1 fig., June 1. DE LA TORRE, L. 1954. Bats from southern Tamaulipas, Mexico. Jour. Mamm., 35:113-116, February 10. 1955. Bats from Guerrero, Jalisco and Oaxaca, Mexico. Fieldiana-Zool., 37:695-701, 1 fig., 2 pls., June 19. DICE, L. R. 1937. Mammals of the San Carlos Mountains and vicinity. Univ. Michigan Studies Sci. Ser., 12:245-268, 3 pls. 1943. The Biotic Provinces of North America. Univ. Michigan Press, pp. viii + 78, 1 map. FINDLEY, J. S. 1955. Taxonomy and distribution of some American shrews. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 7:613-618, June 10. 1960. Identity of the long-eared Myotis of the southwest and Mexico. Jour. Mamm., 41:16-20, 1 fig., 1 pl., February 20. GOLDMAN, E. A. 1911. Revision of the spiny pocket mice (Genus Heteromys and Liomys). N. Amer. Fauna, 34:1-70, 6 figs., 3 pls., September 7. 1915. Five new mammals from Mexico and Arizona. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:133-137, June 29. 1918. The rice rats of North America (Genus Oryzomys). N. Amer. Fauna, 43:1-100, 11 figs., 6 pls., September 23. 1938. Three new races of Microtus mexicanus. Jour. Mamm., 19:493-495, November 14. 1942. A new white-footed mouse from Mexico. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:157-158, October 17. 1942. Notes on the coatis of the Mexican mainland. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:79-82, June 25. 1943. The races of the ocelot and margay in Middle America. Jour. Mamm., 24:372-385, August 18. 1946. _Classification of the races of the puma_, pp. 175-302, pls. 46-93, fig. 6, tables 12-13, _in_ Young, S. P., and Goldman, E. A., _The puma_, mysterious American cat. Amer. Wildlife Inst., xiv + 358 pp., 93 pls., 6 figs., 13 tables, November 16. 1950. Raccoons of North and Middle America. N. Amer. Fauna, 60:vi + 153, 2 figs., 22 pls., November 7. 1951. Biological investigations in Mexico. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 115:xiii + 476, 71 pls., 1 map, July 31. GOLDMAN, E. A., and MOORE, R. T. 1946. The Biotic Provinces of Mexico. Jour. Mamm., 26:347-360, 1 fig., February 12. GOODWIN, G. G. 1954. Mammals from Mexico collected by Marian Martin for the American Museum of Natural History. Amer. Mus. Novit, 1689:1-16, November 12. 1958. Bats of the genus _Rhogeëssa_. _Ibid._, 1923:1-17, December 31. 1959. Bats of the genus _Natalus_. _Ibid._, 1977:1-22, 2 figs., December 22. 1960. The status of _Vespertilio auripendulus_ Shaw, 1800, and _Molossus ater_ Geoffroy, 1805. _Ibid._, 1994:1-6, 1 fig., March 8. 1961. Flying squirrel (_Glaucomys volans_) of Middle America. _Ibid._, 2059:1-22, 7 figs., November 29. HALL, E. R. 1951. Mammals obtained by Dr. Curt von Wedel from the barrier beach of Tamaulipas, México. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:33-47, 1 fig., October 1. 1951. A synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha. _Ibid._, 5:119-202, 68 figs., December 15. 1951. American weasels. _Ibid._, 4:1-466, 31 figs., 41 pls., December 27. 1952. Taxonomic notes on Mexican bats of the genus Rhogeëssa. _Ibid._, 5:227-232, April 10. HALL, E. R., and ALVAREZ, T. 1961. A new subspecies of the black Myotis (bat) from eastern México. _Ibid._, 14:69-72, 1 fig., December 29. HALL, E. R., and JONES, J. K., JR. 1961. North American yellow bats, "Dasypterus," and a list of the named kinds of the genus Lasiurus Gray. _Ibid._, 14:73-98, 4 figs., December 29. HALL, E. R., and KELSON, K. R. 1959. The mammals of North America. The Ronald Press Co., vol. 1:xxx + 546 + 1-79, vol. 2:viii + 547 + 1-79, 724 figs., 500 maps, March 31. HANDLEY, C. O., JR. 1956. The taxonomic status of the _Corynorhinus phyllotis_ G. M. Allen and _Idionycteris mexicanus_ Anthony. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 69:53-54, May 21. 1959. A revision of the American bats of the genera Euderma and Plecotus. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 110:95-246, 47 figs., September 3. 1960. Descriptions of new bats from Panama. _Ibid._, 112:459-479, October 6. HERSHKOVITZ, P. 1951. Mammals from British Honduras, Mexico, Jamaica and Haiti. Fieldiana-Zool., 31:547-569, July 10. 1958. A geographic classification of Neotropical mammals. _Ibid._, 36:583-620, 2 figs., July 11. HOLLISTER, N. 1914. A systematic account of the grasshopper mice. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 47:427-489, 1 pl., October 29. 1925. The systematic name of the Texas armadillo. Jour. Mamm., 16:60, February 9. HOOPER, E. T. 1952. A systematic review of the harvest mice (Genus Reithrodontomys) of Latin America. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 77:1-255, 23 figs., 9 pls., 12 maps, January 16. 1952. Notes on mice of the species _Peromyscus boylei_ and _P. pectoralis_. Jour. 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Stackpole Co., Harrisburg, Pa., and Wildlife Manag. Inst., Washington, D. C., xv + 411 pp., 81 pls., 28 figs., 11 tables, November 29. JONES, J. K., JR., and ALVAREZ, T. 1962. Taxonomic status of the free-tailed bat, Tadarida yucatanica Miller. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist, 14:125-133, 1 fig., March 7. JONES, J. K., JR., and ANDERSON, S. 1958. Noteworthy records of harvest mice in México. Jour. Mamm., 39:446-447, August 20. KELLOGG, R., and GOLDMAN, E. A. 1944. Review of the spider monkeys. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 96:1-45, November 2. KELSON, K. R. 1952. The subspecies of the Mexican red-bellied squirrel, Sciurus aureogaster. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:243-250, April 10. LAWRENCE, B. 1947. A new race of Oryzomys from Tamaulipas. Proc. New England Zool. Club, 24:101-103, May 29. LEOPOLD, A. S. 1947. Status of Mexican Big-game herds. Trans. 12th N. Amer. Wild. Conference, pp. 437-448. 1950. Vegetation zones of Mexico. Ecology, 31:507-518, 1 fig., October. 1959. Wildlife of Mexico. The Game birds and mammals. Univ. California Press, pp. xiii + 568, 193 figs. LIDICKER, W. Z., JR. 1960. An analysis of intraspecific variation in the kangaroo rat Dipodomys merriami. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 67:125-218, 20 figs., 4 pls., August 4. LUKENS, P. W., JR., and DAVIS, W. B. 1957. Bats of the Mexican state of Guerrero. Jour. Mamm., 38:1-14, February 25. MALAGA A., A., and VILLA R., B. 1957. Algunas notas acerca de la distribución de los murciélagos de America del Norte relacionados con el problema de la rabia. Anal. Inst. Biol., México, 27:529-568, 8 figs., 10 maps, September 30. MARTIN, M., and P. S. 1954. Notes on the capture of tropical bats at cuevo [sic] El Pachon, Tamaulipas, Mexico. Jour. Mamm., 35:584-585, November. MARTIN, P. S. 1958. A biogeography of reptiles and amphibians in the Gomez Farias region, Tamaulipas, Mexico. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, 101:1-102, 7 figs., 7 pls., 4 maps, April 15. MARTIN, P. S., ROBINS, C. R., and HEED, W. B. 1954. Birds and biogeography of the Sierra de Tamaulipas, an isolated pine-oak habitat. Wilson Bull., 66:38-57, 2 figs., 1 map, March. MERRIAM, C. H. 1895. Revision of the shrews of the American genera Blarina and Notiosorex. N. Amer. Fauna, 10:1-34, 2 figs., December 31. 1895. Monographic revision of the pocket gophers, family Geomydae (Exclusive of the species Thomomys). _Ibid._, 8:1-258, 10 figs., 19 pls., 3 maps, January 31. 1898. Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Bull., 10:1-79, 1 map, June. MILLER, G. S., JR. 1897. Revision of the North American bats of the family Vespertilionidae. N. Amer. Fauna, 13:1-140, 40 figs., 3 pls., October 16. 1913. Revision of the bats of the genus Glossophaga. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 46:413-429, 1 fig., December 31. 1924. List of North American Recent mammals, 1923. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 128:xvi + 673, April 29. MILLER, G. S., JR., and ALLEN, G. M. 1928. The American bats of the genera Myotis and Pizonyx. _Ibid._, 144:vii + 217, 13 maps, May 25. MILLER, G. S., JR., and KELLOGG, R. 1955. List of North American mammals. _Ibid._, 205:xii + 954, March 3. NELSON, E. W. 1898. Description of the squirrels from Mexico and Central America. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:145-156, June 3. 1899. Revision of the squirrels of Mexico and Central America. Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 1:15-106, 2 pls., May 9. 1904. Descriptions of seven new rabbits from Mexico. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:103-110, May 18. 1909. The rabbits of North America. N. Amer. Fauna, 29:1-314, 8 pls., August 31. NELSON, E. W., and GOLDMAN, E. A. 1933. Revision of the jaguars. Jour. Mamm., 14:221-240, August 17. 1934. Revision of the pocket gophers of the genus Cratogeomys. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 47:135-153, June 13. OSGOOD, W. H. 1900. Revision of the pocket mice of the genus Perognathus. N. Amer. Fauna, 18:1-72, 15 figs., 4 pls., September 20. 1909. Revision of the mice of the American genus Peromyscus. _Ibid._, 28:1-285, 12 figs., 8 pls., April 17. 1945. Two new rodents from Mexico. Jour. Mamm., 26:299-301, November 14. PACKARD, R. L. 1960. Speciation and evolution of the pygmy mice, genus Baiomys. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:579-670, 12 figs., 4 pls., June 16. RHOADS, S. N. 1893. Geographic variation in Bassariscus astutus, with description of a new subspecies. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 45:413-418, January 30. SCHANTZ, V. S. 1949. Three new races of badgers (Taxidea) from southwestern United States. Jour. Mamm., 30:301-305, August 17. SELANDER, R. K., JOHNSTON, R. F., WILKS, B. J., and RAUN, G. G. 1962. Vertebrates from the barrier islands of Tamaulipas, México. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 12:309-345, 4 pls., June 18. SETZER, H. S. 1949. Subspeciation in the kangaroo rat Dipodomys ordii. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 1:473-573, 27 figs., December 27. SHAMEL, H. H. 1931. Notes on the American bats of the genus Tadarida. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 78:1-27, May 6. SMITH, H. M. 1949. Herpetogeny in Mexico and Guatemala. Assn. Amer. Geographers, 39:219-238, 1 fig., September. STAINS, H. J. 1957. A new bat (Genus Leptonycteris) from Coahuila. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:353-356, January 21. TAMAYO, J. L. 1949. Geografía general de México. Talleres Graficos de la Nación, México, vol. 1:vii + 628, vol. 2:1-583. VAN GELDER, R. G. 1959. A taxonomic revision of the spotted skunks (Genus _Spilogale_). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 117:233-392, 47 figs., June 15. VILLA R., B. 1954. Distribución actual de los castores en México. Anal. Inst. Biol., México, 25:443-450, 2 pls., 1 map, November 9. 1956. Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana (Saussure), el murciélago guanero, es una subespecie migratoria. Acta Zool. Mex., 1:1-11, 2 figs., September 15. 1958. El mono araña (_Ateles geoffroyi_) encontrado en la costa de Jalisco y en la región central de Tamaulipas. Anal. Inst. Biol., México, 28:345-347, June 14. VILLA R., B., and JIMENEZ G., A. 1961. Acerca de la posición taxonomica de _Mormoops megalophyla senicula_ Rehn, y la presencia de virus rabico en estos murciélagos insectivoros. _Ibid._, 31:501-509, 1 fig., April 17. VIVO, J. A. 1953. Geografía de México. Fondo de Cultura Economica, México. 3er. Ed., pp. 1-338, 37 pls. _Transmitted June 28, 1962_ 29-4228 (Continued from inside of front cover) Vol. 10. 1. Studies of birds killed in nocturnal migration. By Harrison B. Tordoff and Robert M. Mengel. Pp. 1-44, 6 figures in text, 2 tables. September 12, 1956. 2. Comparative breeding behavior of Ammospiza caudacuta and A. maritima. By Glen E. Woolfenden. Pp. 45-75, 6 plates, 1 figure. December 20, 1956. 3. The forest habitat of the University of Kansas Natural History Reservation. By Henry S. Fitch and Ronald R. McGregor. Pp. 77-127, 2 plates, 7 figures in text, 4 tables. December 31, 1956. 4. Aspects of reproduction and development in the prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster). By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 129-161, 8 figures in text, 4 tables. December 19, 1957. 5. Birds found on the Arctic slope of northern Alaska. By James W. Bee. Pp. 163-211, plates 9-10, 1 figure in text. March 12, 1958. 6. The wood rats of Colorado: distribution and ecology. By Robert B. Finley, Jr. Pp. 213-552, 34 plates, 8 figures in text, 35 tables. November 7, 1958. 7. Home ranges and movements of the eastern cottontail in Kansas. By Donald W. Janes. Pp. 553-572, 4 plates, 3 figures in text. May 4, 1959. 8. Natural history of the salamander, Aneides hardyi. By Richard F. Johnston and Gerhard A. Schad. Pp. 573-585. October 8, 1959. 9. A new subspecies of lizard, Cnemidophorus sacki, from Michoacán, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 587-598, 2 figures in text. May 2, 1960. 10. A taxonomic study of the Middle American Snake, Pituophis deppei. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 599-610, 1 plate, 1 figure in text. May 2, 1960. Index. Pp. 611-626. Vol. 11. 1. The systematic status of the colubrid snake, Leptodeira discolor Günther. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 1-9, 4 figures. July 14, 1958. 2. Natural history of the six-lined racerunner, Cnemidophorus sexlineatus. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 11-62, 9 figures, 9 tables. September 19, 1958. 3. Home ranges, territories, and seasonal movements of vertebrates of the Natural History Reservation. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 63-326, 6 plates, 24 figures in text, 3 tables. December 12, 1958. 4. A new snake of the genus Geophis from Chihuahua, Mexico. By John M. Legler. Pp. 327-334, 2 figures in text. January 28, 1959. 5. A new tortoise, genus Gopherus, from north-central Mexico. By John M. Legler. Pp. 335-343. April 24, 1959. 6. Fishes of Chautauqua, Cowley and Elk counties, Kansas. By Artie L. Metcalf. Pp. 345-400, 2 plates, 2 figures in text, 10 tables. May 6, 1959. 7. Fishes of the Big Blue river basin, Kansas. By W. L. Minckley. Pp. 401-442, 2 plates, 4 figures in text, 5 tables. May 8, 1959. 8. Birds from Coahuila, México. By Emil K. Urban. Pp. 443-516. August 1, 1959. 9. Description of a new softshell turtle from the southeastern United States. By Robert G. Webb. Pp. 517-525, 2 plates, 1 figure in text. August 14, 1959. 10. Natural history of the ornate box turtle, Terrapene ornata ornata Agassiz. By John M. Legler. Pp. 527-669, 16 pls., 29 figures in text. March 7, 1960. Index Pp. 671-703. Vol. 12. 1. Functional morphology of three bats: Eumops, Myotis, Macrotus. By Terry A. Vaughan. Pp. 1-153, 4 plates, 24 figures in text. July 8, 1959. 2. The ancestry of modern Amphibia: a review of the evidence. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Pp. 155-180, 10 figures in text. July 10, 1959. 3. The baculum in microtine rodents. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 181-216, 49 figures in text. February 19, 1960. 4. A new order of fishlike Amphibia from the Pennsylvanian of Kansas. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr., and Peggy Lou Stewart. Pp. 217-240, 12 figures in text. May 2, 1960. 5. Natural history of the bell vireo. By Jon C. Barlow. Pp. 241-296, 6 figures in text. March 7, 1962. 6. Two new pelycosaurs from the lower Permian of Oklahoma. By Richard C. Fox. Pp. 297-307, 6 figures in text. May 21, 1962. 7. Vertebrates from the barrier island of Tamaulipas, México. By Robert K. Selander, Richard F. Johnston, B. J. Wilks, and Gerald G. Raun. Pp. 309-345, pls. 5-8. June 18, 1962. 8. Teeth of Edestid sharks. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Pp. 347-362, 10 figures in text. October 1, 1962. More numbers will appear in volume 12. Vol. 13. 1. Five natural hybrid combinations in minnows (Cyprinidae). By Frank B. Cross and W. L. Minckley. Pp. 1-18. June 1, 1960. 2. A distributional study of the amphibians of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 19-72, pls. 1-8, 3 figures in text. August 16, 1960. 3. A new subspecies of the slider turtle (Pseudemys scripta) from Coahuila, México. By John M. Legler. Pp. 73-84, pls. 9-12, 3 figures in text. August 16, 1960. 4. Autecology of the copperhead. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 85-288, pls. 13-20, 26 figures in text. November 30, 1960. 5. Occurrence of the garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, in the great plains and Rocky mountains. By Henry S. Fitch and T. Paul Maslin. Pp. 289-308, 4 figures in text. February 10, 1961. 6. Fishes of the Wakarusa river in Kansas. By James E. Deacon and Artie L. Metcalf. Pp. 309-322, 1 figure in text. February 10, 1961. 7. Geographic variation in the North American Cyprinid fish, Hybopsis gracilis. By Leonard J. Olund and Frank B. Cross. Pp. 323-348, pls. 21-24, 2 figures in text. February 10, 1961. 8. Descriptions of two species of frogs, genus Ptychohyla; studies of American Hylid frogs, V. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 349-357, pl. 25, 2 figures in text. April 27, 1961. 9. Fish populations, following a drought, in the Neosho and Marais des Cygnes rivers of Kansas. By James Everett Deacon. Pp. 359-427, pls. 26-30, 3 figures in text. August 11, 1961. 10. North American recent soft-shelled turtles (family Trionychidae). By Robert G. Webb. Pp. 429-611, pls. 31-54, 24 figures in text. February 16, 1962. Index. Pp. 613-624. Vol. 14. 1. Neotropical bats from western México. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 1-8. October 24, 1960. 2. Geographic variation in the harvest mouse, Reithrodontomys megalotis, on the central great plains and in adjacent regions. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., and B. Mursaloglu. Pp. 9-27, 1 figure in text. July 24, 1961. 3. Mammals of Mesa Verde national park, Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 29-67, pls. 1 and 2, 3 figures in text. July 24, 1961. 4. A new subspecies of the black myotis (bat) from eastern México. By E. Raymond Hall and Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 69-72, 1 fig. in text. December 29, 1961. 5. North American yellow bats, "Dasypterus," and a list of the named kinds of the genus Lasiurus Gray. By E. Raymond Hall and J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 73-98, 4 figs. in text. December 29, 1961. 6. Natural history of the brush mouse (Peromyscus boylii) in Kansas with description of a new subspecies. By Charles A. Long. Pp. 99-110, 1 fig. in text. December 29, 1961. 7. Taxonomic status of some mice of the Peromyscus boylii group in eastern México, with description of a new subspecies. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 111-120, 1 fig. in text. December 29, 1961. 8. A new subspecies of ground squirrel (Spermophilus spilosoma) from Tamaulipas, México. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 121-124. March 7, 1962. 9. Taxonomic status of the free-tailed bat, Tadarida yucatanica Miller. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., and Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 125-133, 1 figure in text. March 7, 1962. 10. A new doglike carnivore, genus Cynarctus, from the Clarendonian, Pliocene, of Texas. By E. Raymond Hall and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 135-138, 2 figures in text. April 30, 1962. 11. A new subspecies of wood rat (Neotoma) from northeastern Mexico. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 139-143. April 30, 1962. 12. Noteworthy mammals from Sinaloa, Mexico. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., Ticul Alvarez, and M. Raymond Lee. Pp. 145-149, 1 figure in text. May 18, 1962. 13. A new bat (Myotis) from Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 161-164, 1 figure in text. May 21, 1962. 14. The Mammals of Veracruz. By E. Raymond Hall and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 165-362, 2 figures in text. May 20, 1963. 15. The Recent mammals of Tamaulipas, Mexico. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 363-473, 5 figures in text. May 20, 1963. More numbers will appear in volume 14. Vol. 15. 1. The amphibians and reptiles of Michoacán, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 1-148, pls. 1-6, 11 figures in text. December 20, 1961. 2. Some reptiles and amphibians from Korea. By Robert G. Webb, J. Knox Jones, Jr., and George W. Byers. Pp. 149-173. January 31, 1962. 3. A new species of frog (Genus Tomodactylus) from western México. By Robert G. Webb. Pp. 175-181, 1 figure in text. March 7, 1962. 4. Type specimens of amphibians and reptiles in the Museum of Natural History, The University of Kansas. By William E. Duellman and Barbara Berg. Pp. 183-204, October 26, 1962. More numbers will appear in volume 15. * * * * * Transcriber's Notes Page 386: Changed Pariso to Paraiso. (Orig.: Aserradero del Pariso.--22°59´, 99°15´.) Page 390: Changed: intermadius to intermedius. (Orig.: Reithrodontomys fulvescens intermadius J. A. Allen 439) Page 398: Changed Tamulipas to Tamaulipas. (Orig.: subspecies from the Sierra de Tamulipas, previously) Page 399: Retained Mormops, but possibly a typo for Mormoops. (Orig.: 1864. Mormops megalophylla Peters, Monatsb. preuss. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, p. 381, type from southern México.) Page 402: Changed embyos to embryos. (Orig.: average crown-rump length of the 10 embyos was 43) Page 409: Changed veraecrusis to veraecrucis. (Orig.: P. s. veraecrusis) Page 410: Changed veraecrusis to veraecrucis. (Orig.: specimens of veraecrusis from Las Vigas, Veracruz.) Page 411: Retained measurement (17-8) grams; possibly typo for (17-18) or (17-17.8). (Orig.: three males 17.5 (17-8) grams.) Page 426: Changed Washinton to Washington. (Orig.: personatus tropicalis Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washinton,) Page 435: Changed perargrus to peragrus. (Orig.: 1918. Oryzomys couesi perargrus, Goldman,) Page 439: Changed descripton to description. (Orig.: According to the original descripton by Davis) Page 454: Changed Gaudalupe to Guadalupe. (Orig.: type from Sierra Gaudalupe, southeastern Coahuila.) Page 454: Changed N. l. microdon to C. l. microdon. (Orig.: N. l. microdon occurs from Camargo south to Nicolás.) Page 456: Changed Gaudalupe to Guadalupe. (Orig.: type from Sierra Gaudalupe, Coahuila.) Page 457: Changed to to two. (Orig.: 1962:338, recorded only to species) Page 459: Changed synonmy to synonymy. (Orig.: cited by Coues in synonmy as "Putorius mexicanus) Page 460: Changed three occurences of Shantz to Schantz. (Orig.: by Shantz. One of them T. t. littoralis (Shantz, 1949:301)) and (measurements are greater than those given by Shantz (1949:302)) Page 461: Changed weing to wenig. (Orig.: Darstellung neuer oder weing bekannter) 
53582	----	MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON BY WALTER W. DALQUEST University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Vol. 2, pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text April 9, 1948 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1948 (7) MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON [Illustration: Mount Rainier from Indian Henry's Hunting Ground, July, 1934. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer. No. 864.)] MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON BY WALTER W. DALQUEST (Contribution from the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas) University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 2, pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text APRIL 9, 1948 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1948 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall and Donald F. Hoffmeister Volume 2, pp. 1-444. 140 figures in text April 9, 1948 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas Printed by Ferd Voiland Jr., State Printer Topeka, Kansas 1948 [Illustration: decoration] 21-1993 CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 13 PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF THE STATE 16 DISTRIBUTIONAL AREAS 20 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION 25 LIFE-ZONES AND ECOLOGY 32 GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF WASHINGTON 46 THE FAUNAS 52 SPECULATION AS TO EMIGRATIONAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS 54 SPECULATION AS TO THE LATER DISTRIBUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS 68 EXPLANATION OF TREATMENT 110 CHECK LIST OF MAMMALS 112 ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES 121 ADDENDA 416 BIBLIOGRAPHY 417 INDEX 430 ILLUSTRATIONS TOPOGRAPHY FIGURE PAGE Mount Rainier from Indian Henrys _frontispiece_ 1. Cascade Mountains at Canadian Boundary 17 2. Columbia River one mile south of Kellers Ferry 19 4. Cascade Mountains in Chelan National Forest 21 5. Mount Rainier, Yakima Park 22 6. Columbia River in Stevens County 23 7. Blue Mountains, Washington 24 8. North Side of Mount Rainier 26 9. Mount Rainier: Cowlitz Chimneys 28 10. A "pothole" crowded by drifting sand 30 12. Arctic-Alpine Life-zone on Mount Rainier 33 13. Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone 34 14. Timbered, arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone 35 15. Upper Sonoran Life-zone 37 16. Canadian Life-zone 38 18. McDowell Lake. Little Pend Oreille Wildlife Refuge 50 19. Pend Oreille River near Newport 59 20. Rocky bluff along north bank of the Columbia River 65 MAMMALS FIGURE PAGE 21. Gibbs shrew-mole 122 23. Coast mole and Townsend mole 125 25. Coast mole 128 41. Long-eared bat: female with young 161 42. Boulder Cave: habitat of long-eared bats 162 48. Female black bear and two cubs 171 49. Black bear in "hibernation" 173 54. Fisher 187 59. Wolverine 202 60. Wolverine: dried pelt 203 62. River otter 208 66. Badger 220 69. Coyote 226 72. Cougar or mountain lion: skin 234 73. Cougar or mountain lion: pelts 235 75. Canadian lynx 238 76. Trapper's catch of nine Canadian lynx 239 78. Bobcat 241 82. Townsend chipmunk 260 87. Golden-mantled ground squirrel 282 89. Feeding station of Douglas squirrel 287 91. Northern flying squirrel 292 95. Northern pocket gopher 302 96. Giant mounds formed by pocket gophers 304 97. Food cache of northern pocket gopher 306 99. Beaver 315 100. Beaver lodge and pond 316 101. Cottonwood pole carved by beaver 317 102. Road flooded by beavers 320 106. Deer mouse 327 112. Pennsylvania meadow mouse 345 115. Runways of Townsend meadow mice 350 119. Muskrat 360 121. Mountain beaver 366 123. Big jumping mouse in hibernation 370 130. Elk 392 131. Group of elk 393 132. White-tailed deer 395 133. White-tailed deer: fawn 396 134. Left antler of white-tailed deer 397 135. Antlers of white-tailed deer 398 136. Mule deer 400 137. Black-tailed deer 401 138. Mountain goat 407 139. Group of mountain goats 408 DISTRIBUTION MAPS 3. Mammalian distributional areas 20 11. Life-zones of Washington 32 17. Extent of Vashon-Wisconsin ice 48 22. Gibbs shrew-mole 123 24. Townsend mole 127 26. Coast mole 129 27. Cinereous shrew 133 28. Merriam shrew and Trowbridge shrew 134 29. Wandering shrew 137 30. Dusky shrew 140 31. Mountain water shrew 141 32. Bendire water shrew and pigmy shrew 143 33. Big myotis 147 34. Yuma myotis 149 35. Fringe-tailed myotis and Keen myotis 150 36. Long-eared myotis 152 37. Hairy-winged myotis 155 38. California myotis 156 39. Small-footed myotis 157 40. Silver-haired bat 160 43. Long-eared bat 163 44. Western pipistrelle 164 45. Big-brown bat 166 46. Hoary bat 168 47. Pallid bat 170 50. Black bear 175 51. Grizzly bears 177 52. Raccoon 181 53. Western marten 185 55. Fisher 188 56. Ermine 192 57. Long-tailed weasel 196 58. Mink 199 61. Wolverine 204 63. River otter 209 64. Civet cat 214 65. Striped skunk 218 67. Badger 221 68. Red fox 225 70. Coyote 230 71. Wolf 232 74. Cougar 236 77. Canadian lynx 240 79. Bobcat 243 80. Least chipmunk 252 81. Yellow-pine chipmunk 256 83. Townsend chipmunk 261 84A. Marmots 266 84B. Townsend and Washington ground squirrels 268 85. Columbian and Beechey ground squirrels 274 86. Golden-mantled ground squirrels 280 88. Western gray squirrel 284 90. Red and Douglas squirrels 289 92. Northern flying squirrel 294 93. Great Basin pocket mouse 298 94. Ord kangaroo rat 300 98. Northern pocket gopher 308 103. Beaver 321 104. Northern grasshopper mouse 323 105. Western harvest mouse 325 107. Deer mouse 329 108. Bushy-tailed wood rat 335 109. Northern lemming mouse 337 110. Heather vole 339 111. Gapper and California red-backed mice 342 113. Pennsylvania meadow mouse 346 114. Montane and Townsend meadow mice 348 116. Long-tailed meadow mouse 352 117. Water rat 356 118. Creeping mouse 357 120. Muskrat 362 122. Mountain beaver 368 124. Big jumping mouse 372 125. Porcupine 375 126. Pika 378 127. Snowshoe rabbit 383 128. Black-tailed jack rabbit 386 129. Nuttall cottontail 388 INTRODUCTION Mammals of Washington are of especial interest to the naturalist because many of them are recent immigrants; much of Washington was buried under thick glacial ice until relatively recently and many of the mammals, therefore, have inhabited the area only since the ice disappeared. The evolution or development of certain subspecies, in Washington, has certainly occurred within the last few thousand years. To be able thus to date such evolutionary changes as have occurred is of course a matter both of importance and interest to zoölogists. The evolutionary changes in several species are relatively great. In color, for example, the bobcat in the humid coastal area of western Washington is notable for its dark coloration, whereas in the more arid area of southeastern Washington it is remarkably pale and of a different subspecies. Within the limits of the state of Washington, elevations ranging from sea level to more than 14,000 feet occur. Since different elevations have their characteristic mammals, more kinds are found in Washington than in other areas of corresponding size that lack such topographic diversity. Expressed in terms of the life-zone concept, Washington includes faunas ranging from the Upper Sonoran Life-zone to those of the Arctic-Alpine Life-zone. The basis for a study of the mammals of Washington was laid in 1929 by W. P. Taylor and W. T. Shaw in the "Provisional List of the Land Mammals of the state of Washington." Bailey's "Mammals and Life Zones of Oregon" and "The Recent Mammals of Idaho" by W. B. Davis deal with the habits and distribution of mammals in the areas bordering Washington on the south and east, and were very useful in the organization of the present report. The study was first planned from the taxonomic and ecologic point of view. Such a study, of necessity, involves the classification and distribution of the forms concerned. Classification has required more work than any other part of the study and has been, in a sense, the nucleus of the study. Nevertheless, as the report began to take form it was recognized that the part dealing with classification and other purely technical aspects of the paper probably would be uninteresting to the average reader. Therefore it was felt that a greater impetus to the study of the mammals of Washington would be given by reducing the taxonomic accounts to the minimum and dealing principally with the problems of distribution. As originally planned, the present report was to be of joint authorship by Dr. Victor B. Scheffer of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Seattle, and the writer. The press of other work prevented Dr. Scheffer from devoting as much time as he had planned to the project. He has, however, contributed his field notes, specimens, and photographs, and in many other ways assisted in the project. Field work on mammals of Washington was carried out by the writer from 1936 to 1940 but a decision to prepare a complete report was not reached until 1938. Intensive field work was done between 1938 and 1940. In August, 1941, the author took up residence at Berkeley, California. Drafting of the manuscript was begun at that time as a student under Professor E. Raymond Hall. War conditions and the press of other work delayed completion. Subsequently, the manuscript was put in final form at the University of Kansas. Many persons in addition to Dr. Scheffer have given assistance in the course of this work. Dr. E. Raymond Hall, in particular, encouraged the project and gave assistance in various ways including critical attention to the manuscript. I am indebted also to Dr. Trevor Kincaid and Mrs. Martha Flahaut of the University of Washington, Dr. Seth B. Benson and Dr. Alden H. Miller of the University of California, Dr. H. H. T. Jackson of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Dr. George E. Hudson of the Charles R. Conner Museum, Mr. Burton Lauckhart of the State of Washington Department of Game, and Mr. Ernest Booth of Walla Walla College. Mrs. Peggy B. Dalquest typed and edited the several preliminary drafts of the manuscript and aided in the laboratory and field work. Thanks are due also to many others, including game protectors, hunters and trappers, who have given assistance. The names of some of them are mentioned in the following pages. Approximately ten thousand specimens of mammals were used. In decreasing order, according to the number of specimens studied from Washington, the following collections are to be mentioned: materials obtained principally from southern Washington in the years 1939 to 1942 as a result of the interest of Miss Annie M. Alexander and Dr. E. Raymond Hall; these materials are in the University of California Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. The writer's own collection which at one time numbered 2,500 specimens was the second source. The residue, the part not destroyed by fire at the writer's home in the spring of 1942, in Seattle, now is in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy at the University of California and the Museum of Natural History at the University of Kansas. The other collections are those of the Biological Surveys of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the Washington State Museum at Seattle, the Charles R. Conner Museum at Washington State College, and the Museum of Natural History at the University of Kansas. In the latter collection are some materials obtained nearly half a century ago by the late L. L. Dyche, some recently taken specimens added by reason of the provision for work of this kind by the University of Kansas Endowment Association and, as noted above, a part of the author's original collection. Selected specimens from several other collections have been used and these are indicated in the text when particular reference is made to the specimens. Most of the specimens studied were conventional study skins with skulls. In some instances skeletons, skins alone, skulls alone, or entire animals preserved in alcohol have been used. PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF THE STATE The state of Washington was divided into seven physiographic provinces by Culver (1936). Culver points out that the physiography, though complicated in detail, is basically simple. The state, including Puget Sound and other inland waters, is nearly rectangular in shape and is 69,127 square miles in area. Its western boundary is the Pacific Ocean. Politically, it is bounded on the north by the United States-Canadian Boundary (49° north lat.), on the east by the state of Idaho, and on the south by the state of Oregon. The Cascade Mountain Range, or Cascade Mountains Province, runs from the northern to the southern boundary and divides the state into two sections, of which the eastern is slightly the larger. The mountain range trends approximately 10° east of north and continues uninterruptedly into British Columbia, but on the south the Columbia River separates the Washington Cascades from the Cascades of Oregon. Near the northern border of the state the range is wide, extending from the Mount Baker Range on the west to Mount Chopaka, 100 miles to the east. In the central part of the state it is more compact, being some 60 miles wide in the vicinity of Mount Rainier. Farther south it expands to approximately 100 miles. The Cascades of Washington possess five great volcanic cones. These are Mount Baker (10,750 feet elevation) on the north, Glacier Peak (10,436 feet) in the north-central part, Mount Rainier (14,408 feet) in the central area, and Mount Adams (12,326 feet) and Mount St. Helens (9,697 feet) on the south. Excluding these volcanic peaks, the crests of the Cascades have a relatively uniform level descending from an average of 8,000 feet at the north to 5,000 feet at the south. Ranges jutting southeastwardly from the north-central Cascades parallel elongate intermontane valleys. These include the Entiat and Wenatchee mountains. The latter range reaches the Columbia River and forms an important barrier to mammalian movements. There is an extensive area of anticlinal ridges extending from the southern Cascades to the Columbia River. This area includes the Horse Heaven and other hills. Most of it is drained by the Yakima River and is termed, in this report, the Yakima Valley Area. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Cascade Mountains at Canadian boundary, looking west along boundary trail. Monument 100 in foreground, headwaters of Ashnola River in broad valley at right. (Forest Service photo, No. 4328.)] The Puget Sound Trough, or Puget Sound Province, is immediately west of and parallel to the Cascade Mountains. It is part of a structural downwarp that extends southward into Oregon. Most of the area is below 1,000 feet elevation, and much of the northern part is below sea level and therefore flooded by the marine waters of Puget Sound. The most prominent feature of this area is Puget Sound. This is a glacially-carved and drowned river valley, studded with islands, peninsulas, fjords and bays that all possess a general north-south orientation resulting from the direction of ice movement. Puget Sound is connected with the Pacific Ocean by the Strait of Juan De Fuca, a wide channel separating the state of Washington and Vancouver Island. The San Juan Islands represent the glaciated remnants of mountains that, in preglacial time, may have connected the mountains on Vancouver Island with the Cascades of Washington. The San Juan Islands lie at the junction of Puget Sound, the Strait of Georgia, and the Strait of Juan De Fuca. As a result of a boundary dispute and subsequent arbitration, the islands were apportioned, on the basis of the deepest channel separating them, between Canada and the United States. The American portion includes more than 400 islands. These vary in size from mere rocks above high tide to Orcas Island, 60 square miles in area. The Olympic Peninsula, or Olympic Province, lies between Puget Sound and the Pacific Ocean. The Strait of Juan De Fuca separates this peninsula from Vancouver Island on the north. In the south the valley of the Chehalis River is a convenient boundary for the province. The central portion of the peninsula is occupied by the Olympic Mountain Range. This range is nearly oblong in shape, measuring some 70 miles east to west by 45 miles north to south. The mountains are extremely rough and jagged. They rise from sea level to above 6,000 feet. The highest peak, Mount Olympus, is 8,150 feet in elevation. South of the Olympic Province and west of the Puget Sound Trough is an area of low, rough hills. Culver called it the Willapa Hills Province. The northern third of the land east of the Cascade Mountains, or northeastern Washington, is termed the Okanogan Highland Province by Culver. Its southern boundary is set at the east-west flow of the Spokane and Columbia rivers. The outstanding physiographic feature of this area is its division into north-south trending areas of lowland with intervening highlands and mountain ranges. The rivers are, from east to west, the Clark Fork, Colville, Columbia, Kettle, San Poil and Okanogan. Not all intervening highlands are separately designated as mountains. Among these named are the Pend Oreille, Huckleberry, Kettle River, and Okanogan ranges. The part of eastern Washington south of the Okanogan Highland Province, save the extreme southeastern corner of the state, constitutes the Columbia Lava Province. This is an extensive, relatively level plateau that lies mainly below 2,000 feet elevation. The plateau consists of gently folded lava flows that reach a depth of 4,000 feet in some places (Russell, 1893) and slope inward from the east, north, and, in part, the west (Flint, 1938). These horizontal layers of basalt are extremely resistant to erosion by other than large rivers. Two great gashes cross the Plateau diagonally from the northeast to the southwest; these are Moses Coulee and the Grand Coulee. These old coulees are the former valleys of the Columbia River, and were formed at the time when the course of the river was successively blocked by the advance of Pleistocene ice. The Snake River crosses the southern edge of the Columbia Lava Province and separates the plateau proper from an area of similar land to the southward. [Illustration: FIG. 2. Columbia River one mile west of Kellers Ferry, Washington, elevation 1,060 feet, April 16, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 933.)] The Blue Mountains Province is an area of relatively small extent in the extreme southeastern corner of the state of Washington. There, the province concerned constitutes, as it were, a northward extension of the Blue Mountains of Oregon. The mountains rise to only 5,000 feet elevation in the Washington part of the Blue Mountains Province. DISTRIBUTIONAL AREAS The physiographic provinces are areas of land form. The form of the land has a considerable effect on the temperature, humidity, drainage, weathering, soil, and other non-organic features that combine to produce the various life-zones and influence the distribution of mammals. One might therefore expect a close correlation of mammalian distributional areas with physiographic provinces. Although there is a correlation, it is not exact because the distribution of mammals is influenced also by certain other factors. Among these are historical factors and isolation by geographic barriers. [Illustration: FIG. 3. Mammalian distributional areas of Washington. A. Western Washington. B. Cascade Mountains. C. Northeastern Washington. D. Blue Mountains. E. Southeastern Washington. F. Yakima Valley. G. Columbian Plateau.] The Cascade Mountains Province of Culver includes the Yakima Valley Area. This province contains two completely different mammalian distributional areas. The higher mountains possess a boreal, alpine fauna; the Cascade Range itself is called the Cascade Area in this report. The Yakima Valley Area possesses a desert fauna derived from the desert of eastern Oregon. The land west of the Cascades is separated into three physiographic provinces, the Puget Sound, Willapa Hills, and Olympic Mountains Province. The differences between the mammalian faunas of the Puget Sound and Willapa Hills provinces are slight. The Olympic Mountains possess a few species not found in the lower areas. The similarities of the faunas of the three provinces far outnumber their differences, and it seems best to consider them subdivisions of one distributional area. [Illustration: FIG. 4. Cascade Mountains in Chelan National Forest, looking southwest at Straight Ridge; Cataract Creek (Methow watershed) at left. (Forest Service photo. No. 4260.)] The Okanogan Highland Province extends, from a physiographic point of view, west of the Okanogan River Valley. This valley, however, is a fairly efficient barrier to mammals. Thus the part of the state east of the Okanogan Valley and north of the east-west flow of the Spokane and Columbia rivers may be called the Northeastern Washington Distributional Area. The Columbia Lava Province includes the land both north and south of the Snake River. Since the Snake River serves as a barrier to some species, it seems better to term the area north of the Snake River the Columbian Plateau Area and that to the south the Southeastern Washington Distributional Area. The Blue Mountains Province and the Blue Mountains Distributional Area are the same. [Illustration: FIG. 5. Yakima Park (or Sunrise Park), elevation 6,000 feet, Mount Rainier, August 29, 1932. (Photo by 116th Photo Section, Washington National Guard, No. 014-36A-116.)] [Illustration: FIG. 6. Columbia River at Hunters Ferry, Stevens County, Washington, April 15, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer. No. 932.)] [Illustration: FIG. 7. Blue Mountains, Umatilla National Forest, Washington, looking north-northeast across Al Williams Ridge to Tucannon River; 1933. (Forest Service photo, No. 4437.)] PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES DISTRIBUTIONAL AREAS Cascade Mountains { Cascade Mountains { Yakima Valley Puget Sound } Willapa Hills } Western Washington Olympic Mountains } Okanogan Highlands Northeastern Washington Columbia Lava { Columbian Plateau { Southeastern Washington Blue Mountains Blue Mountains CLIMATE AND VEGETATION The life-zone theory of plant and animal distribution was proposed by Merriam (1892). Merriam's life-zones have been severely criticized by many authors, especially because an error was made in computing some of the data on temperature. However, zonation of vegetation and animals is obvious in Washington, and the life-zone concept has been employed in Washington by numerous botanists and zoölogists. Among them are: Piper (1906), Taylor and Shaw (1927), Jones (1936, 1938) and St. John (1937). The higher parts of the Cascade Mountains are in the Arctic-alpine Life-zone. This is the area of wind-swept ridges, living glaciers, and permanent snow fields. Trees are absent but a few shrubs are present; these include: _Juniperus sibirica_, _Salix cascadensis_, _Salix nivalis_, _Gaultheria humifusa_, _Empetrum nigrum_, and the heathers, _Phyllodoce glanduliflora_, _Cassiope mertensiana_ and _Cassiope stelleriana_. Jones (1938) lists a total of 98 species of plants from the Arctic-alpine Life-zone of Mount Rainier. Many of these plants are most abundant in the next life-zone lower, and are of but incidental occurrence in the Arctic-alpine Life-zone. No mammalian species is resident but individuals of several species regularly visit and occasionally breed there. Below the Arctic-alpine the Hudsonian Life-zone stretches the entire length of the Cascades. Temperatures are low, especially in winter; then the thermometer does not rise above zero for weeks at a time. The average annual temperature at Paradise, 5500 feet, Mt. Rainier, is 38.6° (all temperatures given here are in degrees Fahrenheit). Snowfall is heavy. The average yearly snowfall, for four years, at Mt. Baker Lodge, at 4200 feet elevation, Whatcom County, was 478 inches; at Goat Lake, 2900 feet, Snohomish County, 261 inches; Tye, Stevens Pass, 3010 feet, King County, 398 inches; Paradise, 5500 feet, Mt. Rainier, 587 inches. The deepest snow recorded at Paradise was 27 feet, 2 inches on April 2, 1917. Following the spring thaws the mountain passes are opened to travel, usually in April or May, although nightly temperatures in April and May are still below zero. Spring precipitation is heavy, the monthly average for a twelve-year period at Paradise being 6.78 inches in April and 5.5 inches in May. Summer temperatures are high in the daytime, when the sun beats down through the rarefied atmosphere, but cool at night when accumulated heat is lost through the thin atmospheric blanket. In summer precipitation is light, averaging, at Paradise, 3.46 inches in June, .9 inches in July, and 3.44 inches in August. In the autumn the temperature, both daily and nightly, drops somewhat, and rain and cloudiness are the rule. At Paradise the average precipitation in September is 8.29 inches and in October 10.02 inches. The winter snows usually arrive by the middle of November. Trees that are characteristic of parts of the Hudsonian Life-zone include the alpine fir (_Abies lasiocarpa_), mountain hemlock (_Tsuga mertensiana_), Alaska cedar (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) and white-barked pine (_Pinus albicaulis_). The following shrubs are listed by Jones (1938) as common in the Hudsonian Life-zone on Mt. Rainier: _Salix barclayi_, _Salix commutata_, _Juniperus sibirica_, _Alnus sinuata_, _Ribes howellii_, _Lutkea pectinata_, _Potentilla fruticosa_, _Sorbus occidentalis_, _Spiraea densiflora_, _Pachistima myrsinites_, _Arctostaphylos nevadensis_, _Arctostaphylos uva-ursi_, _Cassiope mertensiana_, _Cassiope stelleriana_, _Phyllodoce empetriformis_, _Rhododendron albiflorum_ and _Gaultheria ovalifolia_. [Illustration: FIG. 8. North side of Mount Rainier, 14,408 feet, with Mount Adams at left and Mount St. Helens at right. June 19, 1932. (Photo by 116th Photo Section, Washington National Guard, No. 011-36A-116.)] There are extensive coniferous forests in the Canadian Life-zone, still lower on the mountain slopes. This is an area of lesser temperature extremes than is the Hudsonian Life-zone. The average annual temperature at Longmire, 2761 feet, Mt. Rainier, is 43.8°. The average temperature for the winter months, however, is below freezing. In July and August the temperatures are high, especially in the daytime. The eighteen year average for Longmire during these months is 60.6°. Snow is regular but the fall is lighter than in the Hudsonian Life-zone. The annual average, over a period of nineteen years, is 184.4 inches at Longmire. Precipitation is similar to that in the Hudsonian Life-zone, averaging perhaps slightly less. In the Cascades the typical feature of the Canadian Life-zone is the extensive coniferous forest that extends, almost without a break, the entire length of the Cascades on both sides of the main crest. In addition to Douglas fir, the following trees occur in this forest: western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), amabalis fir (_Abies amabalis_), white pine (_Pinus monticola_) and noble fir (_Abies nobilis_). Other plants include _Vaccinnium ovalifolium_, _Vaccinnium membranaceum_, _Menziesia ferruginea_, _Alnus sinuata_, _Acer circinatum_, _Sorbus cascadensis_, _Cornus canadensis_, _Clintonia uniflora_, _Stenauthium occidentale_, _Galium oreganum_, and _Prenanthes lessingii_. Saprophytes abundant in, if not confined to, this zone are listed by Jones as: _Monotropa uniflora_, _Monotropa hypopitys_, _Allotropa virguta_, _Newberrya congesta_, _Pterospora andromedea_, _Corallorrhiza maculata_, _Corallorrhiza mertensiana_ and _Corallorrhiza striata_. West of the Canadian Life-zone in the western Cascades, the coniferous forests merge with the lowland forests of western Washington. To the east of the Canadian Life-zone in the eastern Cascades, there is a distinct change to a more arid climate and flora. At Leavenworth, 1167 feet, Chelan County, the annual average precipitation is but 19.5 inches and at Cle Elum, 1930 feet, but 23.23 inches. Temperatures are higher, the annual average of the above two localities being 47.2° and 45.4° respectively. The winter months are cold, with the average temperature in January and February below freezing. In summer the averages in July and August at Leavenworth are 68.8° and 68.0°, with the average maximum being 87.5° and 86.1°. Snowfall is heavy, the yearly average at Leavenworth being 98.5 inches and at Cle Elum 86.3 inches. The effect of this more arid climate is seen in the vegetation. The dense Douglas fir forest, is replaced by more open forests of yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosus_). Groves of oak (_Quercus garryana_) are found near streams. The open forests give way to the extensive grasslands bordering the desert. The transition of vegetation is similar to that occurring in the Yakima Valley Area. In the Yakima Valley Area, arid conditions prevail. The average yearly precipitation at Yakima is 6.67 inches. Only in November, December and January may more than one inch of precipitation be expected monthly. Snow may be expected in the winter months and the yearly average snowfall is 22.1 inches. Winter temperatures are low, the average for December and January being but slightly above freezing. Summer temperatures are extreme; the July average is 73.1° and the average maximum for the same month is 89°. The highest temperature recorded is 111°. The open pine forests of the eastern Cascades give way to grasslands. Grasses of several species are common but the bunchgrass (_Agropyron spicatum_) is most important. Other plants include the primrose (_Oenothera pallida_), lupines (_Lupinus_), and _Mertensia_. In ravines and near watercourses such shrubs as hawthorn (_Crataegus douglasii_), service-berry (_Amelanchier cusickii_, _Amelanchier utahensis_), aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), syringa (_Philadelphus lewisii_), snowberry (_Symphoricarpos albus_), choke-berry (_Prunus melanocarpa_) and elderberry (_Sambucus caerulae_) form thickets. Lower in the valley the vegetation is xerophytic, similar to that of the Columbian Plateau. Sagebrush (_Artemisiae tridentata_) is dominant. Other shrubs include rabbit brush (_Chrysothamnus nauseosus_, _Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus_), hop sage (_Grayia spinosa_), black sage (_Purshia tridentata_) and greasewood (_Sarcobatus vermiculatus_). [Illustration: FIG. 9. Mount Rainier. Washington: Cowlitz Chimneys from base of Dege Peak, July 19, 1933. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 859.)] Climatic conditions in the Olympic Mountains are, in general, similar to those of the higher Cascade Mountains. There is a limited area of Arctic-alpine Life-zone on Mount Olympus. The principal life-zone is the Hudsonian. The Canadian merges with the lowland Humid-Transition and is difficult to ascertain as a separate zone. In the Hudsonian Life-zone the average temperatures are low. Winter climate is bitter and the snow lies deep. In the absence of government weather stations in the Olympics, detailed descriptions of climatic conditions can not be given. Vegetation of the Hudsonian Life-zone of the Olympic Mountains is, in general, similar to that of the same life-zone of the Cascades (see Jones, 1936, Botanical Survey of the Olympic Peninsula). The lowlands of western Washington have a cool, humid climate. The average annual temperature of the area varies little from 50°. In winter the temperature, especially in January and February, commonly drops below the freezing point at night. Summer temperatures are moderate, rarely reaching 90°. Snowfall is light, averaging about 10 inches. The prevailing winds are from the west and are moisture-laden. They rise over the Olympic Mountains and loose heavy rains along the coastal area of the lowlands. The average annual precipitation at La Push, Clallam County, is 97.9 inches; at Clearwater, Jefferson County, 124.98 inches; at Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County, 81.58 inches; at South Bend, Pacific County, 83.35 inches. In contrast, the more inland areas receive less than half as much precipitation. The yearly average at Bellingham is 31.09 inches; at Seattle, 30.07 inches; at Tacoma, 39.53 inches; at Vancouver, Clark County, 37.24 inches. The outstanding feature of the vegetation of western Washington is the coniferous forest. Previous to the logging activities a dense cover of Douglas fir, western hemlock and red cedar spread almost unbroken over the area. The openings in the forest and the marshy ravines and river valleys supported growths of underbrush and deciduous trees so dense and luxuriant as to compare with a tropical jungle. In the dense rain forests along the coast, mosses and lichens develop an understory vegetation many inches deep and clothe the branches of the forest trees. The mild temperature and excessive rainfall cause some species that usually are of bush or shrub size to reach the proportions of small trees. In some places one can climb twenty feet from the ground in a huckleberry tree, the trunk of which is five inches in diameter. The coniferous forest is made up of several species of trees. Most important among these are the western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_), and red cedar (_Thuja plicata_). Locally the western yew (_Taxus brevifolia_), lodgepole pine (_Pinus contorta_) and spruce (_Picea sitchensis_) may be common. Deciduous trees are numerous and include several willows (_Salix_ sp.), aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), hazel (_Corylus californica_), alder (_Alnus oregona_), oak (_Quercus garryana_), broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_), vine maple (_Acer circinatum_), and flowering dogwood (_Cornus nuttallii_). Mosses and ferns are abundant. The sword fern (_Polystichum munitum_) and bracken (_Pteridium aquilinum_) are especially common. Space prevents listing all but a fraction of the typical shrubs but these include huckleberry (_Vaccinium parvifolium_, _Vaccinium ovatum_), Oregon grape (_Berberis nervosa_), salal (_Gaultheria shallon_), rose (_Rosa gymnocarpa_), thimbleberry (_Rubus parviflorus_), salmonberry (_Rubus spectabilis_), blackcap raspberry (_Rubus leucodermis_) and wild blackberry (_Rubus macropetalus_). The higher parts of some of the ranges of northeastern Washington are in the Hudsonian Life-zone, but most of the mountains are in the Canadian Life-zone. The valleys are in the Transition Life-zone. Climatic conditions are similar to those of the eastern slopes of the Cascades. Winter temperatures are low, the average for December, January and February being below freezing. Summer temperatures are high, the July average for Colville being 67.2° and the July average maximum being 87.4°. Vegetation consists principally of coniferous forests in the mountains and deciduous woods in the valleys. Among the interesting features of the vegetation are the extensive stands of almost pure larch (_Larix occidentalis_). In most respects the flora closely resembles that of the Blue Mountains. The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington differ from other ranges in Washington in their relative aridity. There are few streams and a single river drains the area. There are no government weather stations in the Blue Mountains. The winter temperatures are low and the snow deep and lasting. Summer temperatures are high and humidity and precipitation low. Coniferous forests of the type of arid regions form the principal tree cover. Typical plant species include the white fir (_Abies grandis_), alpine fir (_Abies lasiocarpa_), larch (_Larix occidentalis_), spruce (_Picea columbiana_), and such shrubs as fool huckleberry (_Menziesia ferruginea_), _Pachystima myrsinites_, dogwood (_Cornus canadensis_), wild current (_Ribes petiolare_), mountain mahogany (_Cercocarpus ledifolius_), spirea (_Spiraea_ sp.), lupines (_Lupinus_) of several species, maple (_Acer douglasii_), buckbrush (_Ceanothus sanguineus_), sticky brush (_Ceanothus velutinus_), and huckleberry (_Vaccinium membranaceum_). [Illustration: FIG. 10. A "pothole" being crowded by drifting sand, ten miles south of Moses Lake, Washington, March 23, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 925.)] The Columbian Plateau and southeastern Washington present desert conditions. At Odessa, 1590 feet, Lincoln County, the average annual precipitation is only 9.38 inches, and only in the winter may more than one inch of precipitation per month be expected. The average temperature is 48.5°. In the winter the average is below freezing but in July it is 71.3°. The average maximum for July is 90° and an extreme of 111° is recorded. Walla Walla, 991 feet, has a higher annual precipitation (16.66 inches) but higher temperature (yearly average 53.5°, July average 75.0°, average July maximum 88.6°, extreme 113°). Winter temperatures on the Columbian Plateau are low. The January average at Odessa is 25.3° and at Walla Walla 32.4° The average yearly snowfall at Odessa is 19.4 inches and at Walla Walla 23.5 inches. Vegetation of the Columbian Plateau and southeastern Washington is of the desert type. A few pines and junipers grow in favored places. Along streams the cottonwood (_Populus hastata_) and willow (_Salix_) of several species are common. Most typical are grasses and shrubs such as the bunch grass (_Agropyron inerme_, _Agropyron spictatum_), foxtail (_Alopecurus aequalis_), cheat grass (_Bromus tectorum_), saltbrush (_Atriplex truncata_), greasewood (_Sarcobatus vermiculatus_) mustard (_Arabis_ sp., _Brassica_ sp.), sagebrush (_Artemisia rigida_, _Artemisia tridentata_), rabbit brush (_Chrysothamnus nauseosus_, _Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus_) and cactus (_Opuntia polyacantha_). The arid climate of the Columbian Plateau affects, to some extent, surrounding areas. Thus the Yakima Valley Area, the Columbia Valley, where it borders the Plateau, and the Okanogan Valley possess vegetation typical of the Columbia Plateau. LIFE-ZONES AND ECOLOGY The Transition Life-zone is the principal life-zone in Washington. It is divisible into three subdivisions: Humid, Arid-timbered and Arid-grasslands (Fig. 11) subdivisions. The Humid and Arid-timbered subdivisions of the Transition life-zone are closely related in some respects but different in others. They are separated by the Cascade Mountains. All of the Transition Life-zone west of the Cascades belongs to the Humid subdivision and the timbered Transition Life-zone east of the Cascades belongs to the Arid-timbered subdivision. [Illustration: FIG. 11. Life-zones of Washington. Arctic-alpine not shaded. A. Hudsonian and Canadian (mapped together). B. Forested Transition (Humid and Arid subdivisions). C. Arid-grasslands of the Transition. D. Upper Sonoran.] The Arid-grasslands are of minor geographic extent. Although this subdivision is relatively distinct as concerns the distribution of plants, insects and birds, it is of little importance as concerns the distribution of mammals. For the most part, the mammals occupying it are more representative of surrounding areas. Large parts of the Arid-grasslands have been taken over for agriculture, especially wheat raising. Perhaps the greatest extent of the Arid-grasslands existing in a natural state is along the eastern Cascade Mountains and along the eastern side of the Columbian Plateau. These are truly transition areas, situated where the arid pine forests are replaced by open, sagebrush desert. [Illustration: FIG. 12. Arctic-alpine Life-zone, Mount Rainier, Washington: Cowlitz Glacier from elevation of 9,500 feet. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer. No. 900.)] The Upper Sonoran Life-zone includes the desert areas of Washington (figure 11 D). Its principal extent is the central Columbian Plateau. From the central Columbian Plateau, fingerlike projections of desert extend along the principal valleys. The Arctic-alpine Life-zone occurs in the high Olympic Mountains and on the higher peaks of the Cascades. This is shown on the life-zone map, Fig. 11, as white, unshaded areas. The mammalian faunas of the Hudsonian and Canadian life-zones resemble each other closely. The boundary between them is too complex to permit separating them on a small-scale map. Consequently they are mapped together on Fig. 11 as A. THE HUMID SUBDIVISION OF THE TRANSITION LIFE-ZONE This subdivision is remarkably uniform in composition over western Washington. The greatest difference is in precipitation. Rainfall along the coast is heavier than that in the interior. Consequently vegetation is more dense and luxuriant along the coast. Four habitats may be distinguished in the Humid subdivision and further subdivision is possible. The dominant and most extensive habitat is the forest. Dominant mammalian species include: _Peromyscus maniculatus_, _Sorex trowbridgii_, _Sorex obscurus_, _Tamiasciurus douglasii_, _Clethrionomys californicus_, _Aplodontia rufa_, _Glaucomys sabrinus_ and _Odocoileus hemionus_. Mammals are scarce and nocturnal forms prevail. As a rule, a line of mouse traps set in a forest habitat will take principally _Peromyscus maniculatus_ with a few _Sorex trowbridgii_ and _Sorex obscurus_ and rarely a _Clethrionomys californicus_. In some places, especially where the moss is deep, a line of mouse traps will catch only shrews. [Illustration: FIG. 13. Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone, Headley's Marsh, five miles east of Granite Falls, Washington, June 4, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 60.)] A second important habitat is the deciduous jungle. This differs from the forest habitat in that the dominant trees are of the deciduous type and in that understory vegetation, such as shrubs and annuals, is dense. The jungle habitat occurs in ravines and in valleys of streams and rivers and, in general, covers the lower, poorly drained portions of the Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. Mammals are abundant and varied in the jungle habitat. The deer mouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus_) is the most common mammal but a line of mouse traps might also catch: _Neurotrichus gibbsii_, _Scapanus orarius_, _Sorex vagrans_, _Microtus oregoni_, or _Zapus p. trinotatus_. The mountain beaver, snowshoe rabbit, and Townsend chipmunk also occur there. The prairies form a third habitat. These areas of native grasslands are of minor extent but are the principal home of several races of gophers and the Townsend mole (_Scapanus townsendii_). Deer and elk also browse on the prairies. [Illustration: FIG. 14. Timbered arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone, Kettle Falls on the Columbia River (now beneath Coulee Dam backwater), Stevens County, Washington, June 15, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 72.)] A fourth habitat is the marsh. In it there is here included the sphagnum bogs and marshy shores of lakes and streams. This habitat is characterized by damp ground, standing water, and dense vegetation. Typical mammalian species include the water shrew (_Sorex bendirii_), Townsend meadow mouse, muskrat and mink. Other habitats, such as aerial for the bats and aquatic for the beaver and otter, might be listed. THE ARID TIMBERED SUBDIVISION OF THE TRANSITION LIFE-ZONE In Washington the Arid timbered subdivision of the Transition Life-zone is the open, pine forest. Because of the aridity of this habitat, marshes and streamside thickets are uncommon, but where habitats of this kind do occur they have a fauna distinct from that of other habitats. The pine forest habitat includes many diurnal species, such as the red squirrel, yellow-pine chipmunk, and Columbian ground squirrel. The white-tailed deer occurs here and, for most of the year, the mule deer. Snowshoe rabbits are usually present. Near rocks the bushy-tailed wood rat is common. Mice are scarce, probably because of the open nature of the surface of the ground. A night's trapping usually yields only a few _Peromyscus maniculatus_. The mammalian fauna of the marshes and streamside thickets is similar. Shrews including _Sorex vagrans_ and _Sorex obscurus_ are uncommon. Meadow mice, including _Microtus pennsylvanicus_, _Microtus longicaudus_, and more rarely _Microtus montanus_, are taken. THE ARID GRASSLANDS SUBDIVISION OF THE TRANSITION LIFE-ZONE This subdivision is so much utilized by man where it occupies any considerable areas, and is of such a transitional nature elsewhere, that it is important for only a few native wild mammals. The sagebrush vole (_Lagurus curtatus_) seems to be confined to the arid grasslands. The white-tailed jack rabbit is now found principally in the arid grasslands, but its confinement there has resulted probably from competition with the black-tailed jack rabbit. The montane meadow mouse (_Microtus montanus_) is the only common, representative species. Many species from the Upper Sonoran Life-zone extend into the arid grasslands where conditions are suitable. These include _Reithrodontomys megalotis_, _Perognathus parvus_, _Citellus washingtoni_ and _Marmota flaviventris_. A few species more typical of the Arid timbered subdivision of the Transition Life-zone stray onto the arid grasslands. _Citellus columbianus_ and _Microtus longicaudus_ may be included here. THE UPPER SONORAN LIFE-ZONE The sagebrush desert in Washington is relatively uniform in nature. Several different habitats may be distinguished, such as sandy areas, open sage, dense sage, stony ground, and talus. Qualitatively, however, the mammalian fauna of these areas is surprisingly similar. Quantitatively, there are great differences. For example, the grasshopper mouse is rare in the open sage areas with hard, claylike soil but common on drifted sand. The harvest mouse is common in dense sage but rare in open sage or in open, sandy areas. Mammals are abundant on the sagebrush desert and typical species include: the black-tailed jack rabbit, Nuttall cottontail, Ord kangaroo rat, Great Basin pocket mouse, Townsend ground squirrel, Washington ground squirrel. Marshes are not uncommon on the Columbian Plateau and elsewhere in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone in Washington. They do not possess a fauna that is strictly Upper Sonoran but instead contain species more typical of the Arid-timbered subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. Meadow mice found in desert marshes include _Microtus montanus_ and _Microtus pennsylvanicus_. The only shrew we have found is _Sorex vagrans_. The harvest mouse (_Reithrodontomys megalotis_) is often abundant in marshes. [Illustration: FIG. 15. Upper Sonoran Life-zone, sand and basalt cliffs along the east bank of the Columbia River, at Vantage, Washington, 1930. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 848.)] THE CANADIAN LIFE-ZONE The Canadian Life-zone is a relatively uniform area in which the forest habitat is most important. Talus and swift, cold streams bring some typical mammalian species into the Canadian Life-zone from the Hudsonian. Mammals are usually common; they are abundant only in the upper portion of the Life-zone. Arboreal species and forms adapted to life beneath the forest cover are dominant. The Douglas squirrel, red squirrel, northern flying squirrel and Townsend chipmunk are typical arboreal species. Traps set beneath the trees might catch _Peromyscus maniculatus_, _Clethrionomys gapperi_, _Neotoma cinerea_, _Sorex obscurus_, or _Sorex trowbridgii_. [Illustration: FIG. 16. Canadian Life-zone forest on Mount Rainier, Washington, elevation 2,800 feet, September 14, 1934. Western hemlock, Douglas fir, western red cedar, and grand fir. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 325.)] THE HUDSONIAN LIFE-ZONE In Washington the Hudsonian Life-zone is of greater diversity than any other. Frost and steep slopes have formed great masses of talus and, in this talus, certain species of mammals, such as _Ochotona princeps_, _Marmota caligata_ and _Marmota olympus_ are found. Other species, such as the golden-mantled ground squirrels, mountain chipmunk, bushy-tailed wood rat, red-backed mouse and long-tailed meadow mouse find the talus an ideal home. Glacial action has produced, in the Hudsonian Life-zone, numerous level or concave areas that contain small lakes and slow-moving streams. Dense, herbaceous vegetation is abundant nearby. Small mammals abound and a line of mouse traps will almost certainly catch a few such typical species as: _Sorex palustris_, _Sorex obscurus_, _Microtus oregoni_, _Microtus richardsoni_, _Microtus longicaudus_ and _Zapus princeps_ as well as the ever present _Peromyscus maniculatus_. The shrew-mole or heather vole might also be taken, though the latter is more apt to be found in nearby heather meadows. TABLE 1. Distribution of mammals in Washington by Life-Zones. _A._ Abundant. _C._ Common. _R._ Rare. Column headers: A: Humid Transition B: Arid-timbered Transition C: Arid-grasslands Transition D: Upper Sonoran E: Canadian F: Hudsonian ===========================================+===+===+===+===+===+=== SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES. | A | B | C | D | E | F -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii | | | | | ? | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- gibbsii minor | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Scapanus townsendii | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- orarius orarius | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- orarius schefferi | | | | C | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- orarius yakimensis | | | | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Sorex cinereus cinereus | | R | | | R | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- cinereus streatori | R | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- merriami merriami | | | | R | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- trowbridgii trowbridgii | A | | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- trowbridgii destructioni | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- vagrans vagrans | A | | | | R | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- vagrans monticola | | C | C | A | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- obscurus obscurus | | | | | R | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- obscurus setosus | C | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- palustris navigator | | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- bendirii bendirii | A | | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- bendirii albiventer | C | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Microsorex hoyi washingtoni | | R | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Myotis lucifugus carissima | | | C | C | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- lucifugus alascensis | A | | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- yumanensis sociabilis | | | C | C | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- yumanensis saturatus | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- keenii keenii | R | | | | R | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- evotis evotis | | R | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- evotis pacificus | R | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- thysanodes thysanodes | | | | R | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- volans longicrus | C | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- volans interior | | C | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- californicus californicus | | | R | R | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- californicus caurinus | A | C | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- subulatus melanorhinus | | | R | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Lasionycteris noctivagans | A | A | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii | R | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- rafinesquii intermedius | | R | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus | | | | R | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus | A | A | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Lasiurus cinereus cinereus | R | R | R | R | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Antrozous pallidus cantwelli | | | R | R | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Ursus americanus altifrontalis | A | C | | | A | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- americanus cinnamomum | | A | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- chelan | | | | | R | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Procyon lotor psora | A | | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- lotor excelsus | | R | R | C | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Martes caurina caurina | | | | | A | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- caurina origenes | | | | | A | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- pennanti | R | | | | R | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Mustela erminea invicta | | C | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- erminea gulosa | | | | | C | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- erminea murica | | R | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- erminea fallenda | R | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- erminea streatori | R | | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- erminea olympica | R | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- frenata nevadensis | | C | C | C | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- frenata effera | | A | C | C | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- frenata washingtoni | | | | | C | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- frenata altifrontalis | A | | | | C | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- vison energumenos | C | C | C | C | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Gulo luscus luteus | | | | R | R | R -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Lutra canadensis pacifica | C | R | R | R | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Spilogale gracilis saxatilis | | | R | R | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- gracilis latifrons | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Mephitis mephitis hudsonica | | A | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- mephitis major | | | R | R | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- mephitis notata | | C | R | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- mephitis spissigrada | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Taxidea taxus taxus | | C | C | C | R | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Vulpes fulva cascadensis | | | | | | R -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Canis latrans lestes | C | A | A | A | C | R -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- latrans incolatus | | A | C | C | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- lupus fuscus | R | R | R?| | R | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Felis concolor missoulensis | | C | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- concolor oregonensis | C | C | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Lynx canadensis | | | | | R | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- rufus fasciatus | A | | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- rufus pallescens | | A | C | C | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Tamias minimus scrutator | | | | C | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- minimus grisescens | | | | R | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- amoenus caurinus | | | | | A | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- amoenus felix | | | | | A | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- amoenus ludibundus | | | | | A | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- amoenus affinis | | A | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- amoenus canicaudus | | A | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- amoenus luteiventris | | C | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- ruficaudus simulans | | C | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- townsendii townsendii | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- townsendii cooperi | | C | | | A | R -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Marmota monax petrensis | | | | | R | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- flaviventris avara | | R | C | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- caligata cascadensis | | | | | R | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- olympus | | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Citellus townsendii townsendii | | | | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- washingtoni | | | C | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- columbianus columbianus | | A | C | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- columbianus ruficaudus | | A | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- beecheyi douglasii | | A | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- lateralis tescorum | | | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- lateralis connectens | | | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- saturatus | | C | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni | | A | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- hudsonicus streatori | | A | | | A | R -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- douglasii douglasii | A | A | | | A | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Sciurus griseus griseus | C | C | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis | C | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- sabrinus fuliginosus | | | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- sabrinus columbiensis | | A | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- sabrinus latipes | | A | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- sabrinus bangsi | | R | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Perognathus parvus parvus | | | C | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- parvus lordi | | | C | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- parvus columbianus | | | | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Dipodomys ordii columbianus | | | | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Thomomys talpoides devexus | | | | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides columbianus | | | | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides aequalidens | | | A | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides wallowa | | | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides fuscus | | A | C | R | C | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides yakimensis | | | C | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides shawi | | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides immunis | | | | | A | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides limosus | | C | A | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides douglasii | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides glacialis | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides tacomensis | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides pugetensis | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides tumuli | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides yelmensis | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides couchi | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- talpoides melanops | | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Castor canadensis leucodonta | A | A | | C | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- canadensis idoneus | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus | | | | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis | | | C | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Peromyscus maniculatus oreas | A | | | | A | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- maniculatus hollisteri | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- maniculatus austerus | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- maniculatus rubidus | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- maniculatus gambelii | | C | R | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- maniculatus artemisiae | | A | R | R | C | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Neotoma cinerea occidentalis | | C | R | A | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- cinerea alticola | | C | | | A | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Synaptomys borealis wrangeli | | | | | | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Phenacomys intermedius intermedius | | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- intermedius oramontis | | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus | | R | | | A | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- gapperi idahoensis | | R | | | A | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- gapperi nivarius | | | | | A | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- californicus occidentalis | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris | | A | R | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- pennsylvanicus kincaidi | | | | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- montanus nanus | | | A | C | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- montanus canescens | | C | A | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- townsendii townsendii | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- townsendii pugeti | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- longicaudus halli | | A | C | C | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- longicaudus macrurus | R | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- richardsoni arvicoloides | | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- richardsoni macropus | | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- oregoni oregoni | A | | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis | A | A | | C | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- zibethicus occipitalis | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Zapus princeps oregonus | | | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- princeps kootenayensis | | | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- princeps idahoensis | | | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- princeps trinotatus | A | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Aplodontia rufa rufa | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- rufa rainieri | | | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum | | A | R | C | A | R -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- dorsatum nigrescens | | A | R | C | A | R -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Ochotona princeps cuppes | | | | | | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- princeps fenisex | | | | | | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- orinceps brunnescens | | | | | C | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Lepus townsendii townsendii | | | C | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- californicus deserticola | | | C | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- americanus washingtonii | A | | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- americanus cascadensis | | C | | | A | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- americanus pineus | | C | | | A | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- americanus columbiensis | | A | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii | | | | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- idahoensis | | | | A | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Cervus canadensis roosevelti | A | | | | A | R -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- canadensis nelsoni | | C | | | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Odocoileus virginianus leucurus | A | | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- virginianus ochrourus | | A | | | | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- hemionus hemionus | | A | | | A | C -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- hemionus columbianus | A | | | | C | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Ovis canadensis canadensis | | A | A | A | A | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- canadensis californiana | | A | A | A | A | -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- Oreamnos americanus americanus | | | | | | A -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF WASHINGTON The composition of the mammalian fauna of any area is dependent on several factors. These include the composition of the original fauna, species which have since invaded the area, and quantitative and qualitative changes that have occurred in the area. The latter two factors refer to changes in relative numbers or extermination of species through environmental changes or competition with other forms and evolutionary changes that have occurred in the species making up the mammalian fauna. Our knowledge and understanding of the distribution and history of the species of mammals occurring in Washington decreases rapidly as we go back in time. The distribution of the modern fauna at the present time is fairly well known. The distribution of species 100 years ago is less well understood. This is especially true of certain game species and carnivores whose distribution has been altered by man. Our knowledge of the distribution of mammals in the Pleistocene and earlier times is based on fossil skeletons. Such knowledge must necessarily be meager, for conditions favorable to fossilization and the preservation of fossils until their subsequent discovery by man, were not of common occurrence. In the Cascades and in eastern Washington, the Miocene was a time of orogeny and great volcanism. Great flows of lava, 4,000 feet thick in the Snake River area (Russell, 1893), emerging from fissures in the Snake River area, formed the Columbian Plateau. The Columbian basalt slopes inward centripetally from the eastern, northern, and western margins of the Columbian Plateau with an average descent of 25 feet to the mile (Flint, 1938). The dip of the lava flows results in the basalt-marginal course of the Spokane and Columbia rivers today, along the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau. The earlier part of the Pliocene was a period of erosion and deformation. In the early Pleistocene the five great volcanic cones of the Cascades, Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount Adams and Mount St. Helens were formed. In eastern Washington a gentle folding of the Miocene lava flows occurred. The folding took place slowly and the Columbia River in its course along the eastern edge of the Cascades cut through the folds as they formed, making a series of water gaps. Farther south, the Simcoe-Frenchman Hills anticline seems to have arisen more rapidly and the Columbia River was forced eastward before it became impounded and rose over the barrier and plunged down, tearing out the great Wallula Water Gap (Flint, 1938). This gap is a mile wide, eight miles long and, in places, a thousand feet deep. The impounding of the Columbia by the Simcoe-Frenchman Hills anticline resulted in a lake several hundred miles in area. Sediments deposited in this lake form the Ringold formation. The Ringold formation possesses a very early Pleistocene mammalian fauna. The Pleistocene was a time of great change in the mammalian fauna of the world. Unfortunately the beautiful glacial sequence revealed in Europe and the Mississippi Valley cannot be detected in Washington. In western Washington the deposits of the last continental glaciation and fluvial deposits of the last interglacial period almost everywhere obscure evidence of earlier glaciations. Deposits of an earlier glaciation, named Admiralty by Bretz (1913), have been detected in places. Deposits of greater age, that may represent a still earlier glaciation, have been noted. In eastern Washington the only definite proof of multiple glaciation is of one glaciation preceding the last. This is the Spokane glaciation of Bretz (1923). That multiple glaciation in the sequence reported from the Mississippi Valley affected Washington seems probable. The lack of evidence of a complete sequence is negative evidence. In western Washington the earliest glacial deposits might be beneath the later deposits or they may have been removed or reworked by subsequent glaciations, whereas in eastern Washington they may have been removed by subsequent glaciation and erosion. The time interval between the two known glaciations appears to have been of greater duration than the Recent. The drift of the earlier period is sometimes found covered by the till of the later glaciation, and preserved by it. The early material is deeply weathered and all save the hardest pebbles and quartzites, for example, are rotten and disintegrate at the touch. In contrast, the later deposits are almost unweathered. Pebbles are hard, and ring when struck. A zone of leaching and oxidation of the finer materials reaches a depth of some 30 inches, below which the till is fresh. Two names are currently applied to the last continental glaciation of the state of Washington. That west of the Cascade Mountains, studied and described by Bretz (1913), was termed "Vashon." The interglacial cycle preceding it was called "Puyallup." The glaciation of eastern Washington has been called "Wisconsin," after the Mississippi Valley terminology, by several writers. Papers by Flint (1935, 1937) describe and map it. The Vashon and Wisconsin glaciations probably occupied the same time interval, although this has not certainly been established. In the present report I have used the term "Vashon-Wisconsin" in speaking of the entire period, or the glaciers both east and west of the Cascades together. Vashon, alone, is restricted to western Washington and Wisconsin to eastern Washington. [Illustration: FIG. 17. Extent of Vashon-Wisconsin ice over Washington. The Wisconsin and Vashon glaciers have been connected through the Mount Rainier section of the Cascades because it is thought that few or no mammalian species lived in the Cascades north of Mount Rainier while the ice was in place. Data generalized from Flint (1937), Bretz (1913), Culver (1936) and other sources.] The Vashon glaciation seems to have consisted of an ice dome centering in Puget Sound (the Puget Glacier of Bretz, 1913) and flooding the lowlands from the Olympic Mountains to the Cascade Mountains. The southern edge of the Puget Glacier was slightly south of the present terminus of Puget Sound. Fingerlike projections of ice were forced up valleys of the western Cascades and the northern and eastern Olympics. Some of these upward moving fingers of ice met and coalesced with valley glaciers descending from the mountains. At the southern edge of the glacier, the Black Hills and Porcupine Hills remained above the ice although partially surrounded by it. The Wisconsin glacier, according to Flint (1935), was a great piedmont glacier, fed by valley glaciers from the Cascades and Coast Ranges to the west and the Rockies to the east. It extended from the Idaho boundary to the Cascade Mountains. From the Canadian Boundary it sloped down to an approximate elevation of some 6500 feet at Republic and to 2500 feet on the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau which was the southern edge of the glacier. The Kettle River Mountains, in almost the center of the glacier, remained a peninsula or driftless area that divided the glacier into two lobes. The Pend Oreille, Huckleberry and other mountain ranges, formed nunataks, or islands above the ice, at the southern part of the glacier. The behavior of valley glaciers in the northern Cascade Mountains during Vashon-Wisconsin time, seems to have been variable. Some depression of the snow line, at least in the north, seems probable. The Vashon Glacier impinged on the eastern, northern and to some extent the western, slopes of the Olympic Mountains. Late Pleistocene valley glaciers in the Olympics, however, seem to have been inconsequential. The time of the retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers is a subject of special interest to the mammalogist in that it represents time for invasion and dispersal of species and in that it represents generations of individuals upon which natural selection might act. It is generally agreed that a period of approximately ten thousand years has elapsed since the retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers from Washington. Information on the climate of the state of Washington previous to the period of the last continental glaciation is understandably meager. Bretz (1913) considers the Puyallup period a time of excessive precipitation and erosion. Bits of lignite from Puyallup sediments seem to be of Douglas fir. Presumably the climate was slightly warmer and more humid than it is today. Vegetation possibly consisted of coniferous forests. With the advance of the Vashon ice, mammals north of the ice border were all or mostly eliminated. Climatic conditions south of the border of the ice probably were strongly affected by it. Remains of mammoths have been found in Vashon till. The presence of many non-boreal species of mammals in southwestern Washington indicates their persistence there and that conditions therefore were not intolerable for them. Probably the climate of southwestern Washington was cool and dry. Fir, spruce, and Douglas fir may have been the dominant trees. Hansen (1941 A: 209) found evidence from studies of pollen that coniferous forests were growing in west-central Oregon in late glacial time. These pollen studies of postglacial peat bogs by Henry P. Hansen give evidence of postglacial climatic changes. Hansen points out (1941 B, 1941 C) that climatic changes west of the Cascades were probably slight because of the influence of the Pacific Ocean. Pollen profiles indicate an early, cool, dry climate followed by a warmer one and increasing humidity. The present climate may be considered cool and humid. Most of western Washington lies in the Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. [Illustration: FIG. 18. McDowell Lake, Little Pend Oreille Wildlife Refuge, Stevens County, Washington, September 29, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 730.)] The pre-Wisconsin climate of eastern Washington is unknown. From the loessial nature of the Palouse Soil (Bryan, 1927), a preglacial deposit, the area would seem to have been arid, probably a grassland or a sagebrush desert. If the fossil fauna discovered at Washtuckna Lake, Adams County, is of this period, the forest conditions of the Blue Mountains were slightly more extensive than at present. The glacial climate of the Columbian Plateau in Wisconsin time was probably cool and arid. Pollen studies by Hansen (1939, 1940) indicate increasing dryness and warmth since the retreat of the Wisconsin ice. Present-day climate on the Columbian Plateau is warm and dry. The plateau is principally a sagebrush desert. The glaciated area to the north is cooler and more humid, supporting extensive forests of yellow pine and other conifers. THE FAUNAS We have mentioned elsewhere that three different mammalian faunas occur in Washington. These may be described as follows. 1. THE GREAT BASIN FAUNA. This fauna is best typified by such genera as _Perognathus_ and _Dipodomys_. Species that, at least in Washington, are confined to this fauna are: _Sorex merriami_ _Tamias minimus_ _Myotis thysanodes_ _Perognathus parvus_ _Myotis subulatus_ _Dipodomys ordii_ _Pipistrellus hesperus_ _Onychomys leucogaster_ _Antrozous pallidus_ _Reithrodontomys megalotis_ _Taxidea taxus_ _Lagurus curtatus_ _Marmota flaviventris_ _Lepus californicus_ _Citellus townsendii_ _Sylvilagus nuttallii_ _Citellus washingtoni_ _Sylvilagus idahoensis_ The break between the Great Basin Fauna and the other two faunas is extremely sharp, probably as a consequence of a sharp break in the flora. 2. THE PACIFIC COASTAL FAUNA. The mammals of the humid coastal district range from the Fraser River, British Columbia, southward to the vicinity of Monterey Bay, California. In Washington typical genera are _Aplodontia_, _Neurotrichus_ and _Scapanus_. The following species are typical of the Pacific Coastal Fauna in Washington: _Neurotrichus gibbsii_ _Tamiasciurus douglasii_ _Scapanus townsendii_ _Sciurus griseus_ _Sorex trowbridgii_ _Clethrionomys californicus_ _Sorex bendirii_ _Microtus townsendii_ _Marmota olympus_ _Microtus oregoni_ _Tamias townsendii_ _Aplodontia rufa_ Some species which range outside this faunal area have strongly marked races confined to it. _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis_ and _Lepus americanus washingtonii_ are examples. The Pacific Coastal Fauna is a forest fauna. Like the Great Basin Fauna, it reaches its northern limit of distribution in Washington and is better represented farther south. Unlike the Great Basin Fauna, the break between the Pacific Coastal and the surrounding fauna is not sharp, because forests continue into the more boreal faunal areas to the north and east. There, some mingling of coastal and Rocky Mountain faunas occurs. 3. ROCKY MOUNTAIN FAUNA. If this fauna be thought of as including mammals of the Rocky Mountains of the United States, and also those of the subarctic faunal area to the east of these mountains in Canada, the species in Washington are as follows: _Sorex palustris_ _Synaptomys borealis_ _Microsorex hoyi_ _Phenacomys intermedius_ _Lynx canadensis_ _Clethrionomys gapperi_ _Marmota caligata_ _Microtus richardsoni_ _Citellus lateralis_ _Ochotona princeps_ _Citellus columbianus_ _Lepus americanus_ _Tamias amoenus_ _Rangifer montanus_ _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_ _Oreamnos americanus_ _Glaucomys sabrinus_ Of the three, the Great Basin Fauna is the most distinct. Only about twenty species which occur within the Great Basin Faunal Area, occur also outside of it in one or both of the two other faunal areas. Most of these twenty are subspecifically different in the Great Basin Faunal Area as contrasted with one or both of the other areas. Each of the other two areas has no less than 32 species that are not restricted to it. SPECULATION AS TO EMIGRATIONAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS The present fauna of the state of Washington was derived in part from Asia and in part from native forms. Great changes occurred in early Pleistocene through emigration. By the late Pleistocene most of the mammals now occurring in the state of Washington were as they are today. The greatest changes that seem to have occurred in the late Pleistocene are the extinctions of numerous groups, locally or totally. Among the carnivores, Matthew (1902: 321) reports remains of the great lion, _Felis atrox_, associated with such familiar species as the badger, cougar, lynx and mountain goat. The great lion was very similar to the modern African lion but was fully a fourth larger. Associated with the great lion in the California tar pits are the carnivorous short-faced bears (_Tremarctotherium_), as large as the Alaskan brown bears; dire wolves (_Aenocyon_), larger than timber wolves; and saber-tooth tigers (_Smilodon_). These forms were probably also present in Washington in the late Pleistocene. Matthew (_loc. cit._) reports remains of the giant beaver, _Castoroides_, from the Silver Lake deposit of Oregon. This great beaver, as large as a black bear, was doubtless a resident of Washington also. Peccaries, camels, bison, horses and giant ground sloths have been recorded from Pleistocene deposits of Washington and nearby areas. Of the elephant tribe, the mastodon and several species of mammoths were present. These extinct forms have doubtless exerted some influence on the past distribution of mammals in Washington and possibly have had an effect on the distribution of members of the living fauna. One species of the mammoth, at least, existed in Washington in postglacial time. Remains of this form, _Elephas columbi_, have been found in Vashon till. The three faunas of Washington can be placed in two categories. One is Sonoran, essentially a desert type, and occupies the Columbian Plateau. The other two are forest faunas, predominantly boreal in complexion, and are closely related. The Rocky Mountain Fauna is found in the Blue Mountains and in northeastern Washington. The Pacific Coastal Fauna is found in western Washington. The ice sheets of Vashon-Wisconsin time descended southward to southern Puget Sound and to the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau. If the area of the ice sheet be superimposed on a map of distributional areas of Washington, it is seen that the area occupied by the Rocky Mountain Fauna in northeastern Washington is eliminated. Thus, at the maximum descent of Wisconsin ice, the Rocky Mountain type of mammalian fauna was found only in extreme southeastern Washington. No point of contact between the forest fauna of the Rocky Mountains and the fauna of the Pacific coast exists, anywhere, because desert areas, or at least barren plains, lie between them from the border of the glaciers south to Mexico. For the entire period, perhaps thousands of years long, while the glaciers were in place, the two forest faunas were separated. Repeated separation of the faunas by successive glaciations is thought to be responsible for many of the differences now existing between them. Following the retreat of the ice, the Pacific Coastal Fauna extended its range northward to the Fraser River and, in part, into the Cascade Mountains. The Rocky Mountain Fauna invaded northeastern Washington and boreal Canada, including the Pacific Coast north of the Fraser River. Certain parts of the Rocky Mountain Fauna also invaded the Cascade Mountains. Inasmuch as the Cascades were invaded by species from both faunas, a detailed analysis of the mammals existing there now seems justified. Several significant features of the composition of the mammal fauna of the Cascades are apparent. First, several species typical of the Pacific Coastal Fauna are present, such as _Neurotrichus gibbsii_, _Sorex trowbridgii_, _Sorex bendirii_, _Tamias townsendii_, _Microtus oregoni_ and _Aplodontia rufa_. Each of these species has no close relatives in the Rocky Mountain Fauna and, save perhaps _Sorex trowbridgii_, occupies a unique ecological niche and has no counterpart in the Rocky Mountain Fauna. A second group includes species with close relatives in both the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coastal faunas. This group is remarkable in that it is composed of either very closely related species or very strongly differentiated subspecies in each fauna. For example, the golden-mantled ground squirrel (_Citellus saturatus_) of the Cascade Mountains is specifically distinct from _Citellus lateralis_. Supposedly the Cascade form was isolated in the southern Cascades during Vashon-Wisconsin time. The Douglas squirrel (_Tamiasciurus douglasii_) of the Cascades, which has a red belly, is the same as the squirrel of the lowlands of western Washington but is specifically distinct from the red squirrel (_Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_) of the Rocky Mountain Fauna, which has a white belly. In the extreme northeastern Cascades the two species come together. They do not interbreed but seem to compete, for they do not occur together. The flying squirrel (_Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus_) of the Cascades is only slightly differentiated from other races of the Rocky Mountain Fauna but is much different, as are all Rocky Mountain races, from the western Washington subspecies (_Glaucomys s. oregonensis_). The red-backed mouse of the Cascades is _Clethrionomys gapperi_, a species distinct from _Clethrionomys californicus_ of western Washington. The jumping mouse of the Cascades is _Zapus princeps trinotatus_, the same race that occurs in western Washington. It is quite distinct from, and has previously been considered a species separate from, the races of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. The snowshoe rabbit of the Cascades is closely related to other races of the Rocky Mountain Fauna but is distinct from _L. a. washingtonii_ of western Washington. The pika (_Ochotona princeps_) of the Cascades was apparently isolated in the southern part of the range during the glaciation. After the retreat of the glaciers it extended its range northward. Competition between two subspecies has resulted in parallel distributions due to relative body size. The two races freely intergrade and the differences between them are not so great as in the other forms mentioned. The third group of mammalian species of the Cascades is composed of species typical of the Rocky Mountain Fauna such as: _Marmota caligata_, _Synaptomys borealis_, and _Orcamnos americanus_. Each has no ecological counterpart in the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Each is absent from the Cascades of Oregon. We interpret the mixture of faunas in the Cascades as follows: The Vashon-Wisconsin ice sheet was in place for a long period of time, longer, probably, than the Recent. During this time, forest mammals of the Pacific Coast were isolated from forest mammals farther east by glaciers to the north and desert to the east. Changes took place in both of the separated forest faunas. Certain species, perhaps, such as the mammoth, became extinct. Other forms were exterminated then or at an earlier time in one fauna or the other. If _Aplodontia_, _Neurotrichus_ or _Scapanus_ occurred in the Rocky Mountain faunal area, it lived in an inland area of rigorous climate, and disappeared there because it was unable to adapt itself to the cold. In the mild climate caused by proximity of the ocean, mild even in Vashon-Wisconsin time to judge from evidence yielded by study of fossil pollens, primitive forms such as moles, the Bendire shrew, and mountain beaver persisted along the coast, where there were no boreal conditions. Some alpine forms, such as _Marmota olympus_, _Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ and _Citellus saturatus_ persisted in the Olympic or Cascade mountains as relic species. On the whole, however, the glacial divergence resulted in a boreal forest fauna and a temperate forest fauna. In addition to change in component species, there were evolutionary changes in the species themselves. In some these were considerable, as shown by the differences between related forms of the two faunas. In most species, however, evolutionary changes have resulted in only subspecific differences. Following the retreat of the glaciers and the establishment of vegetation on the deglaciated areas, movements of the faunas occurred. The Rocky Mountain Fauna spread northward and westward, to northeastern Washington and, in Canada to the Pacific, occupying most of the land exposed by the glaciers. The Pacific Coastal Fauna spread northward only as far as the relatively slight barrier of the Fraser River. The Cascade Mountains became a "no-man's land." The pika and golden-mantled ground squirrel of the southern Cascades spread northward. Boreal Rocky Mountain forms with no ecologic competitors from the Pacific Coastal Fauna occupied the Cascades. Also, coastal species with no Rocky Mountain competitors occupied the Cascades. Nevertheless, some competition between members of the two faunas ultimately occurred, and in instances where closely related forms occurred in the two faunas, one or the other prevailed in the Cascade Range. For example, the Douglas squirrel and big jumping mouse are now established in that range, but the relative of each occurring in the Rocky Mountains is present in the extreme northeastern Cascades. It is possible that in these two cases, the related form occurring in the Rocky Mountains has just entered the area and that competition has just begun. With regard to the flying squirrel, red-backed mouse and snowshoe rabbit, the more boreal Rocky Mountain representatives have definitely displaced the coastal forms. Certain mass movements of mammals are popularly believed to have occurred with the advance of the ice sheets of the Pleistocene. The boreal birds and plants on higher peaks of the Cascades and the Sierra Nevada of California are thought to represent relics of faunas that moved northward. Such mass movements probably did occur and there is some evidence of their occurrence in Washington. Probably the pre-Wisconsin flora of coastal British Columbia consisted of coniferous forest similar to that of western Washington today. If this were the case, the mammalian species in British Columbia corresponded closely to those of western Washington. An influx of such a fauna into coastal Washington would scarcely be evident today if, indeed, it was noticeable even then. In eastern Washington, forest species forced southward would come upon the barren, inhospitable plains and deserts of the Columbian Plateau. The greater part of the southward moving forms found refuge in the Cascade Mountains where, for most of Wisconsin time, they were isolated in the southern Cascades. Examples are _Sorex palustris_, _Martes caurina_, _Martes pennanti_, _Gulo luscus_, _Vulpes fulva_, _Lynx canadensis_, _Tamias amoenus_, _Thomomys talpoides_ (_douglasii_ group), _Phenacomys intermedius_, _Microtus richardsoni_ and _Ochotona princeps_. In each of these species little or no subspecific variation has occurred between the populations in the Cascades of Washington and the Cascades of Oregon. While the ice sheet existed in Washington there may have been relatively little movement of the mammalian fauna. There is definite evidence of a brief contact between the Rocky Mountain Fauna of the Blue Mountains and the fauna of the southern Cascades. For example, the pocket gopher of southeastern Washington (_Thomomys talpoides aequalidens_) is most closely related to the gopher of the Simcoe Anticline, and the long-tailed meadow mouse (_Microtus longicaudus halli_) of the Blue Mountains closely resembles the meadow mouse of the Yakima Valley. Mammals of the Blue Mountains and those of the southern Cascades may have come into contact on the Simcoe-Horseheaven Hills Anticline, which now stretches 150 miles from the Cascades to the Wallula Water Gap. Excepting the easternmost 40 miles, it is timbered. East of the Columbia, a continuation of the anticline and other hills reaches to the Blue Mountains. Supposedly, in Wisconsin Time, this anticline possessed a more humid climate and the habitat was essentially the same as that of an alpine meadow today. The forms on the two ends of the anticline that are closely related inhabit humid, meadow habitat. In an earlier paper, Dalquest and Scheffer (1944: 316) named this connection the Simcoe Bridge. Its existence was so strongly indicated by the distribution of pocket gophers in Washington that we supposed that the study of many other species would show that they crossed this bridge. However, study of additional species shows that for them the Simcoe Bridge was of only slight importance; there appears to have been but little mingling of the fauna of the Blue Mountains and the Cascades by way of the bridge. The Columbia River probably acted as an effective barrier to many forms that might otherwise have utilized it. The forms that did cross on this bridge are species known to be active in winter and to emigrate over considerable areas through tunnels under the snow (Davis, 1939: 257). The pocket gopher and long-tailed meadow mouse may have crossed the Columbia, under a cover of snow, when the river was frozen over. The Columbia has frozen over at the Wallula Water Gap in historic times. [Illustration: FIG. 19. Pend Oreille River (or Clark Fork of the Columbia) from a point near Newport, Washington, looking south, June 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 67.)] Great movements of mammal species came after the retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice. The greatest of these was the spread of the Rocky Mountain Fauna northward and eastward to the Pacific. In this process, northeastern Washington was inhabited by animals that probably came from Idaho and Montana. Some of the species from farther north, as for example the caribou, may first have been forced into Idaho and Montana by the glaciers. The invasion of northeastern Washington probably was not a mass movement of an entire fauna, because invasion seems to be still going on. As yet the woodchuck and striped ground squirrel of the Pend Oreille Mountains have not crossed the Columbia River, a relatively minor barrier in northeastern Washington. The mountains west of the Columbia are occupied instead by the yellow-bellied marmot, a member of the Great Basin Fauna, and there is no ecologic counterpart in these mountains of the golden-mantled ground squirrel. Also the invasion of the Cascade Mountains by a number of Rocky Mountain species may have been an intermittant or gradual movement. The red squirrel and Rocky Mountain subspecies of jumping mouse now are present in the extreme northeastern Cascades, where they possibly arrived relatively recently. The squirrel is competing with the coastal species already present and may eventually supplant it. The same may be true of the two forms of jumping mouse. The invasion by the Rocky Mountain Fauna was rapid as compared with that of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Evidence of this was presented in an earlier paper (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1944: 310), where it was shown that the gophers of the _douglasii_ group, isolated during the Vashon time in the southern Cascades, made only a few feeble postglacial movements and then only when conditions were ideal. In this same time the _fuscus_ group of gophers moved from Idaho and virtually surrounded the range of the _douglasii_ group. This tendency to immobility seems to have been characteristic of every member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. If the retreat of the Vashon and Wisconsin glaciers occurred at the same time, both faunas had an equal opportunity to invade the deglaciated area. Yet, the Pacific Coastal Fauna actually moved northward along the coast only to the Fraser River area, and slightly farther in the Cascades. Possibly the two glaciers retreated at different times. The Wisconsin Glacier was a piedmont glacier, fed by valley glaciers to the west and east, and may have disappeared when the feeder glaciers dried up. The Vashon Glacier was instead an ice cap, supposedly self-supporting much in the same manner as is the Greenland Ice Cap, and may have persisted longer than the Wisconsin glacier. If it did persist longer it formed a barrier to the northward emigration of coastal species of mammals. Possibly, also, the whole of the Pacific Coastal Fauna possessed an inherent sluggishness resulting from their long residence in the uniform climate and habitat of the Pacific Coast. Certainly the species show today great habitat specialization as compared with species of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. Also, there are fewer individual mammals per unit of area in western Washington than in northeastern Washington. The persistence of the Vashon Glacier, an inherent lack of incentive to emigrate, or retention of a favorable environment, may account for the relatively small area invaded by the Pacific Coastal Fauna. The Olympic Mountains, on the Olympic Peninsula, rise above the timber-line and are surrounded by forested lowlands which in a sense isolates this mountain range. Early workers, notably Elliot, obtained specimens of mammals from the Olympics and described numerous races, principally, it appears, on the supposition that because the range was somewhat isolated it should possess a unique fauna. Subsequent revisions of groups of mammals have indicated that most of the names proposed, on the basis of specimens from the Olympics, were either invalid or pertained to mammals found also in the Cascades. The mammals of the Olympic Peninsula appear to be divisible into three groups. A majority of them fall within the first group, namely coastal races possessing wide ranges in the lowlands of western Washington. The second group consists of species of the Rocky Mountain Fauna but with close relatives in the Cascades. The third group includes but two forms, both unique and found only on the Olympic Peninsula. The first group includes nonalpine forms of the lowlands surrounding the Olympic Mountains. For the most part these are identical with races of the Puget Sound area. A few are slightly differentiated from the mammals of the Puget Sound area but are the same as mammals from southwestern Washington. As will be shown later, some differentiation in the Pacific Coastal Fauna has occurred. This is thought to be evolution _in situ_, rather than the result of mass movements. Many nonalpine Coastal mammals occur in alpine habitat in the Olympics. The second group consists of species of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. Their relationship to the mammals of the Cascades is indicated in the two parallel columns below. OLYMPICS CASCADES _Sorex palustris navigator_ _Sorex palustris navigator_ _Martes caurina caurina_ _Martes caurina caurina_ _Martes pennanti_ _Martes pennanti_ _Tamias amoenus caurinus_ _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_ _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_ _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_ _Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius_ _Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus_ Only two of these are racially distinct from their relatives in the Cascades. Of these the chipmunk is a plastic species and breaks down into many races in Washington. The chipmunks of the Olympics and of Mt. Rainier are so similar that Howell (1929: 77) considered them as identical and mapped Mount Rainier as an isolated part of the range of the Olympic form (see account of _T. a. caurinus_). The relationship of the red-backed mice, also, is close, but has been obscured by the usual assumption of relationship between _californicus_ (_occidentalis_) and _gapperi_. The principal difference between the alpine forms is the pallor of _nivarius_. This pallor of mammals in general from the Olympic Mountains is noteworthy, but in the red-backed mouse is exceptionally noticeable. This pallor is discussed beyond in the paragraphs dealing with differentiation. Mention should be made here of _Myotis keenii_. This is a species which seems to have extended its range to Washington from the north. The power of flight, of course, removes it from consideration in attempting to reconstruct routes followed by terrestrial mammals. The route of the pocket gopher (_Thomomys_) in emigrating from the Cascades to the Olympics (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1944: 310), was over the outwash train of the Mount Rainier Glaciers, especially the Nisqualli Glacier, to the extensive outwash aprons of the Vashon Glacier around southern Puget Sound, and thence into the Olympic Mountains. Under the conditions in early postglacial time this invasion route, hereinafter termed the Puget Bridge, around the Pleistocene Lake Russell (present Puget Sound), is thought to have been mainly an alpine meadow. Indeed, the isolated prairies remaining today are the unforested remnants of the outwash aprons (see Dalquest and Scheffer, 1942: 69) and possess several species of alpine plants, notably the shooting star, camas, and bear grass. If the Vashon Glacier remained in place considerably longer than the Wisconsin Glacier, these Rocky Mountain species may have invaded the Cascades from northeastern Washington and travelled around the southern edge of the Puget Glacier or of Lake Russell. The close relationship of the races involved, however, suggests that the emigration took place much more recently. The barriers to such movement even today are slight, consisting principally of narrow areas of forest. For the water shrew, an almost continuous water habitat still exists, by way of the Nisqualli River, streams in the Puget Sound area, and the Satsop River in the Olympics. Tree-living forms such as the fisher and marten might easily travel the intervening distance today, and, by going along the forests north of the Chehalis River, reach the Olympics without crossing more than small streams and virtually without descending to the ground. Chipmunks and mice probably utilized the prairie or meadow area of the Puget Bridge, as did the gophers. Considering the long existence of the Puget Bridge, it is surprising that such forms as the pika, water rat and golden-mantled ground squirrel did not cross to the Olympics. These forms are, however, species of the higher or eastern slopes of the Cascades. The third group of Olympic mammals includes the white-bellied water shrew and the Olympic marmot, both indigenous forms. The Bendire water shrew, _Sorex bendirii albiventer_, is not restricted to alpine habitat but occurs throughout the Olympic Peninsula. Its nearest relative is _S. b. bendirii_ of the rest of western Washington. _S. b. albiventer_ differs from _bendirii_ only in possessing a partially white ventral surface. We can only conclude that the white belly of _albiventer_ is a mutation that the local environment has favored and that the characters have, therefore, spread through the population on the Olympic Peninsula. Occasional specimens are taken with dark bellies characteristic of _bendirii_ (Jackson, 1928: 199). The Olympic marmot, _Marmota olympus_, specifically distinct, and apparently the only preglacial relic species of alpine mammal in the Olympics, is most nearly related to _Marmota vancouverensis_ of the unglaciated mountains of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Both _olympus_ and _vancouverensis_ are close relatives of _Marmota caligata_ which ranges southward into the Cascades of Washington. The Columbia River in its course westward through the Cascade Mountains, might be expected to act as a highway for the movement of mammals, but the extent to which it has done so seems to be slight, at least in postglacial time. The pocket gopher of southwestern Washington reached the area about Vancouver from the southern Cascades by way of meadows on the gravel terraces of Wisconsin glacial drift. No other mammal seems to have extended this far. Several Great Basin species, such as the cottontail, extend westward in the valley of the Columbia to the vicinity of Bingen. The mammals of western Oregon and southwestern Washington are closely similar as are the plants and climate, despite the fact that the broad Columbia River courses through the area and did so all through Recent and Pleistocene times. Many species would be expected to have crossed this barrier by swimming and rafting, and that they did so is indicated by the large number of mammals which are identical or very closely related on the two sides of the river. Mammals which seem not to differ on the two sides of the river include: _Scapanus townsendii_ _Citellus beecheyi_ _Scapanus orarius_ _Tamias townsendii_ _Sorex trowbridgii_ _Sciurus griseus_ _Sorex vagrans_ _Glaucomys sabrinus_ _Canis lupus_ _Castor canadensis_ _Felis concolor_ _Microtus townsendii_ _Lynx rufus_ _Microtus oregoni_ _Mephitis mephitis_ _Ondatra zibethicus_ _Spilogale gracilis_ _Zapus princeps_ _Procyon lotor_ _Odocoileus hemionus_ _Ursus americanus_ The following mammals are subspecifically distinct in western Washington and western Oregon: WASHINGTON OREGON _Sorex bendirii bendirii_ _Sorex bendirii palmeri_ _Sorex obscurus setosus_ _Sorex obscurus bairdi_ _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis_ _Neotoma cinerea fusca_ _Peromyscus maniculatus austerus_ _Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus_ _Clethrionomys californicus _Clethrionomys californicus occidentalis_ californicus_ _Microtus longicaudus macrurus_ _Microtus longicaudus abditus_ _Aplodontia rufa rufa_ _Aplodontia rufa pacifica_ The following species are found in western Oregon but do not occur in western Washington: _Vulpes fulva_ _Phenacomys albipes_ _Urocyon cinereoargenteus_ _Microtus canicaudus_ _Neotoma fuscipes_ _Thomomys bulbivorus_ _Phenacomys silvicola_ _Lepus californicus_ _Phenacomys longicaudus_ _Sylvilagus bachmani_ Several of these mammals which occur south of the river but not north of it are common on the south bank, a few miles from favorable but uninhabited territory on the north. Seemingly the pre-Vashon faunas of western Oregon and Washington were similar. Some species became extinct in Washington in the course of Vashon isolation. Others persisted. The very close relationship of the mammals of the first group indicates some crossing of the river. The best known of such crossings was that of the Beechey ground squirrel which, previous to 1915, was unknown in Washington. In 1915, when there was no man-made bridge at White Salmon, it crossed the river and since has spread over an area of at least 50 square miles. The distribution of the mountain beavers is unusual in that the form in the lowlands of Washington is indistinguishable from the subspecies in the Cascades of Oregon. The mammals that are racially distinct on the two sides of the Columbia River merit careful scrutiny. The _Peromyscus_ of the two sides more closely resemble one another than those of southern Oregon resemble those of northern Oregon or than those of southern Washington resemble those of northern Washington. For _Peromyscus maniculatus_, the Columbia River is simply a convenient boundary for the separation of two slightly different races. The Oregon race of the bushy-tailed wood rat is a coastal type but the Washington form is the same as that of eastern Washington. Seemingly the more eastern race spread to an unoccupied habitat in western Washington. Other races that differ on the two sides of the Columbia probably developed while separated by the river. [Illustration: FIG. 20. Rocky bluff along north bank of the Columbia River near Lyle. Washington. March 20. 1939. Habitat of Beechey ground squirrel and yellow-bellied marmot. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer. No. 640.)] The San Juan Islands now possess a limited mammalian fauna. Unfortunately the activities of man have somewhat changed the native populations, especially by the introduction of the domestic rabbit which is now a serious pest in the islands. The Douglas squirrel, present on Blakeley Island, is said to have been introduced and one resident claims to have first brought it to the island. Two different persons claim credit for introducing the Townsend chipmunk on Orcas Island but do not account for its presence on Lopez Island. The three mammals most abundant and widely distributed in the islands are _Sorex vagrans_, _Peromyscus maniculatus_ and _Microtus townsendii_. These species, at least, probably reached the islands at an early time. The two last named are now subspecifically distinct from their mainland relatives. Other mammals which probably were established before the arrival of the white man include the mink, otter, beaver, muskrat, raccoon and black-tailed deer. The Great Basin Fauna of eastern Washington exists as three units, one on the Columbian Plateau, another in southeastern Washington and the third in the Yakima Valley area. The desert species of the Yakima Valley are more closely related to the species of eastern Oregon than they are to those of the Columbian Plateau. In a number of respects the Columbian Plateau gives indications of age. The ground squirrel, _Citellus washingtoni_, is related to, but specifically distinct from _Citellus townsendii_ of the Yakima Valley and eastern Oregon. _Perognathus parvus lordi_ is a well-marked race, as is _Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi_ and _Thomomys talpoides devexus_. We suppose that these species were present on the Columbian Plateau at least through the Recent and probably through all of Wisconsin Time. The loess deposits of eastern Washington seem to have been laid down in Wisconsin and Recent times. These indicate an arid climate which, although probably cool, was probably not so cold as to exterminate these species. On the other hand, some species that are now abundant on the Columbian Plateau seem to have arrived there relatively recently. The black-tailed jack rabbit, for example, was unknown in eastern Washington before 1870 when it appeared in Walla Walla County. In 1905 it crossed the Snake River on ice and invaded the Columbian Plateau where it rapidly spread over the whole area. In January, 1920, it crossed the Columbia in two places and spread over the Yakima Valley. The known facts of this movement were sufficiently impressive to cause the author to study rather closely the distribution of mammals in this area. The collection of bones from a cave along the Columbia River near Vantage, Grant County, on the Columbian Plateau, is especially helpful in this respect. This cave was first visited in 1938. It had been the habitat of owls, bats, and primitive man. The floor of the cave was buried under from one to three feet of bat guano, much of which had been hauled away for fertilizer. Here and there we found traces of fire and occasional piles of mussel shells. Some arrowheads and one beautiful obsidian spear head were found, all buried in guano and about midway between the floor and the top of the deposit. Remains of mammals were abundant through the bat guano, and apparently had been brought to the cave both by man and owls. The jaw of a mountain sheep was found. This species was known to be present when the first settlers reached the area (Cowan, 1940: 558). The remains of smaller mammals included gopher, pocket mouse, muskrat, meadow mouse, deer mouse, coyote and white-tailed jack rabbit. No remains of cottontail, black-tailed jack rabbit or harvest mouse were found. The absence of the cottontail was especially surprising, in that fully thirty skulls of white-tailed jack rabbits were noted. The grasshopper mouse (_Onychomys_) was also absent, but this species is not common. The two rabbits and the harvest mouse, however, are abundant in the area today. The cottontail and harvest mouse have only recently been recorded from the Okanogan Valley of British Columbia (Cowan and Hatter, 1940: 9). The black-tailed jack rabbit has never been taken there. Apparently then, some species have only recently entered the Upper Sonoran Life-zone of eastern Washington. They have, of course, reached the state from Oregon. The first step in the invasion probably was the occupation of southeastern Washington. No barrier prevents mammals from reaching southeastern Washington from eastern Oregon but the Columbia to the north and west prevents them from occupying the Yakima Valley, and the Snake River prevents them from reaching the Columbian Plateau. The kangaroo rat, Great Basin striped skunk and Great Basin spotted skunk now are at this stage of invasion. The second stage was the crossing of the Columbia River to the Yakima Valley. This has been accomplished by the black-tailed jack rabbit and, earlier, by the pocket mouse, _Perognathus parvus parvus_, and ground squirrel, _Citellus townsendii_. The third stage was the crossing of the Snake River and occupation of the Columbian Plateau. The final stage is the crossing of the northern Columbia River and occupation of the Okanogan Valley. SPECULATION AS TO THE LATER DISTRIBUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS Whereas it is probable that a few of the species now occurring in Washington evolved there, most are immigrants from other areas. The success of a given species in any area is dependent on numerous factors which may be classified under food, shelter from the elements, protection from enemies and safe breeding places. The factors may be of an inorganic nature, such as climate, soil and exposure or they may be organic, such as vegetation, competition for food and response to enemies. Abundance results in population pressure and a tendency for the range of a species to expand. Mammalian populations are dynamic and change in accordance with alterations in environment. Because the later geologic history of the state of Washington was violent, with resultant changes in climate and geography, the mammalian populations and the distribution of the species have changed much. With changes in environment, rare species may become common; common and widespread species may become rare or extinct; species foreign to the area may enter, become established and affect the distribution of other forms. Subspecies are groups of individuals with similar genetic components or are groups of microgeographic races. In instances where the phenotypic expression of these similar genetic factors, or the "characters," are, as a unit, uniformly different from those of animals of the same species in another geographic area, it is convenient to give recognition to the two kinds by separate subspecific name. Intergradation between two geographically adjacent subspecies occurs, directly or where impassable barriers separate them, indirectly by way of one or more other subspecies. Subspecies of mammals are geographic races, which means that to warrant recognition by subspecific name, there must be a logical geographic range in addition to morphological characters. Timofeef-Ressovsky (1932, 1940) advances the theory of harmoniously stabilized gene-complexes to account for the persistence of subspecies. The persistence of subspecies as genetic units has been best explained, I feel, by Sumner (1932: 84-86) who theorizes as follows: 1. The number of young produced by a subspecies is greater than the carrying capacity of the land they occupy, at least at certain times or in some years. 2. Population pressure results, with a tendency of individuals to emigrate outwards, to the border of the range of the subspecies, where the population pressure is less. 3. The outward moving tendency keeps the center of the range of the subspecies genetically "pure." 4. The peripheral wave continues, as long as favorable habitat is encountered, until an oppositely directed wave of another race is encountered. 5. Areas of intergradation represent local mingling of genetic factors and do not affect the "pure" individuals of the central part of the range of the subspecies. Certain aspects of this hypothesis are strongly supported by the distribution of mammals in Washington. Witness the rapid invasion of _Citellus beecheyi_ and _Lepus californicus_ in Washington, and the eastern cottontail in western Washington and the domestic rabbit in the San Juan Islands. The volume of the "wave of population pressure" where no opposing force is met, is scarcely believable. In seven years the eastern cottontails released in southwestern Washington multiplied from a maximum of 12 individuals to a minimum of 40,000. Competition between subspecies where their ranges come into contact seems to be exceptional. _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas_ and _P. m. austerus_ seem to afford an example of this. However, in a few cases subspecies seem to be determined in part by adaptation to restricted environments; each race lives only where local conditions favor its respective adaptations. In the pocket gophers, where restricted habitat and fossorial habits cause numerous microgeographic races, these microgeographic races may be potential subspecies. This is especially true in the Puget Sound area, where six races occur in a small area. These races meet all the requirements of subspecies and are recognized as such. It should be pointed out, however, that these races and probably many other races produced by isolation, may represent degenerative mutations of the type mentioned by Wright (in Huxley, 1940). The principal differences of such races seem to have resulted from the loss of factors of original multiple factor series, with resultant homogeneity of the race. Inherent variability is another thing that has to be taken into account when considering the differentiation of the mammals of Washington into subspecies. The pocket gopher is an extremely plastic species, especially in Washington, whereas the Douglas squirrel is less so. The flying squirrels, the yellow-pine chipmunk and the snowshoe rabbit are the other plastic species. These species are not so likely to break up into numerous subspecies over all of their ranges as they are in Washington where in a small area the topography is highly varied. The range of the one subspecies, _Tamias amoenus amoenus_, to the southeast of Washington is larger than the combined ranges of all six races occurring in Washington but, so far as I can see, the topography and environment are no more varied in Washington than in the mentioned area to the southeast of it. The range of one subspecies, _Lepus americanus americanus_, in Canada is several times larger than the entire state of Washington, in which four races are found. The shrews are poor subjects for a study of differentiation, principally because their small size makes it difficult to see morphological variations that may be present. The difficulty is increased because cranial sutures become ossified at an early age. Although it is difficult to evaluate the differentiation in them, there is some. The bats, especially the _Myotis_, are less restricted by geographic barriers than are terrestial mammals. Nevertheless, obvious differentiation exists. The larger predatory mammals and the artiodactyls are able to move over large areas, at least in the breeding season, but in these animals also, some differentiation has occurred. The greatest changes, other than the extinctions, to occur in the mammalian fauna of Washington since the late Pleistocene, are changes in distribution. The interglacial cycle preceding the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciation was of far greater duration than the Recent. Presumably the mammalian fauna had, from a distributional standpoint, reached a relatively stable condition. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice destroyed the stability and set parts of the fauna in motion. Probably no stability was reached before the ice began to recede, and when it did so the previous movements of the various species were, at least in part, reversed. Stability has not yet been reached by the mammalian fauna of Washington. Great changes have occurred in historic times and other changes probably are under way at present. In the following pages an attempt has been made to interpret the probable late Pleistocene and Recent distributional history of the species of mammals occurring in Washington. The interpretations are made in the light of what is known of the physical history of the state and are to be accepted as such rather than as evidence for the conclusions made concerning the physical history of the state of Washington and adjacent areas. SCAPANUS TOWNSENDII.--Probably this animal was confined to the Humid Transition Life-zone of the Pacific Coast since the Pliocene. SCAPANUS ORARIUS.--This species probably had a history similar to that of _townsendii_ up to the late Pleistocene. It seems slightly more adaptable than _townsendii_, and to be able to extend higher into the mountains. The distribution of the subspecies _orarius_ is almost exactly that of _S. townsendii_. In Oregon, _orarius_ extended eastward over the Cascades where the subspecies _schefferi_ developed. Perhaps this subspecies developed since the Pleistocene and since that time extended along the Columbia River Valley to southeastern Washington. The race _yakimensis_, in the Yakima Valley area, is closely related to _schefferi_, and seemingly could have been developed from a stock of _schefferi_ that migrated westward across the Simcoe Bridge. NEUROTRICHUS GIBBSII.--The history of _Neurotrichus_ in North America was probably similar to that of the two species of _Scapanus_. It tolerates environmental differences to about the same degree that _Scapanus orarius_ does but occurs much farther south (Monterey County, California) than _S. orarius_. This may be because _Neurotrichus_ has no counterpart to compete with it in the south, whereas _Scapanus orarius_ must compete in northern California with the morphologically similar _Scapanus latimanus_. _S. orarius_ stops short at this place and _S. latimanus_ occupies all the territory to the south. The shrew-mole of the lowland of Washington (_N. g. minor_) probably became distinct from the mountain subspecies (_gibbsii_) in Vashon-Wisconsin time. SOREX CINEREUS.--It is reasonable to suppose that the cinereous shrew had a continuous range across the forested area of British Columbia in pre-Wisconsin time. Without having been isolated, the dark coastal race (_streatori_) may have developed from the wider-ranging inland _cinereus_, as a response to the denser, humid, coastal forest-habitat, after having been forced southward to Washington by the Vashon Glaciation. Since that time it is presumed to have reoccupied the coast of British Columbia and southern Alaska. This coastal race might have developed in Vashon time, while isolated in southwestern Washington. The Cascades are populated by a race of the Rocky Mountain Fauna, _S. c. cinereus_, which probably entered the Cascades from northeastern Washington or British Columbia in Recent Time. The absence of the species in western Oregon, its rarity in western Washington, and its abundance farther north suggest a northern origin and northward rather than southward postglacial movement. Had the full species _cinereus_ been a preglacial resident of western Washington we would expect _streatori_ or a race related to it to occur in the Cascades. SOREX MERRIAMI.--The periphery of the range of this member of the Great Basin Fauna may have been in southeastern Washington since pre-Wisconsin time. SOREX TROWBRIDGII.--This shrew is a typical Pacific coastal species with an extensive range along the Pacific Coast south of Washington. The Washington population may have been isolated in southwestern Washington during Vashon time or may have crossed the Columbia into Washington from western Oregon early in the Recent. Since the retreat of the ice it has extended northward to southern British Columbia and eastward to the eastern side of the Cascades. Save for crossing the Cascades its postglacial movements have been slight, as is typical of Pacific Coastal species. The race _destructioni_ probably has been isolated on Destruction Island for several thousand years. SOREX VAGRANS.--This species probably has had a continuous range over the western United States since the late Pleistocene. The dark coastal race (_vagrans_) probably was differentiated from the paler races of the Great Basin in response to the more humid climate along the coast. SOREX OBSCURUS.--The history of this shrew of alpine predilection probably corresponded closely to that of _Sorex cinereus_. The derivation of the dark, long-tailed, coastal race (_S. o. setosus_) from the smaller, paler, inland race (_obscurus_) probably occurred before Vashon-Wisconsin Time. _Sorex o. setosus_ is one of a complex of races distributed along the Pacific Coast from Alaska to California. SOREX PALUSTRIS.--This species has a wide range in North America and extends southward in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Chain to southern California. Its extensive range at present in this mountain chain suggests that it was resident in the Cascades previous to Wisconsin time. Mountain water shrews probably reached the Olympic Mountains from the Cascades by way of the Puget Bridge in early Recent Time. SOREX BENDIRII.--This Pacific Coastal species probably had a history very similar to that of _Neurotrichus_ and _Scapanus orarius_. The difference between the Bendire water shrews of western Washington and western Oregon indicates that the Washington population was separated from the shrews of western Oregon during Vashon Time. The white-bellied race of the Olympic Peninsula is probably of local origin. MICROSOREX HOYI.--The Washington record of this shrew at Loon Lake, Stevens County, is in an area where mammals typical of the Rocky Mountain Fauna occur. MYOTIS LUCIFUGUS.--The dark race of this species (_alascensis_) may have persisted through the glacial period in southwestern Washington. The race _carissima_, of the Great Basin Fauna, may have entered the state since the glacial period, from the south, of course. Habitat selection determines their range at present. MYOTIS YUMANENSIS.--The dark, coastal race (_saturatus_) seems to be an established member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Unlike _lucifugus_, the coastal race is not found east of the Cascades. The race _sociabilis_, of the Great Basin, has doubtless entered the desert of eastern Washington from eastern Oregon. MYOTIS KEENII.--The southernmost record station for this north coastal species is on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington. It probably developed in the humid, northern part of the Pacific Coastal area previous to the last Pleistocene glaciation and extended its range to the south in Vashon-Wisconsin Time. The range of tolerance in _M. k. keenii_ seems to be more restricted than that of _M. lucifugus alascensis_. MYOTIS EVOTIS.--In Washington, the distribution of this bat is similar to that of _Myotis lucifugus_. The dark, forest race probably originated in the north-coastal region. The paler race, that developed in the southwest, entered eastern Washington from Oregon. MYOTIS THYSANODES.--In Washington this species has been recorded only in the southeastern part where the Great Basin Fauna occurs. It probably originated in the southwestern United States, and a point in British Columbia a little way north of Washington marks the northern edge of its natural range. MYOTIS VOLANS and MYOTIS CALIFORNICUS.--Remarks made about _Myotis lucifugus_ apply also to these two species. MYOTIS SUBULATUS.--The northwestern periphery of the range of this species seems to be in eastern Washington. LASIONYCTERIS NOCTIVAGANS.--Undifferentiated subspecifically from coast to coast, no basis is provided for judging the route by which this species entered the state. PIPISTRELLUS HESPERUS.--The northwestern periphery of the range of this bat, also, lies in eastern Washington. EPTESICUS FUSCUS.--Big brown bats from both eastern and western Washington seem to have been derived from the Pacific Coastal race of the species. Presumably it extended its range westward across the Cascades in early post-Pleistocene Time. LASIURUS CINEREUS.--No speculation as to the distributional history of the hoary bat seems justified at present. CORYNORHINUS RAFINESQUII.--The dark, coastal race of this bat probably persisted in southwestern Washington and western Oregon through Vashon Time and moved northward in the Recent. The paler _intermedius_ probably invaded eastern Washington from eastern Oregon in the Recent. ANTROZOUS PALLIDUS.--This species strays into eastern Washington from Oregon as part of the Great Basin Fauna. URSUS AMERICANUS.--The dark, western race of the black bear (_altifrontalis_) and the paler, inland race (_cinnamomum_) were probably separated by a glacial divergence. The inland race has entered northeastern Washington in the Recent with other members of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. URSUS CHELAN, etc.--The apparent past distribution of _chelan_ indicates it to have invaded Washington from British Columbia since the Pleistocene. The apparent absence of grizzly bears from the southern Cascades and western Washington may indicate their absence from these areas immediately before pre-Vashon time, or their extermination in or shortly after that period. PROCYON LOTOR.--The raccoon of western Washington seems to be the Pacific Coastal race which occurs also in western Oregon and northwestern California. This indicates that the coastal race (_psora_) was confined to the coastal area south of Washington during Vashon Time and has only recently reinvaded western Washington. It is possible, though less likely, that raccoons existed in southwestern Washington during Vashon Time but did not develop racial characters, or that the Columbia was crossed so frequently that genetic differences were dispersed throughout the entire population. Reasons why the second hypothesis is inadequate are: (1) Raccoons range but little north of the state of Washington, both east and west of the Cascades. (2) Raccoons of western Washington and the area about San Francisco Bay, California, are as much alike as are raccoons from southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon. It is thought that raccoons, if resident in western Washington since interglacial time, would have developed strong racial characters, and the fact that they have not indicates that they have entered the state at a relatively recent date. The raccoon of eastern Washington (_excelsus_) is a member of the Great Basin Fauna and has probably included southeastern Washington in its natural range for a long period of time. The raccoon has not extended its normal range into northeastern Washington, although it is seemingly ideal raccoon habitat; only an occasional vagrant occurs there. A stock of raccoons from which emigrants might come has existed in southeastern Washington and the Yakima Valley for some time. The Columbia River might serve as a highway by which emigrants could reach northeastern Washington. MARTES CAURINA.--The earlier distributional history of the western marten has been postulated by Davis (1939: 131-132), who stated: "When the ancestral stock split into the two groups, the one that gave rise to _americana_ may have pushed eastward across Canada to the Atlantic Coast; the other, giving rise to _caurina_, may have migrated southward along the Sierra Nevada-Cascade and Rocky mountains. Perhaps the great ice sheet was instrumental in pushing _americana_ eastward and separating it geographically from _caurina_." The present occurrence of _americana_ in Alaska and British Columbia is thought to have been by invasion from the east in postglacial time. Davis' theory seems basically correct but subject to correction in detail. The presence of _caurina_ in the southern Rocky Mountains suggests that it is not a Pacific Coastal species in the common sense. Had _americana_ occupied northern British Columbia in pre-Wisconsin Time, it and not _caurina_ would be expected to occur in the southern Rocky Mountains today, for the form found in British Columbia almost certainly would have been forced into the Rockies. The range now occupied by _caurina_ in the Rocky Mountains is so extensive as to suggest that martens could not have migrated into all of it from the Pacific Coast since Vashon Time, even had the region been unoccupied by any species of marten. The presence of _americana_ in Alaska and British Columbia suggests that it arrived in those areas before _caurina_ and that had the Rocky Mountains been unoccupied by martens in pre-Wisconsin time, _americana_ and not _caurina_ would have reached the Rockies first. It appears that _caurina_ occupied much of western North America in pre-Wisconsin Time and was forced southward into the southern Rocky Mountains and along the Pacific Coast by Vashon-Wisconsin ice. The separation of _americana_ and _caurina_ may be supposed to have occurred before the pre-Vashon-Wisconsin interglacial interval, perhaps by a glacier similar to but antedating the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciation. The martens of western Washington (_Martes caurina caurina_) are a coastal race. Those of northeastern Washington belong to a race of the Rocky Mountain Fauna, and are referred to _M. c. origenes_. Davis (1939: 132) refers the martens of Idaho to _Martes caurina caurina_. I have compared specimens from Idaho with animals trapped for fur from the Pacific Coast proper and feel that the animals from northeastern Washington and those from Idaho are more like _origenes_ than _caurina_, although perhaps not typical. The animals from the Pacific Coast proper are _caurina_ and have darker heads and brown instead of yellow patches on the throat. MARTES PENNANTI.--Fishers are found throughout the Cascade Mountains and probably were widely distributed over western North America in pre-Wisconsin Time. MUSTELA ERMINEA.--The distribution of ermines along the coast of northern California and in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada of Oregon and California indicates, as does their differentiation there, that they ranged southward to these areas before and during Vashon-Wisconsin Time. In immediate pre-Vashon-Wisconsin Time, the dark race _streatori_ probably occurred in western Washington. The race _murica_ probably occurred in the Blue Mountains then, as it does today, but probably occurred also in the Cascades of Washington. The descent of the Vashon glaciers probably displaced _streatori_ from the northern part of its range, at least temporarily. In the Cascades, _murica_ was likewise forced southward. Ermines related to the northern _richardsonii_ were forced into northern Washington and Idaho by the Wisconsin ice. They probably were unable to live on the barren, unglaciated plains of eastern Washington but persisted in Idaho. The ranges of the three forms at the maximum extent of the Vashon-Wisconsin may be reconstructed as follows: _streatori_ in southwestern Washington; _murica_ in the southern Cascades and the Blue Mountains; _invicta_ stock in northern Idaho. While so isolated, the ermines of the southern Cascades probably mingled, to a certain extent, with _streatori_ and developed the characters that now separate _gulosa_ from both _murica_ and _streatori_. The intermediate nature of _gulosa_ has been mentioned by Hall (1945: 85). The retreat of the ice allowed _streatori_ to move north and _invicta_ to move north and east into Washington and the northeastern Cascades. To a lesser extent, _gulosa_ may have moved north. The poorly-marked race _olympica_ probably evolved from _streatori_ in the Recent. It is difficult to account for the dark race _fallenda_. It must have evolved from _streatori_ in the Recent but the origin of such a strongly marked race in such a short time is surprising. It might be mentioned that a similarly differentiated race of chipmunk, _Eutamias amoenus felix_, occupies much the same range. MUSTELA FRENATA.--The long-tailed weasels of the Pacific Coast behave as a plastic group and clearly show the effect of the Vashon-Wisconsin Divergence. The range of the coastal race, _altifrontalis_, indicates that it was isolated in southwestern Washington during Vashon Time. In that period, or shortly after, it extended its range southward but only along the extreme, coastal area of Oregon (see Hall, 1936: 101). Following the retreat of the ice it extended its range northward to the deglaciated area of western Washington. Also following the retreat of the ice, a Great Basin subspecies (_nevadensis_) extended its range northward. This race seems to have been more adaptable and successful than other kinds of Great Basin mammals, for it extended its range farther northward, eastward and westward than most. A third race, _washingtoni_, was isolated in the southern Cascade Mountains during Vashon Time and became differentiated from both _altifrontalis_ and _nevadensis_. It is now found in the Cascades from central Oregon north to Mount Rainier. It is difficult to see why it did not extend its range to include the northern Cascades when the glacial ice left, but it did not. Instead _altifrontalis_ entered the northern Cascades from the west and _nevadensis_ did the same from the east. Weasels obtained in habitats north of Mt. Rainier are intergrades between _altifrontalis_ and _nevadensis_. One is reminded here of the _douglasii_ group of _Thomomys talpoides_ in which subspecies did not move north of Mt. Rainier in postglacial time. The area north of Mt. Rainier was populated instead by gophers of the _fuscus_ group, subspecies of which invaded the area from the east. Perhaps Mt. Rainier itself served as a barrier to alpine mammals in the immediate post-Pleistocene. Perhaps _Mustela f. washingtoni_ will eventually extend its range northward, displacing the _altifrontalis-nevadensis_ intergrades from the habitats to which _washingtoni_ may be better adapted. The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington are occupied by a weasel (_effera_) that has a more extensive range in eastern Oregon. The range of this race has probably not changed materially for a long period of time. One would expect the weasels from extreme northeastern Washington to be referable to the race _oribasa_, of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. Instead they are intermediate between that race and the Great Basin race, _nevadensis_. Apparently _nevadensis_ was so dynamic and adaptable that it actually entered the geographic ranges of surrounding races for some distance. In view of Sumner's theory for the retention of subspecies, one might say that the population pressure of _nevadensis_ on the periphery of its range is stronger than the opposing pressure of some surrounding races. MUSTELA VISON.--Pending a review of the minks of North America, little can be said concerning their historical distribution in the state of Washington. From the general range of the species in western North America, one would expect some effect of the Vashon-Wisconsin Divergence to be apparent. There is some evidence for this. Minks from Idaho and adjacent parts of British Columbia are distinctly less reddish than minks from the area about Puget Sound, as noted by Davis (1939: 138). GULO LUSCUS.--The range of the subspecies _luteus_, peculiar to the Cascades and Sierra Nevada suggest that the wolverine may have been forced southward in the Cascades and there isolated during Vashon Time. The differences separating the southern race from the northern may have been developed while the two populations were isolated. The range of the wolverine was probably more extensive in glacial and immediate postglacial time than at present. LUTRA CANADENSIS.--The otter of western Washington seems to be a member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Little can be said regarding the distributional history of the species in the state, for specimens from eastern Washington are not numerous enough to permit of a person certainly establishing their systematic position. SPILOGALE GRACILIS.--The western race of the civet cat (_latifrons_) seems to be a coastal race, isolated in southwestern Washington and western Oregon during Vashon time. The eastern race, _saxatilis_, is a race of the Great Basin Fauna, that has entered the state from Oregon and that will probably extend its range to the north. MEPHITIS MEPHITIS.--Of the four subspecies of skunks occurring in Washington, two seem to have been resident in the state during Vashon Time. The western race, _spissigrada_, was probably isolated in southwestern Washington and extended its range northward, in the deglaciated area of western Washington, after the retreat of the ice. Another race (_notata_) was probably isolated in the southeastern Cascades and adjacent Oregon. _M. m. hudsonica_ of the Rocky Mountain Fauna entered the northeastern part of Washington after the ice retreated from there. A race of the Great Basin Fauna, _major_, entered southeastern Washington from Oregon and may eventually extend its range farther north. It is interesting to note that both of the western races, _spissigrada_ and _notata_, both of which probably developed in Washington during Vashon Time, occupy limited ranges in adjacent Oregon (Bailey, 1936: 308). TAXIDEA TAXUS.--This species has probably long been resident on the Columbian Plateau and in southeastern Washington. For the early distributional history of the species see Hall (1944: 17). Pleistocene remains, referable to this race, have been found in Franklin County. VULPES FULVA.--The red fox of the Cascades was probably isolated there during Vashon Time by glacial ice. Its range extends southward in the Cascades to Oregon. The fox of eastern Washington is probably a member of the Rocky Mountain Fauna that lived in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington in Wisconsin Time and that emigrated to northeastern Washington in Recent Time. CANIS LATRANS.--The distributional history of the coyote in Washington is not clear. CANIS LUPUS.--The dark wolf (_fuscus_) of western Washington is probably a coastal race. The race that may have occurred in northeastern Washington probably was an invader from the Rocky Mountain Fauna, and the race that possibly occurred in southeastern Washington would be assumed to have long been a resident of the area. FELIS CONCOLOR.--The cougar of western Washington is a coastal race, probably developed while isolated in southwestern Washington and western Oregon. The cougar of northeastern Washington probably entered the state with other Rocky Mountain species, early in the Recent. The cougar of the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington has probably long been resident there. LYNX RUFUS.--The bobcat of western Washington seems to be a coastal race that was isolated in either southwestern Washington or western Oregon by Vashon ice. It has since extended its range into southern British Columbia. The bobcat of eastern Washington seems to be a member of the Great Basin Fauna that has spread to some forested areas on the periphery of the more arid life-zones. LYNX CANADENSIS.--The lynx is an element of a northern fauna that was probably forced southward into the Cascades and Rocky Mountains. Its range was probably more extensive, as is indicated by the scattered records of its occurrence in Oregon (Bailey, 1936:271). MARMOTA MONAX.--The woodchuck invaded northeastern Washington in the early Recent with the Rocky Mountain Fauna. MARMOTA FLAVIVENTRIS.--The yellow-bellied marmot is a typical member of the faunas of the Great Basin and the southern Rocky Mountains. It has doubtless entered southeastern Washington from eastern Oregon at an early time. In northeastern Washington, west of the Columbia River, it occupies alpine habitat, but it does not occur farther east, where _Marmota monax_ is found, or in the Cascades where _Marmota caligata_ lives. The yellow-bellied marmots are great wanderers, and commonly are found in scattered outcrops far out on the Columbian Plateau. There is even one record for western Washington, near Bellingham, Whatcom County. This individual must have crossed some low pass in the Cascades from the area about Lake Chelan. There are records of eastern Washington birds occurring in this same area, so it seems likely that the marmot was a natural stray and not an animal that escaped from captivity. MARMOTA CALIGATA.--The absence of the hoary marmot from the Cascades of Oregon, and the presence there of _Marmota flaviventris_, indicates that the species did not occur in the southern Cascades of Washington during Vashon Time. Presumably the hoary marmot is a member of the fauna of the northern Rocky Mountains and entered the Cascades of Washington in the Recent, after which it spread widely and rapidly owing to lack of competition with any established species of marmot. MARMOTA OLYMPUS.--This species has probably lived in the Olympic Mountains since pre-Vashon Time. CITELLUS WASHINGTONI.--This ground squirrel has probably lived on the Columbian Plateau since before Wisconsin Time. CITELLUS TOWNSENDII.--The Townsend ground squirrel probably entered the Yakima Valley area from Oregon. The differences between it and its relatives in Oregon indicate a considerable period of isolation but one far shorter than the period during which _washingtoni_ is presumed to have been isolated from _townsendii_. CITELLUS COLUMBIANUS.--The Columbian ground squirrel might have been forced southward in the Rocky Mountain area by the Wisconsin glaciation, might have lived in southeastern Washington since then, and might have invaded northeastern Washington in the Recent with other species of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. CITELLUS BEECHEYI.--This ground squirrel is known to have entered Washington about 1915 from Oregon. CITELLUS SATURATUS.--The mantled ground squirrel of the Cascades probably evolved, from the _lateralis_ stock, as a separate species while isolated in the southern Cascades during Vashon Time. It is a poorly differentiated species and may actually be instead a strongly marked subspecies. CITELLUS LATERALIS.--The golden-mantled ground squirrels of northeastern and southeastern Washington are closely similar. It is deduced that _connectens_ of southeastern Washington developed the differences that characterize it while isolated, from the main stock, in the Blue Mountains area of Washington and Oregon. The race found in extreme northeastern Washington (_tescorum_) probably reached that area in relatively recent times. Its range in Washington is more restricted than that of several other members of the Rocky Mountain Fauna; areas of suitable habitat west of the Columbia River are not inhabited by these ground squirrels. Its range in Washington is almost exactly that of (_Marmota monax_). TAMIAS MINIMUS.--The least chipmunk of the Yakima Valley is the same race (_scrutator_) as that occupying the Great Basin area of Oregon and Nevada. It must have crossed the Columbia in relatively recent times. Had it been resident in the isolated Yakima Valley area for any considerable period of time, the development of distinctive racial characters there would be expected. Perhaps, then, it has not been resident there as long as has the Townsend ground squirrel which, though closely related to the ground squirrel of eastern Oregon, is racially distinct. The least chipmunk of the Columbian Plateau is thought to be racially distinct from its relatives in the Yakima Valley and eastern Oregon. Probably it reached the Plateau very early in the Recent. It has probably not been separated from the parent stock as long as has the ground squirrel (_Citellus washingtoni_) of the plateau. The ground squirrel is specifically rather than racially distinct. TAMIAS AMOENUS.--The distributional picture of the yellow pine chipmunks in Washington is complex. (Fig. 81.) Certain habits of these mammals doubtless have modified what was probably the original postglacial distribution of the species. Chipmunks are diurnal and natural selective factors for color possibly operate more strongly on animals active by day than on nocturnal animals. Yellow pine chipmunks are neither forest nor desert inhabitants. Indeed, dense forests or open deserts serve as barriers to their distribution. They prefer brush lands, open woods, and other habitats where there is food and cover but abundant sunlight. In such habitats they are almost independent of altitude, temperature and humidity. They live in the Olympic Mountains where rainfall is heavy and humidity high. They live and breed at considerable altitudes in the Cascades, even in the crater of Mount Rainier, where snow, ice and freezing conditions exist the year around. On the other extreme, they occupy the low, open pine forests and brush lands at the lower edge of the Arid Transition Life-zone where temperatures, in summer, are high and rainfall scarce. We find in the present distribution of the species in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada chain and the Rocky Mountains, indication that the species had a wide geographic range over western North America previous to the Vashon-Wisconsin glacial interval. Probably the range of the species extended in an arc, from the Rocky Mountains across northern Washington to the Cascades, around the basaltic plateau desert in eastern Washington and Oregon. Presumably the descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers broke this arc into two parallel geographic ranges, the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade-Sierra Nevada chain, with a desert area between. Almost every species of forest-dwelling animal had its range separated into two parts by the southward movement of the glaciers. Most of these forest-dwelling species were composed of relatively homogeneous stocks, although the yellow pine chipmunk probably was not. The extensive range of tolerance of the yellow pine chipmunk to altitude and climate and its unique habitat requirements cause it to meet radically different natural selective factors. The predators of the chipmunks near Wenatchee, Chelan County, would include: rattlesnake, gopher snake, badger, striped skunk, prairie falcon, red-tailed hawk and other predominantly desert-dwelling species. The chipmunks at Stevens Pass, in the mountains to the west, would have to contend with: marten, black bear, goshawk, bald eagle and other alpine predators. At the present time, the chipmunk of the eastern Cascades is racially distinct from that of the higher Cascades. Geologic and botanical evidence indicates that the Columbian Plateau was a desert in pre-Wisconsin Time. We suppose that a transition from alpine conditions in the Cascades to desert conditions on the Columbian Plateau existed even in pre-Wisconsin Times. We suppose also that the chipmunk existed in this transition area and in the Cascades before Wisconsin Time and in the southern and southeastern Cascades during Wisconsin Time. We further suppose that the differences separating the transition area race (_Tamias amoenus affinis_) from the mountain race (_T. a. ludibundus_) came about through natural selection and not as a result of geographic isolation. The principal difference between the two is the paler color of the race in the transition area. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers, then, found two races of the yellow pine chipmunk in the Cascades. Chipmunks living north of the Columbian Plateau, in northern Washington and British Columbia, were probably forced southward onto the inhospitable plains of the plateau and exterminated. Farther east, north of northeastern Washington, chipmunks from the north were probably forced southward to compete with resident chipmunks. The range of _Tamias amoenus luteiventris_ in Washington, Idaho and Montana is most unusual (See Howell, 1929; Davis, 1939). From a compact range in Montana, two long fingers reach northward and westward. The western finger crosses Idaho to end in the Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington. The northern finger crosses northern Idaho, northeastern Washington and extends on into southern British Columbia. Between these two fingers of the range of _luteiventris_ another race (_canicaudus_) is found. This race occupies a more lowland area than does _luteiventris_. The range of _luteiventris_ in the northern Rocky Mountains is extensive. Presumably this race occupied an area farther north in pre-Wisconsin Time and was forced southward to its present range by the Wisconsin glaciers. The original population occupying extreme eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho was _Tamias amoenus canicaudus_. The pre-Wisconsin range of this race might have been more extensive. At any rate, _luteiventris_ which was driven southward displaced _canicaudus_, or some other race of chipmunk, from much of the Rocky Mountains south of the glacier. The northern chipmunks were adapted to more boreal conditions and perhaps otherwise better suited to environmental conditions of the northern Rocky Mountains. A small population of the older established race (_canicaudus_) persisted in lowland areas of eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho. Regarding the range of _canicaudus_, surrounded by the range of _luteiventris_ on three sides and faced by desert on the west, Davis (1939: 220) writes, "It may be that, of these two races, _luteiventris_ has a greater range of tolerance to environmental conditions and, thus, is able to succeed in areas to which _canicaudus_ is not adapted. This inference is supported by the fact that _luteiventris_ occupies a large range which is diversified geographically and climatically, whereas _canicaudus_ seems to be limited to a much smaller, more nearly uniform area." Seemingly _canicaudus_ now exists only in an area ideally suited to it, and one where it can successfully compete with the generally more adaptable and successful _luteiventris_. The maximum extent of the glacial ice, then, found _luteiventris_ the dominant chipmunk in the northern Rocky Mountains, with an isolated population of _canicaudus_ in eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho. The topography of the ground moraine exposed by the retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers was a barrier to many species of mammals. The rough, rocky surface with thin soil probably first supported mosses and grasses, then brush, and later trees. The earlier stages of plant succession on the deglaciated ground probably presented ideal habitat for yellow pine chipmunks. Certainly the races immediately adjacent to the glaciers extended their ranges farther north than many species. In eastern Washington, _T. a. luteiventris_ spread to the northeastern corner of the state and on into British Columbia. In the northern Cascades, _T. a. affinis_ spread northward and eastward, across the Okanogan River, into northeastern Washington as far as the range of _luteiventris_. The chipmunk of the higher Cascades (_ludibundus_) likewise extended its range northward into British Columbia. In the northwestern Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia, a richly-colored race, _T. a. felix_, now occupies a limited geographic range. This race doubtless originated from _ludibundus_ stock but the method of its development is unknown. Perhaps in early postglacial time, selective factors developed in chipmunks of the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains the rich, dark color of _felix_. The ancestral _ludibundus_ may have given rise to a pale race, _affinis_, in the arid eastern Cascades and a dark race, _felix_, on the humid western slope of the Cascades. This seems improbable for there is no trend to darker color on the western border of the range of _ludibundus_ south of the range of _felix_, and instead, _affinis_ may have given rise to _ludibundus_. A more appealing hypothesis is that a local mutation in some _ludibundus_ stock so changed the range of tolerance of a portion of the population that it was allowed to enter the more dense habitat along the coast north of the Fraser River and, there, isolated by habitat selection, it developed the characters of _felix_. Population pressure later forced it eastward until the eastern border of its range again met the range of the ancestral race, _ludibundus_. The chipmunks of the Olympic Mountains probably reached their present range from the Cascades. Their probable path of emigration was westward from Mt. Rainier, along the glacial outwash train of Nisqualli Glacier, to the moraine and outwash apron of the Vashon Glacier and thence to the Olympics. So similar are the chipmunks of Mt. Rainier and the Olympic Mountains that Howell (1929) included Mt. Rainier in the range of _caurinus_. Briefly summarized, the probable pre-Vashon-Wisconsin distribution of chipmunks of the species _Tamias amoenus_ in Washington was: _ludibundus_ in the higher Cascades; _affinis_ in the eastern Cascades; _canicaudus_ in eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho; and _luteiventris_ in the area north of the range of _canicaudus_. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice restricted but did not materially alter the ranges of _ludibundus_ or _affinis_. On the east, _luteiventris_ was forced southward to compete with _canicaudus_ and displaced it over a large region, especially in mountainous areas. Following the retreat of the ice, _luteiventris_, _affinis_, and _ludibundus_ extended their ranges northward over the deglaciated territory. A stock of _ludibundus_ that moved westward from Mt. Rainier became isolated and gave rise to _caurinus_. In some less obvious development, _ludibundus_ stock gave rise to _felix_ north of the Fraser River in the Cascades. TAMIAS RUFICAUDUS.--Until a better understanding of the range of this chipmunk and its relation to other _Tamias_ is gained, uncertainty will remain concerning its distribution in the past. TAMIAS TOWNSENDII.--This is a typical coastal species that ranges southward, along the coast, to California. The lowland race of western Oregon and Washington (_townsendii_) probably occurred no farther north than southwestern Washington when the Vashon Glacier was in place. Chipmunks of this species in the Cascades and in the southern Olympic Mountains probably developed independently the slightly paler color that separates _cooperi_ from _townsendii_. The tendency for species of the Pacific Coastal Fauna of the Cascades and the Olympic Mountains to be paler than their lowland relatives is widespread. After the retreat of the ice, both races probably moved northward. Perhaps because of its alpine adaptations, _cooperi_ has moved farther than _townsendii_. Also, _townsendii_, in the lowlands, ranges to the Fraser River, a barrier not encountered by _cooperi_. SCIURUS GRISEUS.--This species of the Pacific Coastal Fauna probably entered Washington from Oregon since the retreat of the Vashon Glacier. It has probably entered the state in relatively recent times. TAMIASCIURUS HUDSONICUS.--The two species of red squirrels, _T. hudsonicus_ and _T. douglasii_, are specifically distinct and probably became differentiated in the Pleistocene when southward moving glaciers cut in two the range of the ancestral stock. The morphological differences are too great, comparatively, to have occurred during the Vashon-Wisconsin Divergence. _T. hudsonicus_ probably occupied a range in pre-Wisconsin Time that included the Rocky Mountains and areas to the north. Glacial ice probably restricted the range of _hudsonicus_ in Wisconsin Time but after the retreat of the ice _hudsonicus_ moved northward to reoccupy its former range. It also moved westward across northern Washington to the Cascades, where it met the range of _douglasii_. Farther north, it moved westward to the Pacific, thus occupying an area that, in pre-Vashon time, probably was occupied by _douglasii_. TAMIASCIURUS DOUGLASII.--The Douglas squirrel probably occupied the coastal region of Oregon, Washington and British Columbia in pre-Vashon Time. The descent of the ice restricted its range to southwestern Washington and areas to the south. After the retreat of the ice it moved northward somewhat but, like other coastal species, the movement was slow. Meanwhile _hudsonicus_ from the Rocky Mountain Fauna, had spread to the coast of British Columbia. GLAUCOMYS SABRINUS.--This flying squirrel is a plastic species. It inhabits all of the forested parts of Washington. The distributional picture presented by the 5 races (Fig. 92) which occur in Washington is complicated. The ranges of 3 of these lie principally outside the state of Washington. The race _oregonensis_ occupies Washington and Oregon west of the Cascades; _fuliginosus_ occupies the Cascades of Washington, Oregon and southern British Columbia; _columbiensis_ occupies the interior valleys of British Columbia and adjoining Washington; _latipes_ occupies the northern Rocky Mountains of British Columbia, northern Idaho and extreme northeastern Washington; and _bangsi_ occupies the Blue Mountains of Washington and Oregon and a wide range in Idaho and eastward. The differences separating the race _oregonensis_ from other subspecies found in Washington are relatively great. This lowland race is smaller and richer in color. The other races exhibit slight but relatively constant differences. The relatively great difference between _oregonensis_ and the other races indicates that _oregonensis_ was isolated from the remainder of the species for a considerable time. Presumably _oregonensis_ was a strongly differentiated coastal race in pre-Vashon Time and occupied most of western Washington and Oregon. The descent of the Vashon ice restricted the range of _oregonensis_ to southwestern Washington and western Oregon. The descent of the ice forced a northern race, _fuliginosus_, southward into the range of _oregonensis_. The northern race, adapted to boreal conditions, was able to compete successfully with the established _oregonensis_ only in mountainous areas. In the Cascade Mountains, _fuliginosus_ extended its range southward to southern Oregon. The descent of the Wisconsin ice in eastern Washington forced the flying squirrels of adjacent British Columbia southward into the Rocky Mountains. These squirrels were probably closely related to _fuliginosus_, or to _bangsi_, which latter race already may have been established farther south in the Rocky Mountains. The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington were probably inhabited by _bangsi_ in Wisconsin times, or even earlier. The retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers allowed the flying squirrels to extend their ranges northward. In western Washington _oregonensis_ moved to southern British Columbia. In the Cascade Mountains the more boreal _fuliginosus_ moved much farther northward and, north of the Okanogan Valley, spread eastward to the arid, interior valleys of British Columbia. Subsequent differentiation in the population of the arid, interior valleys developed the slightly differentiated race _columbiensis_. Farther east, flying squirrels from the northern Rocky Mountains moved northward. Northeastern Washington and adjacent British Columbia were occupied by _latipes_, derived from _bangsi_. THOMOMYS TALPOIDES.--Views as to the probable historical distribution of this plastic group have been presented in an earlier report (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1944: 308-333). This may be briefly summarized as follows. Previous to Vashon-Wisconsin Times, pocket gophers occupied at least the Cascade Mountains and the Columbian Plateau of Washington. The race occupying the Columbian Plateau, _devexus_, was probably racially distinct in pre-Wisconsin time. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers isolated gophers in the southern Cascades. Three racial stocks developed there: _shawi_ in the Mount Rainier area; _limosus_ in the Columbia River Valley south of the Cascades; and _immunis_ in the mountainous area between the other two races. At the maximum extent of the Wisconsin ice, gophers from the Columbia River Valley (_limosus_) were able to cross the Simcoe Bridge and reach the Blue Mountains. With the retreat of the Wisconsin ice, the Simcoe Bridge was closed. Gophers isolated in the Blue Mountains developed the racial characters of _acqualidens_ and those between the Blue Mountains and the Columbia River intergraded with the desert race, _devexus_. These intergrades, which have, also, some characters of their own, bear the name _columbianus_. Gophers in the southern Cascades (_limosus_) moved westward on prairie-like river terraces to Clark County where, isolated, they became racially distinct (_douglasii_). Gophers from the Mount Rainier area (_shawi_) moved westward on glacial outwash trains to the extensive outwash aprons of the Vashon glaciers in the area about Puget Sound. Here they multiplied and spread to the Olympic Mountains. Growth of forest on the original outwash apron broke the area into numerous isolated prairies. Gophers in the Olympic Mountains (_melanops_) were isolated from those in the area about Puget Sound. Six distinct races originated on the isolated prairie (_glacialis_, _tacomensis_, _pugetensis_, _yelmensis_, _tumuli_, _couchi_). Following the retreat of the glacial ice from eastern Washington, pocket gophers from the Blue Mountains of Oregon (_wallowa_) moved northward into Washington and gophers from the Rocky Mountain Fauna of Idaho moved onto the deglaciated part of northeastern Washington. From northeastern Washington they spread westward to the Cascades and thence southward to meet the native gophers of the Cascades in the Yakima Valley Area. No racial differentiation in these gophers occurred; all are referable to _fuscus_. Where _fuscus_ and the native gophers came together in the Yakima Valley, a new race, _yakimensis_, developed. PEROGNATHUS PARVUS.--Three races of the pocket mouse occur in Washington. Two of these (_lordi_ and _columbianus_) occur on the Columbian Plateau. Like many desert species that occur on the Columbian Plateau, the pocket mice are rather different than their relatives in eastern Oregon. Presumably they have been isolated on the plateau since before Vashon-Wisconsin Times. The range of the pocket mouse of southeastern Washington, _Perognathus parvus parvus_, is continuous with the range of the race in Oregon. This same race occurs in the Yakima Valley, whence it probably arrived from Oregon in relatively recent time. The distribution of pocket mice on the Columbian Plateau, in eastern Oregon and in the Yakima Valley resembles that of the least chipmunk in those areas. It is also similar to, but of more recent origin than, that of the ground squirrels, _Citellus washingtoni_, and _townsendii_. DIPODOMYS ORDII.--This kangaroo rat enters the desert area of southeastern Washington from Oregon. It may be expected eventually to cross the Columbia River to the Yakima Valley and the Snake River to the Columbian Plateau. CASTOR CANADENSIS.--Two races of beavers occur in Washington. One, found in southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon, is dark with a short, wide skull. The other, ranging over most of the state, is paler with a longer, narrower skull. The form now found in southwestern Washington and adjacent Oregon (_idoneus_) was probably isolated there by the Vashon glaciation and developed its characters while isolated. The other race, _leucodonta_, was probably widely spread in Wisconsin Time. Beavers are present in Moses Lake, in almost the center of the Columbian Plateau. Beavers might well have lived in the streams of melt water that emerged from the Wisconsin Glacier. The beavers of western Washington, save those in the extreme southwest, are like the beavers of eastern Washington. It seems likely that the race _leucodonta_ originated north of the state of Washington and was forced southward by the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers. This northern race, adapted to boreal conditions, competed with the resident coastal race, _idoneus_, and occupied much of its range. The distribution of the races of muskrat in Washington closely resembles that of the beavers. ONYCHOMYS LEUCOGASTER.--The desert-dwelling grasshopper mouse has doubtless entered eastern Washington and the Yakima Valley from eastern Oregon at a relatively recent time. REITHRODONTOMYS MEGALOTIS.--The harvest mouse, like the grasshopper mouse, seems to have entered Washington from Oregon at a relatively recent date. Within the last ten years it has extended its range into the Okanogan Valley in British Columbia. PEROMYSCUS MANICULATUS.--Six subspecies of _Peromyscus maniculatus_ occur in the state of Washington. The geographic range of one of these (_rubidus_) lies mainly in the states of California and Oregon and includes, so far as is known, a single small island in the Columbia River that is politically within the state of Washington. Another (_hollisteri_) is restricted to certain islands in northern Puget Sound and obviously has become subspecifically differentiated in postglacial time. The remaining four subspecies, namely _oreas_, _austerus_, _artemisiae_ and _gambelii_, have extensive geographic ranges. These subspecies are not confined to their geographic ranges by geographic barriers. Deer mice occur in the deep forests and the open desert, on high mountains and in low valleys, and are almost everywhere the commonest species of mammal present. The study of several populations of deer mice from any general area usually shows small but constant differences between them. Dice (1939: 21) studied stocks of deer mice from nine localities in southeastern Washington and found significant differences between several of them. A statistical study of mice from the San Juan islands shows that the population of almost every island is different in one or more respects from the mice of any other island. Geographically separated populations of "wild caught" mice of the subspecies _austerus_, of the mainland, were statistically compared and significant differences were found between these populations, too. Small, differentiated populations are to be found in many parts of the state, and each subspecies appears to be an assemblage of such tiny genetic units. These genetic units probably are the microgeographic races of Debzhansky (1937). They have been intensively studied by Sumner (1917 A, B) and Dice. An especially important paper by the latter author (1940) summarizes much of the available information on speciation in _Peromyscus_ and clearly discusses the microgeographic races of _Peromyscus_. The numerous microgeographic races of _Peromyscus maniculatus_ in Washington present diverse combinations of characters which could result from the random fixation and elimination of genes (Wright. 1932: 360-362). Such a hypothesis, however, requires at least partial isolation of the populations involved. The mechanism of such isolation, in such populations of deer mice as we have studied, is not readily apparent. Some microgeographic races are not separated by noticeable geographic or ecologic barriers and the distance between their ranges is not too great to be traversed by a deer mouse. The tendency to remain on a home range may have the same effect as isolation would be supposed to have. The work of Murie and Murie (1931: 200-209, 1932: 79) is enlightening in this respect. These authors found that mice residing in a locality tended to remain in that locality; individuals trapped and marked were retaken in the same locality a year later. Individuals released some distance from the point of capture remained where released or returned to the point of capture. Transported individuals did not spread at random. The home instinct was developed in young as well as in old mice. Two mice in the gray pelage, four to eight weeks old, returned to their home ranges from distances one and two miles away. The authors fix the home range of an individual _Peromyscus m. artemisiae_ in Teton County, Wyoming, at approximately one hundred yards in diameter. This home-range instinct is essentially a lack of incentive for individual mice to emigrate to new localities where mice of the same species are already established. This may partly account for the microgeographic races of deer mice in Washington. Dice (1939: 21) pointed out that, except in color, the differences in nine stocks of mice from southeastern Washington could not be correlated with environmental factors. We have found this to be true of microgeographic races throughout the state of Washington. Of the four subspecies of deer mice that occupy extensive geographic ranges in Washington, one, _oreas_, is a long-tailed form that seems not to intergrade with _austerus_, a neighbor in western Washington that has a tail of moderate length. These two and _gambelii_, a short-tailed form with which _oreas_ intergrades, are easily distinguished. In eastern Washington two short-tailed subspecies, _gambelii_ and _artemisiae_, are currently recognized. The taxonomic relationships of these two subspecies are complex. The subspecies _gambelii_ has an extensive geographic range in Oregon and California. These mice, with short tails, occur in the Wallula Water Gap of southeastern Washington and on the Columbian Plateau. To the west the desert conditions of the Columbian Plateau fade into the Transition Life-zone forests of the eastern Cascade Mountains. The pale, short-tailed desert mice (_gambelii_) gradually change to the dark, long-tailed subspecies, _oreas_, that occupies the Cascade Mountains. North of the Columbian Plateau, in northeastern Washington, the deer mice are darker and relatively longer-tailed than on the Columbian Plateau. Some populations are distinctly reddish, almost as reddish as _oreas_. Although assigned to _artemisiae_, they are almost identical with populations of deer mice from the eastern Cascade Mountains, known to be intergrades between _oreas_ and _gambelii_. This fact, and the presence of surprisingly _oreas_-like characters in some microgeographic races in extreme northeastern Washington, may indicate that the race called _artemisiae_ is a group of intergrades between _gambelii_ and an _oreas_-like mouse that has become extinct. Intergradation between _gambelii_ and _artemisiae_ is normal and takes place gradually where the ranges of the two subspecies meet. The same is true of intergradation between _oreas_ and _gambelii_ in the eastern Cascade Mountains. West of the Cascade Mountains the range of _oreas_ meets the range of _austerus_. These two subspecies appear not to interbreed in nature, since no intergrades were taken at any of the numerous localities in western Washington where the mice were trapped. Pure populations of the two subspecies exist within a few miles of each other. In the valley of the Skykomish River, in the western Cascades Mountains, from the town of Skykomish, King County, to the lowlands to the west, only _austerus_ was found. In the coniferous forests of the mountains above Skykomish, only _oreas_ was taken. Several pairs, each an _oreas_ and an _austerus_ of the other sex, were kept from four to six months, and one pair was kept for a year, but they did not reproduce. The _oreas_ were from the upper Skykomish Valley and the _austerus_ were from Seattle, King County. Along the border of the ranges of the two subspecies in the Skykomish River Valley, a definite habitat preference was noted. The coniferous forests were occupied by _oreas_ and brush or deciduous forests by _austerus_. Within the range of _austerus_ and within the range of _oreas_ only one subspecies is found whether the habitat be coniferous forest or thickets of alder and willow, but where the ranges of the two subspecies meet _austerus_ occurs only in the thickets of aspen and willow and _oreas_ occurs only in the coniferous forest. The morphological characters that separate _oreas_ from _austerus_, namely, larger size, richer color, and longer tail, are all features that might be associated with a more arboreal existence in dark, coniferous forests. Our observations show that _oreas_ is, to a large extent, arboreal. Traps nailed to tree trunks six to eight feet from the ground and set for flying squirrels often caught _oreas_ in the Skykomish River Valley. On one occasion I walked up a leaning tree trunk to set a trap, fifty feet from the ground on the trunk of another tree that was upright. An _oreas_ was found in this trap the next morning. Svihla (1933: 13) relates how a specimen of _oreas_ that escaped from a live trap took refuge in a tree when pursued. We have set numerous traps for flying squirrels in the area about Puget Sound. As far as memory and field notes serve, we have never taken _austerus_ in these traps. Our observations on the habits of _austerus_ are much more abundant than those on _oreas_, but for _austerus_ no evidence of arboreal activities has been obtained. There are, then, two subspecies that do not interbreed, each capable of existing in any ecologic niche that will support deer mice. Where the ranges of the two subspecies come together, they compete. The large size, richer color, longer tail, and perhaps arboreal habits of _oreas_ give it an advantage in coniferous forests. The small size and dark color of _austerus_ give it an advantage in other habitats, especially, perhaps, in winter, when the deciduous trees have shed their leaves. The differences separating _austerus_ from _oreas_ would be expected to have developed under complete isolation. That _oreas_ developed from _austerus_ or _austerus_ from _oreas_ seems impossible. A glance at the distribution map (Fig. 107) shows that the range of _austerus_ clearly separates the range of _oreas_ into two segments. The range of _austerus_ tapers out to the north, east and west. On the south _austerus_ intergrades with _rubidus_ from Oregon, a subspecies from which it is but slightly differentiated. The geographic behavior of the four subspecies of deer mice that occupy extensive areas in Washington may be summarized as follows: _P. m. gambelii_ occupies southeastern Washington and intergrades normally with _oreas_ in the eastern Cascade Mountains and with _artemisiae_ at the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau; _artemisiae_, occupying northeastern Washington, closely resembles populations of mice that are known to be intergrades between _oreas_ and _gambelii_ and itself intergrades with both _oreas_ and _gambelii_; _oreas_ occupies most of western Washington, intergrades with its neighbors _artemisiae_ and _gambelii_ to the east, but does not intergrade with _austerus_, its morphologically more similar neighbor in the west; _austerus_ occupies a range in western Washington that is almost surrounded by the range of _oreas_, a subspecies with which it apparently does not interbreed. The relations of these four subspecies appear to be the result of certain great changes in the range of deer mice in the Pacific Northwest that occurred during and since the last Pleistocene glaciation. We reconstruct these changes as follows. In the Puyallup interglacial cycle, just previous to the last (Vashon-Wisconsin) continental glaciation, clines, or gradual transitions existed in the ranges of the deer mice along the Pacific Coast. The small, dark, short-tailed mice of the coastal redwood forests of California and Oregon became gradually larger, redder and longer-tailed to the north, climaxing in a large, red, long-tailed form in the spruce forests of southern Alaska and northern British Columbia. A similar cline existed inland. Small, pale, short-tailed mice of the Great Basin became increasingly larger, darker, and longer-tailed to the north, reaching a maximum in the spruce forests of northern British Columbia. The development and advance of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice sheet exterminated mice over much of British Columbia and the northern United States. Long-tailed northern mice were forced southward and contacted the southern, short-tailed forms. The preglacial clines were thus destroyed. What might be the southern part of the western cline may be noted in the deer mice of western Oregon today. From the southern coast of Oregon the mice (_P. m. rubidus_) do become larger, redder and longer-tailed to the north. The climax of this cline is now reached in _austerus_, of the Puget Sound area of Washington. The cline is not continued farther northward because the range of _oreas_ is encountered. The advance of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice from the north probably forced species of mammals southward, ahead of it, including the long-tailed northern deer mice which generation by generation encountered progressively shorter-tailed forms of resident mice. Perhaps the unfamiliar, and certainly the extremely frigid, conditions in the fore of the glacier exterminated the short-tailed individuals but favored the long-tailed mice, since the latter originally were adapted to a boreal environment. The climax of the ice advance found the glaciers just within the political limits of the United States and found the long-tailed mice spread before the ice front. In western Washington the Vashon glacier advanced as far south as the southern edge of the Puget Sound area. Long-tailed northern mice advancing before it reached the Columbia River. This glacially swollen stream served as a natural barrier and prevented their southward extension. At this time the northern mice had traversed more than half the length of the original western cline. The northern mice, originating in a boreal habitat a thousand miles away, were unable to interbreed with the southern mice and such individuals as might have crossed the Columbia River never became established in Oregon. During the existence of the glacier in western Washington, the long-tailed northern emigrants competed with the resident deer mice of western Washington to the total elimination of the resident mice. The retreat of the Vashon Glacier from Washington found the northern mice in complete control of that part of the state from the Pacific Ocean to the Cascade Mountains. In eastern Washington the Wisconsin Glacier advanced south to the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau. Northern mice advancing before it probably did not survive on the treeless plateau but existed in forested areas of northern Idaho and driftless areas of northern Washington. No natural barriers separated the northern mice from the pale, short-tailed forms. The nonuniform topography perhaps allowed more mingling of the two types where climatic conditions permitted. Intergradation in some places as well as competition and elimination of one form or another in other places occurred. Following the withdrawal of the Vashon ice and the establishment of soil and forests on the deglaciated land, the long-tailed mice of western Washington (_P. m. oreas_) apparently spread northward, unhindered by competition, until they reached southern Alaska. The deep coniferous forests of western Washington presented conditions acceptable to _oreas_ and it persisted there despite postglacial changes in climate. Postglacial changes in climate did, however, permit the dark, short-tailed mice (_rubidus_) to cross the Columbia River and to become established in suitable habitats, namely the deciduous jungles of the river valleys. From these points the mice spread northward through the lowlands of western Washington, infiltrating the range of _oreas_, competing with it, and driving it from the lowlands. This movement is in progress today. By logging and clearing of lands for agriculture man has considerably speeded the invasion of the southern mice. Slight differentiation of the short-tailed mice north of the Columbia River (_austerus_) separates them from their parent race, _rubidus_. In the dense forests along the Pacific Coast of Washington, _austerus_ did not become established. This area includes most of the land west of Puget Sound. There is a narrow band of _austerus_ that extends along the eastern and part of the northern edge of the Olympic Peninsula, where they have probably invaded in relatively recent time. On the Oregon side of the Columbia River the range of _rubidus_ is continuous from the Pacific to the Cascades. On the Washington side of the river, _oreas_ extends from the Pacific to eastern Wahkiakum County, where the range of _austerus_ starts. At the border of the ranges of the two subspecies, ecological conditions determine the ranges; _oreas_ occurs in the Douglas fir and hemlock forests and _austerus_ occurs in the jungles of alder and salmonberry in the stream valleys. The range of _austerus_ extends from eastern Wahkiakum County east along the Columbia, to western Klickitat County. In a north-south strip across the Columbia, through the ranges of _rubidus_ in Oregon and _austerus_ in Washington, normal intergradation is apparent. By gradual degrees _rubidus_ changes to _austerus_. In a north-south strip farther west, through the ranges of _rubidus_ and _oreas_, the same transition of the Oregon _rubidus_ is seen, namely an approach toward _austerus_. The cline is, of course, abruptly terminated by the range of the dissimilar _oreas_. On Puget Island, a small island lying in the Columbia River in western Wahkiakum County and politically within the state of Washington (see Scheffer, 1942) a population of deer mice occurs that resembles _rubidus_ more closely than _austerus_. This island lies in the river between the ranges of _rubidus_ and _oreas_. The lack of intergradation between these two subspecies has probably kept the Puget Island population pure _rubidus_. Puget Island is a junglelike lowland locally known as "tideland." The San Juan Islands of northern Puget Sound were thoroughly glaciated in Wisconsin Time and probably were under thousands of feet of ice when the Vashon Glacier was at its maximum extent. The subspecies of deer mouse occurring there now is _hollisteri_, a race similar to _oreas_ in color, body size and cranial characters and probably derived from _oreas_. _P. m. hollisteri_ differs from both _oreas_ and _austerus_ in its much shorter tail. Shortness of tail is apparently a product of insularity in northwest coastal mice. The transition from long-tailed mainland mice to short-tailed island mice is shown by Hall (1938A: 461). When _oreas_ first occupied the area about Puget Sound (this area is occupied by _austerus_ today) some individuals probably reached the San Juan Islands soon thereafter. Contact between _oreas_ and _hollisteri_ is now prevented by the presence of _austerus_ between their ranges. Of course, a water barrier separates _austerus_ from _hollisteri_ but _austerus_ does occur in pure form on some islands in Puget Sound (not on any of the San Juan Islands), for instance, on Whidby Island. One wonders why _austerus_ has not established itself on some of the San Juan Islands but considering the degree of difference between _hollisteri_ and _austerus_, I doubt that the two would interbreed if they did occur together. On Vancouver Island, British Columbia, a short-tailed, _austerus_-type of mouse occurs in the lowlands and a long-tailed, _oreas_-type of mouse in the mountains. Vancouver Island is a large island (16,400 square miles). Apparently a stock of _austerus_ from the mainland reached Vancouver Island and were able to find suitable habitat and compete with and drive out the established _oreas_ in the manner that they probably did in the western Washington lowlands. The large Vancouver Island offers far more variety of habitat and opportunity for establishment of emigrating mice than do the smaller San Juan Islands, the largest of which is Orcas (57 square miles). Following the withdrawal of the Wisconsin ice from eastern Washington, numerous minor movements and adjustments of deer mice seem to have taken place. Long-tailed, _oreas_-type of mice were exterminated on the Columbian Plateau if, indeed, they ever became established there. Long-tailed mice did apparently become established in driftless areas and forested areas to the south of the drift border. With the establishment of soil and forests on the deglaciated land, the short-tailed _gambelii_ and the long-tailed mice became thoroughly intermixed. In some areas, especially near the type locality of _artemisiae_, the _gambelii_ characters of the mixture predominate at the present time. Deer mice from the Okanogan Valley differ from _gambelii_ only in slightly larger size and darker color. In other areas, notably near Metaline, Pend Oreille County, the _oreas_ characters of the mixture dominate at the present time. Mice from here are large and red and differ from typical _oreas_ in having relatively short tails. Other less marked segregations of characters are numerous, in Idaho and British Columbia as well as in Washington. Cowan (1937) has described _Peromyscus m. alpinus_, isolated in a mountainous area of British Columbia. This seems to be a form derived from _oreas_-type stock. With the reëstablishment of soil and forests on the deglaciated land of British Columbia north of Washington, a northward extension of the _gambelii-oreas_ mixture occurred. Another invasion was taking place at this time, however. _Peromyscus m. arcticus_ spread onto the deglaciated land from the north or east, ahead of artemisiae (the _gambelii-oreas_ mixture). This new invader intergraded with _artemisiae_ as well as with _oreas_. Further collecting and studies are required in this area before the relationships of the three subspecies can be completely understood. If geographic ranges are assigned to the named subspecies of deer mice that occur in Washington, it must, in part, be done arbitrarily. The deer mice of the San Juan Islands are all referred to the subspecies _hollisteri_. Only Puget Island, Wahkiakum County, is considered to be inhabitated by _rubidus_. The boundary between the ranges of _austerus_ and _oreas_ is sharply defined and further collecting by resident naturalists should result in detailed mapping of the boundary. The ranges and distribution of the deer mice of eastern Washington are less clearly defined than those of western Washington. _Peromyscus m. gambelii_ exists in its purest state on the Columbian Plateau. Here the Columbia River makes a convenient boundary to the west. Pure _Peromyscus m. oreas_ exist in the Cascade Mountains. In the area between the Columbian Plateau and the Cascades the deer mice are variously intermediate between _gambelii_ and _oreas_ and, over most of the area, are nearest to _gambelii_. This might be considered a natural area of intergradation such as commonly occurs between the ranges of subspecies. These intergrades, however, are similar to _Peromyscus m. artemisiae_ and the area occupied by these intermediates is connected on the north with the range of _artemisiae_. Thus Osgood (1909: 61) regards specimens from Easton and Wawawai, in the area of intergradation, as _artemisiae_ or intergrades between _gambelii_ and _artemisiae_. Taylor and Shaw (1929: 22) include the entire area of _intergradation_ in the range of _artemisiae_. This treatment, although convenient to the student of geographic variation, is apt to conceal the evolutionary and historical influences. These influences may be appreciated better if the intergrades from each locality are referred to the subspecies they most closely resemble. The specimens upon which the name _artemisiae_ was based came from a narrow tongue of zonally lower country that extends northward from the range of the lighter-colored _gambelii_. As might be expected, topotypes are lighter in color than specimens from the north, west and east. Nevertheless, the type locality is within a geographic area that is occupied principally by a darker race, _artemisiae_, to the north of _gambelii_. The topotypes of _artemisiae_ may be considered to be intermediate between _gambelii_ and the darker, northern race. Thus the name _artemisiae_ becomes available for the mice of the general area in question. The mice of the area immediately to the east of the type locality, in Washington and presumably in British Columbia and Idaho also, are essentially a mixture of the subspecies _gambelii_ and a now mostly extinct and unnamed race that probably resembled _oreas_. Local variations of populations from within this area are extreme but some segregation of color and length of tail has taken place. Mice from mountainous areas resemble _oreas_ while mice from the lowlands resemble _gambelii_, or, more exactly, mice from coniferous forests resemble _oreas_ while mice from other areas resemble _gambelii_. South of the area of racial mixture in northeastern Washington, in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington, the deer mice are like _gambelii_ except in slightly darker color. Mice from the Blue Mountains are darker and browner than _gambelii_, not more reddish. There is no indication of adulteration with _oreas_ stock. Since the Blue Mountains are a forested area and are far south of the drift border, we suppose that deer mice existed there through the last glacial period and that their dark color is an adaptation to forest habitat. Mice similar to those of the Blue Mountains have an extensive range in Idaho (Davis 1939: 290). These mice have relatively uniform racial characters and constitute a "good" subspecies. At present the deer mice of northern Washington, southeastern British Columbia, northern Idaho, northeastern Oregon, western Montana and northwestern Wyoming are called _artemisiae_. The mice of this extensive area are, however, of two genetic types: that type with mixed racial characters that lives in northeastern Washington and probably also farther east along the Wisconsin drift border, and that type that occurs farther south in Idaho and seems to constitute a stable subspecies. The separation of these two types may be desirable. Detailed study of the deer mice from the area now assigned to the range of _artemisiae_ may show that the name _subarcticus_ (_Peromyscus texanus subarcticus_ Allen, 1899) is applicable to the southern form. The type with mixed racial characters must be called _artemisiae_. If the two types are eventually separated, the mice from the Blue Mountains of Washington will be referable to the southern form. NEOTOMA CINEREA.--The wood rat found over most of Washington. _Neotoma c. occidentalis_, probably entered the state from eastern Oregon early in the Recent and spread over most of the state. The wood rat of the Blue Mountains (_alticola_) probably developed from _occidentalis_. A coastal race of the wood rat (_fusca_) occurs in western Oregon. This race, if it occurred in western Washington in pre-Vashon Time, was eliminated in Vashon Time or subsequently. In Oregon it lives in deep forests (Bailey, 1936: 174). In Washington _occidentalis_ occupies but a small part of the ecologic niche occupied by _fusca_ in Oregon. Elimination of _fusca_ from Washington through competition with _occidentalis_ seems highly improbable. Should _fusca_ ever cross the Columbia River and become established it would probably spread to a considerable part of western Washington. SYNAPTOMYS BOREALIS.--The lemming mouse seems now to be retreating northward and was an arctic species forced southward by the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers. Unlike other alpine species, it seems to be unable to exist for long in isolated mountain areas. PHENACOMYS INTERMEDIUS.--The heather vole, like the lemming mouse, probably was forced southward by the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers. In the Cascade and Rocky mountains it found suitable habitat and spread southward to almost the lower end of the Sierra Nevada in California. The Cascade race moved eastward on the Puget Bridge to the Olympic Mountains after the retreat of the Vashon ice, and northward in the Cascades. Northeastern Washington was reinvaded by the subspecies of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. CLETHRIONOMYS GAPPERI and CALIFORNICUS.--The two species of red-backed mouse found in Washington were probably distinct in pre-Vashon Times. At the maximum extent of the Vashon ice, _californicus_ was probably found in western Oregon and _gapperi_ in the Blue Mountains, where _idahoensis_ was developed, and in the southern Cascades (_cascadensis_). During or shortly after Vashon Time, _gapperi_ crossed the Puget Bridge to become established in the Olympic Mountains. After the retreat of the ice, _gapperi_ moved northward and eastward from the Cascades and _californicus_ crossed to western Washington from Oregon and displaced _gapperi_ from the lowlands. Hinton (1926: 215) separated the American _Clethrionomys_ into three groups, suggesting that Old World counterparts of each group exist. Davis (1939: 308) gives an excellent analysis of the emigrational history of the American species, and points out the close relationship of the Siberian and Arctic-American forms. He suggests that the _rutilus_ group invaded Arctic-America from Siberia at the close of the last glaciation. Two other groups are recognized by Davis, who assumes that both arose from a common ancestral stock and divided into two stems, one of which (_gapperi_ group) followed the main Rocky Mountain course southward and worked eastward across Canada while the other (_californicus_ group) followed down the Pacific Coast. Davis states, "This southward extension of range in America probably took place in the Pleistocene, but almost certainly the present southern range of the genus in the West was not reached until late in, or after, that period." Our studies of the _Clethrionomys_ of Washington indicate the essential correctness of Davis' conclusions. The separation of the two groups, however, probably was caused by southward moving glaciers and the separation of the mice into two stocks closely paralleled the divergence of other groups, such as that of the snowshoe rabbits. The two groups of red-backed mice are more sharply separated than was thought by Davis. The intermediate color of the back of _C. g. idahoensis_, mentioned by Davis, seems to be merely coincidental. The essential difference in the two groups is the sharply marked red band of the _gapperi_ group as opposed to the general red area on the dorsal surface of the _californicus_ group. _Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius_ has been considered a derivative of _occidentalis_ because the range of the latter surrounds the Olympic Mountains, where _nivarius_ is found. Considering the immediate post-Pleistocene movements of mammals from the Cascades to the Olympic Mountains, so clearly illustrated in _Thomomys_, _Tamias amoenus_, and _Phenacomys_, a means is indicated by which _Clethrionomys_ of the _gapperi_ group might have reached the Olympics. The apparent lack of intergradation between _occidentalis_ and _nivarius_ gives proof of their relatively distant relationship. _C. nivarius_ seems not to have been derived from _occidentalis_, and apparently does not belong to the _californicus_ group. It belongs instead to the _gapperi_ group, and I consider it to be a subspecies of _gapperi_. In no sense is it intermediate between the two groups. The other form considered by Davis to be intermediate between the two groups is _caurinus_. This mouse has not yet been taken in Washington, although it may eventually be found on Point Roberts, on the Fraser River delta. Its distribution is paralleled by that of many other mammals that are definitely not of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. The _californicus_ group, I feel, contains only the races of _Clethrionomys californicus_, while the _gapperi_ group contains _C. gapperi_ and its races, including _caurinus_, and possible other species. Possibly intergradation occurs between _C. californicus occidentalis_ and _C. gapperi_. Nevertheless, I fail to find evidence of such intergradation. I have taken _C. gapperi nivarius_ and _C. californicus occidentalis_ within ten miles of each other, but each retained its distinctive characters with no evidence of intergradation. In the case of _C. gapperi saturatus_ and _C. californicus occidentalis_ the proof is less conclusive. In spite of numerous attempts to trap _Clethrionomys_ in the area geographically intermediate between their ranges, I have taken none. Though common along the coast, _occidentalis_ becomes progressively scarcer to the east, being rare in the vicinity of Seattle and apparently absent from the western base of the Cascades. So far as is known, the ranges of _caurinus_ and _occidentalis_ are separated by the Fraser River. MICROTUS PENNSYLVANICUS and MONTANUS.--The Pennsylvania meadow mouse is closely related to _Microtus montanus_. Certain races of _montanus_, notably those from southern Oregon, California, and northern Nevada, closely resemble _pennsylvanicus_ externally and cranially. From the central part of its range northward, _montanus_ becomes progressively less like _pennsylvanicus_. The races _nanus_ and _canicaudus_ are quite different from _pennsylvanicus_ both externally and cranially, and in addition the anterior loop of the second molar is less constricted; often it is not constricted at all. _Microtus pennsylvanicus_ and _Microtus montanus_ occur together over parts of the northern Rocky Mountains. Where the two species came together, _pennsylvanicus_ occurs with races of _montanus_ that are most unlike it. _Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi_ closely resembles races of _Microtus montanus_ that occur in southern Oregon, California, and Nevada. It is larger, darker, and longer-furred than _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris_ from Washington. Seemingly _pennsylvanicus_ and _montanus_ diverged previous to Vashon-Wisconsin Time. The stock that gave rise to _montanus_ spread over the Great Basin while _pennsylvanicus_ ranged farther east. Some of the _montanus_ stock worked northward in the Rocky Mountains. _Microtus pennsylvanicus_ had meanwhile moved westward to the Rocky Mountains. The two stocks met and behaved as full species. _Microtus pennsylvanicus_ probably occupied northeastern Washington in the interglacial cycle preceding the Recent. The advance of the Wisconsin ice eliminated most of these mice. The glacier dammed the Columbia River and caused it to turn southward from its basalt-marginal course and take a path over the Columbian Plateau. Along this glacial river a population of _Microtus_ persisted to become _kincaidi_. While the Wisconsin ice was at its maximum extent, _Microtus montanus_ from the Blue Mountains crossed the Simcoe Bridge to the Yakima Valley and the eastern Cascade Mountains. The closing of the Simcoe Bridge isolated these mice, which subsequently became slightly differentiated, as _canescens_. Another stock moved westward along the Columbia River to western Oregon. This stock is now called _Microtus canicaudus_ but is probably racially rather than specifically distinct from _Microtus montanus nanus_. With the retreat of the Wisconsin ice, _montanus_ extended its range northward from the Yakima Valley along the eastern Cascade Mountains to extreme southern British Columbia. _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris_ entered northeastern Washington with other elements of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. At present, _pennsylvanicus_ occurs in northeastern Washington while _montanus_ is found in southeastern Washington and the eastern Cascade Mountains. The Okanogan River Valley separates their ranges. Eventually _montanus_ may extend its range to northeastern Washington and _pennsylvanicus_ to the Cascades, the two forms occurring together as they do in Montana, Idaho and Colorado. The isolation of _kincaidi_ on the Columbian Plateau seems complete and the probability of its range reaching that of its related species seems slight. MICROTUS LONGICAUDUS.--The later distributional history of the long-tailed meadow mouse is not yet clear. MICROTUS TOWNSENDII.--This Pacific Coastal species probably lived west of the Sierra Nevada-Cascade Mountains since the early Pleistocene. It has extended its range northward since the retreat of the Vashon ice and has reached some of the islands in Puget Sound and the Strait of Georgia. This species seems to be related to _Microtus richardsoni_ but the two species probably separated at an early time. MICROTUS RICHARDSONI.--The water rat of the Cascade Mountains seems to be have been forced southward into Washington and Oregon by the descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers where it became isolated from the water rat of the northern Rocky Mountains. After the retreat of the ice, both forms have moved northward. Bailey (1900) records _macropus_ from Bonner County, Idaho, not far from northeastern Washington but in Washington up to this time, _macropus_ has been recorded only from the Blue Mountains of the southeastern part of the state. MICROTUS OREGONI.--The later historical distribution of the creeping mouse was probably the same as that of _townsendii_. LAGURUS CURTATUS.--The distribution of this species of the Great Basin Fauna has probably changed little if any since the late Pleistocene. ONDATRA ZIBETHICUS.--The distribution of the two races of muskrat that occur in Washington is almost exactly that of the beavers. Probably one form was isolated in southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon during Vashon Time and another, more adaptable, race occurred in eastern Washington. After the retreat of the ice the adaptable race spread widely but the muskrats of the lower Columbia River changed their range little or not at all. APLODONTIA RUFA.--The race of _Aplodontia_ found in the Cascades of Washington was probably confined to the southern Cascades in Vashon Time and has since spread northward to reoccupy the range as far north as southern British Columbia. The presence of a mountain beaver in western Washington that is indistinguishable from the race _rufa_, found in the Cascades of Oregon, is most surprising. In Oregon, _pacifica_ occurs in the western lowlands and _rufa_ in the mountains to the east. In Washington _rufa_ occurs in the western lowlands and _rainieri_ in the mountains to the east. The offset in range of _rufa_ seems best explained by assuming that all of western Washington was once occupied by mountain beavers (_rufa_) that spread from the Cascades of Oregon to the Cascades of Washington and thence to the western Washington lowlands. This must have occurred early in the interglacial cycle preceding the Vashon Glaciation. While confined to the southern Cascades, _rainieri_ developed the larger size that now separates it from the ancestral _rufa_ that occurs to the west and south of it. ZAPUS PRINCEPS.--The coastal race of the jumping mouse was probably distinct from the more inland population before Vashon-Wisconsin Times. The differences between them were probably accentuated while the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers separated their ranges. The western race (_trinotatus_) was isolated in the southern Cascades and southwestern Washington. After the retreat of the glaciers, _trinotatus_ moved northward through western Washington and the Cascades into British Columbia. The race _kootenayensis_ of the adjacent Rocky Mountains moved eastward through northeastern Washington to the Cascades. The race _oregonus_, found in the Blue Mountains, has probably been resident there since it evolved from the populations to the east. ERETHIZON DORSATUM.--I have inadequate basis for speculation concerning the historical distribution of the porcupine. OCHOTONA PRINCEPS.--The descent of the Wisconsin ice separated the western pikas into two populations. One was confined to the Cascade-Sierra Nevada system and another to the Rocky Mountains. Two races are now found in the Cascades of Washington. One, _brunnescens_, inhabits the higher Cascades and another, _fenisex_, the eastern edge of the Cascades. The range of _brunnescens_ extends southward into Oregon while the range of _fenisex_ extends farther north in British Columbia than does that of _brunnescens_. The principal difference between the two races is the smaller size and paler color of _fenisex_. In Washington, _fenisex_ occupies a slightly more arid habitat than _brunnescens_. Further, _fenisex_ lives in talus principally of basaltic rock while _brunnescens_ lives in talus of granitic rock. The basaltic talus is more finely fractured, offering smaller crevices in which pikas can conceal themselves. The granitic rock, on the other hand, forms talus composed of fragments of large size. Freshly fractured granite is pale, whitish gray. After weathering, however, it becomes blackish as the more soluble, pale feldspars are removed, leaving the black hornblend and biotite exposed. Freshly fractured Columbian basalt is blackish but, after weathering, becomes rusty, reddish brown. In Washington the two races maintain their distinctiveness because selective factors in the basalt talus of the eastern Cascades favor the smaller size and paler color of _fenisex_ while in the higher Cascades, selective factors in the granitic batholith favor larger size and darker color. The present range of _brunnescens_ in Oregon indicates that this race was the pre-Wisconsin resident of the Cascades of at least southern Washington. Probably _fenisex_ evolved in the arid interior of British Columbia. In color _fenisex_ is intermediate between the dark _brunnescens_ and the pale _cuppes_ of the western spurs of the Rocky Mountains. Probably _fenisex_ was forced southward into the eastern Cascades by the Wisconsin ice and inhabited the area east of the range of _brunnescens_. This eastern area was not occupied by _brunnescens_ because the basaltic talus was of small size. After the retreat of the ice, _fenisex_ (adapted to more arid habitat than _brunnescens_), spread northward to the relatively dry valleys of the interior of British Columbia. The distinctness of _brunnescens_ and _fenisex_ is maintained by selective factors of the habitats they occupy but the zone of intergradation between the two is broad. A tendency towards paleness is noticeable in specimens from as far west as the eastern side of Mount Rainier. The pikas in the Rocky Mountain area have given rise to a number of races. The pale, small race of northern Idaho, _cuppes_, entered northeastern Washington with other members of the Great Basin Fauna after the retreat of the ice. LEPUS TOWNSENDII.--The white-tailed jack rabbit has probably lived on the Columbian Plateau ever since or even before the time when the Wisconsin ice bordered the plateau on the north. LEPUS AMERICANUS.--Snowshoe rabbits were probably spread over forested parts of Washington in pre-Wisconsin time. A coastal race, _washingtonii_, was probably distinct from the remainder of the species at an early time. It, and its kindred races _klamathensis_ and _tahoensis_, are very different from races derived later from the Rocky Mountain Fauna. From this it is deduced that _washingtonii_ was a member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna before the advance of the last continental glaciers. The snowshoe rabbits now found in the Cascade Mountains of Washington are racially distinct from populations occurring to the north and east, but are more closely related to the northern and eastern rabbits than they are to _washingtonii_. This race, _cascadensis_, probably lived in the area north of the state of Washington in pre-Wisconsin interglacial time. The snowshoe rabbit of northeastern Washington was probably a race having an extensive range in the Rocky Mountains from which _pineus_ in the Blue Mountains developed. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers found _washingtonii_ restricted to western Oregon. It might have persisted also in southwestern Washington but, had this been the case, we would expect a broader zone of intergradation between _washingtonii_ and _cascadensis_ than actually exists. The glaciers forced _cascadensis_ southward into the Cascades of southern Washington. The difference between _washingtonii_ and _cascadensis_ and the narrow zone of intergradation between them, indicate that the two races were not in contact in pre-Vashon Time. The presence in the Cascades of Oregon of a race related to _washingtonii_ rather than _cascadensis_ also supports this view. The snowshoe rabbits of northeastern Washington were probably eliminated from areas where the ice was in place. The effect of the glaciers in nearby areas was probably less on snowshoe rabbits than upon other species. Following the retreat of the glaciers, _washingtonii_ reinvaded western Washington and spread northward through the lowlands to the Fraser River. In the Cascades, _cascadensis_ moved even farther north. _L. a. pineus_ of the Rocky Mountain Fauna invaded northeastern Washington from adjacent areas to the south. Another race, _columbiensis_, spread from the interior valleys of British Columbia to the western part of northeastern Washington in probably relatively recent times. The post-Wisconsin history of the distribution of this race is uncertain. LEPUS CALIFORNICUS.--The black-tailed jack rabbit occurs throughout the sagebrush areas of eastern Washington, except in the Okanogan Valley. It invaded Washington from the south recently (Couch, 1927: 313). The first blacktails were thought to have entered Walla Walla County about 1870. Here they were checked by the Snake River. About 1905 they crossed the Snake River, on ice, and by 1920 had spread over much of the Columbian Plateau. In January, 1920, they crossed the Columbia River in two places, on ice jams, and by 1927 had spread north and west over the sagebrush areas between the Columbia River and the Cascade Mountains. When Couch, in 1927, published his account, he predicted that the blacktail would eventually spread to the Okanogan Valley. This has not yet occurred although it is still to be expected. It should be noted that the migrational history of the black-tailed jack rabbit is known only because the animal is large, spectacular, and diurnal, and therefore noticed by resident ranchers, and because the facts came to the notice of a competent biologist. Migration of a less conspicuous mammal, for example, a mouse, would rarely be detected. SYLVILAGUS NUTTALLII.--The cottontail might have been resident on the Columbian Plateau during Wisconsin Time but probably it invaded, or perhaps reinvaded, the Plateau from eastern Oregon in the Recent. SYLVILAGUS IDAHOENSIS.--Too little is known about this rabbit in Washington to hazard a guess as to its recent distributional history. CERVUS CANADENSIS.--The elk emigrated from Siberia to North America in the late Pleistocene but previous, certainly, to Vashon-Wisconsin time. Probably the coastal race was distinct from the interior population in the preceding interglacial cycle. The descent of the last continental glaciers, in Washington, separated the elk of the Pacific Coastal Fauna from the Rocky Mountain Fauna. After the retreat of the ice the coastal race moved northward to southern British Columbia and the Rocky Mountain race moved northward and westward through British Columbia. Northeastern Washington was reoccupied by the Rocky Mountain elk. Remains of elk have been found associated with human artifacts on the northern part of the Columbian Plateau. The plateau is poorly suited to elk but a few may have persisted there until late historic time. The remains may have been brought by Indians from northeastern Washington. The remains included teeth and portions of the skull and it seems unlikely that these would have been carried any great distance. ODOCOILEUS HEMIONUS.--The American deer probably evolved in North America. In this respect they are unlike the elk, moose and caribou, all of which emigrated from Asia to America in the Pleistocene. _Odocoileus hemionus_ and _virginianus_ probably diverged from a common stock in the Pliocene. The black-tailed deer was probably a member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna at an early time and distinct from the mule deer before the last interglacial cycle. Probably the mule deer lived in the eastern Cascades and on part of the Columbian Plateau in Wisconsin Time. They occur on the plateau in limited numbers at present and their remains have been found associated with human artifacts in the Grand Coulee area. ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS.--The white-tailed deer ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Canada to Mexico. The species was probably abundant in the Pacific Northwest in the Pleistocene, perhaps in Vashon-Wisconsin time, but has since largely given way to the black-tailed and mule deer. The race _O. v. leucurus_ now occupies an extremely small range. The accounts of early naturalists indicate that it was more abundant and had a wider range 100 years ago. Probably _leucurus_ was once an important member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. The inland race, _ochrourus_, is a typical member of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. It and _leucurus_ were probably derived from a common ancestor in the late Pleistocene. ALCE AMERICANUS.--The moose occurs in Washington as a casual wanderer from the Rocky Mountain Fauna to the east. RANGIFER MONTANUS.--The caribou occurs in northeastern Washington as a winter migrant from the north. It was probably of more regular and extensive occurrence in the past. ANTILOCAPRA AMERICANA.--The antelope probably was a casual wanderer to southeastern Washington and perhaps to the Columbian Plateau from eastern Oregon before white man reached Washington. BISON BISON.--The buffalo, like the antelope, probably occurred in southeastern Washington and on the Columbian Plateau only as a casual wanderer from Oregon in postglacial time. OVIS CANADENSIS.--Mountain sheep reached North America from Asia in the Pleistocene. By Vashon-Wisconsin Time they had spread southward, perhaps to Mexico. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice in Washington presumably separated the _canadensis_ and _californiana_ type of sheep, the former being confined to the Rocky Mountain Fauna and the latter to the Cascade-Sierra Nevada chain and adjacent parts of the Great Basin. Mountain sheep probably persisted in the southern Cascades of Washington and on the Columbian Plateau during Vashon-Wisconsin times. After the retreat of the ice, these sheep (_californiana_) moved northward slightly, both in the Cascades and on the Columbian Plateau. Remains of sheep are to be found with human artifacts in the Grand Coulee area today. When white man first reached the state, sheep existed throughout the Cascades and on part of the Columbian Plateau. Only a pitiful remnant remains in the extreme northern Cascades. Mountain sheep of the Rocky Mountain race probably existed in small numbers in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington until historic times. Sheep from the Blue Mountains or adjacent Idaho invaded northeastern Washington shortly after that region was freed from Wisconsin ice. These sheep were exterminated shortly after the coming of the white man. OREAMNOS AMERICANUS.--Fossil remains of the mountain goat have been discovered at Washtuckna Lake, associated with those of the lion, horse, and camel. Probably the mountain goat had an extensive range in Washington at the time of a glacial advance previous to the Wisconsin glaciation. In Wisconsin Time the mountain goat was confined to the southern Cascades. Strangely enough, it seems not to have crossed the Columbia River to become established in the Cascades of Oregon. After the retreat of the ice it moved northward through the Cascades. A mountain goat recently taken in northeastern Washington seemingly wandered to the area from Idaho. EXPLANATION OF TREATMENT The order of arrangement of the following accounts is that of Miller (1924) with some modifications. For example, the Chiroptera are arranged according to Tate (1942), the Sciuridae according to Bryant (1945) and the Cetacea according to Scheffer (1942). A few other minor changes are included. Although the principal purpose of this report is to describe and interpret the distribution of the various species and races of mammals that occur in Washington, a brief description and account of the habits of the animals is included. Each species account begins with a description, based principally on external characters. This is followed by pertinent information regarding the range of the species, its relationships within the genus and a brief account of its habits. The habits are dealt with in most detail for the species that are of greatest economic importance. The accounts of subspecies are largely technical. The account of the type specimen is rather complete. Subspecific diagnoses are brief, stating often only the principal racial characters. Standard external measurements are usually given for each subspecies. All measurements, unless otherwise stated, are in millimeters and weights are in grams. Specimens are adult, unless otherwise stated. No formal list of specimens examined is included. Localities from which specimens have been examined are usually shown on the distribution maps by solid circles. Open circles indicate localities from which specimens, not examined by me, have been recorded by other persons. Most of these records are published but a few are based on authentic trappers' reports, photographs, or other evidence. Unusual occurrences of animals outside their natural ranges are not shown on the maps. Not every record from well within the range of a subspecies has been plotted, but care has been taken to plot all records of occurrences from peripheral areas. When more than one race of a species occurs in Washington, specimens from localities where the geographic range of one subspecies meets or approaches that of another are listed as "marginal occurrences" in the paragraph on the distribution of the race to which they are best referred. Marginal occurrences are listed from north to south and from west to east. The authority for the record, if published, is given. When the record is based on specimens examined by the author, the collection containing the specimen is indicated as follows: (E.S.B.) Ernest S. Booth collection. College Place, Washington. (J.M.E.) J. M. Edson collection, Bellingham, Washington. (K.U.) University of Kansas, Museum of Natural History, Lawrence, Kansas. (M.V.Z.) Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, University of California, Berkeley, California. (U.S.N.M.) United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. Specimens from the Biological Surveys Collection are included here. (V.B.S.) Victor B. Scheffer collection. United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. (W.S.C.) Washington State College, Charles R. Conner Museum, Pullman, Washington. (W.S.M.) Washington State Museum, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. (W.W.D.) Walter W. Dalquest collection, Seattle, Washington. In all, 230 kinds (species and subspecies) of mammals are listed for the state of Washington. Of these, 9 kinds (opossum, eastern gray squirrel, fox squirrel, 3 kinds of Old World rats, house mouse, nutria, and eastern cottontail) have been introduced into Washington from elsewhere. The dog of the Indians might be listed as a tenth introduced species. The grizzly bear, the sea otter, the wolf, the moose, one race of mountain sheep, one race of mountain goat, and, if they ever occurred in the state, the pronghorn antelope and bison, are nearly or completely extinct in Washington. Mammals other than cetaceans possibly occurring in Washington, but of which satisfactory record is lacking, are mentioned in a hypothetical list at the end of the accounts of species. Of the 220 kinds of native mammals, known to occur in the state, 23 are marine (4 pinnipeds, 19 cetaceans). The 197 living, native, land mammals include 6 orders, 20 families, 58 genera and 101 full species. CHECK LIST OF MAMMALS CLASS MAMMALIA--mammals Order MARSUPALIA--marsupials Family DIDELPHIIDAE--opossums Genus =Didelphis= Linnaeus--opossums _Didelphis virginiana virginiana Kerr_ opossum Order INSECTIVORA--insectivores Family TALPIDAE--moles Genus =Neurotrichus= Gunther--shrew-mole _Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii_ (Baird) } _Neurotrichus gibbsii minor_ Dalquest } Gibbs shrew-mole and Burgner } Genus =Scapanus= Pomel--western American moles _Scapanus townsendii_ (Bachman) Townsend mole _Scapanus orarius orarius_ True } _Scapanus orarius yakimensis_ Dalquest } coast mole and Scheffer } _Scapanus orarius schefferi_ Jackson } Family SORICIDAE--shrews Genus =Sorex= Linnaeus--long-tailed shrews _Sorex cinereus cinereus_ Kerr } _Sorex cinereus streatori_ Merriam } cinereous shrew _Sorex merriami merriami_ Dobson Merriam shrew _Sorex trowbridgii trowbridgii_ Baird } _Sorex trowbridgii destructioni_ Scheffer } Trowbridge shrew and Dalquest } _Sorex vagrans vagrans_ Baird } _Sorex vagrans monticola_ Merriam } wandering shrew _Sorex obscurus obscurus_ Merriam } _Sorex obscurus setosus_ Elliot } dusky shrew _Sorex palustris navigator_ (Baird) mountain water-shrew _Sorex bendirii bendirii_ (Merriam) } _Sorex bendirii albiventer_ Merriam } Bendire water-shrew Genus =Microsorex= Coues--pigmy shrew _Microsorex hoyi washingtoni_ Jackson pigmy shrew Order CHIROPTERA--bats Family VESPERTILIONIDAE--vespertilionid bats Genus =Myotis= Kaup--mouse-eared bats _Myotis lucifugus carissima_ Thomas } _Myotis lucifugus alascensis_ Miller } big myotis _Myotis yumanensis sociabilis_ } H. W. Grinnell } _Myotis yumanensis saturatus_ Miller } Yuma myotis _Myotis keenii keenii_ (Merriam) Keen myotis _Myotis evotis evotis_ (H. Allen) } long-eared myotis _Myotis evotis pacificus_ Dalquest } _Myotis thysanodes thysanodes_ Miller fringe-tailed myotis _Myotis volans longicrus_ (True) } hairy-winged myotis _Myotis volans interior_ Miller } _Myotis californicus caurinus_ Miller } California myotis _Myotis californicus californicus_ } (Audubon and Bachman) } _Myotis subulatus melanorhinus_ (Merriam) small-footed myotis Genus =Lasionycteris= Peters--silver-haired bat _Lasionycteris noctivagans_ (Le Conte) silver-haired bat Genus =Corynorhinus= H. Allen--long-eared bats _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii_ } long-eared bat (Cooper) } _Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius_ } H. W. Grinnell } Genus =Pipistrellus= Kaup--pipistrelles _Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus_ (H. Allen) western pipistrelle Genus =Eptesicus= Rafinesque--serotine bats _Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus_ Rhoads big brown bat Genus =Lasiurus= Gray--hairy-tailed bats _Lasiurus cinereus cinereus_ (Beauvois) hoary bat Genus =Antrozous= H. Allen--nyctophiline bats _Antrozous pallidus cantwelli_ Bailey pallid bat Order CARNIVORA Family URSIDAE--bears Genus =Ursus= Linnaeus--bears _Ursus americanus altifrontalis_ Elliot } _Ursus americanus cinnamomum_ } black bear (Audubon and Bachman) } _Ursus chelan_ Merriam grizzly bear Family PROCYONIDAE--raccoons and allies Genus =Procyon= Storr-raccoons _Procyon lotor psora_ Gray } _Procyon lotor excelsus_ Nelson and } raccoon Goldman } Family MUSTELIDAE--weasels and allies Genus =Martes= Pinel--martens and fisher _Martes caurina caurina_ (Merriam) } western marten _Martes caurina origenes_ (Rhoads) } _Martes pennanti_ (Erxleben) fisher Genus =Mustela= Linnaeus--weasels, ferrets and minks _Mustela erminea invicta_ Hall } _Mustela erminea fallenda_ Hall } _Mustela erminea olympica_ Hall } ermine _Mustela erminea streatori_ (Merriam) } _Mustela erminea gulosa_ Hall } _Mustela erminea murica_ (Bangs) } _Mustela frenata washingtoni_ (Merriam) } _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_ Hall } _Mustela frenata effera_ Hall } long-tailed weasel _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ Hall } _Mustela vison energumenos_ (Bangs) mink Genus =Gulo= Pallas--wolverines _Gulo luscus luteus_ Elliot wolverine Genus =Lutra= Brisson--river otters _Lutra canadensis pacifica_ Rhoads } _Lutra canadensis vancouverensis_ Goldman } river otter Genus =Enhydra= Fleming--sea otter _Enhydra lutris nereis_ (Merriam) sea otter Genus =Spilogale= Gray--civet cats or spotted skunks _Spilogale gracilis saxatilis_ Merriam } civet cat or _Spilogale gracilis latifrons_ Merriam } spotted skunks Genus =Mephitis= Geoffroy and Cuvier--striped skunks _Mephitis mephitis hudsonica_ Richardson } _Mephitis mephitis major_ (Howell) } _Mephitis mephitis notata_ (Howell) } striped skunk _Mephitis mephitis spissigrada_ Bangs } Genus =Taxidea= Waterhouse--American badger _Taxidea taxus taxus_ (Schreber) badger Family CANIDAE--foxes, coyote, wolves and dogs Genus =Vulpes= Oken--foxes _Vulpes fulva cascadensis_ Merriam red fox Genus =Canis= Linnaeus--coyote, wolves and dogs _Canis latrans testes_ Merriam } _Canis latrans incolatus_ Hall } coyote _Canis lupus fuscus_ Richardson wolf _Canis familiaris_ Linnaeus dog Family FELIDAE--cats Genus =Felis= Linnaeus--true cats _Felis concolor oregonensis_ Rafinesque } cougar or _Felis concolor missoulensis_ Goldman } mountain lion Genus =Lynx= Kerr--lynxes and bobcats _Lynx canadensis canadensis_ Kerr Canadian lynx _Lynx rufus fasciatus_ Rafinesque } _Lynx rufus pallescens_ Merriam } bobcat Order PINNIPEDIA--seals and walruses Family OTARIIDAE--eared seals Genus =Zalophus= Gill--Californian sea lions _Zaluphus californianus_ (Lesson) California sea lion Genus =Eumetopias= Gill--Steller sea lion _Eumetopias jubata_ (Schreber) Steller sea lion Genus =Callorhinus= Gray--Alaska fur seal _Callorhinus ursinus cynocephalus_ (Walbaum) Alaska fur seal Family PHOCIDAE--hair seals Genus =Phoca= Linnaeus--hair seals _Phoca vitulina richardii_ (Gray) hair seal Order RODENTIA--rodents Family SCIURIDAE--squirrels and allies Genus =Tamias= Illiger--chipmunks _Tamias minimus scrutator_ (Hall and } Hatfield) } least chipmunk _Tamias minimus grisescens_ (Howell) } _Tamias amoenus caurinus_ (Merriam) } _Tamias amoenus felix_ Rhoads } _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_ (Hollister) } _Tamias amoenus affinis_ Allen } yellow-pine chipmunk _Tamias amoenus canicaudus_ (Merriam) } _Tamias amoenus luteiventris_ Allen } _Tamias ruficaudus simulans_ (Howell) red-tailed chipmunk _Tamias townsendii townsendii_ Bachman } _Tamias townsendii cooperi_ Baird } Townsend chipmunk Genus =Marmota= Blumenbach--marmots _Marmota monax petrensis_ Howell woodchuck _Marmota flaviventris avara_ (Bangs) yellow-bellied marmot _Marmota caligata cascadensis_ Howell hoary marmot _Marmota olympus_ (Merriam) Olympic marmot Genus =Citellus= Oken--ground squirrels _Citellus townsendii townsendii_ (Bachman) Townsend ground squirrel _Citellus washingtoni_ Howell Washington ground squirrel _Citellus columbianus columbianus_ (Ord) } _Citellus columbianus ruficaudus_ Howell } Columbian ground squirrel _Citellus beecheyi douglasii_ (Richardson) Beechey ground squirrel _Citellus lateralis tescorum_ (Hollister) } _Citellus lateralis connectens_ (Howell) } golden-mantled ground _Citellus saturatus_ (Rhoads) } squirrel Genus =Sciurus= Linnaeus--tree squirrels _Sciurus griseus griseus_ Ord western gray squirrel _Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus_ Merriam eastern gray squirrel _Sciurus niger_ Linnaeus, subsp.? fox squirrel Genus =Tamiasciurus= Trouessart--red squirrels _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori_ } (Allen) } _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_ } red squirrel (Bachman) } _Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii_ } (Bachman) } Douglas squirrel Genus =Glaucomys= Thomas--American flying squirrels _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis_ } (Bachman) } _Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi_ (Rhoads) } northern flying _Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis_ Howell } squirrel _Glaucomys sabrinus latipes_ Howell } _Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus_ (Rhoads) } Family HETEROMYIDAE--pocket mice, kangaroo mice and kangaroo rats Genus =Perognathus= Weid--pocket mice _Perognathus parvus parvus_ (Peale) } great basin pocket _Perognathus parvus lordi_ (Gray) } mouse _Perognathus parvus columbianus_ Merriam } Genus =Dipodomys= Gray--kangaroo rats _Dipodomys ordii columbianus_ (Merriam) Ord kangaroo rat Family GEOMYIDAE--pocket gophers Genus =Thomomys= Weid--smooth-toothed pocket gophers _Thomomys talpoides devexus_ Hall and } Dalquest } _Thomomys talpoides columbianus_ Bailey } _Thomomys talpoides aequalidens_ } Dalquest } _Thomomys talpoides wallowa_ Hall } and Orr } _Thomomys talpoides fuscus_ Merriam } _Thomomys talpoides yakimensis_ Hall } and Dalquest } _Thomomys talpoides shawi_ Taylor } _Thomomys talpoides immunis_ Hall and } Dalquest } northern pocket _Thomomys talpoides limosus_ Merriam } gopher _Thomomys talpoides douglasii_ } (Richardson) } _Thomomys talpoides glacialis_ Dalquest } and Scheffer } _Thomomys talpoides tacomensis_ Taylor } _Thomomys talpoides pugetensis_ Dalquest } and Scheffer } _Thomomys talpoides tumuli_ Dalquest } and Scheffer } _Thomomys talpoides yelmensis_ Merriam } _Thomomys talpoides couchi_ Goldman } _Thomomys talpoides melanops_ Merriam } Family CASTORIDAE--beavers Genus =Castor= Linnaeus--beavers _Castor canadensis leucodonta_ Gray } _Castor canadensis idoneus_ Jewett and } beaver Hall } Family MURIDAE--rats and mice Genus =Onychomys= Baird--grasshopper mice _Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus_ } northern grasshopper Anthony } mouse Genus =Reithrodontomys= Giglioli--American harvest mice _Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis_ } western harvest (Baird) } mouse Genus =Peromyscus= Gloger--white-footed mice _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas_ Bangs } _Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri_ } Osgood } _Peromyscus maniculatus austerus_ (Baird) } _Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus_ Osgood } deer mouse _Peromyscus maniculatus gambelii_ (Baird) } _Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae_ } (Rhoads) } Genus =Neotoma= Say and Ord--wood rats _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis_ Baird } bushy-tailed wood rat _Neotoma cinerea alticola_ Hooper } Genus =Synaptomys= Baird--lemming mice _Synaptomys borealis wrangeli_ Merriam northern lemming mouse Genus =Phenacomys= Merriam--heather voles and tree mice _Phenacomys intermedius intermedius_ } Merriam } heather vole _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_ } Rhoads } Genus =Clethrionomys= Tilesius--red-backed mice _Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus_ } (Rhoads) } _Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis_ } (Merriam) } Gapper red-backed _Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis_ } mouse Booth } _Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius_ } (Bailey) } _Clethrionomys californicus } California red-backed occidentalis_ (Merriam) } mouse Genus =Microtus= Schrank--meadow mice _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris_ Dale } Pennsylvania meadow _Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi_ } mouse Dalquest } _Microtus montanus nanus_ (Merriam) } montane meadow _Microtus montanus canescens_ Bailey } mouse _Microtus townsendii townsendii_ } (Bachman) } Townsend meadow _Microtus townsendii pugeti_ Dalquest } mouse _Microtus longicaudus halli_ Ellerman } long-tailed meadow _Microtus longicaudus macrurus_ Merriam } mouse _Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides_ } (Rhoads) } water rat _Microtus richardsoni macropus_ (Merriam) } _Microtus oregoni oregoni_ (Bachman) creeping mouse Genus =Lagurus= Gloger--short-tailed voles _Lagurus curtatus pauperrimus_ (Cooper) sagebrush vole Genus =Ondatra= Link--muskrat _Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis_ (Lord) } _Ondatra zibethicus occipitalis_ (Elliot) } muskrat Genus =Rattus= Fischer--Old World rats _Rattus rattus rattus_ (Linnaeus) } roof rat _Rattus rattus alexandrinus_ (Geoffroy) } _Rattus norvegicus norvegicus_ (Erxleben) Norway rat Genus =Mus= Linnaeus--house mice _Mus musculus_ Linnaeus, subsp.? house mouse Family APLONTIDAE--mountain beaver Genus =Aplodontia= Richardson--mountain beaver _Aplodontia rufa rufa_ (Rafinesque) } _Aplodontia rufa rainieri_ Merriam } mountain beaver Family DIPODIDAE--jumping mice and allies Genus =Zapus= Coues--jumping mice _Zapus princeps trinotatus_ Rhoads } _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_ Anderson } big jumping mouse _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ Davis } _Zapus princeps oregonus_ Preble } Family ERETHIZONTIDAE--American porcupines Genus =Erethizon= Cuvier--North American porcupine _Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum_ Brandt } porcupine _Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens_ Allen } Family CHINCHILLIDAE Bennett--chinchillas and allies Genus =Myocastor= Kerr--nutria _Myocastor coypus_ (Molina), subsp.? nutria Order LAGOMORPHA--pikas, hares and rabbits Family OCHOTONIDAE--pikas Genus =Ochotona= Link--pikas _Ochotona princeps cuppes_ Bangs } _Ochotona princeps fenisex_ Osgood } pika _Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ Howell } Family LEPORIDAE--hares and rabbits Genus =Lepus= Linnaeus--hares _Lepus townsendii townsendii_ Bachman white-tailed jack rabbit _Lepus americanus washingtonii_ Baird } _Lepus americanus cascadensis_ Nelson } snowshoe rabbit _Lepus americanus pineus_ Dalquest } _Lepus americanus columbiensis_ Rhoads } _Lepus californicus deserticola_ Mearns black-tailed jack rabbit Genus =Sylvilagus= Gray--cottontails and allies _Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii_ (Bachman) Nuttall cottontail _Sylvilagus floridanus_ (Allen), subsp.? Florida cottontail _Sylvilagus idahoensis_ (Merriam) pigmy rabbit Order ARTIODACTYLA--even-toed ungulates Family CERVIDAE--deer and allies Genus =Cervus= Linnaeus--American elk or wapiti _Cervus canadensis roosevelti_ Merriam } elk or wapiti _Cervus canadensis nelsoni_ Bailey } Genus =Odocoileus= Rafinesque--northern deer _Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus_ Bailey } _Odocoileus virginianus leucurus_ } white-tailed deer (Douglas) } _Odocoileus hemionus hemionus_ } (Rafinesque) } mule deer or _Odocoileus hemionus columbianus_ } black-tailed deer (Richardson) } Genus =Alce= Gray--Moose and Old-World elk _Alce americana shirasi_ Nelson moose Genus =Rangifer= Hamilton-Smith--reindeer and caribou _Rangifer arcticus montanus_ Seton-Thompson caribou Family BOVIDAE--cattle, sheep, goats and allies Genus =Bison= Hamilton-Smith--bison _Bison bison oregonus_ Bailey bison Genus =Ovis= Linnaeus--sheep _Ovis canadensis canadensis_ Shaw } mountain sheep _Ovis canadensis californiana_ Douglas } Genus =Oreamnos= Rafinesque--mountain goat _Oreamnos americanus americanus_ } mountain goat (Blainville) } _Oreamnos americanus missoulae_ Allen } Order CETACEA--whales and porpoises Family ZIPHIIDAE--beaked whales Genus =Berardius= Duvernoy--beaked whales _Berardius bairdii_ Stejneger Baird beaked whale Genus =Mesoplodon= Gervais--beaked whales _Mesoplodon stejnegeri_ True Stejneger beaked whale Family DELPHINIDAE--porpoises Genus =Delphinus= Linnaeus--dolphins _Delphinus bairdii_ Dall Baird porpoise Genus =Lissodelphis= Gloger--right-whale porpoises _Lissodelphis borealis_ (Peale) } northern right-whale } porpoise Genus =Lagenorhynchus= Gray--striped porpoises _Lagenorhynchus obliquidens_ Gill striped porpoise Genus =Grampus= Gray--killer whales _Grampus rectipinna_ (Cope) Pacific killer Genus =Grampidelphis= Iredale and Troughton _Grampidelphis griseus_ (Cuvier) grampus Genus =Globicelphalus= Hamilton--blackfishes _Globicephalus scammonii_ (Cope) blackfish Genus =Phocoena= Cuvier--harbor porpoises _Phocoena vomerina_ (Gill) harbor porpoise Genus =Phocoenoides= Andrews--Dall porpoises _Phocoenoides dalli_ (True) Dall porpoise Family PHYSETERIDAE--sperm whales Genus =Physeter= Linnaeus--sperm whale _Physeter catodon_ Linnaeus sperm whale Family KOGIIDAE--pigmy sperm whale Genus =Kogia= Gray--pigmy sperm whale _Kogia breviceps_ (Blainville) pigmy sperm whale Family RHACHIANECTIDAE--gray whale Genus =Rhachianectes= Cope--gray whale _Rhachianectes glaucus_ (Cope) gray whale Family BALAENOPTERIDAE--finback whales Genus =Balaenoptera= Lacépède--finback whales _Balaenoptera physalus_ (Linnaeus) finback whale _Balaenoptera borealis_ Lesson Pollack whale _Balaenoptera acutorostrata_ Lacépède pike whale Genus =Sibbaldus= Gray--blue whale _Sibbaldus musculus_ (Linnaeus) blue whale Genus =Megaptera= Gray--humpbacked whales _Megaptera novaeangliae_ (Borowski) humpback whale Family BALAENIDAE--baleen whales Genus =Eubalaena= Gray--baleen whales _Eubalaena sieboldii_ (Gray) Pacific right whale ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES =Didelphis virginiana virginiana= Kerr Opossum _Didelphis virginiana_ Kerr. Anim. Kingd., p. 193, 1792. _Type locality._--Virginia _Description._--Slightly smaller than a house cat; body in older animals heavy and fat; tail long, naked, scaled and prehensile. Ears large, naked and black with white tips; muzzle elongate and pointed; color of fur variable; overhair usually white and underfur white tipped with black; guard hairs long and coarse but underfur soft and dense; forefoot with opposable thumb; females with abdominal pouch. _Remarks._--The opossum has been introduced from the eastern United States into California and Oregon and has become well established in those states. Recent records from Clear Lake, Skagit County, and South Bend, Pacific County, indicate that the opossum is now resident in Washington and it may be expected to increase and spread (Scheffer, 1943). The animals may also enter the area about Walla Walla from Oregon. The source of the opossums which have appeared in Washington is not yet known. Of this animal, Dr. Carl Hartman (1923: 347) has written: "In the popular mind, the generation of no animal is so shrouded in mystery as that of the opossum. Throughout the country, among both whites and negroes, deeply rooted tradition has it that the opossum copulates through the nose and that the female blows the fruit of conception into the pouch. Other myths relating to details of the reproductive process in this species are current among the people. "The growth of such legends need not surprise one, however, for the early birth of the embryos and the use of the pouch as an incubator certainly challenge the imagination. These phenomena attract the attention because they are unique, differing from the familiar method of rearing the young obtaining among the higher mammals, including man. Familiarity breeds contempt; the ordinary ceases to be marvelous. Thus on account of its rareness and its 'different' character the opossum, our only marsupial, figures in the folklore to a prominent degree." =Neurotrichus gibbsii= Gibbs shrew-mole _Description._--The shrew-mole is tiny, possessing a head and body 2-1/2 to 3 inches long and a tail about 1-1/2 inches in length. The body is relatively stout but is less cylindrical than that of _Scapanus_. The eyes are nearly buried in the fur. The nose is long and pointed. The legs are short and the forefeet wide and powerful. The tail is thick, constricted at the base and clothed with short, stiff bristles. The fur is short and posteriorly directed. In color the shrew-mole is dark slate, almost black. [Illustration: FIG. 21. Gibbs shrew-mole (_Neurotrichus gibbsii minor_), female in captivity; Seattle, Washington, September 12, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 719.)] _Remarks._--Shrew-moles inhabit moist habitats from sea level to 8,000 feet. They are burrowing mammals and prefer to live in soft earth, free of sod. In the lowlands of western Washington, shrew-moles are most abundant in damp, shady ravines where the vegetation includes deciduous trees and dense underbrush with but little grass. In the mountains, shrew-moles are usually found near streams or rock slides, where the larger annuals grow densely on soil that is deep, soft, and free of turf. Vertically they range from the Humid Transition Life-zone through the Canadian, and well into the Hudsonian Life-zone. [Illustration: FIG. 22. Distribution of the Gibbs shrew-mole in Washington. A. _Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii._ B. _Neurotrichus gibbsii minor._] Shrew-moles are both diurnal and nocturnal. They rest or sleep periodically, the length of their rest or sleep being longer when much food is eaten, and the intervals between their periods of rest or sleep is longer when less food is eaten. Owls and snakes appear to be their principal enemies. Predatory mammals eat some shrew-moles, and probably kill many that they do not eat. Shrew-moles are completely blind, and their long, prehensile nose guides all their activity. Their ordinary movements on the surface of the ground are slow and cautious. When frightened they break into a scuttling rush which ends beneath a leaf or bit of bark where the animal becomes motionless. Shrew-moles, on the surface of the ground, make considerable noise. They construct molelike burrows, but these are not as extensive or complicated as those of moles. The shrew-mole hunts for food in shallow trenches that it makes just under the layer of dead leaves and vegetable debris that covers the ground in their habitat. The food of the shrew-moles includes earthworms, isopods, insect larvae, soft-bodied insects, and other animal matter. Some vegetable matter is eaten. Breeding takes place at all seasons of the year, save perhaps in December and January. Embryos vary from one to four. The nest of a shrew-mole at Seattle, King County, consisted of a handful of damp leaves in a cavity of a rotten, punky, alder stump. The nest contained four half-grown young. =Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii= (Baird) _Urotrichus gibbsii_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 76, 1857. _Neurotrichus [sic] gibbsii_ Günther, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pl. 42, 1880. _Neurotrichus Gibbsii_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607, 1885. _Neurotrichus gibbsii_ Bryant, Zoe. 1:359, February, 1891. _Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:11, December 31, 1912. _Type._--Obtained at Naches Pass, 4,500 ft., Pierce County, Washington, by G. Gibbs on July 15, 1854 (see Dalquest and Burgner, 1941); type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Size relatively large; tail relatively long; foreclaws straight on ventral surface. _Measurements._--Two females from Tye, 4,000 ft., Stevens Pass, King County, average: total length, 121.5; length of tail, 45; length of hind foot, 18. _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, from British Columbia south, and Destruction Island, Jefferson County. Records of occurrence are Baker Lake (J. M. E.), Tye (M. V. Z.), and Mount Rainier (Mount Rainier Ntl. Park Mus.) _Remarks._--Shrew-moles are present on Destruction Island, a small island in the Pacific off the coast of Jefferson County. These moles are large, and are like _gibbsii_. It is thought, however, that this resemblance is due to convergent evolution rather than a once-continuous range with _gibbsii_. It is significant that a shrew (_Sorex trowbridgii destructioni_), the only other native land mammal on the island, differs from its mainland counterpart in much the same way as does _Neurotrichus g. gibbsii_ from _Neurotrichus g. minor_. =Neurotrichus gibbsii minor= Dalquest and Burgner _Neurotrichus gibbsii_ minor Dalquest and Burgner, Murrelet, 22:12, April 30, 1941. _Type._--Obtained on the University of Washington Campus, Seattle, King County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on May 19, 1940; type in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Size small; tail short; foreclaws light and weak as compared to those of _gibbsii_, with ventral surfaces curved. _Measurements._--Eighty-five specimens (males and females) from Seattle, King County, average: total length, 107.0; length of tail, 35.3; length of hind foot, 15.0. _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington. Marginal records are: Mt. Vernon (Jackson, 1915: 97), Cottage Lake (W.W.D.) and Yacolt (M. V.Z.). Genus =Scapanus= Pomel Moles [Illustration: FIG. 23. Coast mole (_Scapanus orarius orarius_) left and Townsend mole (_Scapanus townsendii_) right; Puyallup. Washington, May, 1914. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by T. H. Scheffer, No. B-18637.)] Moles are of stocky build and have cylindrical, rounded bodies. The eyes are tiny, nearly concealed in the fur. They have no external ears. The legs are short; the forefeet wide, spadelike, and armed with powerful claws. The fur is erect, not posteriorly directed. The color of the fur is deep bluish or brownish slate. The short, nearly naked tail is pale pink or whitish. Moles of this genus are found only along the Pacific Coast of North America from southern Canada south into Baja California. =Scapanus townsendii= (Bachman) Townsend mole _Scalops townsendii_ Bachman. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 (pt. 1):58, 1839. _Scapanus tow[n]sendii_ Pomel. Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., Geneva, 9 (ser. 4):247, 1848. _Scapanus Townsendii_ True. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1881):607, 1885. _Type._--Probably obtained at Fort Vancouver. Clark County. Washington, by J. K. Townsend. A cotype was obtained on May 9. 1835; type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. _Measurements._--Three males and 6 females from southwestern Washington average, respectively: total length 221, 214; length of tail 51, 46; hind foot 28.3, 26; weight 147, 117 grams. _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington. Marginal occurrences are: Sauk (Jackson. 1915: 61); Skykomish (Jackson, 1915: 61) and Yacolt (M.V.Z.). _Remarks._--_Scapanus townsendii_ occurs only in a narrow belt extending from southwestern British Columbia to northwestern California. It seems to prefer a generally damper habitat than the smaller-sized coast mole, although both species are sometimes found in the same locality. The larger mole is abundant in the meadows on the flood plains of rivers at low elevations, and on the glacial outwash prairies. It is often numerous in the fir forests, although its workings and mounds are less conspicuous there. The bodies of nine drowned individuals were found in a well by an old cabin in dense fir forest near Duvall, King County. Townsend moles occasionally occur in the Canadian Life-zone, as at Staircase on the north side of Lake Cushman in Mason County where workings were observed, but most records are from the Humid division of the Transition Life-zone. The Townsend mole is mainly nocturnal. If ridges of its runways are crushed down, they usually remain so throughout the day and are rebuilt the following night. Only about ten per cent of the ridges that were crushed were rebuilt in the daytime, and most of these were repaired in the early morning. The species is almost completely subterranean. Some individuals are crushed on highways by cars, showing that these moles occasionally travel on the surface of the ground. Townsend moles throw up numerous mounds, each usually containing about a cubic foot of earth. The mounds commonly are built just about as far apart as a man can step. The general direction as well as the twists and turns of a mole's burrow can usually be determined from the mounds. Townsend moles also construct ridges on the surface of the ground by pushing up sod in building a tunnel just below the grass roots. Smaller ridges are less commonly made by coast moles. More extensive tunnels, constructed deeper in the earth, serve as living quarters. [Illustration: FIG. 24. Distribution of the Townsend mole, _Scapanus townsendii_, in Washington.] According to Wight (1928: 24), Scheffer (1922: 11) and Moore (1933: 39), the food of this large mole includes earthworms and ground-inhabiting insects, insect larvae, spiders, centipedes, flesh, and small amounts of soft vegetation. Scheffer (1922: 10) found that the large mole breeds in February and produces from two to four young at a litter, with an average of three. =Scapanus orarius= Coast mole _Description._--The coast mole is almost identical with the larger mole in form of body but is smaller. Head and body are about 5-1/4 and tail about 1-1/2 inches in length. The coast mole occupies all of the territory inhabited by the Townsend mole and ranges slightly farther northward, southward and eastward. However it does not range east of the boundaries of the three Pacific Coast states or British Columbia. The mounds and workings of the coast mole are smaller than those of the Townsend mole and consequently are less noticed. It seems less prone to make numerous mounds, a pace apart, than the larger mole, and burrows tend to extend deeper in the ground. Upthrust ridges are less commonly built by _orarius_ than by _townsendii_. [Illustration: FIG. 25. Coast mole (_Scapanus orarius orarius_). Freshly killed; Seattle, Washington, June 9, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 64.)] Jackson (1915: 62) mentions the possibility of ecologic differences between _orarius_ and _townsendii_. There are some differences in habitat and habits. The coast mole seems to live deeper in the ground, prefers better drained soil, and is less colonial than the Townsend mole. These are average differences, however, and the two species commonly occur together. Another difference is that the larger mole rarely enters the dense deciduous woods, such as the brush-grown alder and dogwood jungles along the stream valleys. I have taken the coast mole in such localities, and often have found their workings there. The surface of a nearby meadow may be dotted with mounds of both species, but the larger mole seems not to enter ground that is thickly grown with brush. The coast mole ascends to greater altitudes in the Cascade Mountains than does the Townsend mole. Like the larger mole the coast mole feeds principally on earthworms and insects (Moore, 1933: 38). On September 29, 1939, in a ravine at Seattle, in two baited traps set six inches apart, a creeping mouse (_Microtus oregoni_) and a coast mole were found. The mouse had come to the bait and been caught. The mole had seemingly emerged from the ground through a tunnel a foot away and had been attracted to the body of the mouse. It had eaten an area a half inch in diameter and three-quarters of an inch deep into the body of the mouse just behind the shoulder, when in shifting its position it had become caught in the unsprung trap behind it. When found the mole lay dead with its nose inside the body of the mouse and its back broken. This is the only case known to me of a coast mole appearing voluntarily on the surface of the ground. Never have I found coast moles crushed on the highway; several Townsend moles so killed have been found. [Illustration: FIG. 26. Distribution of the coast mole in Washington. A. _Scapanus orarius orarius._ B. _Scapanus orarius yakimensis._ C. _Scapanus orarius schefferi._] The coast mole seems to breed very early in the spring. Males with swollen testes are found late in January. The young usually number four and are born in late March or early April. The breeding season seems to be the same as that of _townsendii_ but the number of young to a litter may average slightly greater. =Scapanus orarius orarius= True _Scapanus orarius_ True. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 19:52, December 21, 1896. _Scapanus orarius orarius_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 38:61, September 30, 1915. _Type._--Obtained at Shoalwater (= Willapa) Bay, Pacific County, Washington, by J. G. Cooper on August 30, 1855; type in United States National Museum. _Racial Characters._--Color dark bluish; frontal region of skull not inflated. _Measurements._--Eight males and two females from Seattle, King County, average, respectively: total length 159, 155; length of tail 33, 31; hind foot 20.7, 20.5; weight 58.5, 55.8. _Distribution._--Western Washington. Marginal occurrences are: Skykomish (B.S.C.), Merritt (B.S.C.), Wenatchee (B.S.C.), Lester (Jackson, 1915: 64) and Yacolt (M.V.Z.). =Scapanus orarius yakimensis= Dalquest and Scheffer _Scapanus orarius yakimensis_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Murrelet, 25:27, September 19, 1944. _Type._--Obtained 3/4 mile north of Union Gap, Yakima County, Washington, by J. A. Gray, Jr., on July 3, 1941; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial Characters._--Color pale, grayish; skull narrow with inflated frontal region. _Measurements._--Six specimens (males and females) from Selah, Yakima County, average: total length 164; length of tail 37; length of hind foot 21.5. The type specimen weighed 58 grams. _Distribution._--The Yakima Valley area; recorded from the type locality northwestward to Easton (B.S.C.). =Scapanus orarius schefferi= Jackson _Scapanus orarius schefferi_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 38:63, September 30, 1915. _Type._--Obtained at Walla Walla, Walla Walla County, Washington, by T. H. Scheffer on August 8, 1914; type in United States National Museum. _Racial Characters._--Large size; pale color; large, wide skull with inflated frontal area. _Measurements._--Six topotypes average: total length 159; length of tail 35; hind foot 21.5. _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington; recorded from Fort Walla Walla (Jackson, 1915: 64), Walla Walla (Jackson, 1915: 64) and Dayton (M.V.Z.). Genus =Sorex= Linnaeus Long-tailed shrews Shrews have tiny eyes, almost concealed in the fur. The body is slim; the nose elongate and pointed. The legs are short and the feet small and weak. The fur is short but soft and posteriorly directed. The cinereous shrew, for example, is about 4 inches in length, of which the tail comprises 1-3/4 inches. The upper parts are dark grayish brown and the underparts dull gray. Shrews of the genus _Sorex_ are cosmopolitan in distribution. In North America they range from the arctic south to Central America. Three subgenera are recognized by Jackson (1928: 27), all three of which are represented in the state of Washington. The twelve subspecies present occupy numerous habitats, and their ranges include almost all of the state. Jackson pointed out (1928: 1) that "No other group of American mammals having a wide distribution, and in many localities an abundance of individuals, is so little known to the nonprofessional mammalogist as the long-tailed shrews." In Washington, especially in the coastal area of western Washington, shrews are widespread and abundant in many habitats. In some places they are the most common mammal present. In spite of this their presence is often unsuspected by persons that are otherwise alert to the animal life around them. This is even more surprising when one takes into account the facts that long-tailed shrews are diurnal as well as nocturnal and are less apt to detect the presence of man than are most other species of mammals. An important factor making long-tailed shrews inconspicuous is their small size, and contributing factors include their rapid movements and dull colors. On several occasions the writer, after seeing a long-tailed shrew vanish soundlessly under a log or into a patch of dead leaves, was left wondering if one actually had been seen or if instead his imagination had conjured up an animal from a dust mote or wind-blown leaf. The environment of the long-tailed shrews, except for the water shrews, is the zone at the very surface of the earth, just beneath the layer of moss, grass, dead leaves, and decaying vegetation. The removal of the covering vegetative layer reveals a maze of tiny tunnels, the branchings and complexities of which are infinite. Tiny traps baited with oats or meat and set in these runways catch the long-tailed shrews that inhabit them. The food of long-tailed shrews is varied. It is principally soft-bodied insects, insect pupae, and earthworms. At times a considerable quantity of soft vegetation and some seeds are eaten. Recent studies (Moore, 1940: 1942) have shown that by destroying seeds some shrews may adversely affect the reforestation of some coniferous trees. Shrews readily eat meat, and often destroy the small mammals, including other shrews, taken in the mammal collector's traps. Hamilton (1940: 485) found that in one species of long-tailed shrew in the United States individuals rarely lived more than one year. This seems not to be true of at least some of the species found in Washington. Parasites, internal or external, are not commonly found on long-tailed shrews. They are regularly eaten by owls and snakes, but most carnivorous mammals, though they readily kill them, rarely eat them. =Sorex cinereus= Kerr Cinereous shrew The cinereous shrew ranges over most of Alaska, Canada and the northern half of the United States. A number of subspecies have been described, of which two have been reported from Washington. The cinereous shrew is of medium size and difficult to distinguish from the dusky and wandering shrews, especially in eastern Washington, without studying the skulls. In _cinereus_ the fourth unicuspid tooth is smaller than the third; in _vagrans_ and _obscurus_ it is larger. The relatively narrow rostrum of _cinereus_ also serves to separate it from the other two species. The cinereous shrew seems to be less restricted to the vicinity of streams and marshes than _Sorex vagrans_, resembling _Sorex obscurus_ and _Sorex trowbridgii_ in this respect. In Washington it seems to be rare and has not been taken by the writer. Published records for _Sorex c. cinereus_ indicate that this race is, in Washington, confined to mountainous areas. The coastal race, _streatori_, seems to be confined to the humid area. =Sorex cinereus cinereus= Kerr _Sorex arcticus cinereus_ Kerr. Anim. Kingd., p. 206, 1792. _Sorex cinereus cinereus_ Jackson. Jour. Mamm., 6: 56, February 9, 1925. _Type._--None. Name based on the account of a shrew seen at Fort Severn, Canada, by J. R. Forster in 1772. _Racial characters._--Small size and pale color. _Measurements._--Seven males and 8 females from Indian Point Lake, British Columbia, average, respectively: total length 99, 95; length of tail 43.5, 42.2; hind foot 12.7, 12.3. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington (Metaline and Loon Lake, Jackson, 1928: 49) and the Cascades from Whatcom Pass (Jackson, 1928: 55) southward to Conrad Meadows (Jackson, 1928: 49). There is a specimen in the collection of the California Academy of Sciences, from Mt. Rainier. _Remarks._--This is the most wide-ranging subspecies of shrew, being recorded from Alaska, 10 Canadian provinces and 26 states (Jackson, 1928: 46-50). In the more northern and eastern parts of its range it is sometimes the commonest shrew. [Illustration: FIG. 27. Distribution of the cinereous shrew in Washington. A. _Sorex cinereus cinereus._ B. _Sorex cinereus streatori._] =Sorex cinereus streatori= Merriam _Sorex personatus streatori_ Merriam. N. Amer. Fauna, 10:62, December 31. 1895. _Sorex cinereus streatori_ Jackson. Jour. Mamm., 6:56. February 9, 1925. _Type._--Obtained at Yakutat, Alaska, by C. P. Streator on July 9, 1895; type in the United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Larger and darker than _Sorex cinereus cinereus_. _Measurements._--Five females from Alta Lake, British Columbia, average: total length 103; length of tail 45; hind foot 12.5. _Distribution._--The western part of the northern Cascades (Glacier, Jackson, 1928: 55) and the Olympic Peninsula (Neah Bay south to Cedarville, Jackson, 1928: 55). _Remarks._--This shrew seems to occupy the same range as _Sorex obscurus setosus_ but is rare where _obscurus_ is common. =Sorex merriami merriami= Dobson Merriam shrew _Sorex merriami_ Dobson. Monogr. Insectivora, pt. 3, fasc. 1, pl. 23, fig. 6, May, 1890. _Sorex merriami merriami_ Benson and Bond. Jour. Mamm., 20: 348, August 14, 1939. _Type._--Obtained on Little Bighorn River, about a mile and a half above Fort Custer, Crow Indian Reservation, Montana, by Charles E. Bendire on December 26, 1884; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Of type: total length 90; length of tail 35; hind foot 11.5 (after Jackson, 1928: 80). _Distribution._--A single specimen of this rare shrew is known from Washington. Jackson (1928: 81) states that it "was collected by George G. Cantwell, November 18, 1919, at the entrance to an old badger digging on top of a 'high bunch grass hill' at Starbuck (altitude 645 feet), Columbia County, Wash." _Description._--Similar to _Sorex cinereus_ but upper parts pale grayish and underparts white. The Merriam shrew has been recorded from but a few localities in the western United States. It is one of the rarest of the small mammals known to occur in North America. All the known specimens have been found in desert areas. =Sorex trowbridgii= Baird Trowbridge shrew _Description._--The Trowbridge shrew closely resembles the cinereous shrew in body form but possesses a longer tail. The head and body of adults measure about 2-1/4 inches and the tail about 2 inches. The Trowbridge shrew may be separated from all other small shrews that occur in Washington by its dark bluish upper parts and bluish or slaty underparts. The tail is distinctly bicolor. Trowbridge shrews occur from southern British Columbia south to central California. Their distribution, to the south, is more extensive than that of many members of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. They are forest animals, ranging widely over the dry ground beneath the fir forest, where they are usually the only shrews present. They are abundant in ravines and in some swampy woods when other shrews are absent, but they avoid open meadows or marshes. Vertically, they occur from the humid division of the Transition Life-zone to the Hudsonian Life-zone. These little shrews do not live well in captivity and I have learned relatively little concerning their habits from live specimens. They seem to be slower-moving and less aggressive than the wandering shrew. Population studies showed that the Trowbridge shrew is unable to compete with the wandering shrew in ravine habitats (Dalquest, 1941A: 173). The principal food of the Trowbridge shrew includes soft-bodied insects and insect pupae. [Illustration: FIG. 28. Distribution of the Merriam and Trowbridge shrews in Washington. A. _Sorex merriami merriami._ B. _Sorex trowbridgii trowbridgii._ C. _Sorex trowbridgii destructioni._] Moore (1942) has shown that shrews eat the seeds of the Douglas fir and may be a serious check on the reproduction of this important tree. The Trowbridge shrew is the most abundant shrew in the fir forests and probably constitutes the principal shrew that might be classed as a pest. A specimen containing 4 embryos was taken near Shelton, Mason County, on April 23, 1937. Males with enlarged, greenish testes were taken in April of 1938, 1939 and 1940. Specimens obtained in other months showed no indications of breeding. =Sorex trowbridgii trowbridgii= Baird _Sorex trowbridgii_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. 1):13, 1857. _Type._--Two cotypes were obtained at Astoria, Clatsop County, Oregon. The skin of one (the lectotype) was entered in the U. S. National Museum catalogue in July, 1855, and the skull in January, 1857. The other was obtained by J. Wayne on July 10, 1855. _Racial characters._--Small size and narrow skull. _Measurements._--The average measurements of 38 adults from King County, Washington, are: total length 115.3; length of tail 54.4; hind foot 13.4. _Distribution._--Forested areas from the Pacific Coast eastward through the Cascades to Stehekin (Jackson, 1928: 96), 2 mi. S. Blewitt Pass (Jackson, 1928: 96) and Satus Pass (M.V.Z.). =Sorex trowbridgii destructioni= Scheffer and Dalquest _Sorex trowbridgii destructioni_ Scheffer and Dalquest, Jour. Mamm., 23:334, August 13, 1942. _Type._--Obtained on Destruction Island, Jefferson County, Washington, by V. B. Scheffer on April 22, 1941; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Large size and wide skull. _Measurements._--Thirty topotypes average: total length 122.5; length of tail 56.7; hind foot 14.3; weight 7.5 grams. _Distribution._--Known only from Destruction Island, 35 acres in area, lying 4 miles off the Washington Coast. =Sorex vagrans= Baird Wandering shrew _Description._--This species closely resembles the cinereous shrew in body form. Its head and body measure about 2-1/4 inches; the tail slightly less than 2 inches. In summer the upper parts are reddish brown and the underparts gray tinged with brownish. In winter the upper parts are more dusky. Several races of the wandering shrew range over western North America from southwestern British Columbia south to southern Mexico. Two races occur in the state of Washington. Marshy areas and damp places are the habitat of the wandering shrew. Cattail and tule marshes, sphagnum bogs, and meadows are favored. They frequent streams through forests but rarely are taken in places away from water. On some of the San Juan Islands, wandering shrews were found along the beaches where they were feeding on the amphipods that live in the dead seaweed and litter at the high tide line. In a favorable habitat, wandering shrews may be the most abundant mammal present. Specimens are occasionally taken in 90 per cent or more of a mammal collector's traps. The preference of the wandering shrew for damp areas makes it more or less independent of life-zones, for marshy areas, whether in Transition, Canadian, or Upper Sonoran life-zones, present comparable ecological conditions. Broadbrooks (1939: 65) found that captives taken at Seattle ate rolled oats, apple, fresh or cooked meat, sow bugs, centipedes, earthworms, frogs (_Hyla regilla_), a salamander (_Plethodon vehiculum_), and small, black slugs (_Arean arean_). Wandering shrews proved incapable of destroying snails (_Helisoma occidentalis_) and large slugs. The captive shrews kept by Broadbrooks ate an average of 1.3 times their own weight in food each day. [Illustration: FIG. 29. Distribution of the wandering shrew in Washington. A. _Sorex vagrans vagrans._ B. _Sorex vagrans monticola._] The wandering shrew changes from winter to summer pelage in a few days, seemingly in the second week of October (Dalquest, 1944: 147). The spring molt occurs rapidly but perhaps at a less regular date. Rarely a midsummer molt occurs. The earliest evidence of breeding in a wandering shrew was discovered on January 27, 1937. Most adult females taken in February, March, April and May were pregnant. Embryos were less often found in summer and fall, but one pregnant female was taken in November. Embryos varied in number from 3 to 8 with an average of six. =Sorex vagrans vagrans= Baird _Sorex vagrans_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. 1):15, 1857. _Sorex suckleyi_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. 1):18, 1857 (type from Steilacoom Pierce County, Washington). _Type._--Obtained at Willapa Bay [Shoalwater Bay], Pacific County, Washington, by J. G. Cooper; entered in U. S. Nat. Mus. catalogue on October 23, 1856. _Racial characters._--Dark color. _Measurements._--Twenty-five males and 25 females from Seattle, King County, average, respectively: total length 110.5, 107; length of tail 44.6, 45; hind foot 12.4, 12.4. _Distribution._--This is the common marsh shrew of western Washington and occurs from the Pacific Ocean east to the Cascades at Lake Keechelus (W.S.M.) and 15 mi. NW White Salmon (Jackson, 1928: 106). =Sorex vagrans monticola= Merriam _Sorex monticolus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 3:43, September 11, 1896. _Sorex vagrans monticola_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:69, December 31, 1895. _Type._--Obtained on San Francisco Mountain, 1150 ft. altitude, Coconino County, Arizona, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey on August 28, 1889; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Pale color. _Measurements._--Five males and 5 females from Selah, Yakima County, average, respectively: total length 100, 98.4; length of tail 40.6, 39.2; hind foot 12.2, 12. _Distribution._--Eastern Washington. The range of this shrew extends west to Bauerman Ridge (Jackson, 1928: 113), Merritt (W.W.D.) and Maryhill (M.V.Z.). _Remarks._--A series of shrews from Moses Lake, Grant County, differs from _monticola_ in larger size and darker color. They agree rather closely with _Sorex r. amoenus_ from California and Nevada. Because they are isolated from that subspecies it seems best to consider them a microgeographic race referable to _monticola_. =Sorex obscurus= Merriam Dusky shrew _Description._--The dusky shrew is similar in form of body to the cinereous shrew. The length of head and body is about 2-1/4 inches. The tail is about 2-1/2 inches. The upper parts are rusty or reddish brown. The underparts are brownish gray. The dusky shrew differs from the wandering shrew in possessing a slightly longer body and longer tail, but in eastern Washington the two species are almost indistinguishable. Dusky shrews range from northern Alaska to southern New Mexico, and from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Thirteen subspecies are recognized by Jackson (1928: 115), of which two occur in Washington. Records of the dusky shrew are not available from the arid subdivision of the Transition or the Upper Sonoran life-zones. It occurs sparingly in the humid subdivision of the Transition and is common in the Canadian and Hudsonian life-zones. The habitat of the dusky shrew is varied. Near Seattle, King County, several specimens were trapped in marshes where _Sorex vagrans_ was abundant. Near Stevens Pass, King County, two were taken in a marsh; two others were trapped in a dry, coniferous forest; one was taken in a small bed of heather on a barren mountain top; and another was found dead in a pan of pancake batter in camp. Two specimens were trapped along a small stream at Dewey Lake, Mt. Rainier, Yakima County. Four specimens were caught in traps set in a talus slope on a dry hillside at the North Fork of the Quinault River, Jefferson County. Three others were trapped in dense, rain-forest thickets along the ocean at La Push, Jefferson County. These records indicate that the dusky shrew has a wider environmental range than other Washington shrews. Despite this wide range of tolerance the dusky shrew is common only locally, except in the Hudsonian Life-zone. Little is known of the habits of dusky shrews but they seem to be as diurnal as they are nocturnal. At Wolf Bar, North Fork of the Quinault River, Jefferson County, a dusky shrew was seen on the packed-earth floor of an old trapper's cabin. A hat was carefully dropped over the live animal but, when the hat was lifted, the shrew was found dead. In an old cabin at Stevens Pass, King County, a dusky shrew was found dead one morning in a pan of flapjack batter prepared the evening before. As this pan was on a table about three feet from the floor, the shrew must have climbed to the table by way of the rough cabin wall, but how the animal managed to scale the side of the pan is a mystery. Slipp (1942: 211) discovered the nest of a dusky shrew between Round Pass and Lake George, 4200 feet elevation, in Mt. Rainier National Park, on July 25, 1937. The nest was in a rotten fir log 20 inches in diameter. The nest, a ball of dry grass the size of a man's fist, had no central cavity or passages, the occupants "merely pushed through wherever they wished." Seven young shrews were found in and near the nest. Though the eyes of the young were still closed, they were able to creep about and squeal. A specimen obtained 5 miles west-southwest of Guler, Skamania County, contained 4 embryos on July 10, 1939. [Illustration: FIG. 30. Distribution of the dusky shrew in Washington. A. _Sorex obscurus obscurus._ B. _Sorex obscurus setosus._] =Sorex obscurus obscurus= Merriam _Sorex vagrans similis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5: 34, July 30, 1891 (not of Hensel, 1855). _Sorex obscurus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10: 72, December 31, 1895 (substitute for _similis_ Merriam). _Type._--Obtained on Timber Creek, 8,200 ft., Lemhi Mountains, Lemhi County, Idaho, by V. Bailey and B. H. Dutcher on August 26, 1890; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Tail relatively short, color pale. _Measurements._--Thirteen males and 10 females from Indian-point Lake, British Columbia, average, respectively: total length 105, 107; length of tail 45, 46; hind foot 13.3, 13.3. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington west, according to Jackson (1928: 122), to Pasayten River, Stehekin and Wenatchee. Because specimens from Tye, King County, and Mt. Stuart, Easton and Lake Keechelus are clearly referable to _S. o. setosus_, the specimens recorded by Jackson (1928: 122), from Easton and Signal Peak, are mapped in the range of _setosus_. =Sorex obscurus setosus= Elliot _Sorex setosus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 32. zoöl. ser., 1:274. March, 1899. _Sorex obscurus setosus_ Jackson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. 31:127. November 29, 1918. _Sorex obscurus bairdi_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 51:140. July 24, 1928. _Type._--Obtained at Happy Lake, Clallam County, Washington, by D. G. Elliot on August 18, 1898; type in Field Museum of Natural History. _Racial characters._--Tail long, color dark. _Measurements._--Twelve males and 17 females from southwestern Washington average, respectively: total length 118, 119; length of tail 53, 53; hind foot 13.8, 13.7; weight 6.6, 5.2 grams. _Distribution._--Western Washington, east through the Cascades to Barron (Jackson, 1928: 137), Cascade River (Jackson 1928: 137) and Satus Pass (W. W. D.). =Sorex palustris navigator= (Baird) Mountain water shrew [Illustration: FIG. 31. Distribution of the mountain water shrew. _Sorex palustris navigator_, in Washington.] _Neosorex navigator_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. I): 11, 1857. _Sorex (Neosorex) palustris navigator_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:92, December 31, 1895. _Sorex palustris navigator_ Stephens, California Mammals, p. 254, June, 1906. _Type._--Obtained at head of Yakima River, Kittitas County, Washington, by J. G. Cooper on August 31, 1853; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Two males and 4 females from Washington average, respectively: total length 150, 150; length of tail 70, 74; hind foot 18.5, 20; weight?, 11.0 grams. _Distribution._--Mountainous areas of entire state, including the Olympic Mountains, from Elwah (Jackson, 1928: 188) south to Quinault River (Jackson, 1928: 189); the Cascades from Tomyhoi Lake (W. W. D.) south to 15 mi. N. Carson (Jackson, 1928: 189); northeastern Washington from Shovel Creek (W. W. D.) south to Gifford (Jackson, 1928: 189); the Blue Mountains at Godman Springs (M. V. Z.) and Hompeg Falls (M. V. Z.). _Description._--In general form of body the mountain water shrew resembles the cinereous shrew but is perhaps more stocky. It is a large shrew, nearly as large as a house mouse. The head and body measure about 3 inches; the tail also is about 3 inches long. The fur is exceedingly soft. The upper parts are blackish in color, lightly frosted with paler hairs. The underparts, from throat to vent, are whitish tinged with gray or brown. The stiff, curved fringe of bristles on the outer part of the hind foot serves as an aid in swimming. Mountain water shrews range over much of Canada and in mountainous areas of the western United States extend south to Arizona. The subspecies found in Washington ranges over all of the western United States. The mountain water shrew is primarily a mammal of the Hudsonian and Canadian life-zones. It sometimes descends to the Transition Life-zone along clear, cold streams where conditions are similar to those in the Canadian Life-zone. The favored habitats of the mountain water shrew are the clear, cold streams of the alpine cirques and gushing streams on the mountain sides. In the pools and waterfalls, and among the rocks and mosses that border them, the larvae of aquatic insects, upon which the mountain water shrew feeds, are abundant. Svihla (1934: 45) observed that the fur of a swimming water shrew gathered air bubbles and "it had difficulty in forcing its way down to the bottom [of an aquarium]. On reaching the bottom it literally stood on its long flexible nose which was thrust into the sand and debris, searching for food, its feet kicking rapidly in order to maintain this position. A change in direction was brought about by a twist of the body. To come to the surface again it merely stopped kicking and immediately rose like a cork." The buoyancy of the water shrew allows it to float in the water, like a duck. Jackson (1928: 9) observed a water shrew run across the surface of a small pool. Near Stevens Pass a water shrew dashed from under a stone and ran, did not swim, across the surface of a small, deep pool to escape in a burrow on the other side. According to Jackson, an air bubble held in each foot supports the shrew on the surface of the water. A mountain water shrew observed at Shovel Creek, Ferry County, was as agile on land as any other species of shrew. In summary, water shrews are able to swim, dive, float like a duck, and walk on the surface of the water as well as walk on land. The food of the mountain water shrew includes snails, leeches, and the larvae of aquatic insects. Mice caught in traps are sometimes eaten by water shrews. Svihla (_loc. cit._) found a captive water shrew unable to capture pollywogs and minnows kept in the same aquarium. =Sorex bendirii= (Merriam) Bendire water shrew _Description._--The Bendire water shrew is similar in form of body to the cinereous shrew but possesses a more stocky body which, with the head, measures about 3-1/2 inches long; the tail is about 2-3/4 inches long. The Bendire water shrew closely resembles also the mountain water shrew but has a longer body and shorter tail. The upper parts are blackish in color, not lightly frosted with gray hairs. The hind feet lack the fringe of stiff, curved bristles characteristic of the mountain water shrew. The underparts are black in the race _S. b. bendirii_. In the race _albiventer_ the throat is blackish but the abdomen is pale gray tinged with brownish. [Illustration: FIG. 32. Distribution of the Bendire water shrew and the pigmy shrew in Washington. A. _Sorex bendirii bendirii._ B. _Sorex bendirii albiventer._ C. _Microsorex hoyi washingtoni._] Bendire water shrews are restricted to the Pacific Coast of North America from southern British Columbia to northern California. Generally they are found at elevations lower than are mountain water shrews. They are typically mammals of the humid division of the Transition Life-zone but often occur in the Canadian Life-zone. They occupy marshes, swamps, damp ravines, and the banks of slow-moving streams. Little is known of their habits, except what has been deduced from the circumstances of their capture. They seem less aquatic than the mountain water shrew. Near Jackson Guard Station on the Hoh River, Jefferson County, one was taken by setting traps on dense beds of water cress that floated in a slow-moving stream. The animal must have swum or walked on the surface of the mat of vegetation. Near Paradise Lake, King County, several were caught in a deep, dark, red cedar swamp. One was caught in a marsh nearby. Nothing is known of the food habits of the Bendire water shrew. =Sorex bendirii bendirii= (Merriam) _Atophyrax bendirii_ Merriam, Trans. Linn. Soc. New York, 2:217, August 28, 1884. _Atophyrax Bendirei_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):606, 1885. _Sorex bendirii_ Dobson, Monog. Insectivora, part 3, fasc. 1, pl. 23, 1890. _Neosorex bendirii bendirii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:22, December 31, 1912. _Type._--Obtained approximately 1 mile from Williamson River, 18 miles southeast of Fort Klamath, Klamath County, Oregon, by C. C. Bendire on August 1, 1882; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Underparts everywhere sooty black. _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from southwestern Washington average, respectively: total length 163.9, 161.0; length of tail 71.0, 72.6; hind foot 20.5, 20.3; weight 16.8, 14.5 grams. _Distribution._--The southern Cascades and the lowlands of western Washington, exclusive of the Olympic Peninsula. Marginal localities on the west include Mt. Vernon (Jackson, 1928: 196), Bothell (W.S.M.), Renton (M.V.Z.), Puyallup (W.W.D.), Steilacoom (Jackson, 1928: 196) and Oakville (Jackson, 1928: 196). =Sorex bendirii albiventer= Merriam _Sorex (Atophyrax) bendirii albiventer_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:97, December 31, 1895. _Neosorex bendirii albiventer_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:22, December 31, 1912. _Sorex bendirii albiventer_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 51:198, July 24, 1928. _Type._--Obtained at Lake Cushman, Mason County, Washington, by C. P. Streator on July 7, 1894; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Area on abdomen whitish. _Measurements._--A male from near the type locality measures: total length 167; length of tail 69; hind foot 22. One from Potlatch, Mason County, measures 167; 69; 22. _Distribution._--The Olympic Peninsula of Washington. Marginal localities on the south are: Potlatch (M.V.Z.) and Lake Quinault (Jackson, 1928: 199). =Microsorex hoyi washingtoni= Jackson Pigmy shrew _Microsorex hoyi washingtoni_ Jackson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 38:125, November 13, 1925. _Type._--Obtained at Loon Lake, Stevens County, Washington, by V. Bailey on September 26, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Of type: total length 89; length of tail 27; hind foot 9. _Distribution._--In Washington, known only from the type specimen which was "found dead in a trail in dry pine woods" (Jackson, 1928: 4). _Description._--The pigmy shrew is similar in form of body to the cinereous shrew but smaller. The head and body are about 1-3/4 inches in length; the tail is about 1 inch long. The upper parts are reddish brown and the underparts are gray. These tiny mammals range widely across central Canada and northern United States from the Atlantic nearly to the Pacific, and north to central Alaska. A single species is known, one race of which occurs in Washington. The subspecies is known from but two specimens: the type and an individual from Montana (Koford, 1938: 372.) Genus =Myotis= Kaup Mouse-eared bats _Description._--The genus _Myotis_ may be separated from all other bats that occur in Washington by the presence of 38 teeth (dental formula i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 3-3/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 38). Their small size separates them from all other genera save _Pipistrellus_, from which _Myotis_ may be distinguished by the straight, rather than hooked, anterior border of the tragus. Species of _Myotis_ found in Washington vary considerably in size, but all are less than 100 mm. in total length. The upper parts are various shades of brown in color. The ears, when laid forward, always extend to the nostrils or beyond. This genus is one of the most widely ranging groups of Recent mammals. It occurs on all continents, including Australia and many of the larger islands. Of the 19 American species recognized by Miller and Allen (1928), eight occur in the state of Washington. They are low-flying forms and as a rule appear relatively late in the evening. Their flight is rapid and erratic. They often hunt over the surfaces of streams, pools, and lakes. Some kinds hunt in the shade of forest trees and these are especially difficult to collect. Others hunt the brushy canyons and coulees of the desert areas of eastern Washington. Grinnell (1918: 241-242) points out that, although bats are not subject to isolation by topographic barriers, as most wingless mammals are, they may be restricted by ecologic barriers in the same way as are other small mammals. This is particularly true of _Myotis_ in Washington. Of the eight species in the state, five are represented by one subspecies west of the Cascade Mountains and another, paler subspecies in the more arid country east of the Cascades. The mobility of bats makes it difficult to determine their origin and migrational history. Five of the _Myotis_ found in Washington seem to belong to the Pacific Coastal Fauna, and to have been isolated south of the last continental glacier. Complete isolation is unlikely as these species occur in the Cascade Mountains as well as in the Pacific Coastal Faunal Area, and three occur also in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. The differentiation of the Coastal type of _Myotis_ may have come about through habitat selection, of the type discussed by Miller (1942: 25). One western Washington _Myotis_ (_M. keenii_) seems to belong to a northern fauna, and to have extended its range south to Washington. All seven species of the desert-living _Myotis_ found in eastern Washington have subspecies which seem to have been derived from the Great Basin Faunal Area. =Myotis lucifugus= (Le Conte) Big myotis _Myotis lucifugus_ is represented by two geographic races in Washington. The species ranges across Canada and the United States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the northern limit of tree growth to southern Mexico. [Illustration: FIG. 33. Distribution of the big myotis in Washington. A. _Myotis lucifugus alascensis._ B. _Myotis lucifugus carissima._] It usually proves rather difficult to separate _Myotis lucifugus_, on the basis of external features, from other species with which it may occur. Its large foot (9-10 mm.), short ear (when laid forward not extending past nose) and the absence of a keel on the calcar separate it from all species except _Myotis yumanensis_. From the latter species, _lucifugus_ may be distinguished by the gradually rather than abruptly rising forehead, as seen in cleaned skulls, and by more shiny, metallic color of fur. Little is known of the habits of this bat in Washington. It usually appears after dusk, and most specimens are shot over ponds or lakes, where the reflection of light from the sky on the water allows the hunter enough light to sight a gun. A few specimens were collected in deep forests. Its flight and feeding habits are not known to differ from those of other species with which it was associated, except at the south end of Lake Chelan, Chelan County, where two individuals were shot as they hovered near the tops of pine trees and seemed to be picking insects from the branches. I have never found this bat in its daytime retreat. A specimen taken at Sportman's Lake, San Juan County, held one embryo on June 26, 1938. =Myotis lucifugus carissima= Thomas _Myotis (Leuconoë) carissima_ Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 13 (ser. 7): 383, May, 1904. _Myotis lucifugus carissima_ Cary, N. Amer. Fauna, 42:43, October 3, 1917. _Type._--Obtained at Yellowstone Lake, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming by J. Darling in September, 1903; type in British Museum. _Racial characters._--Color pale, rather "brassy" in tone; distal border of interfemoral membrane paler than proximal part. _Measurements._--Four specimens from eastern Washington average: total length 77; length of tail 33; hind foot 11; ear 13; height of tragus 7.3. _Distribution._--East of the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains, save for the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. Western records are Stehekin (Miller and Allen, 1928: 52) and Vantage (W. W. D.) =Myotis lucifugus alascensis= Miller _Myotis lucifugus alascensis_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:63, October 16, 1897. _Vespertilio gryphus lucifugus_ Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 43:78, March 14, 1894 (part specimens from Washington). _Type._--Obtained at Sitka, Alaska, by C. P. Streator on August 5, 1895; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Color dark, almost bronze; wing and tail membranes uniformly dark in color. _Measurements._--Five specimens from San Juan County, Washington, average: total length 80.9; length of tail 32.1; hind foot 12; ear 12; height of tragus 7; weight 5.4 grams. _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains west of the Pacific, and the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. Marginal occurrences listed by Miller and Allen (1928:49) are Chilliwack River, Lake Wenatchee, and Lyle. =Myotis yumanensis= (H. Allen) Yuma myotis _Description._--The present species closely resembles _Myotis lucifugus_ and specimens in worn pelage can not be distinguished from that species unless the cleaned skulls are examined. In fresh pelage, _yumanensis_ is duller than _lucifugus_. _Myotis yumanensis_ ranges from southern British Columbia to central Mexico west of the Mississippi River. Four races are recognized by Miller and Allen (1928: 62). [Illustration: FIG. 34. Distribution of the Yuma myotis in Washington. A. _Myotis yumanensis saturatus._ B. _Myotis yumanensis sociabilis._] The habits of _Myotis yumanensis_ and _Myotis lucifugus_ appear to be the same. In Washington the two species are commonly found together. In western Washington, _Myotis yumanensis_ seems to be more common than _Myotis lucifugus_. In the San Juan Islands a _yumanensis_ was found hiding in the attic of an old cabin on Blakeley Island. A specimen of long-eared bat was taken at the same place. Another Yuma myotis was caught behind a door of a mill on Blakeley Island (Dalquest, 1940: 4). This species shares with _Myotis californicus_ the habit of apparently drinking salt water. A specimen obtained at Sportsmans Lake, San Juan County, held one embryo on June 27, 1938. One from Peavine Pass, Blakeley Island, San Juan County, held one embryo on June 22, 1939. =Myotis yumanensis sociabilis= H. W. Grinnell _Myotis yumanensis sociabilis_ H. W. Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 12:318, December 4, 1914. _Type._--Obtained at old Fort Tejon, Kern County, California, by J. Grinnell on July 23, 1904; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial character._--Color pale. _Measurements._--Two males and 2 females from Selah, Yakima County, average: total length 78; length of tail 36; hind foot 10; ear 14; height of tragus 7. _Distribution._--Eastern Washington generally. Marginal records on the west are: Stehekin (Miller and Allen, 1928: 69), and Selah (W.W.D.). [Illustration: FIG. 35. Distribution of the fringe-tailed myotis and the Keen myotis in Washington. A. _Myotis thysanodes thysanodes._ B. _Myotis keenii keenii._] =Myotis yumanensis saturatus= Miller _Myotis yumanensis saturatus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:68, October 16, 1897. _Type._--Obtained at Hamilton, Skagit County, Washington, by T. S. Palmer on September 13, 1889; type in United States National Museum. _Racial character._--Color dark. _Measurements._--Eighteen adults of both sexes from San Juan County, Washington, average: Total length 78.2; length of tail 34.4; hind foot 10.1; ear 15; height of tragus 7.4; weight 5.9 grams. _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific. This is the commonest _Myotis_ found in western Washington. Marginal localities are: Hamilton (Miller and Allen, 1928: 71), and Goldendale (Miller and Allen, 1928: 71). =Myotis keenii keenii= (Merriam) Keen myotis _Vespertilio subulatus keenii_ Merriam, Amer. Nat., 29:860, September, 1895. _Myotis subulatus keenii_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:77, October 16, 1897. _Myotis keenii keenii_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:104, May 25, 1928. _Type._--Obtained at Masset, Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, by J. H. Keen in 1894; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Miller and Allen (1928: 109) list the measurements of a male from Sol Duc Hot Springs, Clallam County, and a specimen of unknown sex from Lake Cushman, Jefferson County, as, respectively: total length 89, 87; length of tail 34, 36; hind foot 8.4, 7.4; ear?, 14.6. _Distribution._--Only the Olympic Peninsula, where it has been recorded by Miller and Allen (1928: 104) from Sol Duc Hot Springs and Lake Cushman. _Description._--_Myotis keenii_ is similar, in general, to _Myotis lucifugus_ and _Myotis yumanensis_, but the ears are longer and when laid forward reach about 4 mm. past the nose rather than ending at the nostrils. The foot is of medium size (about 8 mm.) and no keel is present on the calcar. The distribution of this species is given by Miller and Allen (1928: 101) as "northern North America from the limits of tree growth south in the east to South Carolina and Arkansas, and in the west to northwestern Washington." I have not observed this bat in Washington and know nothing of its habits. Its distribution is most unusual. Its range seems to lie only in the glaciated area of western British Columbia and northern Washington. =Myotis evotis= (H. Allen) Long-eared myotis _Description._--The distinguishing feature of _Myotis evotis_ is its long ears, which, when laid forward, reach 5 mm. in front of the nose. _Myotis thysanodes_ and _Myotis keenii_, other species in which the ears are rather long, have the ears ending less than 5 mm. anterior to the nose when laid forward. The foot of _Myotis evotis_ is of moderate size (8 to 9 mm.). This species ranges over the western United States, from British Columbia to central Mexico. Two subspecies of this interesting bat are recognized, both of which occur in Washington. Though I have hunted for this species of bat in Washington on numerous occasions, I have taken no specimens. In the summer of 1939, _Myotis_ identified as this species because of their large ears, were seen flying at midnight in the light of searchlights over Lake Washington Canal at Seattle. Mary Greer gave us a specimen which was struck by her auto near Baker Lake, Whatcom County. According to Miss Greer, the specimen was seen "hovering in the road, like a large moth." The time was about midnight. This evidence indicates that the species does its hunting late at night, when ordinary methods of hunting bats are useless, and may account for the scarcity of specimens from the state. Nevertheless, collectors from the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy took specimens in the Blue Mountains where the bats flew slowly, in rather straight courses, 20 to 25 feet from the ground. [Illustration: FIG. 36. Distribution of the long-eared myotis in Washington. A. _Myotis evotis evotis._ B. _Myotis evotis pacificus._] This species has not, so far as is known, been taken in Washington in its daytime retreat. Daniel Bonell saved two specimens from under slabs of loose bark on old, dead snags near Tillamook, Oregon. Davis (1939: 214) reported them as hiding in the daytime in a cave in Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho. Whitlow and Hall (1933: 241) report specimens found in an old cabin near Pocatello, Idaho, two of them containing one embryo each. =Myotis evotis evotis= (H. Allen) _Vespertilio evotis_ Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. 165):48, June, 1864. _Myotis evotis_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:77, October 16, 1897. _Myotis evotis evotis_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:114, April 14, 1928. _Type._--Description based on a series of specimens, one of which came from Monterey, California. This locality was designated the type locality by Miller (1897: 78). _Racial character._--Color pale. _Measurements._--Two males and 2 specimens of unknown sex from the Blue Mountains, Columbia County, average: total length 87; length of tail 40; hind foot 7.5; ear 20; height of tragus 11; weight 5.4 grams. _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains area, of southeastern Washington; recorded from South Touchet (Miller and Allen, 1928: 116) and Godman Springs (W. S. M.). _Remarks._--Miller and Allen (1928: 116) record the dark race of _Myotis evotis_ from the Blue Mountains. Specimens examined by me are much paler than _pacificus_ and most of them are indistinguishable from specimens of _evotis_ from California. =Myotis evotis pacificus= Dalquest _Vespertilio evotis_ Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. 165):48, June, 1864 (part specimens from Puget Sound). _Myotis evotis evotis_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:114, May 25, 1928. _Myotis evotis pacificus_ Dalquest, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 56:2, February 25, 1943. _Type._--Obtained from 3-1/2 miles east and 5 miles north of Yacolt, Clark County, Washington, by John Chattin on August 3, 1940; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial character._--Color dark. _Measurements._--Five specimens from the type locality average: Total length 85; length of tail 41; hind foot 7.4; ear 19.4; height of tragus 10; weight 5.5 grams. _Distribution._--Western Washington from the Cascade Mountains westward. Marginal occurrences are: Baker Lake (W. W. D.) and Easton (Miller and Allen, 1928: 116). =Myotis thysanodes thysanodes= Miller Fringe-tailed myotis _Myotis thysanodes_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:80, October 16, 1897. _Myotis thysanodes thysanodes_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:126, May 25, 1928. _Type._--Obtained at Old Fort Tejon, Kern County, California, by T. S. Palmer on July 5, 1891; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Two males and 3 females from Vernon, British Columbia, average, respectively: total length 90.5, 82; length of tail 41.5, 37; hind foot 10.5, 10; ear 18.5, 16; height of tragus 14, 13. _Distribution._--In Washington known only from the southeastern border of the state, namely from Dayton (W. S. M.) and Anatone (Miller and Allen, 1928: 127). _Description._--_Myotis thysanodes_ resembles _Myotis evotis_, but differs in larger size, smaller ear (reaching less than 5 mm. past nose when laid forward), and in possessing a well developed fringe of hairs along the border of the caudal membrane. This species of bat ranges over western North America from southern British Columbia to southern Mexico. Two geographic races are currently recognized, only one of which occurs in the United States. This bat is not recorded by Davis (1939) as occurring in Idaho and has been found only once in Oregon. The only published account of the habits of _thysanodes_ seems to be that of Palmer (in Miller, 1897: 84, also Grinnell, 1918) who found adults and young of various sizes in company with _Myotis yumanensis_ in the attic of an old adobe building near Old Fort Tejon, California, in July, 1891. The specimens obtained in Washington and British Columbia came from dry areas of pine forest. =Myotis volans= (H. Allen) Hairy-winged myotis _Description._--This species, in Washington, may be easily recognized by its relatively large size and the presence of a distinct keel on the side of the calcar, posterior to the foot. Four subspecies of _Myotis volans_ are recognized by Miller and Allen (1928: 136). These range over western North America from southern Alaska to southern Mexico. Two subspecies occur in Washington. The record stations in Washington for the pale, southern race are all in arid places and the dark, coastal race is a forest animal. Most of the specimens taken by me (all of the dark race) were in clearings or along roads through timber near the crests of hills. They appeared relatively late in the evening, after the big-brown and the silver-haired bats had been in the air for some time. Often they were taken in company with _Myotis lucifugus_ and _Myotis yumanensis_. They were appreciably larger than those species and their flight was slower and less erratic. They usually flew in relatively straight lines or large circles at from ten to forty feet from the ground. At Lake Kapowsin, Pierce County, they were attracted by swishing a long pole in the air. At Renton, King County, one was shot as it hunted insects at a city street light several hours after dark. =Myotis volans longicrus= (True) _Vespertilio longicrus_ True, Science, 8:588, 1886. _Vespertilio nitidus longicrus_ H. Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 43:103, March 14, 1894. _Myotis lucifugus longicrus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:64, October 16, 1897. _Myotis longicrus_ Lyon and Osgood, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 62:271, January 28, 1909. _Myotis volans longicrus_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:140, May 25, 1928. _Type._--Obtained in the "vicinity of Puget Sound, Washington" by D. S. Jordan, and catalogued in the U. S. National Museum on December 16, 1886. _Racial character._--Color dark. _Measurements._--A female from 6 miles northeast of Kelso, Cowlitz County, measures: total length 95; length of tail 39; hind foot 8; ear 13; height of tragus 8. _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific. Marginal records (from Miller and Allen, 1928: 142) are Oroville, Entiat, and Carson. [Illustration: FIG. 37. Distribution of the hairy-winged myotis in Washington. A. _Myotis volans longicrus._ B. _Myotis volans interior._] =Myotis volans interior= Miller _Myotis longicrus_ interior Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:211, October 31, 1914. _Myotis volans interior_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:142, May 25, 1928. _Type._--Obtained 5 miles south of Twining, Taos County, New Mexico, by Vernon Bailey on July 23, 1904; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Smaller and paler than _Myotis v. longicrus_. _Measurements._--Four males and a female from the Blue Mountains, Columbia County, average: total length 93; length of tail 41.5; hind foot?; ear 12; height of tragus 6.3. _Distribution._--Known only from the Blue Mountains area of the southeastern part of the state, from Walla Walla (E. S. B.) east to Anatone (Miller and Allen, 1928: 144). _Remarks._--Of 5 specimens available from the Blue Mountains, 4 are like _interior_ and 1 is like _longicrus_. [Illustration: FIG. 38. Distribution of the California myotis in Washington. A. _Myotis californicus californicus._ B. _Myotis californicus caurinus._] =Myotis californicus= (Audubon and Bachman) California myotis _Description._--_Myotis californicus_ may be separated from all _Myotis_ that occur in Washington, except _Myotis subulatus_, by its small foot (about 6 mm.). It is the only small-footed bat found in western Washington. In eastern Washington, where _Myotis subulatus_ occurs, the cleaned skulls of the two species must be compared before certain identification of some specimens is possible. The skull of _M. californicus_ possesses a higher cranium and more abruptly rising forehead than that of _M. subulatus_. Four geographic races of this bat recognized by Miller and Allen (1928: 149) range from southern Alaska southward over western North America to southern Mexico. Two subspecies occur in Washington. _Myotis californicus_, in western Washington, often occurs in company with _Myotis yumanensis_, _lucifugus_, and _volans_. In flight it cannot be distinguished from _M. yumanensis_ or _M. lucifugus_. Most of our specimens were collected over water, for these bats usually fly rather late and can be shot most easily where their reflection on the water assists the hunter in aiming. They are usually not common, one or two being taken at a single locality. This species, like _Myotis yumanensis_, seems to drink salt water. On May 9, 1936, a living specimen was caught under a loose piece of bark on a dead tree. =Myotis californicus caurinus= Miller _Vespertilio nitidus_ H. Allen, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 247, 1862 (part of the specimens were from Fort Steilacoom, Pierce Co., Washington). _Myotis californicus caurinus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:72, October 16, 1897. _Type._--Obtained at Masset, Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, by J. H. Keen in 1895; type in United States National Museum. _Racial character._--Color reddish-brown. [Illustration: FIG. 39. Distribution of the small-footed myotis, _Myotis subulatus melanorhinus_, in Washington.] _Measurements._--Eight specimens, including both sexes, from the San Juan Islands, San Juan and Skagit counties, average: total length 77.8; length of tail 36.7; hind foot 6.7; ear?; height of tragus 7.6; weight 5.2 grams. _Distribution._--Western Washington east through the northern Cascades to Chelan, Blue Creek and Colville (Miller and Allen, 1928: 156) in northeastern Washington, and, farther south, east to Mount Rainier (Miller and Allen, 1928: 156) and Carson (Miller and Allen, 1928: 156). =Myotis californicus californicus= (Audubon and Bachman) _Vespertilio californicus_ Audubon and Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 8 (ser. 1, ser. 1, pt. 2):285, 1842. _Myotis californicus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:69, October 16, 1897. _Type._--None designated. Type locality fixed at Monterey, Monterey County, California, by Miller and Allen (1928: 153). _Racial character._--Color pale. _Measurements._--A female from Crooked River, Crook County, Oregon, measures: Total length 80; length of tail 40; hind foot 7; ear 13; height of tragus 5; weight 3.2 grams. _Distribution._--Recorded only from the eastern part of the state. Westernmost records, according to Miller and Allen (1928: 155) are: Orondo, Goldendale and Lyle. =Myotis subulatus melanorhinus= (Merriam) Small-footed myotis _Vespertilio melanorhinus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 3:46, September 11, 1890. _Myotis subulatus melanorhinus_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:169, May 25, 1928. _Type._--Obtained on San Francisco Mountain, 8250 ft. elevation, Coconino County, Arizona, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey on August 4, 1889; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Three males and 2 females from eastern Washington average: total length 77; length of tail 37; hind foot 7; ear 15; height of tragus 8. One weighed 5.4 grams. _Distribution._--Desert areas of eastern Washington, including the Columbian Plateau and the lower Columbia River Valley. Marginal records are: 5 mi. S Grand Coulee Dam (W. W. D.) in the north, Wenatchee (W. W. D.) in the northwest, Lyle (W. W. D.) in the southwest, and Bly (Miller and Allen, 1928: 171) in the southeast. _Description._--_Myotis subulatus_ is closely similar to _Myotis californicus_, but is more orange in color and has the skin on the face more nearly black. Specimens cannot be identified with certainty until the cleaned skulls are examined. The more flattened cranium and less abruptly rising forehead separate _Myotis subulatus_ from _M. californicus_. This species is confined to the United States and northern Mexico. Two races are recognized by Miller and Allen (1928), of which one occurs in Washington. It is the commonest bat in the desert of eastern Washington. It lives far from trees on plains and in sandy or rocky areas, emerging rather early in the evening. It is not difficult to shoot. Its flight is erratic. The animal usually hunts in large, irregular circles at 10 to 25 feet from the ground. It has not been found in its daytime retreat but may hide in crevices in rocky outcrops. Near Vantage, Grant County, individuals were shot as they hung up in a concrete underpass to digest food. The stomachs of specimens taken were so crammed with the remains of insects that their abdomens were greatly distended. The underpass seemed to be only a resting place, not inhabited by day. Others were taken when they came to rest in the loft of a barn at Selah, Yakima County. They usually did not arrive at the barn until an hour after sunset and were still present there at midnight. =Lasionycteris noctivagans= (Le Conte) Silver-haired bat _V[espertilio]. noctivagans_ Le Conte, McMurtrie's Cuvier, Anim. Kingd., 1:431, 1831. _Vesperugo noctivagans_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885. _Lasionycteris noctivagans_ Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 43:105, March 14, 1894. _Type._--None designated; described from a specimen obtained in the "eastern United States." _Measurements._--Five males from San Juan County, Washington, average: total length 96.2; length of tail 46.4; hind foot 8.5; ear 16; height of tragus 7.2; weight 8.2 grams. _Distribution._--Forested areas of the entire state. This species is migratory and first appears about the middle of May. September 15th is the latest recorded occurrence, when one was seen at Seattle, King County. Marginal records are: Sportsmans Lake (W. W. D.), in the northwest; Carson (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9) in the southwest; Pass Creek Pass (W. W. D.) in the northeast; and Bly (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9) in the southeast. _Remarks._--The chocolate-brown color phase of the silver-haired bat is most common east of the Cascade Mountains, while almost all specimens from western Washington represent the black phase. This medium-sized bat is the darkest-colored species living in the state, ranging from chocolate-brown to nearly black. Numerous white-tipped hairs give the upper parts a frosted appearance. The upper surface of the interfemoral membrane is well furred, a character shared only with _Lasiurus_. The dental formula (i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 2-2/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 36) is the same as that of _Corynorhinus_. The small ears and short tragus immediately distinguish the silver-haired bat from the long-eared bat. The genus _Lasionycteris_ contains but a single species, of which no geographic races have been described. It ranges across North America from coast to coast and from central Canada southward, in forested areas, nearly to Mexico. This species is known to be migratory, and southern records probably do not represent breeding individuals. In Washington these bats have been taken in the Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian life-zones. They were found near clearings in forests of open pine woods in the arid section of eastern Washington, near mountain hemlock thickets in the high mountains, and in the dense rain-forests of the Pacific Coastal area. [Illustration: FIG. 40. Distribution of the silver-haired bat. _Lasionycteris noctivagans_, in Washington.] The size and flight of the silver-haired bats are distinctive, and after some experience it is possible to identify them in the air. It is an early flier, usually appearing just after the swallows roost. They fly at a considerable height, rarely coming within forty feet of the ground. The wings are moved with a "fluttery" motion, and their flight is interrupted by frequent short glides. They fly more rapidly than the big brown-bats, and twist and dart sideways more frequently. Compared with big brown-bats, silver-haired bats are relatively gregarious, and six to a dozen individuals were seen in the same area. They generally hunt in sweeping circles, from fifty to one hundred yards in diameter. In the daytime the silver-haired bats hide beneath slabs of loose bark on dead trees. Near Cottage Lake, King County, two individuals were found beneath the bark on an old, lightning-blasted stub. The dark color of the bats blended with the charred surface of the stub. This species feeds mainly on forest insects and for this reason is probably of considerable value to man. The stomachs of specimens were usually crammed with the remains of small, soft-bodied insects. =Corynorhinus rafinesquii= (Lesson) Long-eared bat _Description._--Diagnostic characters of the long-eared bat are: medium size (total length about 4 inches); dull, grayish-brown color; exceptionally long ears (over 1 inch from notch); thin, tissue-like membranes; and paired "lumps" on the rostrum. The dental formula is: i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 2-2/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 36. [Illustration: FIG. 41. Long-eared bat (_Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius_), female with young; Boulder Cave, Kittitas County, Washington, July 20, 1928. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by T. H. Scheffer, No. B-33332.)] Long-eared bats range from southern British Columbia to southern Mexico. Three species are listed by Miller (1924: 82), one of which (_rafinesquii_) is divisible into five geographic races. This bat is colonial and is not uncommonly found in caves, mine shafts, and darkened attics of old buildings. It is of scattered distribution throughout the state. In Washington its distribution in winter is unknown. A specimen from Friday Harbor, San Juan County, taken in March, 1936, indicates that it hibernates in the state. Whitlow and Hall (1933: 245) give a detailed account of individuals found hibernating in winter near Pocatello, Idaho. [Illustration: FIG. 42. Entrance to Boulder Cave, inhabited by long-eared bats (_Corynorhinus_); Kittitas County, Washington, May 26, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 56.)] John K. Townsend (1839: 325) mentions that the "great-eared bat" at the forts of the Columbia River district (Fort Vancouver) were protected by the "gentlemen of the Hudson's Bay Company for their services in destroying the _dermestes_ which abound in their fur establishments." Townsend mentions also that the long-eared bats seldom left the "storehouses attached to the forts," even at night. My own observations are similar, in that at Boulder Cave, Kittitas County, on July 7, 1936, when not less than 100 long-eared bats were present in the cave, I watched the entrances to the cave until an hour after dark but no bats were seen to emerge. All of the specimens available from Washington were caught in their daytime hiding place. The number of long-eared bats at Boulder Cave has decreased in recent years. On July 12, 1930, bats were so abundant that 90 were captured with a single sweep of a butterfly net (T. H. Scheffer, 1930: 11). On July 7, 1936, it was estimated that there were slightly more than 100 in the cave. On June 11, 1937, the number was less, probably about 75. Little is known of the food habits of the long-eared bat. The stomach of a specimen from Blakeley Island, San Juan County, was crammed with the remains of insects, including the wing scales of _Lepidoptera_ and the wings of small Diptera. Scheffer noted that the long-eared bats at Boulder Cave were nearly ready to give birth to young on July 12, 1930, and were carrying naked young a week later. On July 7, 1936, at the same locality, females contained nearly full-term embryos. [Illustration: FIG. 43. Distribution of the long-eared bat in Washington. A. _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii._ B. _Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius._] =Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii= (Cooper) _Plecotus townsendii_ Cooper, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, 4:73, November, 1837. _Corynorhinus macrotis townsendii_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:53, October 16, 1897. _Corynorhinus megalotis townsendii_ G. M. Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoöl., 60:344, April, 1916. _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:82, April 29, 1924. _Type._--Probably obtained at Fort Vancouver, Clark County, Washington; type not now in existence. _Racial character._--Dark color. _Measurements._--A male from Blakeley Island, San Juan County, measured: total length 83; length of tail 43; hind foot 8.5; ear 37.4; tragus 15.1; weight 10 grams. _Distribution._--Western Washington, from Blakeley Island (W. W. D.) in the north, south to Seattle (W. W. D.) and Fort Vancouver. =Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius= H. W. Grinnell _Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius_ H. W. Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 12:320, December 4, 1914. _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii_ Dalquest, Jour. Mamm., 19:213, May 14, 1938. _Type._--Obtained at Auburn, Placer County, California, by J. C. Hawver on July 31, 1909; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Paler and duller than _townsendii_. _Measurements._--One male and 6 females from 15 miles east of Tonasket, Okanogan County, average: total length 96, length of tail 47; hind foot 11; ear 35.5; tragus 14. _Distribution._--Scattered localities in the arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone of eastern Washington, from 15 mi. E Tonasket (W. W. D.) on the north to Boulder Cave (W. W. D.) on the west and Spokane (W. S. C.) on the east. _Remarks._--Of specimens in the University of Kansas, Museum of Natural History, those from Selah (not plotted on distribution map), Yakima County, are paler than those from Boulder Cave, Yakima County, but both series are paler than specimens from the coast of Oregon. [Illustration: FIG. 44. Distribution of the western pipistrelle, _Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus_, in Washington.] =Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus= (H. Allen) Western pipistrelle _Scotophilus hesperus_ H. Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. 165):43, June, 1864. _Vesperugo hesperus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885. _Pipistrellus hesperus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:88, October 16, 1897. _Type._--Obtained at Old Fort Yuma, Imperial County, California, by G. H. Thomas; catalogued in U. S. National Museum on October 31, 1861. _Measurements._--A specimen from Maryhill, Klickitat County, measures: total length 68; length of tail 27; hind foot 7; ear 10; height of tragus 3; weight 4.2 grams. Two males from Vantage, Grant County, average: 68.5; 27.5; 6; 11; 4. _Distribution._--Known only from along the Snake and Columbia rivers of south-central Washington; recorded from Vantage (W.W.D.), south to Maryhill (M.V.Z.), and east to Almota (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9). _Description._--This is the smallest bat found in Washington, its body being approximately 1-3/4 inches long and the tail 1-1/4. It may be separated from _Myotis_ by the bent tragus and by the possession of 34 rather than 38 teeth. The dental formula is: i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 2-2/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 34. The genus _Pipestrellus_ is cosmopolitan in distribution. The few records for the single subspecies found in Washington indicate that it is a casual, though probably regular, summer visitant from the south. Two western pipistrelles were shot at Vantage, Grant County, on July 23, 1937. They flew in slow circles about 50 feet from the ground. No breeding records are known from the state. =Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus= Rhoads Big brown-bat _Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1901:619, February 6, 1902. _Eptesicus fuscus pallidus_ Engels, Amer. Midland Nat., 17:656, May, 1936 (part specimens from Washington). _Type._--Obtained near San Bernardino, San Bernardino County, California, by R. B. Herron on May 26, 1893; type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. _Measurements._--Three males and 5 females from Washington average: total length 117; length of tail 48; hind foot 11.5; ear 18.3; height of tragus 9. _Distribution._--Forested areas of the entire state of Washington. Marginal localities are San Juan Island (W.W.D.) in the northwest, Carson (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9), in the southwest, Newport (W.W.D.) in the northeast, and Grand Ronde River (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9) in the southeast. _Remarks._--Specimens from both eastern and western Washington vary greatly in color, and series of specimens from eastern Washington average little, if any, paler than series from western Washington. Washington specimens most closely resemble specimens from California of the race _bernardinus_ and average darker than _pallidus_. _Description._ The big brown-bat may be distinguished from other bats by its large size (about 4-1/2 inches), rich, brown color, and small ears (reaching only to nostril when laid forward). It possesses 32 teeth, the dental formula being: i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 1-1/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 32. Bats of the genus _Eptesicus_ are cosmopolitan in distribution. A single species occurs in North America, of which Engels (1936) recognizes four races in western United States. [Illustration: FIG. 45. Distribution of the big brown-bat, _Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus_, in Washington.] The big brown-bat appears early in the evening, often before the swallows have retired. This, and its large size, makes it relatively easy to study. It is principally a forest bat but also is found in towns and cities. It is common in Seattle and hunts around street lights and about the trees in the city parks. In its more natural habitat it flies over trees and clearings. Big brown-bats were repeatedly timed, with a car's speedometer, at 17 miles an hour as they flew down a road lined with tall trees. This is a greater speed than that at which they usually hunt. When the speed of the car was increased the bats dodged sideways, around the car. At lesser speeds they pulled ahead and escaped. Big brown-bats are less gregarious, when hunting, than some bats. One or two may be found in a small area, the limits of which are definitely fixed. We noted this repeatedly near Cottage Lake, King County, where the big brown-bats hunted along roads through second-growth conifers. The bats patrolled back and forth along a section of a road about a quarter of a mile in length. When a bat reached the end of its personal territory, it would wheel and return. On six successive trips a bat turned, to retrace its course, at points less than 50 feet distant from the point of the first turn. When the bat approached the turning point on the seventh trip, a bat from the adjoining strip of road approached the area. The two animals fluttered about each other with shrill squeaks, audible 50 feet away. The fluttering and squeaking continued for nearly a minute, after which both bats resumed their hunting. Darkness concluded the observations. On several occasions we stood on a road patrolled by a big brown-bat. The bat immediately detected the watcher and fluttered about his head and face. Big brown-bats ignore other species of bats hunting on their territory. Indeed, such comparatively slow flyers could scarcely drive the more speedy bats away. Two _Eptesicus_, kept in captivity for several weeks, exhibited very different personalities. One was shy and sullen. It cowered in the back of its cage and attempted to bite when handled. It would eat only small quantities of finely scraped liver tendered to it on a spoon. If a bit of liver adhered to its face it would shake violently and refuse to eat more. When it had eaten its fill, it would seize the spoon in its teeth and spill the remaining food. The second specimen was tame and greedy. It ate insects, liver, earthworms, and even pieces of flesh. After two days in captivity it learned to come to the door of its cage at a person's approach and open its mouth, in anticipation of food. If it dropped bits of liver on which it was chewing it would descend from the top of its cage to retrieve them, squeaking indignantly while doing so. It also descended to the floor of the cage to lap water from a dish. It habitually hung head downward from the roof of its cage, but reversed its position when evacuating urine or feces. Engler (1943: 96) discovered that big brown-bats will kill and eat smaller bats, at least in captivity. =Lasiurus cinereus cinereus= (Beauvois) Hoary bat _Vespertilio cinereus_ (misspelled _linereus_) Beauvois, Catal. Raisonné Mus. Peale, Philadelphia, 1796:18 (p. 15 of English edition by Peale and Beauvois). _Lasiurus cinereus_ H. Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. 165): 21, 1864. _Atalapha cinerea_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885. _Type._--None designated. Type locality Pennsylvania, probably near Philadelphia. _Measurements._--Ten specimens from California average: Total length 130.5; length of tail 54.8; hind foot 10.7; ear 16; height of tragus 9.5; weight (of 3) 20.4 grams. _Distribution._--Recorded from Seattle (W.S.M.) to the north, Westport (W.S.M.) to the west and Pullman (W.S.M.) to the east. [Illustration: FIG. 46. Record stations for the hoary bat, _Lasiurus cinerea_, in Washington.] _Remarks._--The hoary bat is the largest and most distinctively marked kind of bat in the state. Adults are usually more than 5 inches in total length. The fur is exceptionally long and soft. The wing-membranes are thick and leathery. The posterior half of the wing-membrane is black; the anterior half is pale. The interfemoral membrane is furred. Dorsally the color of the fur is mottled white and seal-brown, giving a silvery-gray effect. The ears are short and thick; the feet short and wide. The dental formula is: i. 1-1/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 2-2/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 32. The genus _Lasiurus_ is found in North America, South America, and the Hawaiian Islands. _Lasiurus cinereus_ ranges from British Columbia to southern South America. Osgood (1943: 53) records two subspecies from Chile. Information on the natural history of the hoary bat is meager. It was observed in the Kettle River Mountains, but none was obtained. It flew erratically and rapidly and did not appear until darkness had set in. At least two were seen above a road through a forest of western larch and ponderosa pine. Probably it breeds in the mountains of northeastern Washington and in the northern Cascades. The hoary bat is migratory, leaving the state in August and September, rarely lingering until early October. It winters along the coast of central and southern California (Dalquest, 1943: 23). =Antrozous pallidus cantwelli= Bailey Pallid bat _Antrozous pallidus cantwelli_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:391, August 29, 1936. _Type._--Obtained at Rogersburg, Asotin County, Washington, by G. G. Cantwell on May 28, 1918; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--A male from the south bank of the Columbia River, opposite Fallbridge, Klickitat County, measures: total length 113; length of tail 40; hind foot 14; ear 36; height of tragus 13; weight 19.8 grams. _Distribution._--Recorded only from localities near the Columbia and Snake rivers in eastern Washington; from Wenatchee (W.W.D.) south and east to Bly and Rogersburg (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9). _Description._--_Antrozous pallidus_ is more likely to be confused with _Corynorhinus_ than with any other kind of bat and can be distinguished from _Corynorhinus_ by its larger size (4-1/2 to 5 inches), lighter color, thick and leathery membranes, and shorter, wider ears. _Antrozous_ lacks the prominent "lumps" on the rostrum, characteristic of the long-eared bat. The dental formula is: i. 1-1/2-2, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 1-1/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 28. The genus _Antrozous_ is confined to western United States and northwestern Mexico. Two species are recognized by Miller (1924: 84). One of these (_pallidus_) includes three geographic races. A single race is known to occur in Washington. [Illustration: FIG. 47. Distribution of the pallid bat, _Antrozous pallidus cantwelli_, in Washington.] The pallid bat chooses a crevice in a cliff, cave, or building as its daytime hiding place. Like _Corynorhinus_, it is colonial. The basalt cliffs of eastern Washington offer such ideal hiding places that pallid bats are seldom seen and consequently little is known of their habits. In the southwestern United States, pallid bats are more abundant and better known. H. W. Grinnell (1918: 355) notes that the floor of a roost of pallid bats was strewn each morning with the heads, wings, and legs of insects. Most numerous were the remains of the Jerusalem cricket (_Stenopelmatus_), a flightless insect that the bats must have secured on the ground. Engler (1943: 96) found that in captivity, pallid bats would kill and eat smaller bats and lizards confined with them. Bailey (1936: 392) believes that the young of this bat are born in late June and early July. One or two young constitute a litter. =Ursus americanus= Pallas Black bear _Description._--The black bear is the largest carnivore found in Washington if the grizzly is extinct there. The exact size of the adult male black bear is somewhat in question. Few actual weights are on record of Washington bears. Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale (1937: 101) paid special attention to the maximum weight of black bears in California and concluded that few ever exceeded 500 pounds. The total length of the largest black bear among specimens from the entire Pacific Coastal area, especially from California and Alaska, they give as 5 feet, 10 inches (_op. cit._, p. 102). It may safely be assumed that few individuals ever reach a length of six feet. Females are smaller; recorded weights of adults rarely exceed 350 pounds. The largest males have hind feet from 10 to 10-1/2 inches in length. [Illustration: FIG. 48. Female black bear (_Ursus americanus altifrontalis_), and two cubs, near Big Four Inn, Mt. Baker National Forest, Washington, July, 1939. (Forest Service photo by R. L. Fromme.)] The black bear, including its closely related species, the Mexican bear, _Ursus machetes_, ranges over Alaska, Canada, the United States and northern Mexico. The distinction between the black and grizzly bears has been listed under the account of _Ursus chelan_. The fur of black bears in the Cascade Mountains in the fall is long, sleek and glossy but rather stiff. In the spring and early summer the fur of animals at Mount Rainier often appeared coarse, wooly and patchy or rubbed on older animals. Some smaller bears possessed sleek, well-groomed pelts. Bears from the lowland areas are said to possess poor pelts because of constant abrasion in the forests. In the fall, when the salmon are spawning, the bears are said by trappers to roll in decayed fish until they "smell so bad you can't come near them" and their fur is matted and "crawling with lice." It is now known that the cinnamon bear, sometimes called brown bear, is merely a color phase of the black bear. The brown phase varies in color from a rich, dark reddish brown to a pale cinnamon brown. Cowan (1938: 204) has recorded the geographic variation in the brown and black coats of the bears of British Columbia and, in part, of Washington. On the Olympic Peninsula the brown phase is rare. Old residents have told me of seeing but a few brown bears in their life. I have seen only black bears in the lowlands of western Washington. Cowan (_loc. cit._) lists 1,197 black and 79 brown bears from Fort Nisqually, Pierce County, between 1834 and 1852. In the Cascade Mountains the brown phase is not uncommon, perhaps one out of five bears seen being brown. In northeastern Washington the brown and black phases are about equal in number, and some trappers state that the browns are more numerous. Cowan lists 3,813 black and 2,871 brown bears from Fort Colville between 1826 and 1856. The black bear occurs in a variety of habitats in Washington. It seems to be absent only from the treeless areas of eastern Washington, and is most abundant in the Cascade Mountains and Olympic Mountains where food is abundant and men are few. It is not uncommon throughout the timbered lowlands of northeastern Washington and western Washington, however, and shows a surprising ability to exist unnoticed near the larger cities. In the dense, junglelike forests of southwestern Washington it is numerous. Jackson (1944: 1) estimates that 13,679 black bears live in Washington, more than in any other state. The habits of the black bear have changed greatly where it has come into contact with man. At Mount Rainier National Park black bears now ignore people, save to beg for food. In the Cascades the bears are wild but so seldom see men that in many places they live much as they did hundreds of years ago. In the lowlands of western Washington they are in daily contact with evidence of man or his guns. As a result they are silent and shy, rarely being seen. [Illustration: FIG. 49. Black bear (_Ursus americanus altifrontalis_), in "hibernation," Mt. Baker region, Washington, about 1936. (John E. Candle photo, courtesy "Field and Stream.")] The black bear in the mountains is active sometimes by day and sometimes by night. Probably it is principally nocturnal but active by day only when the food obtained at night is insufficient to meet the needs of the animal. In the lowlands it is almost completely nocturnal. In the mountains it enters upon its winter sleep with the first snows or, if the snows are late, when the huckleberries are gone. Ordinarily black bears are in "hibernation" by the middle of November. In the lowlands of western Washington they are active until after the salmon spawning season, and probably do not "hibernate" before the middle of December and may not do so at all. In the mountains they emerge from the winter sleep in May; in the lowlands they emerge in February or March. The black bear is omnivorous in the truest sense of the word. Because the animal is of large size it requires much nourishment. This is obtained by eating large quantities of material with low food value. Material eaten passes rapidly through the digestive tract and often only easily digested parts seem to be utilized. Feces commonly contain complete and undigested berries and seeds or almost undigested pieces of apples or other fruit. The principal food of the black bear in Washington is berries. Many species are eaten, but the huckleberry (_Vaccinium_ sp.) is favored. Other food items are: _Gaultheria shallon_ (pulpy fruit); Oregon grape, _Berberis nervosa_ (flowers and fruit); salmonberry, _Rubus parviflorus_ (leaves and fruit); leaves of several plants, including _Rubus macropetalus_ and other thorny kinds; grass, succulent plants, and roots. Insects are eaten and most feces show remains of a few. In June, 1938, near Cle Elum, Kittitas County, a species of sword-tailed cricket fully two inches in length was abundant, and droppings of a bear there were composed entirely of the remains of these crickets. Fish, especially spawning salmon, are important food. When salmon are spawning the bears in the vicinity feed on nothing else. Warm-blooded vertebrates probably are eaten but none of the many bear droppings examined by me contained remains of birds or mammals. Bennett, English and Watts (1943: 30) found few mammals to be eaten by bears studied by them in Pennsylvania. Locally bears kill pigs and sheep, smash bee-hives and raid fruit trees. The large size and sometimes awkward appearance of black bears combine to give a comic note to some of their natural actions. A bear in full flight, lumbering along a trail with head swinging from side to side and hind feet stretching past the forelegs at each stride, is more apt than not to amuse the observer. Near Stevens Pass, a large black bear was observed lying on its back in a mud wallow. This was an oval opening in the ground in a meadow of heather and huckleberry near a small stream. The wallow was approximately 5 feet long, 3 feet deep and 4 feet wide. The bear was immersed in muddy water with only its head and feet visible. It seemed well content and comfortable, shifting its bulk occasionally and waving its paws. When a stray breeze brought to the bear the scent of my companion and myself the animal's contentment vanished and it hastily made a frantic effort to depart. It had wedged itself deeply in the hole, and as it twisted and turned in attempting to sit up, waves of water gushed from the wallow. Eventually escaping from its wallow, the bear half ran and half rolled to the cover of alders 100 feet away. This particular wallow had been in use by bears for some time, as was attested by old droppings at its edge and by its well-worn condition. [Illustration: FIG. 50. Distribution of the black bear in Washington. A. _Ursus americanus altifrontalis._ B. _Ursus americanus cinnamomum._] The fact that Washington has the largest population of black bears of the states in the union is due, largely, I feel, to abundant natural cover, food, such as salmon and huckleberries, and an intelligent game code. In California and some other states the black bear has been considered a fur bearer, to be trapped with steel traps. This is permitted in spite of the fact that their pelts bring but a few dollars, usually less than ten. Their sale scarcely repays the trapper for his labor in preparing the hide. Townsend (1887: 182) remarked on the ease with which bears could be trapped in California although in the same area they were so shy that they could seldom be shot. As a result of trapping, the number of bears in some states has been dangerously reduced. In Washington the bear is a game animal, to be hunted with a rifle for a few weeks in the fall when the pelt and flesh are at their best. As a result bears are numerous and can be hunted with fair chances of success. =Ursus americanus altifrontalis= Elliot _Ursus altifrontalis_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 80, zoöl. ser. 3:234, June, 1903. _Euarctos altifrontalis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:90, April 29, 1924. _Ursus americanus americanus_ Taylor and Shaw, Mammals and Birds of Mount Rainier National Park, U. S. Nat. Park Service, Washington, p. 37, 1927. _Euarctos americanus altifrontalis_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:321, August 29, 1936. _Ursus americanus altifrontalis_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 30:232, March 2, 1928. _Type._--Obtained at Lake Crescent, Olympic Peninsula, Clallam County, Washington, by D. G. Elliot in 1898; type in Field Museum of Natural History. _Racial characters._--Color dark, almost always black instead of brown; skull wide, high and heavy; molar teeth wide and heavy. _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains westward to the Pacific. Marginal occurrences are Chelan (W.W.D.) and Signal Peak (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 10). =Ursus americanus cinnamomum= Audubon and Bachman _Ursus americanus var. cinnamomum_ Audubon and Bachman, Quadrupeds of North America, 3:125, 1854. _Euarctos cinnamomum_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:91, April 29, 1924. _Euarctos americanus cinnamomum_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:319, August 29, 1936. _Ursus americanus cinnamomum_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 30:232, March 2, 1928. _Type._--Obtained near the mouth of Jim Ford Creek, Lower Clearwater River, western Idaho (Bailey, 1936: 319) by Lewis and Clark on May 31, 1806. _Racial characters._--Resembling _altifrontalis_ but skull and molar teeth narrower; color even in black phase paler and browner; brown and black phases of approximately equal incidence. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington, occurring westward as far as Republic (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 10). =Ursus chelan= Merriam Grizzly bear _Ursus chelan_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 29:136, September 6, 1916. _Type._--Obtained in Township 30 N. Range 16 E. Willamette Meridian, Wenatchee National Forest, Chelan County, Washington, by D. S. Rice on September 1, 1913; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--The skull of the type, an old male, measures: basal length 314; occipito-nasal length 323; palatal length 170; zygomatic breadth 225; interorbital breadth 86. _Distribution._--Probably once from the Stevens Pass area north to British Columbia. Possibly still remaining in the mountains between Mount Baker and Lake Chelan. _Remarks._--Grizzly bears occurred in the lowlands of Oregon (Bailey, 1936: 324) and California (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 67) but there is no record of their ever having occurred in the lowlands of western Washington. Bears of the genus _Ursus_ range over Europe, Asia and North America. No less than 75 kinds of grizzly and big brown bears are recognized for North America by Merriam (1918). They are closely related to the brown bears of Asia. The 13 kinds of black bears of North America are now thought to belong to but one species, namely _americanus_, and have no close relatives in Eurasia. [Illustration: FIG. 51. Probable past distribution of grizzly bears in Washington. A. _Ursus chelan._ B. _Ursus canadensis._ C. _Ursus idahoensis._] The grizzly is the largest carnivorous mammal in North America. From the black bear the grizzly may be distinguished in life by the prominent muscular hump on the shoulders. Another feature is the long, slim, gently curved claws of the forefoot as compared with the shorter, stouter and sharply curved or hooked foreclaws of the black bear. The grizzly is much larger than the black bear. Cranially, the grizzly differs in possessing a larger skull with lower frontal area, higher, more extensive sagittal crest, more posteriorly jutting occipital condyles and much longer tooth row. The color of both species is variable. Some grizzly bears from Alaska and British Columbia are dark brown, almost as black as a black bear. Others are pale cinnamon with the longer guard hairs pale gray. Individuals of this frosted appearance popularly are known as "silver tips." In Washington, the black bear varies in color from glossy black, through various shades of brown to a pale cinnamon. The grizzly bear is extinct over most of Washington. A few may remain in remote parts of the northern Cascades, and are regularly listed on the game census reports of the Mount Baker National Forest. Nevertheless, I have found no one who has seen an undoubted grizzly bear in Washington. The type specimen was obtained well up in the Cascade Mountains where the animals, like those in British Columbia, feed on roots, berries, marmots, pikas and other vegetable and animal life. =Procyon lotor= (Linnaeus) Raccoon _Description._--The raccoon is a relatively large carnivore with a stout, heavy body. Large adults measure three feet in length and weigh up to 20 pounds. The legs are of moderate length. The broad head tapers sharply to a pointed muzzle. The ears are erect, broad, low and rounded; the tail is long, about one-half the length of the head and body, bushy and round; the hind feet are large, flat and naked-soled but the forefeet are smaller with long, slim, handlike toes. The color of the body is a grizzled gray heavily washed with black on the back and sides. A jet-black "mask" across the eyes, sharply outlined by white muzzle and forehead, is the most distinctive feature of the head. The tail is alternately marked with six or seven black and five or six yellowish gray bands. The long, loose guard hairs give the body a shaggy appearance. The fur of the wrists is short, smooth, coarse, and directed downward. The raccoon is not an aquatic mammal, yet it is closely associated with water, whether it be streams, rivers, lakes or the ocean. The favored habitat of the raccoon is the shore line. It is a wader and, if it can be considered as specialized for any occupation, it is wading in mud and shallow water. Its long toes, naked feet, and short-haired wrists are admirable adapted for walking on muddy bottoms or in shallow water. The coon is also at home on land. It moves swiftly and silently and when chased by dogs can cover miles in a few hours. It is an agile climber and lives in dens well up in trees. The raccoon is almost completely nocturnal. Individuals are occasionally seen in the morning or evening, especially, when the tide is low along the ocean beach or Puget Sound. Near Fall City, King County, a small raccoon was seen eating a crayfish at 3:30 p.m. on a warm, sunny June day. In the eastern United States raccoons sleep during much of the winter, and probably they do the same in eastern Washington. In western Washington they are active most of the winter. Some trappers stated that the animals "hole up" in spells of unusually cold weather. Along the Tolt River, 10 miles southeast of Duvall, King County, their tracks were seen daily in January, 1936, although the temperature fell well below freezing each night. Washington is near the northern limit of the range of the raccoon. The animal is reasonably common in western Washington, and ranges well up into the Cascade Mountains. The highest altitudinal record available is Longmire, Mount Rainier National Park (Taylor and Shaw, 1927). Raccoons are not uncommon in southeastern Washington and in the Yakima Valley. They follow the Columbia River northward, as shown by tracks at Wenatchee on two occasions. The river valleys that flow into the Columbia in northeastern Washington seem admirably adapted for raccoons but the animal is rare there. Trappers who have lived and trapped in northeastern Washington for many years tell of seeing tracks at intervals of years along the Okanogan, San Poil, Colville and Kettle rivers. Several stated that tracks had been seen more often in recent years. Northeastern Washington seems to be the peripheral range of the species, occupied at rare intervals by animals wandering north from the Columbia River. The food habits of raccoons are almost as varied as those of black bears. Animal matter forms their diet over most of the year; along stream courses crayfish, fish, thin-shelled fresh-water mussels, frogs (_Hyla_ and _Rana_), and aquatic insects are eaten. Along beaches fish brought in by the tide, crustaceans, and mussels (_Mytilus edulis_) are taken; small sharks appear not to be eaten. A recently dead dogfish that lay on the beach at Whidby Island, Island County, was ringed by the tracks of a raccoon but had not been eaten. The shore crabs (_Hemigrapsus nudus_ and _Hemigrapsus oregonensis_) are a favored food and regular items of diet. The edible crab (_Cancer productus_) is also eaten and in the San Juan Islands the porcelain crab (_Petrolisthes eriomerus_) was commonly eaten. Small mammals and birds are eaten regularly by this race of raccoon in California (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 157), and the eggs and young of wild birds are sought in the spring (_op. cit._: 158). The ability of the raccoon as a climber makes it a particular menace to nesting birds. Berries, including domestic blackberries and salmonberries, are eaten in quantity when available. Apples are dearly loved and the trees and orchards of abandoned ranches are regularly visited. The fondness of the raccoon for green corn is well known. Insects are present in small quantities in most droppings and in the late summer some feces were composed entirely of the remains of grasshoppers. Chickens, ducks, young turkeys and eggs are stolen and individuals become extremely adept at raiding hen-houses. At one time, about 1920, the raccoon became scarce in western Washington as a result of heavy trapping and high price of the pelts. A closed season was strictly enforced until it again became common. The price received by the trapper for raw furs of raccoon has since been rather low, from two to ten dollars. With fur prices in this range, the number of raccoons probably will not be reduced to a dangerously low level by trapping, but instead may be expected to furnish a regular winter income to the trappers who do trap for it. Raccoons are known to breed in their first year of life (Pope, 1944: 91). =Procyon lotor psora= Gray _Procyon psora_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 10: 261. December, 1842. _Procyon psora pacifica_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 16: 107, October 28, 1899 (type from Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington). _Procyon proteus_ Brass, Aus dem Reiche der Pelze, p. 564, 1911. _Procyon lotor pacifica_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2: 10. December, 1929. _Procyon lotor psora_ Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale, Fur-bearing Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 137, July 22, 1937. _Type locality._--Sacramento, Sacramento County, California. _Racial characters._--Medium size; dark color; smoothly rounded skull. _Measurements._--A female from Forks, Clallam County, measures: total length 905; length of tail 355; hind foot 125; ear 50; weight 14-1/2 lbs. A female and 6 males, young animals of the year, taken between November 15 and December 15, average: 772; 284; 114; weight (of 3) 8-2/3 lbs. [Illustration: FIG. 52. Distribution of the raccoon in Washington. A. _Procyon lotor psora._ B. _Procyon lotor excelsus._] _Distribution._--From the western slope of the Cascade Mountains westward. Marginal occurrences are Lake Keechelus (type locality) and Mount Rainier (Taylor and Shaw, 1927: 45). _Remarks._--The range of variation in color and cranial characters of coastal raccoons is large. I am unable to find any character or average difference to separate the raccoons of western Washington from those of northern California. =Procyon lotor excelsus= Nelson and Goldman _Procyon lotor excelsus_ Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 11:458, November 11, 1930. _Type._--Obtained on upper Owyhee River, near the mouth of the North Fork in southeastern Oregon by J. W. Fisk on April 15, 1920; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _psora_ but larger; body paler and grayer; skull larger, heavier and more angular. _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, the valleys of the Snake and Yakima rivers and the valley of the Columbia River north to northeastern Washington. Marginal records, from reports of trappers, include the Okanogan River, Okanogan County, Wenatchee, Chelan County, and Selah, Yakima County. _Remarks._--The assignment of the raccoons of northeastern Washington to _excelsus_ is tentative for I have seen no specimens. =Martes caurina= Merriam Western marten _Description._--The marten is slightly smaller and slimmer than a house cat, and at first glance resembles a large squirrel. The legs are longer, the body stouter and the fur more fluffy than those of a mink or weasel. Adult males weigh from two to two and a half pounds, and females from one and a half to two pounds. Males are slightly more than two feet in total length and females about 18 inches, the tail comprising one-third or more of the total length. The head is broad and narrows rapidly to a sharp muzzle. The ears are large, erect and prominent. The feet are large with stout toes and long, sharply curved pinkish-white claws. The body and head are rich golden brown, the tail, wrists, feet and muzzle being darker. The western marten ranges from British Columbia southward through Idaho and Washington to California. A closely related species, _americana_, is found in Alaska, the eastern United States and Canada. Martens and fishers may be distinguished from weasels and minks by the presence of 18 rather than 16 teeth in the upper jaw and 20 instead of 18 teeth in the lower jaw. The western marten is arboreal. Its principal habitat in Washington is the Canadian Life-zone forests of the Olympic, Cascade and Blue mountains and the various ranges in the northeastern part of the state. At one time it ranged near sea level along the densely forested coastal belt and may still do so in the more rugged parts of the Willapa Hills. The marten is both diurnal and nocturnal. In Mount Rainier National Park the species has become quite tame and may be seen in the daytime. Many of the small mammals upon which it feeds are diurnal, but others are nocturnal. The marten is active throughout the year. Trappers report that during a storm the marten "holes up in rock slides" where it lives on conies and chipmunks until the storm passes. It spends a large part of its time in trees, and travels through them for long distances. It climbs more skillfully than the tree squirrels upon which it feeds. On the ground or on snow the marten travels in bounds, a yard at a leap, and its characteristic bounding gait forms tracks that are distinctive and easily followed. Mammals of the weasel family mostly are not gregarious but the marten is exceptional in that in the winter it travels in bands of 6 to 10 animals. Individuals composing these bands are inclined to wander but nevertheless the whole band travels in a definite general direction at a good rate of speed. Travel-ways or "runs" may be used by more than one band, and a run may extend for many miles, perhaps for as many as 50. A band of martens may take two weeks to complete the circuit, but usually returns to the starting point in less than a week. Most runs are about "half-way up the mountain," or midway between the crest of the hill or timber-line and the floor of the stream valley below. In summer the marten ranges higher; it lives in the trees just below timber-line and in the talus slides near timber-line. When the snows are unusually late the martens may keep to these higher areas until November. The food of the marten consists principally of small mammals and probably birds; the staple food in winter is the Douglas squirrel. In summer they feed on pikas, mantled ground squirrels and chipmunks. Mice, also, are eaten. The deer mouse, _Peromyscus maniculatus_, is usually abundant about old cabins and is successfully used as bait by trappers. Wood rats and flying squirrels are also eaten, the latter being especially important in certain areas. The tracks of martens that had been following snowshoe rabbits were seen on several occasions but the martens had turned off before a kill was made. In every instance the rabbit tracks indicated that the animals were hopping leisurely and browsing; apparently the tracks were made some time before the marten began to follow them. Martens are inquisitive, and to judge from their tracks in snow they investigate almost every object that they pass; a fallen mound of snow, branch, bit of moss, log or isolated tree is apt to be visited. Failing to find a meal in or around one of these objects, the marten visits the next object that catches its eye. Seemingly the animal always is giving concentrated attention to some definite object although the attention can shift in an instant when a more interesting object comes in to view. As a result the trail of a marten in the snow is an intricate affair composed of numerous straight lines and sharp turns. The trapping of martens is specialized work, engaged in by professional trappers that follow trap lines many miles in length. Trappers commonly have a base cabin and one or two shelters situated a day's march apart, The trap-line is set in a circle, requiring one to three days' travel by the trapper to complete the circuit. The standard "set" for marten in the Cascades consists of an opening 8 to 10 inches wide, 4 inches high and 6 inches deep chopped into the side of a dead stub. The hole is cut as high as the trapper can reach. A trap is set in the opening and bait is placed in the back of the hole. A sapling 1 to 3 inches in diameter inclined at an angle of 45° from the ground to the hole completes the set. As the snow deepens, new holes are chopped higher up on the stub. Such sets seen in the summer may consist of six or seven holes spaced a foot apart. The chips from the holes are left lying on the snow and are said to attract the animals. Bait commonly consists of flying squirrel, red squirrel or deer mouse. [Illustration: FIG. 53. Distribution of the western marten in Washington. A. _Martes caurina caurina._ B. _Martes caurina origenes._] The value of the marten's pelt fluctuates from year to year. In recent years average pelts have sold at from ten to twenty dollars each. The number of individuals taken by a trapper varies with the trapper's skill and energy and the location of the trap line. The largest catch made by one trapper in a single winter, of which I know, was 300 animals, taken near Mt. Adams. =Martes caurina caurina= (Merriam) _Mustela caurina_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:27, October 8, 1890. _Martes caurina caurina_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:93, December 31, 1912. _Type._--Obtained near Grays Harbor, Grays Harbor County, Washington, by L. C. Toey on February 4, 1886; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Color dark; throat patch bright orange or brownish. _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains westward. Marginal localities are (from Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 10) head of Cascade River, Riverside, Chelan, Easton and Trout Lake. The record from Chelan seems doubtful, and the specimen may have come from somewhere around Lake Chelan, rather than from the town of that name. _Remarks._--Skulls of martens from many localities in western North America were studied in an effort to determine the relationship of the eastern pine marten (_Martes americana_) and the western marten. East of the Rocky Mountains the ranges of the two species approach closely, but each retains distinctive characters, notably the shape of the auditory bullae. The two species have not been taken together and the possibility of intergradation exists. On the basis of the evidence at hand, the two should be regarded as full species until positive proof of intergradation is established. In the absence of sufficient material, the marten of the Cascades is referred to _Martes caurina caurina_. Fur graders distinguish between a dark "coast marten" and a paler "Cascade marten." =Martes caurina origenes= (Rhoads) _Mustela caurina origenes_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. at Sci. Philadelphia, 1902:458, September 30, 1902. _Martes caurina origenes_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:93, December 31, 1912. _Type._--Obtained at Marvine Lodge, Garfield County, Colorado, by E. T. Seton on September 16, 1901; type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. _Racial characters._--Paler than _caurina_ with grayer head and yellow or white rather than deep orange or brown throat patch. _Distribution._--Mountainous areas of northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. Trappers have reported this marten from the mountains near Republic, Ferry County. =Martes pennanti= (Erxleben) Fisher [_Mustela_] _pennanti_ Erxleben, Syst. Regni. Anim., 1:470, 1777. _Martes pennanti pennanti_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:94, December 31, 1912. _Mustela canadensis pacifica_ Rhoads, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n.s., 19:435, September, 1898 (type from Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington). _Martes pennanti pacifica_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:94, December 31, 1912. _Martes pennanti_ Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, Fur-bearing Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 211, July 22, 1937. _Type locality._--Eastern Canada. _Distribution._--Originally forested areas from the eastern base of the Cascades westward and possibly the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington and the mountains of northeastern Washington; now probably confined to the Cascade and Olympic mountains. [Illustration: FIG. 54. Fisher (_Martes pennanti_). 2-year-old male in captivity; New Westminster, B. C., March 7, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 598.)] _Remarks._--The fisher is the size of a large cat. In general proportions it resembles the marten. Adult males measure about 3-1/2 feet in length; the tail comprises 16 inches of this. Adult females are slightly less than 3 feet in length of which the tail makes up approximately 15 inches. Males weigh up to 10 lbs. and females about 5-1/2 pounds (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 213). The fisher has a slim body, bushy tail, short legs, large feet, and wide, low and triangular head. The ears are low, wide, rounded and erect. The fur is an ashy, brownish gray in color with an overwash of blackish caused by long, dark hairs. The head is slightly paler than the body. The feet, rump and tail are darkest. The claws are strong and sharply curved. The fisher is found in wooded parts of North America, extending southward in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Chain to central California. Its near relatives are the martens. It is active all year. Like the marten, it is active by day and probably also by night. In spite of absolute protection for several years, the fisher is rare in Washington, and seems never to have been common. In consequence relatively little is known of its habits, and the little that is known has been reported by fur-trappers. [Illustration: FIG. 55. Distribution of the fisher, _Martes pennanti_, in Washington.] The fisher seems not to live in bands as does the marten. Most of the actual records of fishers trapped are at higher altitudes but are misleading because most trappers agree that the fisher occupied a lower zone, altitudinally, than does the marten. There are old records of its occurrence near sea level (Scheffer, 1938: 9). The animals are usually taken in marten sets or in traps set especially for fishers by trappers who find their tracks on their marten trap lines. Since marten trappers are almost the only persons who travel in the mountains in winter, and since they operate mostly above the areas where fishers live, relatively few fishers are reported. Fishers are said to feed on chipmunks, squirrels, mice, birds and other small, warm-blooded animals, and to climb trees and catch squirrels in their natural habitat. Also, fishers are said to catch and kill martens. Their tracks in the snow resemble the marten's in that the hind feet land in the same places as the forefeet; both animals bound rather than walk. The pelt of the fisher commands a high price. The smaller sized, females, are the more valuable. The price paid for pelts fluctuates widely and has ranged from as low as twelve dollars to as high as one hundred dollars in recent years. In Washington more fishers live in the Olympic Peninsula and the northern Cascade Mountains than elsewhere. A few may occur in northeastern Washington, the Blue Mountains and the Willapa Hills. The name _pacifica_ was regarded by Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1937: 217) as a synonym of _pennanti_. =Mustela erminea= Linnaeus Ermine _Description._--Though it is similar in general characters and proportions to the long-tailed weasel, the ermine is much smaller and has a relatively shorter tail. It is darker and less reddish or yellowish in summer. Adult males measure about 10 inches in length, of which 3-1/2 inches is the length of the tail. Females measure about 8 inches and have tails 2 inches long. The upper parts are chocolate brown; the underparts are white or pale yellow. Along the coast of Washington, the pale color of the underparts is more restricted in the ermine than in the long-tailed weasel. The dark brown tail has a black tip. Ermines east of the summit of the Cascades become pure white in winter, save for the black tail tip. West of the summit of the Cascades the winter pelt is similar to the summer pelt but is slightly paler with denser underfur. Ermines in America range from the Arctic southward, in mountainous areas, to the southern end of the Sierra Nevada in California, and in the Rocky Mountains to northern New Mexico. In Washington they are found over the entire state except the arid parts of eastern Washington, where only the long-tailed weasel occurs. So far as my observations go, the ermine is principally nocturnal in Washington; I have seen only one abroad in the daytime. It dashed from a roadside thicket near Glacier, Whatcom County, and was crushed beneath the wheels of a car. Taylor and Shaw (1927: 53) note several instances of diurnal activity of the ermines at Mount Rainier National Park. The ermine seems to feed principally upon mice. Its small size adapts it to entering burrows that larger weasels cannot enter. It probably eats chipmunks, birds, and other small, warm-blooded animals. Ermines climb readily and are often taken in traps set in trees for martens. Near Skykomish, King County, William Hoffman took two ermines in traps set in burrows of mountain beavers. The mountain beavers were needed for use as bait on his trap line. The traps were reset and later caught mountain beavers. Seemingly the ermines were traveling through the burrows, perhaps to catch the mice which utilize the burrows as highways, rather than to prey upon mountain beavers. It is difficult to see how the tiny ermine could kill an adult mountain beaver, which outweighs it many times. Should the incisors of the mountain beaver close even once upon an ermine it would most certainly be seriously wounded or killed. Judging by the forest habitat occupied by the ermine in Washington, one might expect its principal food to consist of deer mice (_Peromyscus maniculatus_), red-backed mice (_Clethrionomys_) and meadow mice (_Microtus_). In observing the activities and habits of mammals in their natural habitat, I have often relied on tracking in fresh snow. Strangely enough, tracks of ermines were seldom found, and the few that were seen came from beneath a log, bush or wind-fall and disappeared beneath similar cover, rarely extending 20 feet on the surface of the snow. The larger, long-tailed weasels often traveled for miles on the surface of the snow. Possibly the ermines were following the burrows of mice through the snow, or perhaps they kept beneath the surface from fear of owls. This suggests a reason why ermines are so seldom seen abroad. They may be following burrows and runways of mice and seldom come to the surface of the ground. On November 18, 1936, we saw three ermines and two long-tailed weasels taken by a trapper on Deception Creek near Stevens Pass, King County. All were in the white winter coat. In December, 1938, we obtained two ermines at Skykomish, King County, 18 miles west of Stevens Pass. These were in the brown winter coat. In that area the break between the brown and white winter coat seems to come just west of the main Cascade Summit, or at the same point that the break occurs between the brown and white winter coats of the long-tailed weasel. Ermine skins have little value and usually bring from 10 to 35 cents. They are saved incidentally by trappers, for it takes but a few moments to skin and prepare them. They possess the strong, musk odor so typical of the long-tailed weasel. =Mustela erminea invicta= Hall _Mustela erminea invicta_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:75, February 27, 1945. _Type._--Obtained at Benewah, Benewah County, Idaho, by W. T. Shaw on October 24, 1926; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Largest of the Washington ermines; winter coat entirely white; upper lips white; black of tail more than half length of tail vertebrae. _Measurements._--Ten males and 5 females from central Idaho average, respectively (Hall, 1945): total length 291, 255; length of tail 86, 71; hind foot 40, 32. 3. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington and the northeastern Cascades, west to Chilliwack River and Hannegan Pass (Hall, 1945: 78). =Mustela erminea fallenda= Hall _Mustela erminea fallenda_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:79, February 27, 1945. _Type._--Obtained at Huntingdon, British Columbia, by C. H. Young on May 21, 1927; type in National Museum of Canada. _Racial characters._-Size large; winter coat usually brown; pale color of underparts much restricted; color of upper parts dark; color of lips variable; tail with more than distal half black. _Measurements._--Seven males and 2 females average, respectively (Hall, 1945: 79): total length 278, 232; length of tail 77, 60; hind foot 36.5, 27. _Distribution._--The extreme north coast of Washington, from the Canadian boundary south through Whatcom County (Hall, 1945: 80-81). _Remarks._--The range of this ermine is similar to that of the yellow-pine chipmunk, _Eutamias amoenus felix_. [Illustration: FIG. 56. Distribution of the ermine in Washington. A. _Mustela erminea invicta._ B. _Mustela erminea murica._ C. _Mustela erminea gulosa._ D. _Mustela erminea fallenda._ E. _Mustela erminea streatori._ F. _Mustela erminea olympica._] =Mustela erminea olympica= Hall _Mustela erminea olympica_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:81, February 27, 1945. _Type._--Obtained near head of Sol Duc River, Clallam County, Washington, by V. Bailey, on April 28, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _streatori_ but smaller, especially females. _Measurements._--Twelve males and 6 females average, respectively: total length 243, 196; length of tail 65, 52; hind foot 31, 23.4 (Hall, 1945: 81). _Distribution._--The Olympic Peninsula, extending southeastward to Olympia. =Mustela erminea streatori= (Merriam) _Putorius streatori_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:13, June 30. 1896. _Mustela streatori streatori_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912. _Mustela cicognanii streatori_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929. _Mustela erminea streatori_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:76, February 23, 1945. _Type._--Obtained at Mount Vernon, Skagit County, Washington, by D. R. Lucky on February 29, 1896; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _fallenda_ but pale color of underparts less restricted; tail with less than distal half black. _Measurements._--Two males and 2 females from extreme southwestern Washington average, respectively: total length 245, 210; length of tail 72, 54; hind foot 31.5, 25.5; ear 17, 14; weight 72.3, 46. _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington; north to Skagit County and Whidby Island (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11), southward and westward to Ilwaco (M.V.Z.) and eastward to Carson (U.S.N.M.). =Mustela erminea gulosa= Hall _Mustela erminea gulosa_ Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:84, February 27, 1945. _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickatat County, Washington, by P. Schmid on February 3, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _invicta_ but smaller; winter coat usually white; tail less than one-half black; upper lips white. _Measurements._--Five males from Mount Rainier, and 4 females from the Cascade Mountains, average, respectively (Hall, 1945: 84): total length 253, 208; length of tail 76, 54; hind foot 30.2, 24.3. _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains. Known from Skykomish (W.W.D.) and southward to Mount Adams (Trout Lake, Hall, 1945: 85). =Mustela erminea murica= (Bangs) _Putorius (Arctogale) muricus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:71, July 31, 1899. _Mustela muricus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912. _Mustela cicognanii lepta_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929. _Mustela cicognanii muricus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:292, August 29, 1936. _Mustela erminea murica_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:77, February 27, 1945. _Type._--Obtained at Echo, El Dorado County, California, by W. W. Price and E. M. Nutting on July 15, 1897; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Similar to _invicta_ but smaller and paler. _Measurements._--A young female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia County, measured: total length 201; length of tail 46; hind foot 24; ear 14; weight 45.8. A female from Butte Creek, Columbia County, measured: 185; 50; 26. A male from Baker Creek, White Pine County, Nevada, measured: 220; 56; 26; 14.5; weight 57.7. _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. _Remarks._--Two specimens available from the Blue Mountains are darker than typical _murica_. =Mustela frenata= Lichtenstein Long-tailed Weasel _Description._--Male long-tailed weasels measure about 16 inches in total length of which 6 inches is the length of the tail. Females are smaller, measuring about 14 inches in length with a tail 5 inches long. The body is long and exceedingly thin. The legs are short and stout with rather large feet and strong, curved claws. The tail is well-furred, not tapered, but lacks the bushy appearance of the tail of the fisher. The head is low, wide at the base and abruptly tapering to the muzzle. The ears are erect, low and rounded. The fur is short but dense and rather soft. In summer the color of the head, back, sides and outside of the legs is brown. The throat, chest, underside of body and insides of legs are yellow or orange. In winter they may be entirely white, save for the black tip of the tail. The tail is slightly darker than the back in summer and possesses a long black tip. Long-tailed weasels do not hibernate even in the coldest parts of Washington. They are active both by day and by night, apparently doing their hunting at the time of day or night when they can most easily obtain food. In the Cascade Mountains where diurnal mammals such as squirrels, chipmunks and pikas are common, weasels are not uncommonly seen by day. In the lowlands of western Washington, where they feed on more nocturnal mammals, they are seldom seen. The long-tailed weasel is relatively unspecialized in habits. They climb readily and skillfully. They are active on the surface of the ground and follow the burrow systems of fossorial animals such as gophers and mountain beavers. Weasels seen in the wild rarely exhibit fear of man but rather are curious and apt to watch his actions. Weasels are also often hit by cars and the number so killed seems to me to be out of proportion to their actual numbers. In moving on the surface of the ground the weasel arches its back and contracts the body until the four feet are rather close together. When the long neck and small head are held upright the animal presents a surprisingly giraffelike appearance. When climbing, the long, slim body has a snakelike appearance. A weasel travels swiftly and erratically in a series of bounds and seems always to know where the next hole is situated. The weasel has been accused of killing birds and doubtless does so when opportunity presents itself. However, in Washington I have no actual evidence of its killing birds other than domestic fowls. At Republic, Ferry County, a companion and I saw a weasel enter the burrow of a ground squirrel (_Citellus columbianus_). The following day we returned to the area. The weasel was not seen but a ground squirrel dashed into the hole at our approach. Seemingly the ground squirrel had eluded the weasel. At Conconully, Okanogan County, we set a number of gopher traps in an alfalfa field. The following morning an adult male long-tailed weasel was found in a trap but not a gopher was taken. Near Moses Lake, Grant County, an adult male weasel was caught in a gopher trap, but no gophers were taken. At Shelton, Mason County, 50 gopher traps were set. At daylight the following morning the first trap visited was found to be pulled into the burrow. When a gentle tug was given the wire fastening the trap, a decisive jerk at the other end showed that the catch was alive. If trapped gophers that pull the traps back into their burrows are pulled out by main strength, their skins are often torn and damaged. Therefore an attempt was made to reach into the burrow and pull back the sod. An adult female long-tailed weasel promptly fastened its teeth into my forefinger and clung on, bulldog fashion, to be lifted into the air with the attached trap swinging. When the left hand was used to force the animal to release its grip, it fastened onto the left thumb. With right thumb and forefinger I forced it to release its grip, but was unable to elude its teeth which again fastened to my right forefinger. Only by laying it on the ground and crushing its chest with my foot could I free myself from the vicious little beast. No gophers were taken in traps set less than 150 feet from where the weasel was trapped. In the three instances mentioned above, weasels had seemingly killed all the gophers in their immediate vicinity. As regards the gophers near Moses Lake, none was found a year later in the area where the weasel was taken and only old, abandoned burrows were seen. T. H. Scheffer (1932: 54) records other instances of the capture of weasels in gopher burrows. At the northern limits of the city of Seattle, steel traps were set for mountain beavers in a rather dense colony of these mammals. Well-used burrows indicated that approximately 10 individuals were present. The following morning an exceptionally large male weasel was found in a trap, but all others were empty. The traps were left out for two additional nights but no mountain beavers were taken. A month later the colony seemed abandoned and no evidence of recent digging was noted. It could only be concluded that the weasel had killed the animals comprising the colony. A large mountain beaver weighs three or four pounds, which is 6 or 8 times as much as a weasel. Edson (1933: 76) recounts trapping 7 weasels in burrows of mountain beavers near Bellingham, Whatcom County. Near Forks, Clallam County, a weasel was seen pursuing a young snowshoe rabbit (_Lepus americanus washingtonii_) along the edge of a concrete highway. As our car approached and passed the animals, they separated, the weasel retreating to the cover of horsetail (_Equisetum_) beside the road. The car was stopped 50 feet ahead. As we emerged the weasel dashed from cover to intercept the rabbit in the center of the road. The weasel knocked the rabbit to its side and, placing its feet on the rabbit's shoulders, bit fiercely at its neck. It then dashed back to the cover of the horsetails. The rabbit stood up, made two hops and died. It was approximately two weeks old. [Illustration: FIG. 57. Distribution of the long-tailed weasel in Washington. A. _Mustela frenata washingtoni._ B. _Mustela frenata altifrontalis._ C. _Mustela frenata nevadensis._ D. _Mustela frenata effera._] The pelts of weasels bring the trapper from twenty-five cents to a dollar and a half. Only skins in the white winter coat command the higher price. They are usually taken in traps set for other animals. In the western part of the state, long-tailed weasels do not turn white in the winter; the back is slightly less reddish than in summer and the underparts are pale yellow or white or may be both yellow and white. From the summit of the Cascades eastward weasels become white. The break in winter color seems to occur slightly west of the main summit of the Cascades. Specimens taken by marten trappers at Tye and Scenic, near Stevens Pass, were white on November 15, 1936, but specimens from Skykomish and Baring, 18 miles to the west, were brown. The long-tailed weasel possesses a distinctive odor. It results from a glandular secretion and, although it has no great carrying power or lasting quality, it does affect some persons strongly. It is a heavy, rather sickening scent. The gestation period of _Mustela f. nevadensis_ has been recorded as more than 131 days (Hall, 1938B: 250). The gestation period of the long-tailed weasel of eastern United States has been recorded as more than 70 days. Three to five young are born in a litter, usually four. =Mustela frenata nevadensis= Hall _Mustela arizonensis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929. _Mustela washingtoni_ Taylor and Shaw, in part, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929. _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:91, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Obtained 3 miles east of Baker, White Pine County, Nevada, by E. R. Hall and W. C. Russell on May 30, 1929; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Size medium; colors pale; back near Brussels Brown in summer, chin white and underparts yellow, rarely orange; color in winter white with black tip on tail. _Measurements._--A male from Neppel, Grant County, measures: total length 412; length of tail 151; hind foot 43; ear 19. Two males from Yakima, Yakima County, average: 379; 135; 42.5; 21; weight 176.5. A female from Ellensburg and one from 4 miles east of Ellensburg, Kittitas County, average: 284; 98; 33; 17. _Distribution._--From the high Cascades eastward, save for the Blue Mountains area. Marginal occurrences are Barron (Hall, 1936: 93) and Easton (W. W. D.). _Remarks._--Specimens from the northern Cascades are intergrades between _nevadensis_ and the form to the west, _altifrontalis_. Specimens from extreme northeastern Washington might be referred to _oribasa_ Bangs as readily as to _nevadensis_. =Mustela frenata effera= Hall _Mustela frenata effera_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:93, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Obtained at Ironside, Malheur County, Oregon, by H. E. Anthony on September 8, 1912; type in American Museum of Natural History. _Racial characters._--Similar to _nevadensis_ in color but smaller, with smaller, lighter skull. Color in winter white with black tip on tail. _Measurements._--A female from Prescott, Walla Walla County, measures: total length 310; length of tail 105; hind foot 34. _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake River. Specimens from Walla Walla and Prescott have been examined. =Mustela frenata washingtoni= (Merriam) _Putorius washingtoni_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:18, June 30, 1896. _Mustela washingtoni_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98, December 31, 1912. _Mustela frenata washingtoni_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:106, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Skamania County, Washington, by D. N. Kaegi on December 15, 1895; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Color rich, dark; hind feet free of color of underparts. _Measurements._--A male from Spray Park, Pierce County, measures: total length 423; length of tail 164; hind foot 52. _Distribution._--Higher Cascades from Mt. Rainer (M. V. Z.) south to Mt. Adams (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11). =Mustela frenata altifrontalis= Hall _Mustela saturata_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929. _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:94, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Obtained at Tillamook, Tillamook County, Oregon, by A. Walker on July 10, 1928; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Similar to _nevadensis_ but darker above in summer and richer orange beneath; winter color of upper parts dark brown, underparts pale yellow or white. _Measurements._--Four males and 2 females from western Washington average, respectively: total length 411.5, 267; length of tail 145, 137.5; hind foot 50, 43; ear 26, 21.5; weight 227, 136.7 grams. _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific. Marginal occurrences are Rockport (Hall, 1936: 95) and Tye (W. W. D.). =Mustela vison energumenos= (Bangs) Mink _Putorius vison energumenos_ Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 27:5, March, 1896. _Mustela vison energumenos_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:101, December 31, 1912. _Type._--Obtained at Sumas, British Columbia, by A. C. Brooks on September 23, 1895; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. _Measurements._--A male from Seattle, King County, measures: total length 540; length of tail 180; hind foot 66; weight 1 pound, 15 ounces. _Distribution._--Throughout the state save for the Columbian Plateau; recorded from Neah Bay (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11) in the northwest, Ilwaco (M.V.Z.) in the southwest, Metaline (W.W.D.) in the northeast, and the Blue Mountains (Dice, 1919: 12) in the southeast. [Illustration: FIG. 58. Distribution of the mink, _Mustela vison energumenos_, in Washington.] _Description._--Because of the value and lasting popularity of its fur, the mink is known to all. Few persons, however, recognize the animal in the wild. The mink possesses the long, slim body and short, rather stout legs of a weasel but has a more bushy tail. The mink is larger than the weasel. Large males weigh up to 3 pounds; females 1-1/2 pounds. Males measure about 2 feet in length, of which the tail comprises eight inches. Females measure about 20 inches and have tails 7 inches long. The color is rich, dark reddish or chocolate brown. The underparts are slightly paler than the back. There are usually small white markings on the chin, chest or other part of the ventral surface. These markings sometimes take the form of narrow white lines. The mink ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Alaska south to Florida, New Mexico and central California. It is active throughout the year and is principally, though not exclusively, nocturnal. McMurry (1940: 47) records three mink seen at 3:30 p. m. on August 8, 1939, at Packwood Lake, Lewis County, one of which was carrying a garter snake two feet in length. This mustelid is semiaquatic, living along rivers, streams, lakes and salt water and spends most of its time along the shore, on muddy or sandy beaches. In this respect it resembles the raccoon. Whereas the raccoon spends a part of its time on the land, the mink spends a corresponding amount of its time in the water. It is an excellent swimmer, able to overtake and capture fish in the water. In the San Juan Islands minks have forsaken the shoreline and roam over the uplands, feeding on the abundant, feral domestic rabbits. I found evidence of their presence far inland, miles from water, in grassy and bushy wastes; along the beaches their tracks were rarely seen. Along Puget Sound, minks spend part of their time on the beaches, feeding on dead fish and other marine animal life. These animals, however, seem to live along the rivers and streams flowing into the sound. Along the ocean coast, some minks seem to live exclusively in the marine shoreline habitat. The mink ascends some distance into the Cascade and Olympic mountains along the larger watercourses. There are reliable reports of minks from Heart Lake and Lake Dorothy, King County, high in the Cascades. These animals were seen in the summer but they may live in higher parts of the Cascades, at least about some of the larger lakes throughout the year. As far as is known there are no minks on the Columbian Plateau. The food probably varies with locality. Along the ocean beaches they eat dead sea birds, stranded fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. Along Puget Sound their tracks are commonly seen following the caked, decaying seaweed and debris that collects at the high tide mark. Svihla and Svihla (1931: 22) captured a mink that was feeding on the beach of the Olympic Peninsula. This individual, in captivity, was able to open and feed on clams. Fur trappers report that minks feed on mountain beavers, and that the flesh of the mountain beaver is the best bait for attracting minks. Along streams and lakes, minks are thought to feed on mice, birds, fish, crayfish and thin-shelled, fresh-water mussels. The muskrat forms an important item of diet near the larger lakes and streams. Muskrats trapped near Seattle were often attacked by minks and either eaten or so slashed and torn that their pelts were worth but a fraction of what they would bring in an undamaged condition. The tracks of a mink noted in freshly fallen snow about a garbage dump on the shore of Lake Washington, Seattle, indicated that the animal had been hunting house rats, which were numerous there. Minks are not uncommon in the marshes along Lake Washington near the University of Washington campus, Seattle, where I discovered evidence of their preying on ducks and coots. The ducks included mallards and green-winged teal, species most apt to alight in small pools in the rushes where a mink might find cover. I found the fresh tracks of one mink about a half-eaten golden tench 8 inches long. The tench is a fish of the sucker tribe, introduced into the lake. Tracks of minks are not uncommonly seen along rivers and streams under conditions that indicate they were hunting crayfish. The raw pelt of the mink sells usually at from 10 to 20 dollars. The fur is in constant demand and fluctuates in price less than most furs. The average trapper takes a few minks each year along with his catch of muskrats, raccoons, and skunks but some trappers have taken as many as 100 minks in a winter in areas where the animal is especially numerous. =Gulo luscus luteus= Elliot Wolverine _Gulo luteus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 87, zoöl. ser. 3:260, December, 1903. _Gulo luscus luteus_ Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale, Fur-bearing Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 251, July 22, 1937. _Type._--Obtained on Mt. Whitney, Tulare County, California, by E. Heller; type in Field Museum of Natural History. _Measurements._--The dried skin of a wolverine taken 3 miles south of Riverside, Okanogan County, was 4 feet in length. The animal weighed 40 pounds (Scheffer, 1941: 37). _Distribution._--Timber-line region of the Cascades Mountains. From Robinson Creek (Scheffer, 1938: 8) south to Mount Rainier (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12). _Remarks._--Specimens from Washington are intermediate in character between _luteus_ and the race inhabiting British Columbia, although available skulls are closer to _luteus_. [Illustration: FIG. 59. Wolverine (_Gulo luscus_), mounted specimen, male, trapped by Billy Robinson about 1902 on Billy Robinson Creek, Okanogan County, Washington. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 76.)] _Description._--Large males measure more than three feet in length, of which the tail makes up 10 inches; they weigh as much as 50 pounds (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 253). The body is wide and stocky; the tail is short; the legs, especially the forelegs, are short, thick and powerful; the feet are large and are armed with long, curved claws; the head is wide; the jaws are powerful with heavy teeth. The pelage is long and rather shaggy. Face, legs, back and terminal portion of the tail are dark, blackish brown but the forehead is grayish, contrasting with the dark color of face and top of the head. Two broad, yellowish-brown bands begin on the side of the shoulders and pass back, low on the sides, to the hips where they join across the back and base of the tail. The wolverines, nominally of several species, form a compact group that ranges over the boreal regions of the Old and New world. In North America they range southward from the Arctic to California and Colorado. [Illustration: FIG. 60. Wolverine (_Gulo luscus_), male, trapped by Reuben R. Lamb, March 22, 1941, three miles south of Riverside, Washington; reported to weigh 40 pounds; dried pelt 3 × 4 feet. (Reuben R. Lamb photo.)] [Illustration: FIG. 61. Distribution of the wolverine, _Gulo luscus luteus_, in Washington.] The wolverine is adapted to boreal conditions and is most abundant in the arctic. In the Cascades it occurs only at or near timber-line. Except the wolf and the possibly extinct grizzly bear, the wolverine is the rarest carnivore in Washington. Probably it has been rare since the retreat of the continental glaciers, for suitable habitat for wolverines is not abundant and each animal requires a large area over which to range. An unusual record, possibly of a wandering animal, is given by Scheffer (1941: 37). This is of an adult male taken in the Okanogan Valley 3 miles south of Riverside, Okanogan County, on March 22, 1941. =Lutra canadensis= (Schreber) River otter _Description._--The otter has the long body of many mustelids, but is specialized for aquatic life. Males are slightly larger than females. Large adults measure more than 3-1/2 feet in length, of which the tail comprises 18 inches. The largest adults may weigh as much as 25 pounds. The body is elongate but rather plump. The forelimbs are small and laterally placed. The hind legs are the heavier, and are situated posteriorly. The feet are large and webbed for swimming. The tail is long, thick at the base and gradually tapering to a narrow tip. The head is small and rounded. The ears are tiny and the eyes are of moderate size. The upper lips are large, somewhat spaniel-like, and support a mustache of stiff vibrissae. The fur is short, dense and soft. The tail is sleek with short, posteriorly-directed fur, and is not bushy. The fur is rich, dark chocolate brown in color, slightly paler on the animal's underparts than on its upper parts. Otters range over Eurasia, North America and South America. Those occurring in North America north of Mexico are thought to belong to a single species, _canadensis_. Several species from tropical America may eventually be shown to also be races of _canadensis_. The aquatic habits of the otter allow it to exist in several life-zones, in both marine and fresh-water habitats. The principal environment is the streams, rivers and lakes of the Transition Life-zone, but along the larger rivers, otters range up into the Canadian Life-zone and along the Snake and Columbia rivers they enter the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. They are active throughout the year. As we have observed them, they are principally nocturnal. Otters are extremely powerful swimmers. Tracks along the North Fork of the Tolt River, King County, showed where otters had entered water that flowed over a stony bottom at the velocity of rapids. Their occurrence in the Tolt, Skykomish and Snoqualmie rivers where these are swift mountain streams indicates exceptional swimming ability. After emerging from the water, an otter often follows along the shore, sometimes for miles. In the San Juan Islands the otters have taken to a marine existence. In the summer of 1938, abundant opportunity offered to observe the otters at Thatcher Bay, Blakely Island. Here, in the evening, bats were shot as they flew over the calm water of the bay. Specimens killed were retrieved by rowing out to them with a dory. For the first two nights bats were collected and retrieved without incident. On the third night, several of the bats vanished between the time they were killed and the time that the boat was launched from the rocky beach. The presence of a shark or other large fish was at first suspected, but observation showed a group of three or possibly four otters to be the thieves. On succeeding nights the animals became bolder. A dead bat became the object of a race between otters and collector. They completely ignored shouts, dodged stones hurled at them, and stole almost all the bats shot. Only a sense of humor and desire to study the animals saved them from a load of fine shot. Bat collecting was given up in disgust. These otters were remarkably seallike in many actions. In swimming their heads, shoulders and part of their back were exposed. In resting in the water, only the round head remained above the surface. They were never seen to float prone on the surface or rest on their backs, as does the sea otter. They were noisy swimmers, splashing with paws or heads as they dived. Their eyesight was remarkable. Stones the size of a walnut were hurled at them from distances as short as 25 feet. All were dodged with little effort. In this connection the experience of two trappers who caught an otter in the Samamish River near Woodinville, King County, is interesting. The trap holding the otter had been attached by a wire 6 feet long to a pole on the bank. The wire was detached from the pole; while one trapper held the wire, the other tried to strike the otter with an oar as the boat drifted over deep water. The otter was free to swim and dive for the length of the wire and trap chain. It detected, and evaded by dodging or diving, every blow directed at it and not until the animal tired, a half hour later, could it be killed. The trappers then noted that the splashing of oars and otter had nearly filled the boat with water. The trappers were exhausted. The otters of Blakely Island were not unique in occupying a marine habitat. At Strawberry Bay, Cypress Island, on July 5, 1938, fishermen brought in a "strange animal" caught by them at Black Rock, a tiny bare and isolated islet 5 miles to the west. The heavy box holding the animal was opened, disclosing a very frightened young otter. Questioned, the fishermen stated that four young and one adult had been seen in the surf. They had thought the animals a species of seal, and were somewhat surprised at being successful in their attempts to catch one. The otter was too young to fare for itself and was kept in camp in the hope that it might be reared and released. It ate a few fresh herring and candlefish and drank some condensed milk. It refused whole salmon and sea bass but ate some skinned and boned strips of these fish. It died a week after it was captured. This young otter made a ticking sound, almost a chirp. A variety of crying and whimpering sounds were also made, and when petted it grunted in satisfaction. If surprised or when first picked up it gave a deep harsh growl, unexpectedly vicious in sound, for such a small animal. The otters at Blakely Island fed on a great variety of food. The only food they were actually seen to eat was candlefish, a slim silvery fish 6 inches in length. On several occasions an otter was seen swimming with the head of a candlefish held fast in its mouth and the fish's body extending out in a silvery bow. Many feces of these otters were composed entirely of the feathers of grebes and scoters. These birds were probably not killed by the otters but died a natural death or were shot by men. At that camp scarcely a day passed in which at least one person was not seen firing a .22 caliber rifle from a cabin cruiser into the flocks of scoters at the mouth of the bay. Dead sea birds were common on the shore and doubtless furnished food for otters as they did for crows and eagles. The majority of the otter feces examined at Blakely Island were composed of the remains of invertebrates. The small mussel (_Mytilus edulis_) was most abundant. Crabs formed an important part of their diet. Strangely enough the shore crab (_Hemigrapsus nudus_) and the porcelain crab (_Petrolisthes eriomerus_) were seldom eaten though they were abundant beneath the rocks upon which the feces were found, and formed the principal food item of raccoons. These species of invertebrates live beneath rocks and the raccoon probably reaches beneath the rocks to catch the crabs with its handlike forefeet, as the otter is unable to do. The edible crab (_Cancer productus_) and kelp crab (_Telmessus cheiragonus_) were most often eaten by otters. Also eaten were snails (_Margarites_, _Littorina_), bitter oysters (_Pododesmus macroschisma_), unidentified pelecypods, barnacles (_Balanus_), one chiton (_Mopalia muscosa_), and once a starfish. The invertebrate remains, save for the snails, were crushed and broken. Fish of many species were abundant in these waters. Salmon were often seen leaping near the playing otters. Yet no scales or other remains of fish were detected in the feces. Candlefish possess tiny scales that could probably be seen by microscopic examination only. As for the bird remains, the quantity of feathers consumed is notable. The otters apparently do not pluck birds, as do minks. Indeed, of the material eaten, the food value by volume seems extraordinarily low. A great quantity must be eaten to nourish an animal as large and as active as an otter. The number of fecal droppings seen each morning indicates that this is the case. [Illustration: FIG. 62. River otter (_Lutra canadensis pacifica_), trapped in Columbia National Forest, Washington, February, 1937. (Adolph Roth photo.)] seems extraordinarily low. A great quantity must be eaten to nourish an animal as large and as active as an otter. The number of fecal droppings seen each morning indicates that this is the case. The favored food of the otter in fresh water streams and lakes is the crayfish. The greater part, perhaps 80 per cent, of otter feces seen in the lowlands of western Washington, were composed of crayfish remains. Some fish are also eaten and locally otters may do damage among the steelhead trout. Even worse, from the fisherman's standpoint, they frighten and scatter the schools of steelhead trout. Frogs are eaten, as well as the thin-shelled mussels. The feathers of coots were twice seen in otter feces near Cottage Lake, King County. The fur of the otter is dense and beautiful but the skin is rather heavy. Changes in styles cause great fluctuation in the value of the otter's pelt. [Illustration: FIG. 63. Distribution of the river otter in Washington. Unshaded _Lutra canadensis pacifica_. Shaded _Lutra canadensis vancouverensis_.] =Lutra canadensis pacifica= Rhoads _Lutra hudsonica pacifica_ Rhoads, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n. s., 19: 429, September, 1898. _Lutra canadensis pacifica_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 10: 460, November 10, 1898. _Type._--Obtained at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington (altitude 3,000, rather than 8,000 feet as stated in original citation); type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. _Measurements._--An adult male from the Lower Calawah River, near Forks, Clallam County, measured (skinned carcass): total length 1205; length of tail 490; weight (entire) 23 pounds. A male from Puget Island, Wahkiakum County, measured (skinned carcass): total length 1250; length of tail 490. A female from Satsop, Grays Harbor County, measured (skinned carcass): total length 1205; length of tail 440. A female from Calawah River near Forks, Clallam County, measured: total length 1062; length of tail 430; hind foot 120; ear 23; weight 14-3/4 pounds. _Distribution._--Watercourses throughout the state, scarcer east of the Cascades; recorded at Forks (V. B. S.) in the northwest, Puget Island (V. B. S.) in the southwest, Colville (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12) in the northeast, and Touchet (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12) in the southeast. =Lutra canadensis vancouverensis= Goldman _Lutra vancouverensis_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 48: 186, November 15, 1935. _Type._--Obtained at Quatsino, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, by H. O. Berg in 1905; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--No adults, referred to this race from Washington, have been examined. Said to have broader skull than _pacifica_. _Measurements._--The only available specimen, a young female from Black Rock, San Juan County, measured: total length 792; length of tail 247; hind foot 103; ear 22. _Distribution._--The San Juan Islands of northern Puget Sound and adjacent marine waters. _Remarks._--The otters of the San Juan Islands are referred to this race on geographical grounds. Numerous islands connect Vancouver Island with the San Juan Islands, and intervening channels are not too wide for otters to swim. Adult material may show that the otters of the San Juan Islands are referable to _pacifica_ or to an undescribed race rather than to _vancouverensis_. =Enhydra lutris nereis= (Merriam) Sea otter _Latax lutris nereis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17: 159, October 6, 1904. _Enhydra lutris nereis_ Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 21: 316, January 27, 1923. _Type._--Obtained on San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara Islands, by G. M. McGuire in 1904; type in United States National Museum. _Distribution._--Formerly occurred along the ocean coast of Washington. Now extinct there. _Description._--Adult sea otters reach a length of six feet. The body is stout, long and round; the tail is short, flattened and about a foot in length. The legs are short and thick. The hind feet are webbed for swimming. The head is rounded with small eyes and ears, and a seallike mustache of stiff bristles on the muzzle. The upper lip is thick and heavy, drooping over the sides of the mouth in a spaniel-like fashion. The fur is long, soft and extremely dense. The color of the body is various shades of rich, dark brown. Scattered white hairs often give the coat a frosted appearance. The heads of the adults are pale grey, occasionally almost white. The sea otter once ranged from the Gulf of California north along the west coast of North America to Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, Siberia and Japan. It is now found only in a small area along the coast of California and in remote islands of the north Pacific. Once abundant along the coast of Washington, it is now completely extinct there. The habits of sea otters living on the California Coast in the vicinity of Carmel have been described by Fisher (1939: 21-36). Available information on the sea otter in Washington has been given by Scheffer (1940B: 369-388). The search for sea-otter skins influenced the exploration and settlement of the northwest. Captain James Cook obtained skins of sea otter at Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island, in 1778. The mouth of the Columbia River was discovered by Captain Robert Gray on May 11, 1792, while trading for sea otter skins. According to Scheffer, the bulk of the sea-otter population on the Washington coast was concentrated between the mouth of the Columbia River and Point Grenville at the mouth of the Quinault River. The otters were found several miles from land in extensive kelp beds. The principal food of the sea otter in Washington seems to have been the short-spined purple sea urchin (_Strongylocentrotus purpuratus_). The animals were social, living in herds of up to 400 individuals. They never came out on land, living, sleeping, and bringing forth their young on the kelp beds of the open ocean. The single young was born at any month of the year. =Spilogale gracilis= Merriam Civet cat or spotted skunk _Description._--The civet cat is slightly less than 18 inches in total length, of which the tail constitutes 6 inches. Large, fat animals may weigh more than a pound. The body is long and moderately stout, heavier than that of the weasel but slimmer than that of the striped skunk. The tail is long with long, plumelike fur. The legs are slender and of moderate length. The feet are small with long claws. The head is small and triangular with low, erect ears and large, bright eyes. The fur is short but soft and silky. The ground color of the civet cat is black. Wavy lines and spots of white or salmon intercept the black in a complex pattern. Variations in color patterns include width of stripes, waviness of stripes, and breaking up of the stripes into spots. _Spilogale_ is restricted to America; it ranges from southern British Columbia south into Central America. Several species are now recognized, but additional material probably will show intergradation between some of them and reduce the number. The name "spotted skunk" is seldom used by trappers or other persons familiar with the animal. Nor is it appropriate, for the distinctive color pattern is composed of short stripes. Neither is the term "civet cat" appropriate, for the true civet is found in Asia. The name civet cat is well established, however, and will doubtless remain in general use. The civet cat is principally a lowland animal, but has been recorded from the Nisqually entrance of Mt. Rainier National Park (Brockman, 1939: 70). Its rather generalized habits allow it to exist in areas that will not support larger carnivores or species with specialized food habits. It dwells in areas of thickets, brushy tangles or deep woods. In southeastern Washington it lives in rocky places as well as in river-side thickets of willow and cottonwood. Where conditions are suitable it ranges up into the Canadian Life-zone but is most abundant in the Transition Life-zone. The civet cats, in contrast to the striped skunks, are exclusively nocturnal. They are active the year around in western Washington but move about less in spells of unusually cold weather. We have taken them, however, in freezing weather. In spite of their abundance and wide range, civet cats are known to few persons other than trappers, perhaps because of their exclusively nocturnal habits. They do occasionally make people aware of themselves by taking up residence about old buildings. They are rather noisy at times. At the Tolt River, 10 miles southeast of Duvall, King County, we were asleep in an old building when a stamping noise from the next room awakened us. Investigation revealed a civet cat indulging in a series of short, stiff-legged hops. The forefeet were held slightly ahead and six or eight hops made. The animal would then relax, turn, and prance off in a new direction. The amount of noise made by its feet striking the board floor was surprising. The civet cat seemed to enjoy the noise it made, and the prancing may have been a method of playing. Trapped civet cats have been seen to make a similar but shorter series of hops at the trapper's approach, which might have been a warning. In the case described, however, the noise of the animal's actions was heard before the animal was seen and presumably when it was unaware of human presence. The civet cat also makes a drumming noise similar to the drumming of a wood rat. This was heard twice from wild animals that did not suspect an observer's presence, and once from a captive animal. While an animal was drumming I never had the opportunity to watch the actions closely enough to describe them. Apparently the drumming is done with the forefeet. The civet cat is said to be a good climber and to do some of its hunting in trees. One trapped civet cat climbed to the limit of a trap chain and wire in a low bush near Cottage Lake, King County, but, in Washington, I have no other evidence of this animal climbing. Near Cottage Lake, we took a civet cat in a trap set beneath 2 inches of water at the side of a stream. The animal had either been swimming or wading. Trapped civet cats rarely dig holes near the traps, as striped skunks often do. One caught near Ocean Park, Pacific County, did dig a hole beneath a log and forced earth and leaves over the entrance. I walked within a few feet of the animal in searching for the trap. Not until the trap chain was seen did I find the civet cat. None was taken in traps set in mountain beaver burrows, although I have caught both striped skunks and weasels in such burrows. Some trappers state that the musk of the civet cat smells different from that of the striped skunk. I think the odor is slightly more acrid and that it does not carry so far as the skunk musk. The civet cat is far more active and nervous than the striped skunk. Whereas the striped skunk almost never throws its scent when trapped, the civet cat almost invariably does so, apparently when the trap closes about its legs. Striped skunks in traps move slowly and steadily but civet cats jump, roll and squirm erratically. [Illustration: FIG. 64. Distribution of the civet cat in Washington. A. _Spilogale gracilis latifrons._ B. _Spilogale gracilis saxatilis._] In the winter of 1934 a large male civet cat was taken near Cottage Lake, King County. It had been killed and partially eaten in the trap. The ground about the set was torn up, indicating that the civet cat had put up a fight. The area for many feet about smelled of skunk musk. The body of the civet cat was used for bait and the trap reset. The following morning a large male striped skunk was in the trap. Its skin bore superficial cuts in several places about its neck and rump, and it was doubtless the animal that had killed the civet cat. Under ordinary circumstances a striped skunk could scarcely catch the far swifter and more agile civet cat. One civet cat in a trap was killed and partly eaten by a horned owl. Save for dislodging a few feathers, the civet cat seemed to have done little damage to the owl. The thick cover inhabited by the civet cat ordinarily protects it from owls. Dead civet cats run over by cars on the highway are rarely seen. The stomach of a specimen from Ocean Park, Pacific County, contained the remains of three red-backed mice (_Clethrionomys_ _californicus_). The stomachs of most specimens trapped were empty. Mice, birds and insects probably constitute the bulk of the food. Notes on the early life of _Spilogale interrupta_, a species related to the one occurring in Washington, have been published by Crabb (1944: 213-221). The fur of the civet cat is of little value; in recent years trappers have received from fifteen cents to a dollar for large pelts. Because of its habit of throwing scent when in the traps, most trappers discard the animals without skinning them. =Spilogale gracilis saxatilis= Merriam _Spilogale saxatilis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:13, October 8, 1890. _Spilogale gracilis saxatilis_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 26:23, November 24, 1906. _Type._--Obtained at Provo, Utah County, Utah, by V. Bailey on November 13, 1890; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Size small; white areas extensive, especially on tail but white triangle on head small; white areas less often tinged with salmon or orange than _latifrons_. _Measurements._--Howell (1906: 32) gives the measurements of a male from Harney, Oregon, and the average of 3 females from Oregon as, respectively: total length 455, 360; length of tail 155, 129; hind foot 50, 40. _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, north to Kamiak Butte (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12). =Spilogale gracilis latifrons= Merriam _Spilogale phenax latifrons_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:15, October 8, 1890. _Spilogale olympica_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 32, zoöl. ser. 1:270, March, 1899 (type from Lake Sutherland, Clallam County, Washington). _Spilogale phenax olympica_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 26:33, November 24, 1906. _Spilogale gracilis latifrons_ Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, Fur-bearing Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 301, July 22, 1937. _Type._--Obtained at Roseburg, Douglas County, Oregon, by T. S. Palmer on July 13, 1889; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Larger than _saxatilis_ with less extensive white markings, especially on tail, but white markings on head larger; white usually tinged with salmon or pale orange. _Measurements._--Means for four males, from Pacific County, are total length 411; length of tail 136; hind foot 47.5; ear 27. One weighed 784 grams. _Distribution._--Western Washington from the western edge of the Cascades westward. Marginal records, given by Taylor and Shaw (1929: 12) are Hamilton, on the north; Lake Keechelus, on the east; and Carson, on the south. _Remarks._--Comparison of adult specimens of civet cats from western Washington and western Oregon shows no reliable character for recognition of two races. No difference in tail length exists. Narrowness of rostrum was the only diagnostic character found by Howell (1906: 34) to separate _latifrons_ and _olympica_. We have carefully compared civet cats from western Oregon, southwestern Washington and the area about Seattle. Some local variation exists but overlapping is great and specimens from Washington do not have rostra that average narrower than specimens from Oregon. =Mephitis mephitis= (Schreber) Striped skunk _Description._--The striped skunk is a heavy-bodied animal about the size of a house cat. The legs are of moderate length and stout and the hind feet are large. The claws of the forefeet are long, strong and curved. The head is small and pointed, with small eyes and ears. The tail is long, nearly equal in length to the head and body. The fur is long, soft and shiny, and is jet black with sharply contrasting white markings. These consist of a narrow stripe on the forehead, a broad band on the neck that diverges into two stripes on the back. The two lateral stripes fuse on the rump. The tail has long black hairs some of which are white at the base. Striped skunks range over North America from central Canada southward to southern Mexico. Two species are recognized by Hall (1936: 64), namely _mephitis_ and _macroura_. The latter species is found in Mexico and parts of the southwestern United States. Skunks are principally nocturnal but are sometimes active in the morning and evening, especially on cloudy days. They prefer relatively open country such as logged-over land, old fields and river-side and streamside thickets. Their dens usually consist of old _Aplodontia_ burrows or burrows which they, themselves, dig under stumps or log jams, the floors of old buildings or among rocks. They feed on a variety of animals and wild fruit. Along Puget Sound they wander over the beaches when the tide is out, eating stranded fish, crustaceans and other marine animals. The purple shore crab (_Hemigrapusus nudus_) forms a staple article of diet. Along streams and rivers they wander along low, muddy banks and sand bars searching for fish, crayfish, insects and insect larvae. The larger water beetles (_Dytiscidae_) are often eaten; feces are at times composed entirely of their shells. For the most part, however, skunks have no regular food habits but eat such insects, small mammals, birds or refuse as are available. The skunk is famous for the musk which it uses as a defensive weapon. This highly volatile liquid is ejected from two small, nipplelike ducts situated in the edge of the anus. The consistency, color, and distance to which the musk can be discharged varies with the amount thrown. The first discharge or two is usually a fine, pale yellow spray, which can be accurately directed to a distance of 25 feet. The third discharge consists of small drops of heavy, bright-yellow liquid that travels an arching curve, 5 feet high, reaching a maximum distance of about 10 feet. Later discharges consist of heavy yellow mucus and can be thrown only a few feet. As many as seven or eight discharges are possible. Skunk musk is acrid and pungent in order. In quantity or at close range it is choking. In small quantities it is not unpleasant. It is extremely lasting, sometimes being noticeable for months on clothes or buildings. It is soluble in gasoline and clothes may be de-scented by several washings in that fluid. The striped skunk is an even-tempered animal. Its defensive fluid is discharged only when it is cornered or attacked. A trapped skunk rarely releases musk. A man, by speaking softly and moving slowly, can come within a distance of six feet of a trapped skunk. Experienced trappers utilize this fact to approach and shoot trapped skunks through the head or neck and so produce odorless furs. The skunk is potentially a source of considerable income to trappers in Washington. The value of their furs varies with the demand but large prime skins usually bring from $1 to $4. In eastern Washington, where trapping for coyotes and other terrestrial mammals is carried on, the skunks taken incidentally are an important source of revenue. In western Washington they are often abundant but are seldom trapped. The most sought pelts in western Washington are the mink, muskrat and raccoon; all semiaquatic species. Skunks are rarely taken in traps set for these mammals and few trappers bother to set overland trap lines for skunks. The young of the striped skunk usually number four to six. They are born in late May or early June in western Washington; possibly later in eastern Washington. =Mephitis mephitis hudsonica= Richardson _Mephitis americana_ var. _hudsonica_ Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:55, 1829. _Mephitis hudsonica_ Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 26:536, July 31, 1895. _Chincha hudsonica_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:24, August 31, 1901. _Mephitis mephitis hudsonica_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:65, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Obtained on the "plains of the Saskatchewan, Canada." _Racial characters._--Size moderate; stripes diverging anteriorly on back of neck; tail long with white stripe reaching well out, nearly to tip; zygomatic arches nearly parallel. _Measurements._--Howell (1901: 24) gives the average of 3 males from Saskatchewan, Montana and Wyoming, and of 3 females from Montana and Idaho, as, respectively: total length 726, 602; length of tail 268, 250; hind foot 82, 71. _Distribution_.--Northeastern Washington and the eastern edge of the northern Cascades, south probably to the Wenatchee Mountains. Recorded west to Oroville (W. W. D.) and Timentwa (W. W. D.) and south to Spokane (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12). =Mephitis mephitis major= (Howell) _Chincha occidentalis major_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:37, August 31, 1901. _Mephitis mephitis major_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 37:2, April 10, 1931. [Illustration: FIG. 65. Distribution of the striped skunk in Washington. A. _Mephitis mephitis hudsonica._ B. _Mephitis mephitis major._ C. _Mephitis mephitis notata._ D. _Mephitis mephitis spissigrada._] _Type._--Obtained at Fort Klamath, Klamath County, Oregon, by B. L. Cunningham on January 5, 1898; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Slightly larger than _hudsonica_ with white stripes diverging on shoulders rather than neck. _Measurements._--A young male from 1 mile north of Burbank, Walla Walla County, measures: total length 474; length of tail 205; hind foot 68; ear 30; weight 815 grams. _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake River and east of the Columbia River, occurring west to Burbank (M. V. Z.). =Mephitis mephitis notata= (Howell) _Chincha occidentalis notata_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:36, August 31, 1901. _Mephitis mephitis notata_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:67, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, south base of Mt. Adams, Klickitat County, Washington, by P. Schmid on March 22, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _hudsonica_ but larger; stripes narrower, diverging anteriorly on neck or back of head; tail shorter, sometimes without long, white hairs. _Measurements._--Howell (1901:37) gives the average of 3 adult males from Trout Lake, Klickitat County, as: total length 633; length of tail 249; hind foot 76. _Distribution._--The Columbia River Valley of the southern Cascades from the Wind River east to the Snake River and the Yakima Valley area (trappers' reports). =Mephitis mephitis spissigrada= Bangs _Mephitis spissigrada_ Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:31, March 24, 1898. _Mephitis foetulenta_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 32, zoöl. ser., 1:269, March, 1899 (type from Laguna, near Port Angeles, Clallam County, Washington). _Chincha occidentalis spissigrada_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:35, August 31, 1901. _Mephitis mephitis spissigrada_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Publ. 473:67, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Obtained at Sumas [prairie], British Columbia, by A. Brooks on September 30, 1895; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Similar to _hudsonica_ but larger; stripes broader, usually diverging on shoulders; hairs of stripes often cream color or yellowish near base; end of tail usually white. _Measurements._--An adult male from 2-1/2 miles southeast of Chinook, Pacific County, measures: total length 578; length of tail 260; hind foot 30. A female from the same place and one from Renton, King County, average: 575; 233; 72; 27. _Distribution._--Lowlands of western Washington. This form rarely goes far into the mountains except along the valleys of the larger rivers. Marginal records are Skykomish (W. W. D.) and Washougal River (W. W. D.). =Taxidea taxus taxus= (Schreber) Badger _Ursus taxus_ Schreber, Saugethiere, 3:520, 1778. _Taxidea taxus_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 28:524, June, 1894. _Taxidea taxus neglecta_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:12, December, 1929. _Taxidea taxus taxus_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:78, November 20, 1936. _Type._--None. Type locality probably southwest of Hudson Bay (Hall, 1936: 78). _Measurements._--Two males from northern Nevada measure, respectively: total length 780, 762; length of tail 113, 150; hind foot 136, 120; ear 55, 54; weight 15, 11 pounds. _Distribution._--Of general distribution over open country east of the Cascades. Marginal records are Wauconda (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12), Chelan (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 13), Goldendale (W. W. D.) and "Divide above Trout Lake" (trapper's photograph). [Illustration: FIG. 66. Badger (_Taxidea taxus taxus_), tame animal in Seattle, Washington. January 29, 1938. Captured at Lakeside, Chelan County, and photographed at approximate age of ten months; subadult male. (Eloise Kuntz photo.)] _Description._--The badger is the size of a small dog, measuring up to 32 inches in total length and weighing up to 20 pounds. The body is heavy, powerful and remarkably flat and compressed. The tail and legs are short. The forelegs are thick and strong, armed with long heavy claws for digging. The ears are wide and low. The color of the upper parts is a grizzled yellowish brown, not unlike the color of the yellow-bellied marmot. The underparts are buffy, often with a white area on the abdomen. The legs, feet, top of head, ears, and small areas on the cheeks are blackish. Triangular areas about the eyes are buffy. A white stripe extends from the nose pad backwards, between the eyes, to the shoulders and serves as the best recognition mark. [Illustration: FIG. 67. Distribution of the badger, _Taxidea taxus taxus_, in Washington.] Badgers are found over central and western United States, Canada and northern Mexico. They are commonest on the plains and desert, principally because the burrowing mammals upon which they feed are most abundant there. The badger is a powerful and rapid digger, being able to overtake and capture mice, ground squirrels, and even pocket gophers. Perry (1939: 49-53) in her interesting accounts of the habits of a pet badger obtained at Lakeside, Chelan County, found the animal powerful enough to dig through a concrete floor! Evidence of badger's activities are usually seen at any ground squirrel colony in eastern Washington. This evidence consists of large holes in the ground. Rarely a horizontal tunnel begins at the depth of two to four feet and extends for an unknown distance. Earth removed in excavating is heaped beside one or both of the narrower sides of the surface opening. In examining badger workings in ground squirrel colonies I have been impressed by the fact that most of the holes ended not more than four or five feet from the entrances--perhaps at the places where the ground squirrel nests were located, although it may be that the digging of the badger so terrified the squirrels that they dashed out in an attempt to escape past the badger, before he reached the nests. Kangaroo rats and pocket mice often attempt to escape by dashing past a person when he is excavating their burrows. The power of the short, thick and slightly bowed foreleg of the badger is tremendous. The claws are stout and fully an inch long. The animal is able to break up and remove at a scoop, the baked, claylike loess of the Columbian Plateau. Clods of this same material are so firm that only by twisting and exerting considerable power was I able to break them. The soil a foot beneath the sunbaked crust is softer and more easily worked. It is difficult to estimate the size of badger populations. In the arid land of eastern Washington their diggings may exist almost unchanged for many years. Interviews with professional trappers serve to indicate their range and numbers as follows: southeastern edge of the Cascades and Yakima Valley, not common, rarely straying up into mountains--average trapper's catch, only one to three a year; Okanogan Valley and northeastern edge of Cascades, not common--average trapper's catch is six to ten a year, occasional trappers catching as many as 35; Columbia, Kettle River, and other valleys in northeastern Washington, uncommon, a few records only; Columbian Plateau, fairly common--average professional trapper's yearly catch includes 10 to 20 badgers; southeastern Washington, now rare because of overtrapping, formerly common. Trappers state that the badgers taken in northeastern Washington are usually classified as "hair badger" by fur buyers and bring only a dollar or two. The badgers of the eastern Cascades are "fur" badgers but do not bring top prices. The badgers of the Columbian Plateau bring the best prices. Seemingly some geographic variation exists among badgers in Washington. Those from the more humid areas of northeastern Washington and the eastern Cascades are darker and bring poorer prices than the paler "silver" badgers of the more open desert areas. The principal food of the badger in Washington seems to be ground squirrels, _Citellus washingtoni_, _townsendii_, _columbianus_, or _saturatus_, depending on locality. Pocket mice, gophers, and other mammals are also eaten, as are grasshoppers, sword-tailed crickets, other insects, and birds. Young of badgers number 3 to 5 and are born in late April, May, or early June. =Vulpes fulva cascadensis= Merriam Red fox _Vulpes cascadensis_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 2:665, December 28, 1900. _Vulpes fulvus cascadensis_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:281, August 29, 1936. _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington, by P. Schmid on March 3, 1898; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Skull heavy, narrow; color yellowish. _Measurements._--A male from Crater Lake, Klamath County, Oregon, measures: total length 1113; length of tail 441; hind foot 180; ear 112; weight 9 pounds. _Distribution._--From Trout Lake northward, through the higher Cascades, to Loomis (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 13). _Description._--The red fox of the Cascades is large and measures about 4 feet in total length, of which the tail comprises 15 inches. The body is slender and doglike; the legs long and slim; the tail thick and bushy, and the ears are large and erect. In the red phase the red fox of the Cascades is distinctly more yellowish than the red fox of the eastern United States; the head is especially yellow. The body has more red on the shoulder area than posteriorly, and is darkest on the rump. The tail is rather pale with a dusky, not black, area distally and a white tip. The ears are dusky. The lower legs and feet are black. The throat, chest and underparts are white. The "cross" phase, according to Cowan (1938: 202-206), is rather common in the Cascades. In cross foxes the color is darker, brown rather than yellowish, and the area from the nape of the neck back between the shoulders, including a bar across the shoulders, is deep blackish or grayish brown. In a pelt that is stretched out a cross is formed by the dark areas. The black and silver phases of the red fox are also said by Cowan to be relatively common in the Cascades, constituting 48 per cent of the population. Of 3,163 foxes traded at Fort Colville, in northeastern Washington, only 19 per cent were silver or cross. One fox, trapped in Okanogan County, is said by its captor to have been black above and straw colored beneath, with no white on the body. Red foxes range from Alaska and northern Canada well southward into the United States. Related forms occur in Eurasia. The red fox of Washington is an alpine animal, ranging at or slightly below timber-line. Here food is abundant in summer and fall but must be scarce in winter. In winter its habitat is difficult for man to reach and few persons penetrate the dangerous terrain where the fox lives. A few professional trappers regularly catch foxes in the Cascades but know little of their habits. The feces of red foxes examined by Taylor and Shaw on Mt. Rainier contained remains of insects and berries (Taylor and Shaw, 1927: 43). The red fox is rare in Washington; it lives in inaccessible territory and its fur is not especially valuable. The animal is of relatively little economic importance. The brood den of a red fox found by Livezey and Evendan (1943: 500) near Corvallis, Oregon, was two-thirds of the way up a 300-foot hill in a strip of oaks (_Quercus garryana_). Well-packed trails led to an entrance concealed in poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_). Remains of a turkey, 5 ground squirrels, and a jack rabbit were found near the den. The entrance was 8 inches wide and 15 inches high. The tunnel tapered to 5 inches in diameter and was 47 feet long. Seven pups, 4 males and 3 females, were found in the den. [Illustration: FIG. 68. Distribution of the red fox in Washington. A. _Vulpes fulva cascadensis._ B. _Vulpes fulva macroura._ (See p. 450.)] =Canis latrans= Say Coyote _Description._--The coyote is a large carnivore, about the size and general proportions of a small collie dog but with bushier tail, and more slender body. Adults measure about four feet in length, of which the tail comprises a fourth. Adult males weigh about 30 pounds. The color is somewhat variable, yellowish, buffy, or grayish. The muzzle and backs of the ears are more reddish, and the legs brown. The tail is yellowish gray with a dusky tip. The throat, chest and underparts are white. [Illustration: FIG. 69. Coyote (_Canis latrans lestes_), in trap, 5 miles southeast of McKenna, Washington, April 10, 1924. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by G. R. Bach, No. 26901.)] The coyote ranges from Alaska southward, over western North America, to Central America. At the present time the coyote ranges over almost all of Washington, except for the highest parts of the mountains and the dense forest areas of western Washington. According to available information it was not found about Puget Sound or the Olympic Peninsula until relatively recent times. Some old trappers are of the opinion that coyotes did not come into western Washington until the timber wolves became rare there. The scarcity of the timber wolves seems to coincide with settlement, clearing and lumbering. Probably coyotes did not become common in western Washington until lumbering provided extensive clearings and open areas more suitable to them than forest. Certainly coyotes and wolves existed together in eastern Washington. It is difficult to determine whether coyotes were completely absent from western Washington in the early days or simply scarce. The glacial prairies of the Puget Sound area provide suitable habitat for coyotes and coyotes are abundant there at the present time. If coyotes were present at all in western Washington in the early days it is reasonable to suppose that they would have been common on the prairies. Yet I was told by an old trapper who had lived near Scotts Prairie, Mason County, for many years, that he had never seen or _heard_ coyotes there until about 1910. Although a coyote might be mistaken for a small wolf, the call, as this trapper pointed out, is distinctive. The principal habitat requirement of the coyote seems to be extensive areas of open country. This it finds in the desert area of the Columbian Plateau, the open forests of northeastern Washington and the eastern Cascades, and in the extensive timbered and burned-over lands in western Washington. In summer coyotes range well up into the Hudsonian Life-zone of the Cascade and Olympic mountains. Their principal range is lower, in the Transition and Upper Sonoran life-zones. The coyotes are both nocturnal and diurnal. In the vicinity of human habitations they are most active at night. In the heat of the day they take refuge in brushy areas or small gullies. Many actions of the coyote are doglike, and were it not for the large, round, bushy tail, a coyote might easily be mistaken for a dog. The tail is carried in a drooped position with the tip bowed slightly backwards. When badly frightened and running at full speed the tail is stretched out straight behind. The ordinary gait is a purposeful trot with the head held erect, the ears pricked up, and the legs moving smoothly and effortlessly. Near Moses Lake, Grant County, I watched a coyote trot along the side of one of a series of small sand dunes. At the report of the small shotgun fired at it, the coyote's dignified trot changed to terrified bounds, its feet dug into the dune, throwing showers of sand into the air, as it crossed several successive dunes in full flight before turning to take advantage of the shelter of a draw between two dunes. A coyote chased by an automobile attained a speed of 43 miles an hour for a short distance (Zimmerman, 1943: 400). I have not watched a coyote stalk game, but as described to me it creeps up to within a few yards of its prey and catches it with a sudden dash. In hunting a jack rabbit, the coyote is said to pursue it, taking advantage of short cuts, until close enough to seize it. Better known than the coyote itself is its howl--several doglike barks, each successive one of a series shorter and higher pitched, the last one ending in a long, drawn-out howl. In the winter of 1936 the coyotes near Cottage Lake, King County, were especially vociferous. They ordinarily began to howl about 9 p.m., but could be induced to howl earlier by imitating their call. Their howling was a signal for all nearby ranchers' dogs to howl in reply. In the desert areas of eastern Washington I heard coyotes most often just at dusk or at dawn. The coyote is principally carnivorous, feeding on any mammals and birds easy to kill. It willingly eats carrion, even when much decayed. Large insects such as grasshoppers and crickets are eaten when they are abundant and easily caught. Fruit and berries are eaten when available. Sperry (1941) reported on the analysis of the contents of 8,339 coyote stomachs from various places in the United States, 1,186 of the stomachs being from Washington. The following information is from his report on all of the 8,339 stomachs: rabbits formed one-third of the food; _Microtus_ was found in 7 per cent of the stomachs; _Peromyscus_ in 6 per cent; _Neotoma_ in 4 per cent. _Reithrodontomys_ were found in 53 of the 8,339 stomachs and in insignificant numbers. _Onychomys_ occurred in 11 of the 8,339 stomachs; _Clethrionomys_ in 8. _Ondatra_ occurred in 8 of the 8,339. Two muskrats were in stomachs obtained from Washington. _Citellus_ (exclusive of _beecheyi_, _lateralis_, and _saturatus_) were found in 4 per cent and were locally important; _Citellus beecheyi_ occurred in 84 stomachs, including 1 from Washington; _Citellus lateralis_ and _saturatus_ occurred in 50 stomachs, including 5 from Washington. _Marmota_ were found in 1 per cent of the stomachs. They were included in stomachs from Washington but the number was not reported. _Tamias_ (= _Eutamias_) were found in 43 stomachs from western United States and were present in 1 per cent of the 1,186 stomachs from Washington. _Sciurus_ and _Tamiasciurus_ occurred in 33 stomachs. Included were 3 _Tamiasciurus douglasii_, a _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, and a _Sciurus griseus_ from Washington. _Glaucomys_ occurred in 6 Washington-taken coyotes, of a total of 11 from the entire United States. _Perognathus_ occurred in 3 per cent of the stomachs, and 274 individuals were represented. They were found in 10 per cent of the 1,186 Washington stomachs. _Thomomys_ occurred in 4 per cent of the stomachs examined and in 7 per cent of the stomachs from Washington. _Erethizon_ appeared in 2 per cent of the stomachs (135 records), including some from Washington. _Aplodonta_ occurred in only 11 stomachs, all taken in Washington. Locally, it is concluded, mountain beavers are important coyote food. House mice occurred in but five stomachs, including 2 from Washington. _Zapus_ did not occur in coyote stomachs from Washington. Domestic sheep and goats formed 7 per cent of the food of Washington coyotes. Calves occurred in 3 stomachs of coyotes from Washington. Pigs occurred in 8. Deer formed 3 per cent, by volume, of coyote food in Washington. A part of the stock and deer reported was doubtless carrion. One shrew was found in the stomach of a coyote from Washington, and two stomachs contained moles. A house cat was eaten by one Washington coyote, and another coyote had eaten a raccoon. Birds occurred in 13 per cent of the stomachs examined but formed only a small part by volume. Poultry formed one-fourth of this volume. Reptiles formed 0.08 per cent of the food eaten by coyotes and occurred in 3 per cent of the stomachs. A coyote from Washington had eaten a garter snake. No frogs were found in coyote stomachs. A coyote from Washington had eaten a salamander. Another had eaten a fish. Insects formed 1.08 per cent of the total food eaten by coyotes. Fruit formed 3.63 per cent. Carrion constituted 25.2 per cent of the total food eaten. It is extremely difficult to draw conclusions regarding the economic value of any species. Much depends on the outlook of the individual, his occupation, the locality where the animal occurs and local conditions there. Furthermore it is impossible to understand and fairly weigh all the factors involved. Coyotes destroy game and stock. They also eat carrion and destroy sick animals, thus preventing the spread of disease. They eat jack rabbits which are pests, and snowshoes and cottontails which are game. They eat mice, which are a pest in agricultural areas, a benefit on rangelands where they destroy weed seeds, and of neutral importance elsewhere. To analyze the economic value of the coyote, the economic importance of all animals on which it feeds must be considered and the "good" and "bad" balanced--a well-nigh impossible task. In any event, the coyote has been judged and found guilty. Coyotes are controlled by poison, trapping, and bounty. In spite of control measures the coyote is holding its own in numbers or increasing. Stimulated in part by the bounty, professional trappers take many coyotes each year in Washington. The pelts fluctuate in value from year to year but a large, prime skin usually brings from 5 to 10 dollars. [Illustration: FIG. 70. Distribution of the coyote in Washington. A. _Canis latrans lestes._ B. _Canis latrans incolatus._] =Canis latrans lestes= Merriam _Canis lestes_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:25, March 15, 1897. _Canis latrans lestes_ Taylor and Shaw, Mamm. and Birds Mt. Rainier Nat. Park, p. 41, 1927. _Type._--Obtained in the Toyabe Mountains near Cloverdale, Nye County, Nevada, by V. Bailey on November 21, 1890; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Frontal region of skull only slightly concave. _Measurements._--A male from 20 miles south of Ephrata, Grant County, on the Columbian Plateau, measures: total length 1185; length of tail 365; hind foot 198; ear 125; weight 26-1/2 lbs. A female from 10 miles northeast of Goldendale, Klickitat County, in the southern Cascades, measured: 1105; 280; 197; weight 19 lbs. A female from Cashmere, Chelan County, in the northern Cascades, measured: 1209; 410; 210; 131. A female from the middle fork of the Nooksack River, Whatcom County, in western Washington, measured: total length 1185; length of tail 358. _Distribution._--Suitable areas of the entire state, except for northeastern Washington. _Remarks._--Pending a revision of the coyotes, those of western Washington are referred to _lestes_. =Canis latrans incolatus= Hall _Canis latrans incolatus_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:369, November 5, 1934. _Type._--Obtained at Isaacs Lake, 3,000 ft. elevation, Bowron Lakes Region, British Columbia, by T. T. and E. B. McCabe on October 23, 1928; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Similar to _lestes_ but frontal region more concave. _Measurements._--A male from 20 miles east of Tonasket, Okanogan County, measures: total length 1033; length of tail 291; hind foot 163; ear 110. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, west to Okanogan and Conconully (W. W. D.). _Remarks._--Several series of coyote skulls from northeastern Washington are more variable than series of _lestes_ from California and _incolatus_ from British Columbia. The "dish-faced" character of _incolatus_ is more strongly represented in some coyotes from northeastern Washington than in topotypes of _incolatus_ but others are more like _lestes_. In average measurements they are nearer _incolatus_. =Canis lupus fuscus= Richardson Timber Wolf _Canis lupus_ var. _fusca_ Richardson, Mammalia, Zoölogy, Captain Beechey's voyage of the Blossom, p. 5, 1839. _Lupus gigas_ Townsend, Jour. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 2:75, November, 1850 (type from near Vancouver, Clark County, Washington). _Canis gigas_ Miller, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 59 (no. 15):4, June 8, 1912. _Canis occidentalis gigas_ Taylor and Shaw, Birds and Mamm. Mt. Rainier Nat. Park, p. 39, 1927. _Canis lycaon gigas_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:272, August 29, 1936. _Type locality._--Banks of the Columbia below The Dalles in Oregon or Washington. _Racial characters._--A large, relatively dark colored wolf with wide skull and heavy dentition. _Distribution._--Probably occurred from the eastern base of the Cascades westward to the Pacific. Now extinct over most of its range. [Illustration: FIG. 71. Probable past distribution of the wolf in Washington. A. _Canis lupus fuscus._ B. _Canis lupus columbianus._ C. _Canis lupus irremotus._] _Description._--The wolf is a large carnivore of the general proportions of a large collie dog. Wolves closely resemble coyotes but are larger, with stouter body, larger feet, thicker muzzle and more massive, powerful skull and teeth. The fur of wolves is long and rather stiff. In general color of the body they resemble coyotes, but the underparts are less white and the legs and feet are more contrastingly reddish. Wolves of the species _Canis lupus_ range over the northern parts of both the Old and New World. In America they are found from the Arctic south into Mexico. Wolves occurred in western, northeastern and southeastern Washington. They seem not to have occurred on the Columbian Plateau. Wolves are generally associated with the larger, hooved mammals upon which they feed. In Washington these probably once included the elk, deer, mountain sheep and mountain goat. Hooved animals, except mountain sheep and deer, may not have occurred on the Columbian Plateau in historic times, and even the deer and sheep probably were scarce. There was probably little food for wolves on the Plateau. The early settlers found wolves to be common and a serious pest. By 1900 they had nearly disappeared. In the settled parts of western Washington they were doubtless exterminated at an early date but it is difficult to account for their disappearance on the Olympic Peninsula. To the best of my knowledge, two wolves killed on the north fork of the Quinault River in 1920, or a few years earlier, were the last ones from that peninsula. Previously they were common and I doubt that man killed them all; perhaps some introduced disease, such as rabies, brought about their extinction. In the Cascade area they probably still exist in small numbers and in remote places. There are said to be some near Mount Adams. They have been reported from Mount Rainier as recently as 1920. Trappers state that there are a few in the northern Cascades, between Lake Chelan and Mount Baker. There are no recent records for southeastern Washington. The last wolves killed on the Columbian Plateau were two taken at Wahluke, Grant County, on September 17, 1917. Only rumors--no authentic reports--of wolves are available from northeastern Washington in recent years. The reappearance of the caribou there may attract wolves from British Columbia. Any report of wolves, even from experienced trappers, is open to some question. An unusually large coyote often is mistaken for a wolf. A large, wild and wolflike dog is even more likely to be mistaken for a wolf. The wolf no longer is an important element in the mammalian fauna of Washington and will probably never be so again. The species, like the grizzly bear, is nearly extinct in the state. =Canis familiaris= Linnaeus Dog _Canis familiaris_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1:56, 1766. _Type locality._--Sweden. Dogs were present with aboriginal man in Washington, previous to the arrival of the white man. For greater detail see Bailey (1936), Suckley and Gibbs (1860) and Allen (1920). =Felis concolor= Linnaeus Cougar or mountain lion [Illustration: FIG. 72. Cougar or mountain lion (_Felis concolor missoulensis_), skin mounted as a rug; shot on Mill Creek, Pend Oreille County, Washington, February 13, 1935, by Ralph Johnson. Skin now measures: snout to tip of tail 252 cm., span between tips of forepaws 157 cm., tail 89 cm.; male. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 66.)] _Description._--The cougar is a large cat and has the general proportions of the house cat. Large cougars measure more than seven feet in length of which the tail comprises two feet. Large males weigh more than 150 pounds. Females are smaller and lighter than males. In color the head, back, tail and outside of the legs are reddish brown. The throat, underparts and inside of the legs are white. The tip of the tail, or area near the tip, is black or blackish. Cougars, often called mountain lions, pumas and panthers, range from Canada to southern South America. The cougar feeds extensively upon deer and its habits and habitat are accordingly specialized. It is active in both winter and summer and zonally ranges from the Transition through the Canadian to the Hudsonian life-zones. [Illustration: FIG. 73. Cougar or mountain lion (_Felis concolor oregonensis_), adults and young taken by Dewey Schmid in White Salmon Valley, Washington, about December 1, 1937, and January 1, 1938. Two bobcats show at extreme right. (Dewey Schmid photo.)] The number of deer killed by the average cougar is unknown. Some trappers believe that a cougar kills a deer at least every other day while others feel that only one a week is taken. Other food is eaten when available. Because cougars kill deer, they are incessantly warred upon by hunters and sportsmen. Bounties, often generous, have long been paid in Washington. Although many cougars are killed each year they are still numerous in many areas. So many remote areas in the mountains are not easily accessible to man and dogs that the cougar, as a species, probably will persist for many years. A cougar is one of the most secretive animals in the wilds. Rarely are individuals seen by man. They are difficult to trap, principally because they are such wide-ranging animals and partly because they prefer to feed on fresh deer meat and hence are not apt to be attracted to trap bait. For these same reasons they are difficult to poison. By using poisoned hamburger, a government agent did poison one near Leavenworth, Chelan County. The principal method of killing cougar is to hunt them with packs of especially trained hounds which pursue the cougar until it takes refuge in a tree or other supposed place of safety, where it is shot. A common gait is a swift, smooth trot in which the body is kept low and the tail droops with the terminal part bent backwards. A wild cougar seen near Leavenworth, Chelan County, traveled with effortless speed until fired upon. At the sound of the shot it made two great bounds and disappeared into the brush fringing a canyon. [Illustration: FIG. 74. Distribution of the cougar in Washington. A. _Felis concolor oregonensis._ B. _Felis concolor missoulensis._] Although the cougar is a large and powerful carnivore it almost never makes unprovoked attacks upon man. An exception was the cougar that partially devoured a thirteen-year old boy near Lake Chelan, Chelan County (Finley, 1925: 197-199). The hunting range of an individual cougar is many miles in extent. These ranges are traveled periodically and any particular area may be visited regularly every few days. The cougars may travel many miles each night in search of deer. Their ranges must overlap to a certain extent for as many as 12 have been taken from a single drainage area. Over most of the year they are solitary but breeding females may attract several males and hunters occasionally capture a female and several males at one locality. Breeding occurs in almost any month of the year. The young are cared for by the female and follow her for perhaps a year. Young individuals have been taken at the same time and in the same locality as an adult female and several adult males that supposedly were breeding. There are from one to three young in a litter. For the first months of their life cougar kittens are spotted. In this they differ from the young of the bobcat which are plain or slightly mottled and do not become spotted until later in life. Cougar kittens differ further from bobcat kittens in possessing a long tail. The pelage of the cougar is short and of no value as fur although the skins often are sold at a good price as trophies when prepared as rugs. =Felis concolor oregonensis= Rafinesque _Felix [sic] oregonensis_ Rafinesque, Atlantic Journal, 1:62, 1832. _Felis hippolestes olympus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:220, July 15, 1897 (type from Lake Cushman, Mason County, Washington). _Felis oregonensis_ Stone, Science, n. s., 9:35, January 6, 1899. _Felis oregonensis oregonensis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:158, April 29, 1924. _Felis concolor oregonensis_ Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 10:347, November 11, 1929. _Type locality._--"Oregon Mountains, or east or west of them." _Racial characters._--Light, rounded skull, dark color, extensive black on tip of tail and short, rather coarse fur. _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains westward to the Pacific. Marginal records are (trappers' specimens): Ruby, Leavenworth, and Goldendale. =Felis concolor missoulensis= Goldman _Felis concolor missoulensis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 24:229, June 8, 1943. _Type._--Obtained 10 miles southwest of Missoula, Missoula County, Montana, by R. and C. Thompson, on December 30, 1936; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--A large cougar with heavy, wide skull, pale color and rather long, soft fur. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington west at least to Republic (W.W.D.) and the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. _Remarks._--Goldman (1943: 229) states "Between the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade Range _missoulensis_ intergrades with _oregonensis_." My own comparison of specimens reveals differences of considerable magnitude between the cougars of western and northeastern Washington. I suppose that intergradation takes place in a limited area in, and west of, the Okanogan River Valley in Washington. [Illustration: FIG. 75. Canadian lynx, _Lynx canadensis_, male, taken February 16, 1939, on Baldy Mountain, northwest Idaho, by Lloyd Robinson of Sandpoint. (Ross A. Hall photo.)] =Lynx canadensis canadensis= Kerr Canadian lynx _Lynx canadensis_ Kerr, Anim. Kingd., 1: systematic catalogue inserted between pages 32 and 33 (description, p. 157), 1792. _Lynx borealis canadensis_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:611, 1885. _Lynx canadensis canadensis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:160, April 29, 1924. _Type locality._--Eastern Canada. _Measurements._--A female from Buttermills Creek, Twisp River, Okanogan County, measured: total length 900; length of tail 95; hind foot 205. _Distribution._--Higher parts of the Cascade Mountains, Blue Mountains and mountains of northeastern Washington, recorded from Oroville on the north (W. W. D.) to Mount Adams (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 13) on the south. [Illustration: FIG. 76. Canadian lynx (_Lynx canadensis_), catch of nine, with two coyotes, taken by Lester Fairbrother in hills west of Oroville, Washington, March, 1938. (Lester Fairbrother photo.)] _Description._--The Canadian lynx weighs about 20 pounds and is catlike in general proportions but differs in possessing longer, stouter legs, much larger feet, a short tail, tufted ears and long, very soft fur. The pelage of the upper parts is soft gray with a slightly yellowish tone; the ears and tail are black; and the underparts are gray with indistinct black spots. The pelage is shorter and more reddish in summer. Bailey (1936: 271) records a maximum weight of 28 pounds. [Illustration: FIG. 77. Distribution of the Canadian lynx, _Lynx canadensis_, in Washington.] The lynx ranges over the forested parts of North America from the Arctic south into the northern United States. It has a restricted range in Washington, occurring in the same areas as does the red fox. Although the lynx is an important fur bearer in Canada and Alaska, it is unimportant in Washington because only a few are trapped each winter. Most of the natural range is in the remote and wilder parts of the mountains. Here, each of several trappers regularly takes a dozen or more each year. Mr. Lester Fairbrother of Oroville, Okanogan County, regularly traps lynxes in the northern Cascades. They are taken in wooded areas where snowshoe rabbits, their principal food in winter, are abundant. In the more accessible parts of the animal's range, such as the Blue Mountains and the mountains of northeastern Washington, lynxes are rare. As much as sixty dollars each is offered for large skins. =Lynx rufus= (Schreber) Bobcat _Description._--The average male bobcat weighs approximately 20 pounds. The female is about one-fourth lighter. A bobcat has longer, stouter legs and larger feet than a house cat and a short tail. The ears are short, with pointed tufts of hair. [Illustration: FIG. 78. Bobcat (_Lynx rufus fasciatus_), two-year-old male captured as a kit near Lyman, Washington, in the spring of 1937, by Earl Scott; photographed March 9, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 588.)] Bobcats range from southern Canada south to central Mexico. Whereas the Canadian lynx occupies the boreal region, the bobcat occupies the temperate region. It is thought to be principally nocturnal but is occasionally active by day. One that I watched near Lake Samamish, King County, when it was unaware of my presence, was decidedly uncatlike as it strolled with a smooth but stiff-legged gait on a forest trail, with head held up, short tail erect and wagging back and forth with each step. The general impression was of a large, extremely long-legged animal. There was nothing stealthy in its movements. Another individual seen in the same locality on a later date saw me. As it bounded away the body was kept low and the legs were bent with the forelegs appearing almost bowlegged. Like many other carnivores, each bobcat has a home range which varies with the available food supply. The range may include deep forest, dense thickets and open grasslands, but country with considerable edge-environment seems to be preferred to dense cover, and rocky areas to smooth soil. Perhaps the abundance of mice and wood rats attracts bobcats to the rocks, but the cover afforded is also a factor. The bobcat is almost universally regarded as a predator and the state of Washington now offers a bounty on it. The animals doubtless do kill a certain amount of game, but kill also other animals which man regards as pests because they interfere with reforestation and growing of food crops. One of the best natural checks on these pests is the bobcat which, in certain areas, does more good than harm. Where doing damage to game or livestock bobcats may be eliminated by trapping or hunting with dogs. Trappers report that bobcats have a poor sense of smell but very keen sight. They are easily trapped. The fur is soft and handsome but does not wear well. Fur buyers designate the large, pale bobcats of eastern Washington as lynx cats and reserve the name bobcat for the more reddish race of western Washington. Immature and unprime pelts from eastern Washington also are classed as "bobcat." The difference between the pale bobcat of eastern Washington and the dark race of western Washington is greater than that which separates many subspecies. Dewey Smith of Guler, Klickitat County, showed me skins of bobcats taken on his trap-line along the White Salmon River, which drains southward to the Columbia, and over into the watershed of the Lewis River. Bobcats from the White Salmon River were pale and gray, and those from along the Lewis River were more reddish. The difference was striking. A very few intermediate skins indicated that interbreeding occurs. The geographic variation between the two races is reminiscent of that in the snowshoe rabbits of the western Cascades. =Lynx rufus fasciatus= Rafinesque _Lynx fasciatus_ Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag., 2:46, November, 1817. _Lynx fasciatus fasciatus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:160, April 29, 1924. _Lynx rufus fasciatus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:269, August 29, 1936. _Type locality._--Near mouth of the Columbia River on "Netul" River (Lewis and Clark River) near Astoria (Bailey, 1936: 269). _Racial characters._--Size moderate; fur short; color distinctly reddish. _Measurements._--A male from Forks, Clallam County, measured: total length 890; length of tail 190; hind foot 167; ear 80; weight 24-1/2 pounds. _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains westward, including the valleys of rivers draining westward in the Cascades. Marginal occurrences are: Skykomish (W. W. D.), Mt. Rainier (Taylor and Shaw, 1927: 60) and headwaters of Lewis River (W. W. D.). [Illustration: FIG. 79. Distribution of the bobcat in Washington. A. _Lynx rufus fasciatus._ B. _Lynx rufus pallescens._] =Lynx rufus pallescens= Merriam _Lynx fasciatus pallescens_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 16:104, October 28, 1899. _Lynx rufus uinta_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:267, August 29, 1936. _Lynx rufus pallescens_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:268, August 29, 1936. _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington, by D. Kaegi on January 10, 1895; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Size large; skull heavy with extensive crests and ridges; fur long and soft; color pale, more grayish and less reddish than in _fasciatus_. _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains eastward, including the valleys of rivers in the Cascades which drain southward and eastward. Marginal records of occurrences are Oroville (W. W. D.), Lake Keechelus (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 15) and Trout Lake (W. W. D.). =Zalophus californianus= (Lesson) California sea lion _Otaria californiana_ Lesson, Dict. Class Nat. Hist., 13:420, 1828. _Zalophus californianus_ Allen, Monogr. N. Amer. Pinnipeds, U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr., Misc. Publ., 12:276, 1880. _Type locality._--California. _Distribution._--Rare or casual along the coast of Washington. _Description._--Adult males are 7 to 8 feet in length and females about 6 feet. Bulls weigh as much as 1,000 pounds, and females up to 600 pounds. Both fore and hind limbs are modified for swimming; they are flippers directed posteriorly. The body is cylindrical and streamlined, the neck thick and the head small. Adult males possess a high sagittal crest resulting in a high forehead. Eyes and ears are small. The reddish brown pelage is short and coarse. Females are darker than the males. The California sea lion occurs along the Pacific Coast from Mexico to northern California and has been recorded from Oregon (Bailey, 1936: 332), Washington and British Columbia (Greenwood, Newcombe, and Fraser, 1918: 1-39). It is of rare or casual occurrence along the coast of Washington. =Eumetopias jubata= (Schreber) Steller sea lion _Phoca jubata_ Schreber, Säugthiere, 3:300, 1776. _Eumetopias Stelleri_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607, 1885. _Eumetopias jubata_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:113, March 15, 1902. _Type locality._--North Pacific Ocean. _Distribution._--Ocean coast, breeding on small, rocky islets such as the Quillayute Needles. _Description._--The Steller sea lion resembles the California sea lion but is larger. Old bulls are from 10 to 12 feet in length and weigh from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds, perhaps even a ton. Females are 8 to 9 feet in length and may weigh up to 1000 pounds. The female Steller sea lion is nearly as large as the male of the California sea lion. The bull Steller sea lion lacks the high forehead characteristic of the California sea lion, and the body is heavier and stouter, especially in the neck and chest. Bulls are distinctly bicolored, the head, neck and chest being cinnamon and the rest of the body darker. Females are a uniform dark brown color. The Steller sea lion makes a loud, deep roaring sound. Steller sea lions occur along the coast of Asia south to Japan and the coast of North America from the Bering Strait south to central California. The range thus meets and overlaps that of the California sea lion. Steller sea lions are splendid swimmers and spend much of their time in the surf. They often lie in the water a few yards from where the waves pound some jagged cliff, retaining their dangerous position without discernible effort. They are curious and will raise their head and neck vertically out of the water to observe a passing boat. Much time is spent beneath the surface, presumably hunting fish. They sometimes leap up out of the water in an arching dive or may simply lower their heads beneath the surface and appear several minutes later at another place. They may come to the surface with a porpoiselike roll, breathe, and again dive. Many of their actions seem inspired by playfulness--a means of working off excess energy. Sea lions haul out on a number of rocky islands along the coast. They are slow and clumsy on land. Their rear flippers can be directed forward and so give them some assistance in moving about. When startled they are able, with much struggling, to move with fair speed to the water. They can dive from considerable heights. The studies of Greenwood, Newcombe and Fraser (1918: 1-39) show that the Steller sea lions eat a great variety of marine fish and other sea life. Included in their diet are squid, starfish, crabs, clams, mussels, salmon, herring, flounder, rock cod, sea bass and dogfish. They seem not to be selective in their food habits but eat the food most easily available at the time. Unfortunately this is occasionally salmon in nets or traps and for this reason fishermen usually kill sea lions on sight. The number of sea lions along the coast of Washington has been greatly reduced by shooting and dynamiting the animals on their hauling-out grounds. There is no doubt that sea lions do occasionally eat salmon, especially in traps or nets. They also become entangled in the nets, and damage them. On the other hand, investigations of their food habits have shown that they do not eat any great number of salmon or other important food fishes. They are a relatively harmless and exceedingly interesting animal and might well be preserved in numbers exceeding their present population. Until relatively recent times the sea lion was an important source of food to the Indians living along the ocean coast. The bones of sea lions are often the most numerous vertebrate remains in shell mounds. The Steller sea lion now breeds only in a few places along the coast of Washington. They are polygamous and each of the stronger bulls has eight or ten cows in his harem. Fierce battles between bulls are said to take place in the breeding season, late in May. A single pup is born after a gestation period of about one year. Pups are darker in color than adults. =Callorhinus ursinus cynocephalus= (Walbaum) Alaska fur seal _Siren cynocephalus_ Walbaum, Petri Artedi Sueci Genera Pisc., p. 560, 1792. _Callorhinus ursinus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607, 1885. _Callorhinus alascanus_ Jordan and Clark, Fur Seals and Fur Seal Islands of the North Pacific, pt. 3, p. 2, November, 1899. _Callotaria ursina cynocephala_ Stejneger, George Wilhelm Steller, Harvard Univ. Press, p. 285, 1936. _Type locality._--Pribilof Islands, Alaska. _Distribution._--Breeds on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Abundant off the coast of Washington on migration. _Description._--The difference in the size of male and female fur seals is great. Males are about 8 feet in length when fully grown but the females are only about 4 feet long. Males weigh up to 700 pounds but females only about 100 pounds. In general appearance the fur seal resembles the sea lion but the fur is longer, denser and softer. Males are very dark brown in color. Females and young are grayish brown. The fur seal, like the sea lion, can reverse its hind flippers and use them to a certain extent in walking. The Alaskan fur seal breeds on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. The seals emerge from the water to certain favored hauling-out places in May and June. They leave the Islands in November to begin their long migration. The bulls spend the winter off the coast of Alaska south of the Aleutians but the females and young travel south to the ocean off California. In the spring they start north, arriving off the coast of Washington in February, March and April. Young, rarely adults, are washed up on the ocean beaches of Washington (Scheffer, 1939: 43). The United States Government, by international treaty, manages the fur seal herds on a sustained yield basis and pelagic sealing by independent hunters is prohibited. Indians are allowed to take the fur seals on migration but are subject to certain restrictions. Modern boats, outboard motors and guns are prohibited. Indians living on the coast of Washington hunt the fur seals from dugout canoes. The weapons are double-headed harpoons with long cedar shafts. One harpoon head is at the tip of the shaft and the other is on a short fork that projects downward and forward at a 30° angle from the main shaft. The harpoon is thrown with the aid of hand grips at the end of the shaft. The seal is recovered by rawhide lines connected to the harpoon heads. The hunters leave shore at dawn and travel ten to twenty miles from land, at which distance the seal herds are usually encountered. The hunting is dangerous work and is carried on only by skilled and brave men. Relatively calm weather is required. The flesh of the seals is eaten and the skins sold. Schultz and Rafn (1936: 13-15) examined the stomachs of 41 fur seals taken within 30 miles of La Push, Washington, in March, April and May, 1930. Food found included squids, shrimps, herring and lampreys. =Phoca vitulina richardii= (Gray) Hair seal or harbor seal _Halicyon richardii_ Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 28, 1864. _Phoca richardii_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:491, December 12, 1902. _Phoca richardii richardii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:164, April 29, 1924. _Phoca vitulina richardii_ Doutt, Ann. Carnegie Mus., 29:117, May 12, 1942. _Type._--Described from a specimen obtained at the Fraser River, British Columbia, probably on March 23, 1861, by C. B. Wood and another obtained by Wood at Queen Charlotte Sound, British Columbia, in 1862 (see Scheffer and Slipp, 1944: 374); type in British Museum of Natural History. _Distribution._--Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan De Fuca and the coast of Washington, extending at times up the Columbia River to The Dalles. Has been recorded in Lake Washington, Seattle (Bonham, 1942: 76). _Description._--Adults are about 5 feet in length and weigh up to 250 pounds; males are approximately a quarter larger than females. The hair seals differ from the sea lions and fur seals in a number of respects. The body is widest in the midsection rather than in the chest. The neck is short and slim. The eyes are large and there are no external ears. The hind flippers are not reversible but are permanently directed posteriorly. The pelage is short, stiff, and directed posteriorly. The ground color is silver gray or yellow; usually it is yellow, blotched and marbled with black, dusky or gray. Hair seals range over the northern Atlantic and Pacific oceans, occurring southward along the Pacific Coast of North America to central Mexico. Six races are recognized by Doutt (1942: 115). The hair seal is the common seal in Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan De Fuca and on the ocean coast. Scheffer and Slipp (1944: 373) estimate that 5,000 live along the coast of Washington. Hair seals are social to some degree but are often seen singly. In Puget Sound, where there are relatively few hauling-out areas, they rarely leave the water but on the ocean coast they emerge to bask on the reefs. On Destruction Island, Jefferson County, V. B. Scheffer and I watched a herd of about 20 animals that lay on a reef exposed by low tide. According to the lighthouse keeper the reef was occupied daily by these seals. Scheffer and Slipp (_loc. cit._, p. 388) report herds of up to 200 hair seals. In Puget Sound 10 to 20 seals seem to be the usual number in a herd, but occasionally there are as many as 50. Hair seals often exhibit curiosity concerning small boats; the seals lie in the water with only their round heads above the surface, staring at the boat for many minutes. Constant shooting has made them shy and any quick movement will cause them to dive; several dived instantly when I pointed either a stick or gun at them. Hair seals are less spectacular than sea lions. When basking on rocks the seals are silent. When an observer is yet a long distance away the seals raise their small heads and remain on the alert. When they take to the water, they travel with a jerking motion. In the water one rarely sees more than their heads. When they dive they usually sink below the surface, never making the spectacular arching dive so typical of the sea lions. At Useless Bay, Whidby Island, Island County, a herd of five or six hair seals was studied in July, 1936. These animals played and slept in the shallow water beneath a high, forested bluff and could be watched from the bluff above. The seals seemed to gather here in the early afternoon. Much of their time was spent sleeping on the surface with the body in a bowed position and drifting freely. Occasional waving of the rear flippers kept them from drifting away. They played a great deal, splashing, diving and swimming in circles or spirals. Occasionally one would dive down to swim slowly along just above the bottom. At times one would put on a sudden burst of speed, apparently in pursuit of some fish, rarely continued for more than 30 or 40 feet after which the seal usually rose to the surface to resume play. Never did I see one with a fish in its mouth and these pursuits, if pursuits they were, seemed to have been prompted more by a spirit of play than by hunger. A young seal was kept as a pet for several weeks at Friday Harbor, San Juan County. It was tame and affectionate but decidedly temperamental. It demanded constant attention and whimpered, cried or moaned if left alone. It was more active by night than by day and made a characteristic mooing cry, which continued at intervals throughout the night. This habit led to its eventual disposal. The temper of this young seal was shown by its actions when it encountered strands of kelp while swimming. If the kelp strands held back its progress it would turn back, seize the kelp in its teeth and bite viciously. Never did it attempt to bite persons. The hair seal was generally thought to feed almost exclusively on salmon, but the work of Scheffer (1928: 10-16) showed this view to be incorrect. Of 14 hair seal stomachs examined, all of which were full, only two contained salmon. In a later study (Scheffer and Sperry, 1931: 214-226), only two of 100 stomachs examined contained salmon. Other food items were tomcod, flounder, sculpin, herring, shiner, hake, skate, blenny, unidentified fish, squid, octopus, shrimp, crab and starfish. In spite of Scheffer's work, hair seals are killed at every opportunity by fisherman and boatman. Bounties were paid on their scalps for many years, and more than 1,000 bounties were paid for each of several years previous to 1930. Their small, round heads bobbing on the waves offer a poor target and many seals, after having been fired at, become extremely shy. They seem to be holding their own in numbers at the present time. Scheffer and Slipp (1944: 401) found that the young were born in late May along the ocean coast and in June and July in Puget Sound. The young seal mentioned as having been kept captive at Friday Harbor was obtained from an Indian on July 26, 1938, and was said to be two weeks old at the time. The Indian said that he had watched the birth of the young and then killed the mother for bounty. On July 28 the young seal weighed approximately 20 pounds and was in good health. The seal could swim well. It was said to have been born "on the rocks" at Long Island, San Juan County. The seal drank milk from a baby's bottle but refused fresh scallops, clams and fish of several species. When put into a large, screened box sunk in the water it at once investigated the other animals in the box. It showed no fear of a large bull cod weighing 50 pounds, or of a 20-pound skate and several sharks 5 feet long but seemed to be frightened by a large octopus weighing about 30 pounds. In swimming, the front flippers were held flat against the body and the actual swimming was accomplished by the vertically-held rear flippers and the rapid swinging of the hips. Its eyes were very dark brown, almost black, but soft and appealing. The bases of the vibrissae were thick and soft. The belly was silvery white and unspotted. The sides and back were iron gray spotted with dark, bluish gray, the whole overlaid with a silvery tint. The claws were long, round, and sharply pointed. When sleeping, the seal usually lay on its side, occasionally upon its back or belly. The front flippers were held tight to its sides but the back flippers were held straight back with the digits bent inward at right angles and laid so that the right digits were against the left. In moving on land the front flippers were folded into fists and used to push the animal forward while the body was moved by snakelike motions of the hips. It breathed in short gasps. Genus =Tamias= Illiger Chipmunks The chipmunks of Asia and western North America have usually been separated under the generic name _Eutamias_ from those of the genus _Tamias_ of eastern America. Ellerman (1940: 428) placed both in the same genus and Bryant (1945: 257-390) reached the same conclusions after intensive study of American sciurids. Bryant's treatment is followed here. The sciurid genera as they occur in Washington, are listed by Bryant as follows: _Tamias_, _Marmota_, _Citellus_, _Sciurus_, _Tamiasciurus_, _Glaucomys_. This order, rather than that of Miller (1924) is used here. Four species of _Tamias_ are listed for Washington: _minimus_ represented by two subspecies; _amoenus_, by six; _ruficaudus_ by one; and _townsendii_, by two. Chipmunks from Washington vary in size from less than 8 inches in total length to more than 10 inches in total length. Some race of chipmunk occurs in almost every part of Washington. Their striped color pattern serves as a universal recognition mark. The somewhat similarly striped mantled ground squirrel is often mistakenly called chipmunk. The mantled ground squirrel is larger than any chipmunk, has but two dark stripes as compared with five dark stripes of chipmunks, and has a plain, reddish head unlike the distinctly striped head of _Tamias_. Like most members of the squirrel family, chipmunks are active by day and are therefore better known to man than are most of the other kinds of small mammals, most of which are nocturnal. The attractive color and sprightly actions of chipmunks make them a delightful feature of the outdoors. They feed on fruit, seeds, and fungus and eagerly eat food that can be begged or stolen from man. They have been known to kill mice and they have been accused of destroying nests and eggs of birds. They often eat insects and occasionally eat the flesh of mice or other chipmunks held in collector's traps. Chipmunks climb trees and bushes readily but only _townsendii_ can be called arboreal, and even it prefers to climb on stumps and dead trunks rather than in living trees. All species are fond of climbing about rocky outcrops and talus slides. The call of the chipmunks is a birdlike cheep. In _minimus_ it is shrill and uttered rapidly, but it is low-pitched and is uttered by _townsendii_ with longer intervals between the notes. The call of _amoenus_ is of an intermediate nature. Young of chipmunks vary in number from four to six. Nests are constructed of dry grass and are placed under rocks, logs, and in burrows in the ground. There are four pairs of mammae, one pectoral, two abdominal, and one inguinal. =Tamias minimus= Bachman Least chipmunk _Description._--The least chipmunk is the smallest chipmunk found in Washington. The head and body of adults measure about 3-1/2 inches; the tail about 3-1/2 inches. Its fur is short and sleek. The dorsal stripe is black; the upper pale stripe is buffy gray; the lower dark stripe is rich brown; the lower stripe is white. The sides are pale buff and the head, rump and thighs are buffy gray. The tail is brownish above, yellowish beneath. _Tamias minimus_ has a wide range, being found from the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Chain to the Great Lakes and from northern Canada to central Arizona and New Mexico. Two races occur in Washington, both in the sagebrush desert area. Least chipmunks are only locally common in Washington. I have found them in areas where the soil was firmly packed and sagebrush the dominant vegetation. All were far from water. Two miles west of Vantage, Kittitas County, several were found near an old sheep corral, where one took shelter in a pile of boards. In my experience, least chipmunks are wary and difficult to collect. Many times as I crept silently through the sagebrush chipmunk after chipmunk scampered with tail aloft into a hole at the base of same sage bush, each far out of gunshot, voicing alarmed chirps. The extreme caution of least chipmunks, as compared with other species, is doubtless a necessary adaptation to living in an exposed situation. The open sagebrush desert is a favored hunting place of hawks and eagles; also coyotes, wildcats, and badgers sometimes abound there. All these probably find the least chipmunk a suitable food item and only the most cautious chipmunk survives to reproduce. The least chipmunk has been timed at a speed of 10 miles per hour (Cottam and Williams, 1943: 262). The food of the least chipmunk in eastern Washington is almost entirely seeds of the annuals that flourish briefly in the spring. Insects probably are eaten and one specimen had the remains of two scorpions in its stomach. =Tamias minimus scrutator= (Hall and Hatfield) _Eutamias minimus pictus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 52:39, November 30, 1929. _Eutamias minimus scrutator_ Hall and Hatfield, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:321, February 12, 1934. _Tamias minimus scrutator_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. [Illustration: FIG. 80. Distribution of the least chipmunk in Washington. A. _Tamias minimus scrutator._ B. _Tamias minimus grisescens._] _Type._--Obtained near Blanco Mountain, 10500 ft. elevation, Mono County, California, by J. Grinnell on July 28, 1917; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Buffy color; wide dark stripes and narrow pale stripes. _Measurements._--A male and a female from Sunnyside, Yakima County, measure respectively; total length 186, 186; length of tail 81, 82; hind foot 31, 31; ear 9, 10. _Distribution._--The sagebrush areas west of the Columbia River. Present in scattered and widely separated areas, ranging, according to Howell (1929: 41), north to Ellensburg and south to Wiley City. This species is a member of the Great Basin Fauna that entered the state from Oregon. The population in Washington is now isolated north and west of the Columbia River but seems not to differ from least chipmunks from Oregon and Nevada. =Tamias minimus grisescens= (Howell) _Eutamias minimus grisescens_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 6:52, February 9, 1925. _Tamias minimus grisescens_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 431, June 8, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at Farmer, Douglas County, Washington, by J. A. Loring, on July 31, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _scrutator_ but smaller; more grayish, less buffy in color, dark stripes narrower and pale stripes wider. _Measurements._--Seven topotypes and near topotypes average: Total length 177; length of tail 78.7; hind foot 26.8; ear 10.6. _Distribution._--Known only from the Columbian Plateau. This race is rare and though we hunted for it in localities where specimens have been collected, including the type locality, it was found but twice. Ranchers living in the area know the chipmunk but see individuals only occasionally. Marginal occurrences are Douglas (Howell, 1929: 41), Vantage (V. B. S.) and Pasco (Howell, 1929: 41). _Remarks._--The geographic range of this race is separated from that of _scrutator_ by the Columbia River and many miles of country uninhabited by chipmunks of this species. =Tamias amoenus= Allen Yellow-pine chipmunk _Description._--The yellow-pine chipmunk resembles the least chipmunk but is larger. The underside of the tail is more ochraceous, less yellowish. The color of the sides varies considerably in the various races. The stripes are narrow and sharply delineated, the dorsal one being black. Next lower is a grayish stripe, followed by one of brownish black. The lower stripe is white. The underparts, in most races, are white but in _luteiventris_ are buffy. The geographic range of the species is west of the Great Plains from central British Columbia to central California. There are twelve races, six of them occurring in Washington. The yellow-pine chipmunk is a small animal, being but little larger than the least chipmunk, and much smaller than _townsendii_. Externally it may be separated from the Townsend chipmunk by its small size, sleek, appressed pelage and brighter color. Separation from _minimus_ is more difficult but, in the Washington races of _minimus_, the colored fur of the underside of the tail is pale yellowish while in _amoenus_ it is more ochraceous or buffy. So far as is known, the two species do not occur together in Washington. The yellow-pine chipmunks live in open woods, brushy areas, clearings, and rocky outcrops. Suitable conditions are abundant in mountainous areas and the distribution of mountain ranges affects the distribution of these chipmunks. Where yellow pine forests descend to relatively low altitudes, the chipmunks enter the lowlands. Such conditions are present in some places along the eastern base of the Cascades, the inter-mountain river valleys of northeastern Washington, and along the central-eastern border of the state. Yellow-pine chipmunks are sprightly and active. They seem always to be moving restlessly about, running, investigating for food, and watching for enemies. They are far tamer than the least chipmunks, usually allowing the observer to approach within twenty feet or closer. Some, after coaxing, will take food from a person's hand. Near Stevens Pass, King County, numbers of _Tamias townsendii cooperi_ and _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_, apparently on good terms, were feeding together on blue huckleberries which grew in abundance on an extensive snowslide area. The yellow-pine chipmunks had been drawn from surrounding open areas by the berries, while the Townsend chipmunks had been attracted from the forest by the same food. The nervous movements of _amoenus_ contrasted strongly with the more sedate behavior of _townsendii_. At the observer's close approach the yellow-pine chipmunks went scampering off through the brush and tangles of logs and branches, to emerge again and watch from a hundred feet away. The same individuals, when repeatedly followed, always remained in sight. Most of the Townsend chipmunks, when frightened, ran into the nearest dense cover and vanished, not to appear again. A goodly number, perhaps ten per cent, climbed high up in fir trees. None of the yellow-pine chipmunks took refuge in trees. The yellow-pine chipmunk is usually found at considerable altitude and consequently there is deep snow and bitter cold in winter where it lives. Hibernation is probably complete. Seemingly these chipmunks depend on stored food rather than on accumulated fat to tide them over the winter, for animals collected in autumn are no fatter than those taken in the spring. Svihla (1936B: 290) found that _Tamias a. canicaudus_, hibernating in captivity at Pullman, Whitman County, awoke at intervals to eat stored food. The time of retirement of yellow-pine chipmunks for the winter seems to coincide with the coming of winter weather. In mid-November of one year, when no snow had yet fallen in the Cascades, yellow-pine chipmunks were common near Stevens Pass, although their actions were noticeably slow. In another autumn, when the winter snows came early, I looked in vain for chipmunks in October where they had been common earlier. George C. Cantwell noted a yellow-pine chipmunk at Republic, Ferry County, on November 9, 1903, after the ground was "well frozen," but apparently free of snow (Howell, 1929: 7). Like other species that hibernate, they, at times, seem to become active in winter; J. B. Flett reported seeing a yellow-pine chipmunk at Longmire, Mt. Rainier, on February 14, 1920, and again on March 31 (Howell, _loc. cit._, p. 7). At Deer Park, Clallam County, at timber-line, several _Tamias townsendii cooperi_ were active in early April, 1938, but only one _Tamias amoenus_ was seen. In the previous June they were abundant there and _townsendii_ was scarce. I have watched these chipmunks eat the berries of the red huckleberry (_Vaccinium parvifolium_), salmonberry (_Rubus spectabilis_), thimbleberry (_Rubus parviflorus_), devil's club (_Fatsia horrida_), and mountain ash (_Sorbus cascadensis_ and _S. occidentalis_). Of these, the blue huckleberry (_Vaccinum occidentale_ and _V. membranaceum_) are probably the most important to the chipmunks. At Sherman Creek Pass, in the Kettle River Mountains, Ferry County, I watched a pika (_Ochotona_) busily harvesting wild raspberry plants (_Rubus leucodermis_), and laying them in a pile under a rock. A yellow-pine chipmunk waited under the rock and ate the ripe berries from each branch as it was laid away. A brood nest of the yellow-pine chipmunk was discovered by Shaw (1944: 274) at Hurricane Ridge, Clallam County. The entrance was a hole 1-1/2 inches in diameter constructed among the grass and alpine flowers of a meadow at 6,450 feet elevation. The burrow itself was 2 inches in diameter, and had a turning-around pocket 9 inches from the entrance. The nest was situated just beneath the sod, 4 feet from the entrance. The nest chamber was 7 inches high by 7-1/2 inches in diameter and in the shape of a "round-bottomed flask." It was filled snugly with nest material composed of a grasslike sedge (_Carex spectabilis_) mixed with feathers of the blue grouse. Earth excavated from the nest cavity had been forced upwards through the sod in the manner of a mole in forming mounds. The single burrow was unbranched. Seven young of about 16 to 18 days of age were found in the nest. =Tamias amoenus caurinus= (Merriam) _Eutamias caurinus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 352, October 4, 1898. _Eutamias amoenus caurinus_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922. _Tamias amoenus caurinus_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at timber-line, head of Sol Duc River, Olympic Mountains, Clallam County, Washington, by C. H. Merriam and Vernon Bailey on August 27, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Small size and pale color. _Measurements._--Seven males and 3 females from Deer Park, Clallam County, average: total length 207.4; length of tail 93.2; hind foot 32.5; ear 16. _Distribution._--Higher parts of the Olympic Mountains, from Deer Park (W. W. D.) south to head of Dosewallips River (Howell, 1929:77). =Tamias amoenus felix= Rhoads _Tamias quadrivittatus felix_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 29:941, October, 1895. _Eutamias quadrivittatus felix_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:44, December 27, 1901. _Eutamias amoenus felix_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922. _Tamias amoenus felix_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. [Illustration: FIG. 81. Distribution of the yellow-pine chipmunk in Washington. A. _Tamias amoenus luteiventris._ B. _Tamias amoenus canicaudus._ C. _Tamias amoenus affinis._ D. _Tamias amoenus ludibundus._ E. _Tamias amoenus felix._ F. _Tamias amoenus caurinus._] _Type._--Obtained at Church Mountain, British Columbia, near the United States boundary by Allan Brooks on August 13, 1895; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Racial characters._--Large size and rich, dark color. _Measurements._--Ten topotypes average: total length 224.7; length of tail 98.8; hind foot 34.1; ear 14.4. _Distribution._--The extreme northwestern Cascades, north and west of Mt. Baker. _Remarks._--This richly-colored coastal race barely enters Washington. It is abundant near Goldrun Pass and Tomyhoi Lake, Whatcom County, just south of the international boundary. =Tamias amoenus ludibundus= (Hollister) _Eutamias ludibundus_ Hollister, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 56 (no. 26):1, December 5, 1911. _Eutamias amoenus ludibundus_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922. _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at Yellowhead Lake, 3,700 ft., British Columbia, by N. Hollister on August 29, 1911; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Moderate size, brownish rump, ochraceous sides. _Measurements._--Five males and 4 females from the higher parts of the Cascades average, respectively: total length 210, 217; length of tail 89, 90; hind foot 33, 33; ear 17.4, 16.7; weight 50, 59.7 grams. _Distribution._--The higher Cascade Mountains. Marginal records are: Barron (Howell, 1929:75), Lyman Lake (Howell, 1929:75), Cascade Tunnel (W. W. D.), Mt. Stuart (W. W. D.), Lake Kachees (W. W. D.), Boulder Cave (W. W. D.), and Mt. St. Helens (Howell, 1929:75). _Remarks._--At the higher altitudes this race seems to be the equivalent of _affinis_. The latter race lives in relatively arid yellow pine forests and _ludibundus_ occupies more moist and varied habitats higher in the mountains. =Tamias amoenus affinis= Allen _Tamias quadrivittatus affinis_ Allen, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull., 3:103, June, 1890. _Eutamias quadrivittatus affinis_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:44, December 27, 1901. _Eutamias amoenus affinis_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922. _Tamias amoenus affinis_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at Ashcroft, British Columbia, by C. P. Streator on July 3, 1889; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Small size, grayish color including rump, and white underparts. _Measurements._--Fourteen males and 7 females from Washington average: total length 201.5; length of tail 86.5; hind foot 31.7; ear 17.2. _Distribution._--The eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains. Marginal records on the west are: Bald Mountain (Howell, 1929:73), Mazama (Howell, 1929:73), Hart Lake (Howell, 1929:73), Lake Wenatchee (W. W. D.), 10 mi. S. Dryden (W. W. D.), Blewett Pass (W. W. D.), 10 mi. N. W. Ellensburg (W. W. D.), Wenas Creek (W. W. D.), Mt. Adams (Howell, 1929:73), and Lyle (Howell, 1929:73). Marginal occurrences on the east are: Mt. Chopaka (Howell, 1929:73), 20 mi. E. Tonasket (W. W. D.) and Omak Lake (Howell, 1929:73). =Tamias amoenus canicaudus= (Merriam) _Eutamias canicaudus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 16:77, May 29, 1903. _Eutamias amoenus_ canicaudus Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922. _Tamias amoenus canicaudus_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at Spokane, Spokane County, Washington, by C. P. Streator, on April 11, 1891; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Large size, pale color, grayish tail, white or buffy underparts. _Measurements._--Thirteen topotypes average: total length 227.2; length of tail 104.4; hind foot 33.7; ear 14. _Distribution._--The pine-covered lowlands along the central-eastern border of the state, ranging, according to Howell (1929: 71), from Spokane County south to Pullman. =Tamias amoenus luteiventris= Allen _Tamias quadrivittatus luteiventris_ Allen, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull., 3:101, June, 1890. _Eutamias quadrivittatus luteiventris_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:44, December 27, 1901. _Eutamias amoenus luteiventris_, Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:179, August 4, 1922. _Tamias amoenus luteiventris_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at Chief Mountain Lake (Waterton Lake), Alberta (3-1/2 mi. N. United States boundary) by Elliott Coues on August 24, 1874; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Small size, rich color, buffy underparts. _Measurements._--Twelve males and 12 females from the Blue Mountains, Columbia County, average respectively: total length 212, 219; length of tail 96.7, 101; hind foot 31.7, 32.5; ear 17.3, 18; weight 46.5, 52.8 grams. _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington, and the Pend Oreille Mountains of northeastern Washington, west to Eureka, in the Kettle River Mountains, Ferry County (Howell, 1929: 69), and south to Newport (W. W. D.). =Tamias ruficaudus simulans= (Howell) Red-tailed chipmunk _Eutamias ruficaudus simulans_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:179, August 4, 1922. _Tamias ruficaudus simulans_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 434, June 8, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at Coeur d'Alene, Kootenai County, Idaho, by C. P. Streator on June 1, 1891. _Measurements._--Six males and 3 females from northeastern Washington average: total length 234; length of tail 109; hind foot 31.6; ear 18. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, reported from Pend Oreille, Stevens and Ferry counties by Howell (1929: 98). _Description._--The red-tailed chipmunk closely resembles _Tamias amoenus_. From _T. a. luteiventris_ and _T. a. canicaudus_ it differs principally in larger size, wider brain case and especially in its pure white underparts. From _T. a. affinis_ it differs in richer coloration, especially the brownish rather than gray rump. The differences separating it from _amoenus_ are slight, and only adult specimens can be identified in the field. According to Howell (1929: 81) this species occurs in northern Idaho, western Montana, northeastern Washington, southeastern British Columbia and extreme southwestern Alberta. Two subspecies are recognized, only one of which occurs in Washington. A number of large, white-bellied chipmunks have been taken in northeastern Washington that answer well to the description of _ruficaudus_. Also, there are a number of specimens that I cannot definitely identify as either _amoenus_ or _ruficaudus_. Some buff-bellied chipmunks from Idaho are as large, and possess brain cases as wide, as specimens from Washington unhesitatingly called _ruficaudus_, while some white-bellied individuals match _amoenus luteiventris_ in all other characters. When all the specimens available from Pend Oreille, Stevens and Ferry counties are separated into _amoenus_ and _ruficaudus_ and the skulls are examined, it is noticeable that all the _ruficaudus_ are old, fully adult animals and that most of the _amoenus_ are younger, showing less wear on the teeth. Perhaps the buffy underparts are lost with increasing age. This leads to the suspicion that _ruficaudus_, as applied to chipmunks in Washington, is a synonym of _amoenus_. Until considerable material is collected in northeastern Washington, showing individual and age variation, it seems best to retain the name _ruficaudus_. Most of the specimens referable to _ruficaudus_ were taken in talus slides high in the Pend Oreille Mountains. A smaller series was collected at a lower altitude in open pine forests near Pend Oreille Lakes, Stevens County. I could detect no difference between _amoenus_ and _ruficaudus_ in habitat or habits. =Tamias townsendii= Bachman Townsend chipmunk _Description._--The Townsend chipmunk is the largest of the chipmunks that occur in Washington. Head and body measure about 5-1/2 inches; the tail about 4-1/2 inches. The fur of the Townsend chipmunk is more lax and less sleek than that of other species. The upper parts are duller and darker ochraceous. Stripes are wide and not sharply delineated. The dark stripes are deep chestnut or blackish. The upper pale stripe is pale buffy gray; the lower is whitish. The tail is blackish frosted with white above and rich ochraceous below. Underparts are dull white. The Townsend chipmunk ranges from the Fraser River in southern British Columbia through western Washington and Oregon, to central California. Like other members of the Pacific Coastal Fauna which extend southward to California, its geographic range extends farther inland to the south and geographic variation is greater; 3 races are listed by Johnson (1943: 114) in California. The Townsend chipmunk is the largest and darkest chipmunk in Washington. Over much of its range it is the only chipmunk found although in some mountainous areas both _townsendii_ and _amoenus_ occur together. The larger size and richer coloration, especially the rich tawny color of the underside of the tail, separate Townsend chipmunks from _amoenus_. [Illustration: FIG. 82. Townsend chipmunk (_Tamias townsendii cooperi_), captured on Goat Creek, 3,000 feet, western Cascade Mountains near Chinook Pass, Washington, September 16, 1940, by Earl J. Larrison; photographed February 1, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1139.)] Townsend chipmunks are closely associated with the coniferous forest where they live in clearings and tangles of underbrush such as on steep hillsides, fire slashings, snowslide areas or mountain glades. Though capable of swift movement, they are less nervous and active than other chipmunks. Rarely are they as abundant, even locally, as other species, and the home range of an individual seems to be larger than that of an _amoenus_ or a _minimus_. Rarely are more than two seen in a locality. Their more sedentary habits make them less conspicuous than other species. In the fall, when berries are dried out and seeds are ripe, they are most often seen. The Townsend chipmunk seems to be the most arboreal species found in Washington and individuals are not uncommonly seen in trees. The brushy cover inhabited by Townsend chipmunks protects them from most hawks while their diurnal habits prevent owls from feeding on them. Predatory mammals probably constitute their greatest menace. A weasel (_Mustela frenata_) was seen to follow a Townsend chipmunk into a pile of timbers near Cottage Lake, King County, and another was seen carrying a dead Townsend chipmunk at Stevens Pass, King County. Tracks around an area of blood and fur showed where a mink (_Mustela vison_) had killed a Townsend chipmunk near Cottage Lake, King County. [Illustration: FIG. 83. Distribution of the Townsend chipmunk in Washington. A. _Tamias townsendii townsendii._ B. _Tamias townsendii cooperi._] Shaw (1944: 278) discovered the brood nest of a Townsend chipmunk on Hurricane Ridge, Clallam County, 4,500 feet elevation. The burrow was in a cool, damp area among surface runs of moles (_Scapanus_), and led to an underground nest among the roots of a tree. The nest was formed of the gray, moss-like lichen (_Usnea_), lined within with sedge leaves (_Carex spectabilis_) and covered outside with leaves of the same sedge. A turning-about chamber was constructed near the entrance. The burrow was single and not branched. Three young, only two or three days old, were in the nest. =Tamias townsendii townsendii= Bachman _Tamias townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 (pt. 1):68, 1839. _Tamias quadrivittatus townsendii_ Allen, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 16:290, 1874. _Tamias asiaticus_ var. _townsendii_ Allen, Monog. N. Amer. Rodentia, Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., 11:794, 1877. _Eutamias townsendii_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:195, July 1, 1897. _Type._--Lectotype obtained near the lower mouth of the Willamette River, Multnomah County, Oregon, by J. K. Townsend in 1834; in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Racial Characters._--Color of sides rich tawny; dark stripes black or dark brown, and pale stripes cinnamon; underside of tail tawny. _Measurements._--Fifteen males and 10 females from western Washington average, respectively: total length 254.7, 258.6; length of tail 116, 122; hind foot 36.7, 37.1; ear 20.5, 20.4; weight 72, 81.2 grams. _Distribution._--The humid coastal belt of western Washington, from the western base of the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific, exclusive of the Olympic Mountains. When A. H. Howell revised the chipmunks in 1929, he employed a concept of a subspecies different from the writer's own. The locality records listed by Howell (1929: 109-112) for _Tamias townsendii townsendii_ and _T. t. cooperi_ are not in agreement with Howell's own distribution map (_op. cit._: 107). When the localities listed by Howell are plotted on a map of Washington, the ranges of the two races overlap in some critical areas. Not all of the material examined by Howell was seen by the writer, and, consequently, the ranges shown in Fig. 83 are plotted, in part, on geographic grounds. Marginal localities on the east, so plotted, for _T. t. townsendii_, are: Hamilton (U. S. N. M.), 5 mi. E. Monroe (W. W. D.), Redmond (W. W. D.), Roy (U. S. N. M.), and Vancouver (U. S. N. M.). =Tamias townsendii cooperi= Baird _Tamias cooperi_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:334, 1855. _Tamias townsendii_ var. _cooperi_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 737, 1857. _Eutamias cooperi_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 50:89, June 27, 1907. _Eutamias townsendii cooperi_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922. _Type._--Cotypes obtained at Klickitat Pass, 4,500 ft., Skamania County, Washington, by J. S. Cooper in July, 1853; in United States National Museum. _Racial Characters._--Similar to _T. t. townsendii_ but paler with pale stripes whitish rather than cinnamon. _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from the Cascades average, respectively: total length 246.4, 246.8; length of tail 111.7, 107.6; hind foot 35, 35.4; ear 20, 20; weight 77, 89.9 grams. _Distribution._--The higher and eastern Cascade Mountains and the Olympic Mountains. Marginal localities along the Cascades probably include: Swamp Creek (U. S. N. M.), Index (W. S. C.), North Bend (U. S. N. M.), Mt. St. Helens (U. S. N. M.), and Yacolt (M. V. Z.). =Marmota monax petrensis= Howell Woodchuck _Marmota monax petrensis_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 37:33, April 7, 1915. _Type._--Obtained at Revelstoke, British Columbia, by W. Spreadborough on May 12, 1890; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Howell (1915: 33) gives the measurements of an adult male (the type) as: total length 540; length of tail 127; hind foot 76. An adult female from Barkerville, British Columbia, measured: total length 505; length of tail 125; and hind foot 68. _Distribution._--The Pend Oreille Mountains, Pend Oreille County. The woodchuck was seen and positively identified in northeastern Washington but no specimens were collected. _Description._--The woodchuck is the smallest member of the genus _Marmota_ that occurs in Washington. Adults are about 22 inches in length, of which the tail comprises 5 inches. The body is stout and plump. The legs are short. The ears are low and rounded. The eyes are large but not prominent. The fur is rather stiff but dense. The upper parts are cinnamon, frosted with white-tipped guard hairs. The underparts are tawny. There is no white bar across the nose. Woodchucks occur from Alaska to Idaho and eastward to the Atlantic, extending southward in the eastern United States. Miller (1924: 173-175) lists seven subspecies, one of which enters the extreme northeastern corner of Washington. The habits of the eastern woodchuck (_Marmota monax rufescens_) have been studied by Hamilton (1934: 85-178), but the northern races are less well known. Cowan (1939: 77-79) gives observations on the habits, nests and burrows of _Marmota monax canadensis_. =Marmota flaviventris avara= (Bangs) Yellow-bellied marmot _Arctomys flaviventer avarus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:68, July 31, 1899. [_Marmota flaviventer_] _avarus_ Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv. foss., suppl., p. 344, 1904. _Marmota flaviventris avara_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:175, April 29, 1924. _Type._--Obtained at Okanogan, British Columbia, by A. C. Brooks on July 17, 1897; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. _Measurements._--A male from 5 miles north of Entiat, Chelan County, measured: total length 610; length of tail 182; hind foot 70; ear 28. _Distribution._--From the eastern edge of the Cascade Mountains eastward, except, apparently, extreme northeastern Washington. Marginal records are: Okanogan (W. W. D.) in the north, Wenas (W. W. D.) in the west, Pasco (M. V. Z.) in the south, and 14 mi. S. W. Pullman (Howell, 1915: 42) in the east. _Description._--The yellow-bellied marmot is similar to the woodchuck but is slightly larger. It is decidedly paler in color, less reddish, but possesses white-tipped hairs on the dorsal surface, as does the woodchuck. The yellow-bellied marmot also differs from the woodchuck in having a distinct white bar on the nose. Its pelage is coarse and rather thin. The yellow-bellied marmot is typically an animal of the basalt talus of eastern Washington but occurs in mountainous areas in northeastern Washington. These animals are usually found near streams, ponds, lakes, or rivers. They wander considerably, however, and are often found far from water. Their wandering habits probably account for their presence near temporary streams and ponds on the Columbian Plateau. When these temporary sources of water dry up in July or early August, the marmots go into hibernation. Edson (1935: 68) records a marmot from Bellingham, Whatcom County, far west of the usual range of the species. The "ground hog" is often hunted for sport and sometimes for food. Near centers of human population the yellow-bellied marmots are extremely shy. Along the highways of the Columbia River on any Sunday in June, it is not unusual to see a dozen cars in an hour, moving slowly past a talus slide while eager hunters scan the rocks for marmots. In the late afternoon, when the marmots leave the protection of the talus slides to drink at the river, they fall easy prey to rifles with telescope sights. Near cities in eastern Washington yellow-bellied marmots have become partially nocturnal. Couch (1930: 2-6) attempted to excavate several dens of yellow-bellied marmots, but decided to leave the task "to some future road-building crew." Embryos found by Couch numbered three to six. Couch thought the young were born about March 15 in the Snake River area and about April 15 in the upper Okanogan area. The young appear above ground approximately 30 days after birth. The yellow-bellied marmots enter aestivation from late June to early August, depending on the locality and local conditions. They are active longer in northeastern Washington. Couch records a yellow-bellied marmot seen in Okanogan County on October 10, but regards this as exceptional. The marmots near Wenatchee, Chelan County, emerge from their burrows in early March (March 5 to 10, from reports of residents in 1937, 1938). Couch (1930: 5) gives February 20 to March 15 as the date of appearance. A principal requirement for marmots is the presence of rocks. At Cle Elum, Kittitas County, I took a marmot from an alfalfa field where a farmer had placed all the surface stones in a loose pile. Fifteen miles east of Tonasket, Okanogan County, marmots were living in the stones piled by road builders to support the ends of a small bridge. A hundred feet away another marmot was living under an abandoned building. A high, convenient rock near their burrow serves the yellow-bellied marmots as a look-out post. These look-out posts seem, in many cases, to have been used by many generations of marmots, for their feces sometimes fill nearby crevices to a depth of several feet and cover the look-out rock itself. The glacial boulders on the plateau between the Okanogan River and Omak Lake, Okanogan County, furnish the best examples of look-out posts. These numerous isolated boulders, ten to fifty feet in diameter and ten to thirty feet high, each seem to furnish shelter to one or more marmots. Well-worn trails lead from the boulders to burrows and feeding areas. The food of the yellow-bellied marmot includes grasses and succulent plants found in their habitat. Fondness for alfalfa makes them a serious pest in some areas, for their large size enables them to make considerable inroads on a field. Natural enemies probably include most larger predaceous mammals. Hawks and eagles probably kill their young. Near Tonasket, Okanogan County, Robert Dalquest surprised a coyote as it ran across a small wash. A shot caused the coyote to drop a half-grown marmot which it had been carrying. =Marmota caligata cascadensis= Howell Hoary marmot _Marmota caligata cascadensis_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:17, February 2, 1914. _Type._--Obtained on Mt. Rainier, 6,000 ft., Pierce County, Washington, by A. K. Fisher on August 11, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--A young adult male from Stevens Pass, King County, measures: total length 773; length of tail 221; hind foot 93; ear 27. _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, ranging from Mt. Baker (W. W. D.) and Mt. Chopaka (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 15) south to Mt. Adams (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 15). _Description._--The hoary marmot is the largest of the American marmots; adults are 28 inches or more in length, of which the tail makes up about 8 inches. The pelage is dense and rather woolly. The upper parts are not frosted with white-tipped hairs, but are gray washed with blackish. The head is blackish with white facial markings, and the shoulders, legs and underparts are gray. The tail is dark reddish brown. Hoary marmots range from Alaska south to Washington and Idaho. Howell (1915: 57-67) recognizes seven races of this species. [Illustration: FIG. 84A. Distribution of marmots in Washington. A. _Marmota monax petrensis._ B. _Marmota flaviventris avara._ C. _Marmota caligata cascadensis._ D. _Marmota olympus._] This mammal of the higher altitudes rarely goes below the Hudsonian Life-zone. It is most common in the talus slides at the lower edge of the Arctic-Alpine Life-zone. Like other marmots, it prefers to live amid loose boulders. The steep talus or "scab rock" slides in the glacial cirques provide an ideal habitat. The crevices and caves beneath the rocks offer concealment for young and adults. A large boulder with a flat top is usually selected as a look-out. Well-worn trails lead from the talus slides to nearby grassy slopes. When surprised in the open, the hoary marmot exhibits a peculiar bounding run, reminiscent of that of tree squirrels. The short tail "follows through" in the leaps. In the rock slides the hoary marmot is surprisingly agile. The clear, shrill whistle of the hoary marmot is familiar to all who penetrate its haunts. The whistle is remarkably similar to the whistle of a person. Locally the hoary marmot is known as "whistler" or "whistle pig." Individuals emerge from hibernation early in June; most adults retire again by the middle of September. On September 14, 1937, a young of the year was shot and few were seen where they had been common in June. All were shy. Only one adult was seen. Large hawks and eagles commonly hunt over the rock slides inhabited by marmots, and probably kill very young individuals. Only the larger predators such as bear, cougar, wolf, coyote, lynx, and bobcat would be expected to kill an adult hoary marmot. =Marmota olympus= (Merriam) Olympic marmot _Arctomys olympus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 352, October 4, 1898. [_Marmota_] _olympus_ Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv. foss. suppl., p. 344, 1904. _Type._--Obtained at timber-line, head of Sol Duc River, Clallam County, Washington, by C. H. Merriam, on August 27, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Two small but adult females from Deer Park, Clallam County, measure respectively: total length 758, 691; length of tail 163, 161; hind foot 106, 97; ear 31, 29. _Distribution._--This species is confined to the Olympic Mountains. _Description._--The Olympic marmot closely resembles the hoary marmot, and differs in being slightly larger, and reddish or rusty brown where the hoary marmot is gray. It lacks the blackish overwash of the hoary marmot. The nose is whitish. Although the Olympic marmot belongs to the hoary marmot group it is a distinct species, most closely related to the marmot of the mountains of Vancouver Island. Its habits differ but little from those of the hoary marmot. It lives in burrows in talus slides and boulder piles near timber line. A few burrows are dug beneath logs. Well worn trails lead from burrows to feeding grounds on nearby grassy slopes and heather meadows. High rocks or logs serve as lookouts. The alarm whistle is similar to that of the hoary marmot. =Citellus townsendii townsendii= (Bachman) Townsend ground squirrel; sage rat _Spermophilus townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8:61, 1839. _Spermophilus mollis yakimensis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:70, March 24, 1898. [_Citellus mollis_] _yakimensis_ Trouessart, Cat. Mamm., Sup., p. 339, 1904. _Citellus townsendii townsendii_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:60, May 18, 1938. [Illustration: FIG. 84B. Distribution of the Townsend and Washington ground squirrels in Washington. A. _Citellus townsendii townsendii._ B. _Citellus washingtoni._] _Type._--Obtained on the western bank of the Columbia River "about 300 miles above its mouth" (probably near the mouth of the Walla Walla or Touchet river; more exactly, opposite Wallula, in Benton County, Washington) by J. K. Townsend in July, 1836; type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. _Measurements._--Ten adults from Mabton and North Yakima, Yakima County, average: total length 212.2; length of tail 45.7; hind foot 33.9. _Distribution._--The Upper Sonoran Life-zone area of the Yakima Valley from Ellensburg (Howell, 1938: 63) south to the Columbia at Kennewick (W. W. D.). _Remarks._--This race is probably derived from _C. t. mollis_ of Oregon, from which it is but slightly differentiated. It was known for many years as _Citellus mollis yakimensis_. For use of the name _townsendii_ see Howell (1938: 62). The head and body are about 6-1/2 inches long and the tail is about 2 inches in length. The head is large with low, rounded ears and large eyes. The neck is distinctly constricted and the body is plump. Adults are "pot-bellied." The legs are short and the feet small. The tail is short, round at the base but bushy throughout the rest of its length. The pelage is short and rather harsh. In color the upper parts are yellowish gray flecked with tiny, pale dots. The underparts are buffy. The face, thighs and tail are reddish buff. Ground squirrels occur in parts of Europe, Asia, and much of western North America. Howell (1938: 36-37) recognizes eight subgenera and thirty-one species in North America. Three subgenera occur in Washington, namely: _Citellus_, the spotted ground squirrels, represented by _Citellus townsendii_, _Citellus washingtoni_ and _Citellus columbianus_; _Otospermophilus_, the long-tailed ground squirrels, represented by _Citellus beecheyi_; and _Callospermophilus_, the striped ground squirrels, represented by _Citellus lateralis_ and _Citellus saturatus_. All ground squirrels are diurnal and consequently are familiar to man. Most species bear local names and the striped or mantled ground squirrels are often mistaken for chipmunks. Some species are destructive to crops, especially grain. In addition they harbor sylvatic plague. Economically the genus _Citellus_ is of great importance in Washington. All Washington ground squirrels live in burrows which they construct themselves. The life histories of the two striped species are less well known than those of the more economically important species. All species hibernate. The striped species disappear in October and reappear the following March. This can be called true hibernation. The long-tailed ground squirrels probably hibernate at high altitudes but aestivate in more arid localities. In Washington the Douglas ground squirrel occupies an area that is relatively temperate and humid. They may hibernate or aestivate, depending on local conditions, or they may remain active all year. The spotted ground squirrels disappear in midsummer and sleep (aestivate) until the following spring, for in their arid habitat the disappearance of green food in late summer and fall makes living conditions almost as unfavorable as in winter. Townsend ground squirrels range from central Washington south to southern Nevada and from the Cascade Mountains east to eastern Idaho and central Utah. Five races are recognized, only one of which occurs in Washington, where it is confined to the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. It occupies the sagebrush area, being most common where the sage is in scattered clumps separated by grassy areas. Occasionally these squirrels occupy extensive grasslands where sage is scarce and in the Yakima area may enter pastures and fields. They live in colonies, often with more than ten separate burrows to the acre. Burrows are dug in dusty ground, either near sage bushes or in openings among them. Well-worn trails lead from feeding places to openings of burrows. Mouths of burrows are usually situated on flat ground and are surrounded by a rim of excavated earth four to six inches high. If located on a slope, the excavated earth collects as a mound on the lower side, and serves as a look-out post for the squirrels. Burrows excavated by Scheffer are described by Howell (1938: 5). One reached a depth of 5-1/4 feet at a point where it branched 11 feet from the entrance. One branch led to the nest chamber three feet to the right of the main tunnel. The other reached a depth of six feet at a point 14 feet from the entrance, then turned upwards at a 70 degree angle and reached the surface through a partly obstructed entrance, 12 feet from the original entrance. The nest chamber was 6-1/2 inches in diameter and filled with a perfectly dry nest of fine grass, partly broken and shredded. Food consists of soft green vegetation and seeds. Foods listed by Howell (1938: 5) include: _Sphaeralida munroana_, _Plantago purshii_, _Bromus tectorum_, _Agropyron pauciflorum_, _Oryzopsis hymenoides_, _Norta altissima_, _Artemisiae spinescens_, sunflower, alfalfa, wheat, barley, potato, beets, carrots, lettuce, and insects (grasshoppers, cicadas). In 1917, these squirrels were reported to have practically destroyed a ten-acre field of beets at White Swan, Yakima County. Aestivation of older individuals begins in late May and the last young disappear in early June. The squirrels appear again in late January, before the snow has disappeared (Scheffer, 1941: 272). The voice of the Townsend ground squirrel is a faint, high pitched "pe-eee-ep," of remarkable carrying power for so faint a sound, and extremely difficult to trace to its source. Scheffer (in Howell, _op. cit._, p. 6) mentions also a chirping sound and a chatter of alarm which I have not heard. Five to seven embryos were found in specimens collected near Yakima. Scheffer (1941: 270) found the number of fetuses in 52 pregnant females from the Kennewick area to vary from 4 to 16 with an average of 8.6. Francis (1922: 5) reported tularemia in this species. They probably harbor also sylvatic plague. =Citellus washingtoni= Howell Washington ground squirrel; sage rat _Citellus washingtoni washingtoni_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:69, May 18, 1938. _Citellus washingtoni loringi_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:71, May 18, 1938 (type from Douglas, Douglas County, Washington). _Type._--Obtained at Touchet, Walla Walla County, Washington, by C. P. Streator on May 18, 1891; type in United States National Museum. _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau and southward into Oregon, ranging from Farmer (Howell, 1938: 71) and Moses Coulee (W. W. D.) south to Wallula (M. V. Z.). _Measurements._--Fifteen specimens from the vicinity of the type locality average: total length 229.2; length of tail 50; hind foot 35.3. A male from 4 miles west of Pasco, Franklin County, weighed 201 grams. _Remarks._--_Citellus w. loringi_ allegedly differs from typical _washingtoni_ in smaller size. The specimens collected by us from within the range of _loringi_ are as large as those from farther south. _C. w. loringi_ is regarded as a synonym of _C. w. washingtoni_. _Description._--The Washington ground squirrel closely resembles the Townsend ground squirrel in size and appearance. It differs principally in color. The upper parts are brownish gray marked with distinct white spots, and the underparts are buffy. The face, thighs and tail are dull reddish. This species is closely related to the Townsend ground squirrel but its habitat is more varied. It is most common in areas of low sage bushes surrounded by grasslands and on extensive grasslands, but occurs also in sandy places, wheat fields, and rocky hillsides. The animals live in colonies, in some places 50 or more individuals to the acre. They occur also as scattered individuals or small colonies in smaller areas of suitable habitat. For example, along the highway from Farmer, Douglas County, to Waterville, a distance of 15 miles, a band of natural grass, 50 feet or less in width, lies between the road and the extensive wheat fields beyond. This strip of natural cover possessed about one _Citellus_ to each 200 feet along most of its length. The squirrels were often seen sitting on rolls of wire drift fence, used to keep snow drifts from the road in winter but in summer rolled into bundles 3 feet in diameter and left standing at intervals of one each 100 feet. The squirrels had constructed their burrow entrances beneath these rolls and used the rolls as look-out posts. At my approach they would dodge into the rolls of wire and, unless scared, remained in the wire roll. By approaching carefully and overturning the rolls I was able to trap and capture a good series of living specimens. Burrows, nests, habits, and food of this species seem identical to those of _townsendii_. Aestivation dates seem to be the same (Scheffer, 1941: 270-279). The hibernation of this species has been discussed in detail by Svhila (1939: 6-10). Food species listed by Scheffer at Wallula (Howell, 1938: 8) are identical to those of _townsendii_ at Kennewick, across the Columbia River (see account of _townsendii_). Scheffer (1941: 270-279) examined 26 pregnant females of this species and found the fetuses to vary from 5 to 11 in number, with an average of 8. =Citellus columbianus= (Ord) Columbian ground squirrel _Description._--The Columbian ground squirrel has the general body proportions, large head, large eyes, low, rounded ears, plump body and short tail of the Townsend ground squirrel, but is much larger. The head and body of an adult measure about 10 inches and the tail about 4 inches. The upper parts are grayish buff mottled with round white dots. The underparts and forefeet are pale ochraceous. The back of the head and neck are gray. The face, thighs and tail are reddish. The Columbian ground squirrel occupies inland mountainous areas from central British Columbia to central Oregon and Idaho and from eastern Washington and Oregon to western Montana and southwestern Alberta. It is closely related to the arctic ground squirrels of the _Citellus parryii_ group, which are in turn related to the Siberian forms, _buxtoni_ and _stejnegeri_. The habitat of the Columbian ground squirrel is varied but is usually more humid than that of the Townsend and Washington ground squirrels. The most arid of the lands occupied by them in Washington are the grasslands and wheat fields of the Poulouse country and the eastern border of the state. In northeastern Washington they live in meadows and grasslands in the valleys, in openings in the coniferous forest at higher altitudes and in parks and alpine meadows almost to timber-line on the mountains. Some individuals were in brushy places or even in forests, far from grassy clearings. Near Republic, Ferry County, a Columbian ground squirrel was killed as it ran along a log in dense larch woods. Its burrows were found in a tangle of brush and fallen logs. No clearings, meadow or grassland existed nearby. Narrow bands of cleared land beside roads and railroad tracks are extensively used by these squirrels. Where small meadows or pastures occur, this species lives in dense colonies. If grasslands are extensive it lives in loose colonies, often with considerable distances between individual burrow systems. In the mountains the squirrels are scattered or live in small groups. Burrows of the Columbian ground squirrel are often constructed in the open. Mouths of burrows, especially if the animals are living in colonies, usually are marked by a large pile of excavated earth. If, however, there is some large object on the surface of the ground, such as a stone, stump, or log, the entrance to the burrow is located beside this. Such objects are often undermined and made to settle, eventually becoming buried. The squirrels live under houses, and the yards of abandoned ranch buildings are often infested with them. The burrows of the Columbian ground squirrel have been described by Shaw (1919, 1924B, 1925, A, B, E, 1926) and Bailey (1918: 47). Two types of burrows are constructed, summer burrows and hibernation dens. Summer burrows are used year after year, perhaps by succeeding generations of squirrels. They vary considerably but usually are 3 or 4 inches in diameter and possess several entrances. The depth to which the burrow descends, as well as the number of forks and subsidiary burrows, depends to some extent on the whims of the individual squirrel and the length of time the burrow has been occupied. Usually the burrow reaches a depth of four feet and two or more branches are present. A turning-about chamber is present, not far from the entrance. Here a startled squirrel can turn about and watch the entrance and, if the alarm was false, the squirrel resumes its activities above ground. Nests are above the level of the main burrow system and thus are protected from flooding by rain or melting snow. Stored food and excrement are deposited in separate compartments. Escape entrances, concealed in grass and weeds, for use in case the burrow is invaded, are dug from beneath the surface of the ground and thus are unmarked by any telltale mound of earth. Separate dens are used for aestivation. While the squirrel is in aestivation the entrances to the summer burrow are solidly plugged with tamped earth. Aestivation dens are short and may or may not communicate with the summer burrow. Shaw (1925B: 58) measured 50 such dens and found the aestivation cell to average 2 feet 6 inches beneath the surface with extreme depths of 6 inches and 4 feet 11 inches. Ordinarily a drainage burrow is dug beneath the level of the nest. [Illustration: FIG. 85. Distribution of the Columbian and Beechey ground squirrels in Washington. A. _Citellus columbianus columbianus._ B. _Citellus columbianus ruficaudus._ C. _Citellus beecheyi douglasii._] The time and length of aestivation is variable. Old males enter aestivation before the females and young, and emerge earlier in the spring. In the lowlands, as about Pullman, Whitman County, the squirrels begin to disappear in mid July. In the mountains of northeastern Washington they are active until late August. They emerge again in late February or early March. Shaw (1925B) mentions that food is occasionally stored in aestivation dens of male squirrels. This food is not eaten in the winter but in the spring, when the squirrels awaken. The gestation period was determined by Shaw (1925C: 108) as 24 days. Two to five, rarely seven, young are born. The average litter is about 3.5. Mating occurs in late March and the young are born about the middle of April. Most green vegetation occurring in its habitat is food for the Columbian ground squirrel. Bulbs, seeds, fruit, berries, grain, clover, alfalfa, and garden truck are eagerly eaten. The squirrels are especially fond of wheat and great damage results from their depredations. In northeastern Washington some wheat fields are almost entirely destroyed. Shaw (1925G) showed that one squirrel destroyed an average of more than 50 pounds of wheat in a season. When populations range as high as ten squirrels to the acre, little wheat is left. In Montana the Columbian ground squirrel is a known reservoir of Rocky Mountain spotted fever (Birdseye, 1912: 1-46) while sylvatic plague has been reported in this species in Oregon (Meyer, 1936: 965). Control of the Columbian ground squirrel by traps, poison, and shooting is only locally successful. =Citellus columbianus columbianus= (Ord) _Arctomys columbianus_ Ord, Guthrie's Geography, 2d American Edition, 2:292 (description, p. 303), 1815. _Spermophilus columbianus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:39, July 30, 1891. _Citellus columbianus_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 19:536, October 10, 1903. _Type._--None designated. Description based on Lewis and Clark's account of animals taken by them between the forks of the Clearwater and Kooskooskie rivers, Idaho. _Racial characters._--Smaller size and paler color than in _ruficaudus_. _Measurements._--Five females from northeastern Washington average: total length 346; length of tail 77; hind foot 48.6; ear 20. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, from 15 mi. E. Tonasket (W. W. D.) east to Pass Creek Pass (U. S. N. M.) and south to Pullman (W. S. C.) along the eastern edge of the state. =Citellus columbianus ruficaudus= Howell _Citellus columbianus ruficaudus_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 41:212, December 18, 1928. _Type._--Obtained at Wallowa Lake, Wallowa County, Oregon, by G. G. Cantwell on April 13, 1919; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _Citellus columbianus columbianus_ but tail redder, especially above, and red color everywhere deeper. _Distribution._--Restricted to the Blue Mountains of extreme southeastern Washington. _Remarks._--This is at best a slightly differentiated race and upon further study, animals assigned to it may prove unworthy of recognition as a distinct subspecies. =Citellus beecheyi douglasii= (Richardson) Beechey ground squirrel _Arctomys? (Spermophilus?) douglasii_ Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:172, 1829. _Spermophilus douglasii_ F. Cuvier, Sup. a l'hist. natur. Buffon, 1:333, 1831. [_Spermophilus grammurus_] var. _douglasii_ Allen, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 16:293, 1874. _Citellus v[ariegatus]. douglasii_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 76, zoöl. ser. 3:183, May, 1903. _Citellus beecheyi douglasi_ Grinnell, Proc. California Acad. Sci., 3 (ser. 4):345, August 28, 1913. _Otospermophilus grammurus douglasii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:18, April 29, 1924. _Citellus douglasii_ Taylor and Shaw, _Occ._ Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:15, December, 1929. _Citellus beecheyi douglasii_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:150, May 18, 1938. _Type._--None. Description based on a hunter's skin from "Banks of the Columbia," probably near The Dalles, Wasco County, Oregon. _Measurements._--A male and 6 females from Klickitat County, average, respectively: total length 469, 480; length of tail 181, 198; hind foot 58, 62; ear 26, 26. _Distribution._--The Columbia River Valley from Goldendale (W. W. D.) west to the White Salmon River (W. W. D.). _Remarks._--Ground squirrels have been common on the Oregon side of the Columbia River for a long time. The specimen upon which the description was based was presumably obtained there in the early 1800's. Yet the species did not become established in Washington until 100 years later, in about 1915. The head is large with eyes and ears of moderate size. The body is rather stout; thicker than that of a tree squirrel but slimmer than that of the Columbian ground squirrel. Head and body are about 11 inches in length and the tail is about 7 inches long. The upper parts are dark brownish or blackish gray heavily marked with white spots. A triangular area at the shoulders is clear black outlined in whitish. The head and neck are grayish brown. The underparts are buffy. The tail is gray above and buffy beneath. This species belongs to the subgenus _Otospermophilus_. Externally the species _beecheyi_ differs from _Citellus washingtoni_, _townsendii_, and _columbianus_, all of which belong to the subgenus _Citellus_, in possessing more slender limbs, a longer, thinner body, a rather bushy tail that is nearly two-thirds, rather than less than half, the length of the body, and larger, more prominent ears. The Beechey ground squirrel lacks also the hazel color of nose and thigh that is characteristic of the subgenus _Citellus_ in Washington. _Citellus beecheyi_ ranges from the southern edge of the state of Washington southward through western Oregon and California into northern Lower California. It is a western coastal species and reaches eastward only as far as Nevada. A related species, _Citellus variegatus_, occurs farther inland, from Utah, Colorado, and Texas, southward to central Mexico. Eight subspecies of _Citellus beecheyi_ are recognized by Howell (1938), all but three of which are restricted to California. At present the Beechey ground squirrel occupies a limited area of Washington, which it has invaded in recent years (Scheffer and Dalquest, 1939: 44). However, it is extending its range and may be expected eventually to occupy a considerable part of the state. The habitat of this ground squirrel is varied. It occupies a more humid terrain than do most members of the genus. At the present time it is most common in grassy fields and rocky outcrops along the Columbia River. It is common also in the open oak groves on the hillsides back from the river valley and some individuals were seen near Guler, well up on the slopes of Mount Adams. As observed in Washington, its favored habitat is about rock outcrops and talus slides near extensive fields or grasslands. In California and Oregon, however, it occurs among other places, in scattered fields and meadows of the coniferous forests in the humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. The range of tolerance of the species is such that it might extend its range into much of western Washington, including the Puget Sound area. It may be expected to move northward through the eastern Cascades. Because of its limited range and the short time of its establishment, the Beechey ground squirrel has been studied little in Washington. According to Howell (1938: 28), this race is less prolific and abundant than other members of the species. Of the Beechey ground squirrel, certainly the subspecies _C. b. douglasii_, is less common, locally and over wide areas, in its range in California and Oregon, than are the subspecies _C. b. beecheyi_ and _C. b. fisheri_ in California. In Washington, on the other hand, _douglasii_ is locally abundant, perhaps more so than elsewhere. The habits of this race in California have been studied by Grinnell and Dixon (1919: 595-807). Burrows have been excavated near Eugene, Oregon, and the findings published (Edge, 1934: 189-193). Burrows were dug on sloping or well-drained ground. Mounds of earth at the entrances were usually inconspicuous but well-worn trails led to the burrows. The burrows entered the ground at an angle of 35° for about two feet, then flattened out horizontally for six feet or more. The burrows were from 1 to 4 feet deep, usually about 2 feet. Ordinary burrows had a single entrance but some older burrows had two or more. Burrows branched frequently. Nest chambers were of the shape of a flattened sphere 10 inches in diameter. Frequently more than one nest was found in a burrow, but only one was in use at a time. Some nests were infested with fleas. Nests frequently contained food. Most of the burrows observed by me had their entrances beside rocks or oak roots. In alfalfa fields near Bingen and Lyle, Klickitat County, the burrows were in open fields and the entrances were marked by large mounds of earth. In actual diameter the burrows seemed smaller than those of _Citellus columbianus_. Aestivation and hibernation of the ground squirrels in the lower Columbia River Valley seem unnecessary, for the climate is temperate and humid. It is not established that _douglasii_ hibernates in other parts of its range where the climate is mild. Specimens shot at White Salmon in early March were lean and gave no evidence of having hibernated. The Beechey ground squirrel is an excellent climber; I have seen individuals in oak trees on a number of occasions. They like to sit on fence posts and when alarmed descend head foremost, with speed and agility. In running on the ground their movements are more graceful than those of _Citellus columbianus_ but are unlike the flowing, bounding run of tree squirrels. Near White Salmon and Lyle, these ground squirrels were eating burr clover (_Medicago_), grasses (_Bromus_), and alfalfa. In some places they do considerable damage to alfalfa fields. They probably eat acorns and are said to eat some insects. In California the young are born in May and number five to seven. No disease has been recorded for this subspecies but a related form in California (_Citellus b. beecheyi_) is known to harbor plague (Kellogg, 1935: 857) and tularemia (McCoy, 1911: 53-71). =Citellus lateralis= (Say) Golden-mantled ground squirrel _Description._--The head and body measure about 6 inches and the tail about 4 inches. The head is large and rounded with eyes and ears of moderate size. The body is stouter than that of a chipmunk. The tail is long and well furred. Upper parts are buffy gray with one pale stripe bordered by two black stripes extending from shoulders to rump, and the underparts are buffy. The head and shoulders are tawny. The tail is buffy beneath and darker above. Externally golden-mantled ground squirrels somewhat resemble chipmunks but actually are no more closely related to chipmunks than are other ground squirrels. They are larger than chipmunks and their stripes differ in that there is but one pale stripe on each side bordered with black stripes rather than two pale stripes, and in that the stripes end at the shoulders rather than continuing on to the face. These ground squirrels are distributed in mountainous areas of western North America from central British Columbia south to central Arizona and New Mexico. A closely related species (_Citellus madrensis_) occupies a limited area in northern Mexico and another lives in the Cascades of Washington. There are two subspecies of _lateralis_ in Washington, each with a major part of its range outside of Washington. This species inhabits mountain clearings, parks and talus slides, where it is most common about rocks, stumps, and logs. Its fondness for talus slides and outcrops has earned it the common name of "rock squirrel" in some places. Entrances to burrows are usually beside a rock, stump, or root, or are concealed under talus slides. A burrow excavated by Hatt (1927) in Colorado was three inches in diameter at the entrance and uniformly two inches in diameter for the rest of its length. Most of the burrow was 8 inches beneath the surface. The tunnel branched twice and contained one pocket, probably a turning or passing chamber, in addition to the nest. "A runway surrounded the nest on three sides, from which there were four passages leading in. The nest cavity was 4 inches deep, the nest not filling the space available, but occurring more as a mat in the bottom of a cup." The habits of this ground squirrel in Washington are little known. Since it occupies areas that are cold and under deep snow in winter, it probably hibernates. According to Howell (1938: 32) these animals become fat in the fall and must retire for the winter about the middle of September. The food habits of these ground squirrels in Washington are little known. In the Pend Oreille Mountains, Pend Oreille County, I found them eating the fruit of the western raspberry (_Rubus leucodermis_). Howell lists, as food of this species, the seeds of yellow pine and douglas fir, serviceberries, other berries and seeds, grain, mushrooms, and several kinds of insects. =Citellus lateralis tescorum= (Hollister) _Callospermophilus lateralis tescorum_ Hollister, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 56 (no. 26):2, December 5, 1911. _Citellus lateralis tescorum_ Elliot, Check-list Mamm. N. Amer., Supp., p. 29, 1917. _Type._--Obtained at the head of Moose Pass Branch, Smoky River, Alberta (near Moose Pass, British Columbia), 7,000 ft., by N. Hollister on August 2, 1911; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Large size, gray color. _Measurements._--A female from Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County, measures: total length 257; length of tail 90; hind foot 40; ear 14. _Distribution._--Known only from the Pend Oreille Mountains, Pend Oreille County, at Pass Creek Pass (W. W. D.). [Illustration: FIG. 86. Distribution of golden-mantled ground squirrels in Washington. A. _Citellus lateralis tescorum._ B. _Citellus lateralis connectens._ C. _Citellus saturatus._] =Citellus lateralis connectens= (Howell) _Callospermophilus chrysodeirus connectens_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 12:161, May 14, 1931. _Citellus lateralis connectens_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:205, May 18, 1938. _Type._--Obtained at Homestead, Oregon, by H. H. Sheldon on June 1, 1916; type in United States National Museum. _Racial Characters._--Similar to _C. l. tescorum_ but browner, more buffy and less grayish, mantle brighter, size slightly smaller. _Measurements._--Seven males from northeastern Oregon average (Howell, 1938: 206): total length 266; length of tail 92; hind foot 41.7; ear 14.8 (dry). An adult female from Godman Springs, Columbia County, measures: total length 257; length of tail 87; hind foot 37; ear 14. _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of extreme southeastern Washington. _Remarks._--This race differs markedly from the subspecies that occupies northeastern Washington, but differs but little from _Citellus l. chrysodeirus_ of the Cascades of Oregon. =Citellus saturatus= (Rhoads) Golden-mantled ground squirrel _Tamias lateralis saturatus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1895:43, April 9, 1895. [_Spermophilus lateralis_] _saturatus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 45, zoöl. ser., 2:83, 1901. _Citellus lateralis saturatus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 105, zoöl. ser., 6:106, 1905. _Callospermophilus lateralis saturatus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:316, December 31, 1912. _Citellus saturatus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:212, May 18, 1936. _Type._--Obtained at Lake Keechelus, 3000 ft., Kittitas County, Washington, by A. Rupert, in September, 1893; type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. _Measurements._--Ten males from the Cascade Mountains average: total length 305; length of tail 110.9; hind foot 46.5; ear 17 (dry). The weights of 3 males and 5 females average, respectively: 281 grams; 259.4 grams. _Distribution._--The higher and eastern Cascade Mountains from Barron (Howell, 1938: 213) and Bauerman Ridge (Howell, 1938: 213) south to Cleveland (Howell, 1938: 213) and Goldendale (W. W. D.). _Remarks._--The golden-mantled ground squirrel of the Cascades is similar to _Citellus lateralis_ but is larger and duller-colored. Head and body are about 8 inches in length and the tail is about 4-1/2 inches long. The upper parts are brownish gray with one pale and two dark stripes on each side. Head and shoulders are tawny. The underparts are dull buffy gray. _Citellus saturatus_ occupies the Cascade Mountains of Washington and southern British Columbia. It inhabits talus slides and clearings. The rock embankment of the Great Northern Railroad between the Cascade Tunnel and Leavenworth, Chelan County, is a favored habitat and the population along the railroad probably averages one squirrel each hundred yards. To the east it extends well into the Transition Life-zone, being abundant in clearings in the open forest of yellow pine. In places its range nearly reaches the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. A few miles east of Leavenworth, Chelan County, we found this squirrel in chapparal and brush, principally composed of _Ceanothus creneatus_. Here the animals were unusually abundant and formed a colony almost as dense as colonies of _Citellus washingtoni_. Entrances of burrows are usually placed beside rocks, stumps or logs. In the area near Leavenworth, mentioned above, entrances to burrows were in the open or among roots of bushes. The entrances to many burrows are doubtless concealed under talus slides. No complete records of excavations of burrows are available. One burrow, uncovered by road construction operations three miles east of Scenic, Chelan County, was dug in the earth-filled cleft of a great granite boulder. The cleft was 5 feet wide at the surface of the ground but narrowed until at a depth of six feet the stones were in contact. The cleft was at least 10 yards long. The burrow descended at an angle of 45 degrees, to a depth of three feet. Here the construction work had passed the cleft, but digging into the almost vertical wall uncovered the nest at the end of a horizontal tunnel two feet farther on. It was a matted cup of dry grass with two fresh, green fern fronds lying loose in the cup. Two divergent burrows emerged on opposite sides of the nest cavity, but a fall of the loose, gravelly soil prevented further observation. The body of the occupant, crushed and mangled by the steam-shovel scoop, was that of a small male. [Illustration: FIG. 87. Golden-mantled ground squirrel (_Citellus saturatus_), captured when young at Tye, Washington, by Earl J. Larrison, June 20, 1940; photographed February 1, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1139.)] In spite of their vivacious appearance, these squirrels are rather sedentary. When undisturbed they move leisurely over rocks and stumps, pausing often, and occasionally sitting on their hindquarters to gaze about for minutes at a time. They are good climbers and often ascend smooth-barked trees to heights of 20 feet or more. At the approach of danger they descend and enter the nearest burrow. In August these ground squirrels become exceedingly fat and by late September only a few may be seen, basking in the midday sun. These take alarm at the slightest excuse. All have usually gone into hibernation by October 15. The food includes the berries of salal, huckleberry, mountain ash, and seeds of lupine. Near Liberty, Kittitas County, a squirrel killed by a car had its cheek pouches stuffed with garden peas. The source of its loot was doubtless the garden of a farmhouse 100 feet away. Numerous individuals are run over by cars, and on many occasions I have found other individuals eating the sun-dried flesh of their mates, parents, or young. These cannibals are often run over while so engaged, and it is not unusual to find two or three dead on a section of pavement 20 feet in length. Economically this species is of little importance. Its principal enemies probably include hawks, weasels, martens, bobcats and coyotes. =Sciurus griseus griseus= Ord Western gray squirrel _Sciurus griseus_ Ord, Jour. de phys., 87:152, 1818. _Sciurus griseus griseus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:222, April 29, 1924. _Type._--None. Described from a squirrel seen by Lewis and Clark. Type locality, The Dalles, Wasco County, Oregon. _Measurements._--A female from midway between Satus Pass and Goldendale, Klickitat County, measured: total length 560; length of tail 264; hind foot 76; weight 897 grams. _Distribution._--Southwestern Washington north to the glacial prairies near Tacoma (W. W. D.); the Columbia River Valley of the southern Cascades; the eastern edge of the Cascades north to Lake Chelan (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 18). [Illustration: FIG. 88. Distribution of the western gray squirrel, _Sciurus griseus_, in Washington.] _Description._--This is the largest tree squirrel found in Washington. The head and body measure about 12 inches, and the tail about 11 inches. The body is long and slender. The fur is long and soft, that on the tail being exceptionally long. The upper parts are silvery gray and the underparts white. The western gray squirrel is restricted to the region of the Pacific Coast and ranges from central Washington south to northern Lower California. Three subspecies are recognized, only one of which occurs in Washington. Like the red squirrels, the western gray squirrel is arboreal. Its favored habitat is the oak woods rather than coniferous forest. Its range in Washington is largely regulated by the distribution of oaks, especially the garry oak (_Quercus garryana_). Altitudinally it ranges from near sea level at Puget Sound to above 2,500 feet elevation in the eastern Cascade Mountains. It seems to be restricted to the Transition Life-zone. The habits of the western gray squirrel are modified by its arboreal existence. Homes consist of holes in hollow trees or outside nests of sticks and twigs. It is extremely active in trees and travels from tree to tree on branches that seem scarcely strong enough to bear the weight of so large an animal. The oak woods in Washington are usually rather open and the trees more scattered than is the case in coniferous forests. Consequently gray squirrels must more often descend to the ground than Douglas and red squirrels. On the ground, western gray squirrels travel in smooth leaps each of two feet or more in length. The long tail is held out behind and "follows through" the animal's leaps in a remarkable way. The tip of the tail may be descending from the previous leap while the animal's fore parts are already at the height of a new jump. This results in a "flowing" movement that is extremely graceful. The squirrel may stop momentarily to dig in the ground or search for an acorn. At such times the tail is immediately switched up, over the back. The western gray squirrel is able to drop unharmed for considerable distances. Near Fort Lewis, Pierce County, a gray squirrel was cornered in a tall fir tree and an agile friend volunteered to climb the tree. The squirrel ascended to the very topmost branches. When only a few feet separated them the squirrel leaped far out into the air. Its legs were stretched out stiffly, the tail was extended and the body slightly arched. It struck the ground with an audible thud and bounced fully 18 inches. At the height of its bounce, the squirrel's legs began moving rapidly, and it struck the ground the second time at a full run. The principal food is acorns, although the seeds of the Douglas fir and probably other conifers are eaten. Four embryos were found by Victor B. Scheffer in a specimen from Klickitat County on March 20, 1939. =Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus= Merriam Eastern gray squirrel _Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus_ Merriam, Science, 7:351, April 16, 1886. _Type._--Obtained at Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota. _Description._--Size large, slightly smaller than the western gray squirrel; color of upper parts less silvery, more reddish, especially on the dorsal area and top of the tail. _Remarks._--The eastern gray squirrel was introduced at Woodland Park, Seattle, in 1925. The original stock (7 pairs) came from Minneapolis, Minnesota. It has spread through the nearby woods, around Green Lake, Cowan Park, and to the woods on the University of Washington Campus. Occasional individuals are found outside the city limits, but the species seems not to spread away from the city. =Sciurus niger= Linnaeus subsp? Fox squirrel [_Sciurus_] _niger_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (10th ed.):64, 1758. _Description._--Similar in size and appearance to the eastern gray squirrel but upper parts more reddish and underparts reddish orange rather than white. _Remarks._--Occasional fox squirrels are encountered near Seattle where they have been introduced from the southeastern United States. The source and date of the introduction are unknown. =Tamiasciurus hudsonicus= (Erxleben) Red squirrel _Description._--The head and body of the red squirrel measure about 7-3/4 inches, the tail about 5 inches. It may be recognized by its trim body, bushy tail and white underparts. The upper parts are reddish gray, reddest on the dorsal area. The red color of the center of the back extends to the tail. A black line separates the dark upper parts from the white underparts. Red squirrels range over North America from the northern limit of tree growth south through the United States to Tennessee and North Carolina. A related species, _douglasii_, is found along the Pacific coast from British Columbia to California. The genus _Tamiasciurus_ differs from _Sciurus_ of Washington in lacking a penis bone or baculum. There are other fundamental differences in anatomy (see Mossman, Lawlah and Bradley, 1932: 89-155). The habitat of the red squirrels is the coniferous forests from which they rarely stray. Zonally they range through the Transition and Canadian life-zones into the Hudsonian Life-zone. Red squirrels are arboreal and most of their habits are modified by arboreal existence. They are swift and agile climbers, able to travel from tree to tree on slender twigs or by leaping as much as ten feet to span the distance from one branch to another. They ascend and descend trees head first. They hang by their hind feet, high in the air, to clip the cones of conifers. If cornered in a tree they leap far out and, by extending the legs and tail stiffly, fall to the ground unharmed by leaps of fifty feet or more. [Illustration: FIG. 89. Douglas squirrel (_Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii_): feeding station with remnants of Douglas fir cone, Longmire, Washington, elevation 2,700 feet, June 25, 1937. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 268.)] The homes of red squirrels are woodpecker holes or other holes in hollow trees. More rarely they build outside nests of twigs and branches, about two feet in diameter, or add onto old nests of crows or jays. Most nests and holes are some distance from the ground but some holes are between roots on the ground itself. The food consists principally of the seeds of coniferous trees, especially Douglas fir and various species of pines. Cones are clipped when green or just before ripening and are either allowed to fall to the ground to be retrieved later or are at once carried to a favored feeding place to be consumed. Cones are held between the forepaws while the squirrel sits on its hind feet, tail curved up over its back, and rapidly clips the cone apart to get the seeds it contains. The cone is rotated between the paws and a steady stream of husks drops to the ground. Soon only the core is left and this too joins the husks on the ground. Favored feeding stations are used continually, perhaps by generation after generation of squirrels, and debris from thousands of cones accumulates in great piles. Cones are stored. In the vicinity of a favored feeding place, at times virtually every hiding place is filled with green cones. Cones may be jammed into cracks or crevices in logs or stumps without effort at concealment or may be carefully covered with leaves or dry needles. Many are placed in craterlike pits dug in the ground. Most of these pits probably are later covered over but many are left open to the weather. Hollows in trees are probably also used for storage, as are holes dug into the piles of accumulated cone debris beneath feeding stations. Other food eaten by squirrels includes hazelnuts, berries, maple seeds, and mushrooms. A variety of fruits and seeds are doubtless eaten when opportunity offers. Red squirrels do not hibernate. In the lowlands they are active all winter long but are noticeably shy and quiet. In the mountains they disappear after the snow falls but tracks may be seen in the snow about their dens and occasional individuals are seen. Specimens collected at this time are not fat, as would be the case if hibernation had been interrupted. Seemingly they stay close to their homes and feed on stored food. The call of the red squirrel is harsher, more metallic, than that of the Douglas squirrel. The common call is a rolling "bur-r-r," starting loud but fading out entirely in a half minute. A lower-pitched "pauf" is uttered at intervals when the squirrel is going about its business. The danger cry is a loud "pee-ee," not unlike the call of a red-tailed hawk but less shrill. A low pitched "chauf-chauf-chauf," repeated at intervals of about two seconds, is occasionally given in the fall of the year. =Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori= (Allen) _Sciurus hudsonicus streatori_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 10:267, July 22, 1898. _T[amiasciurus]. h[udsonicus]. streatori_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 49:135, August 22, 1936. _Type._--Obtained at Ducks, British Columbia; type in American Museum of Natural History. _Racial characters._--Similar to _richardsoni_ but smaller and darker, redder above. _Measurements._--Seven males from north-central Washington average: total length 330; length of tail 129; hind foot 51; ear 23. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington. Marginal occurrences are (from Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 17): Beaver Creek, Ruby Creek, and head of Lake Chelan. _Remarks._--This race reaches Washington from the interior of British Columbia. Intergradation between _hudsonicus streatori_ and _h. richardsoni_ takes place over much of northeastern Washington. [Illustration: FIG. 90. Distribution of the red squirrel and Douglas squirrel in Washington. A. _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni._ B. _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori._ C. _Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii._] =Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni= (Bachman) _Sciurus richardsoni_ Bachman, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 100, 1838. _Sciurus hudsonius Richardsoni_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:595, 1884. _Sciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 10:265, July 22, 1898. _Sciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:211, April 29, 1924. _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_ Svihla and Svihla, Murrelet, 21:55, December 20, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at the head of the Big Lost River, Custer County, Idaho. _Racial characters._--Color paler, especially on back. _Measurements._--Four males and 4 females average, respectively: total length 339, 339; length of tail 133, 131; hind foot 54, 51; ear 24, 24; weight 256, 266. _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. =Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii= (Bachman) Douglas squirrel _Sciurus douglasii_ Bachman, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 99, 1838. _Sciurus hudsonius Douglasii_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:595, 1884. _Sciurus douglasii douglasii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:212, April 29, 1924. _Sciurus douglasii cascadensis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:18, December, 1929. _Tamiasciurus douglasii_ Holdenried, Jour. Mamm., 21:406, November 14, 1940. _Type._--Obtained near the mouth of the Columbia River by David Douglas. _Measurements._--Fifteen males and 10 females from the lowlands of western Washington average, respectively: total length 317, 320; length of tail 121, 126.7; hind foot 50, 49.4; ear 23.2, 22.6; weight 204, 202 grams. _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains westward to the Pacific. Marginal occurrences are: Nooksack River (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 18), Lake Wenatchee (W. W. D.) and Wenatchee (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 18). _Remarks._--Squirrels from the Puget Sound area are slightly less intensely colored than specimens from the ocean coast and the Olympic Mountains. Those from the higher and eastern Cascade Mountains are paler still. When, however, squirrels from the Cascades of Washington are compared with individuals of the race inhabiting the Cascades of Oregon, it is apparent that the Washington squirrels are nearest to _douglasii_. The pale tips of the hairs in the tail of the Oregon race are strikingly white while in Washington specimens they are orange or yellow. The Douglas squirrel resembles the red squirrel in size and proportions but differs in being dusky olive (less reddish) on the upper parts and orange instead of white on the underparts. Douglas squirrels range from southern British Columbia southward to Lower California. They are confined to the Pacific Coastal region. Although closely related to _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, no intergradation with that species has been found. The rich coloration of the Douglas squirrel matches the background of the humid forests it inhabits. It occurs at sea level along the ocean coast, the shores of Puget Sound and on some islands in Puget Sound. It ranges through the Transition and Canadian life-zones well into the Hudsonian. It makes its home in holes in trees or in nests constructed of conifer twigs, needles and bark. Old nests of birds may be modified and taken over, but most outside nests seem to have been made entirely by the squirrel. Nests are usually placed near the top of denser fir and cedar trees. Nests are hemispherical in shape, 12 inches or more in diameter, and open on top. The central cup, 4 inches in diameter, is lined with strips of inner bark of red cedar coiled but unshredded. Nests in holes are usually some distance from the ground, but the entrances to some are at ground level. The habits of the Douglas squirrels vary with the season. In spring they are shy. They rarely call and are skillful in keeping branches or tree trunks between themselves and persons. In June and July they become bolder, calling more frequently and moving about more. In September and October they become exceptionally bold. They call almost incessantly from late morning until early afternoon, and spend considerable time on the ground. The call notes of the Douglas squirrel are similar to those of the red squirrel but are softer, more slurred. The common call is the long, trilling "burr," loud at first and becoming gradually softer. On hot afternoons in late summer a barking "pauf" note is given. This sound is repeated several times at intervals of a minute or so. It has remarkable carrying power. The danger signal is a loud, explosive "pe-ee." Another common call is a short barking or chirping "bauf" with a musical, questioning sound. This is repeated at intervals of a few seconds when the presence of danger is suspected. At times it, rather than the loud danger signal, is given also when a person is sighted. A low chirping note is often given while the squirrel is busily at work. This is made while the squirrel is moving about. Other calls described are made from a standing or sitting position and are accompanied by a jerk or a flick of the tail. The Douglas squirrel eats seeds of the Douglas fir, seeds of maple, hazelnuts, dogwood berries and mushrooms. The berries of forest shrubs, such as the red huckleberry, salal and Oregon grape, may also be eaten. Two broods of young may be born in a year. The first is born in early June. Embryos found from June 11 to 28 varied in number from 6 to 8. A nursing female was taken as early as June 10, 1938, and one was taken as late as October 10, 1938. Douglas squirrels commonly have a few fleas and 2 to 5 ticks at the bases of the ears. No lice, cases of mange, or serious infestations of parasites have been seen. =Glaucomys sabrinus= (Shaw) Northern flying squirrel [Illustration: FIG. 91. Northern flying squirrel (_Glaucomys sabrinus_), probably from near Seattle, in Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, Washington, January 28, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1137.)] _Description._--The northern flying squirrel is slightly smaller than the red squirrel (_Tamiasciurus_). The head and body measure about 7 inches and the tail about 5 inches. The most distinctive feature is the loose fold of skin that stretches from the wrist of the foreleg to the ankle of the hind leg. The fur is extremely soft and plushlike. It is not separated into guard hair and underfur, and because all hairs are of approximately the same length, the fur appears extremely sleek. The fur of the tail is of the same texture as that on the body but is dorso-ventrally compressed. The eyes are large and dark. The color of the upper parts varies from reddish brown in some races to brownish gray in others. The underparts are buffy gray. Flying squirrels range over the forested parts of North America from Guatemala to Alaska and northern Canada and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. A closely related genus (_Pteromys_) occurs in Europe. Two species are found in North America. The small _volans_ ranges in eastern United States, Mexico, and Guatemala, while the larger _sabrinus_ occurs in parts of the western United States, most of Canada, and central Alaska. Near the Great Lakes the two species occur in the same area, probably in different habitats. Howell (1918: 16) recognized 18 subspecies of _sabrinus_, five of which were recorded in the state of Washington. One of these (_olympicus_) proves to be a synonym of an earlier-named subspecies but another form (_bangsi_), not recorded for Washington by Howell, has been found in the Blue Mountains in the southeastern corner of the state (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 18). Flying squirrels are strictly arboreal and occur only in woods and forests. They prefer areas where trees grow close together and to considerable heights. Older woods with dead stubs and hollow trees are preferred. They occasionally invade attics of cabins and other habitations of man. The old Forestry Building on the University of Washington Campus, later the home of the Washington State Museum, was inhabited by flying squirrels for many years. Several specimens preserved in the Museum prove the poor judgment of the animal in choosing a natural history museum as a home. Relatively little is known of the detailed habits of _Glaucomys sabrinus_ although the life history of the eastern _Glaucomys volans_ has been described. Flying squirrels are active all winter, even in the high mountains. They are often caught in traps set for fur bearers and, where trapping is an important means of livelihood, they are serious pests. Flying squirrels do not actually fly but only glide through the air. The loose fold of fur between their limbs is stretched by extending the legs. With it the flying squirrel is able to sail 50 yards or more. The flat tail serves as a rudder and allows the squirrel to change direction while in flight. Glides end with an upward swoop, allowing the squirrel to alight, head upwards, on a tree trunk slightly lower than their starting point. Unlike other members of the squirrel family, flying squirrels are completely nocturnal. They are seen in the daytime only when frightened from their retreats. Homes consist principally of old woodpecker holes or other cavities in trees. They are said to build outside nests, similar to those of tree squirrels, but I have found none of these in Washington. The animals can be frightened from their holes by pounding on the bases of trees in which their nests are situated. Certain holes seem to be preferred nesting places. Near Cottage Lake, King County, two flying squirrels were taken from a woodpecker hole in succeeding years. Cowan (1936B: 58) discovered remains of 14 nests of flying squirrels in a single hollow tree near Alta Lake, British Columbia. According to Cowan, hollow trees are used in winter but the young are born in outside nests of shredded bark and lichens. The young usually number 3 and are born in May and June. [Illustration: FIG. 92. Distribution of flying squirrel in Washington. A. _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis._ B. _Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus._ C. _Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis._ D. _Glaucomys sabrinus latipes._ E. _Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi._] Only once have I heard the voice of a flying squirrel. Near Dewey Lake, Yakima County, the squirrels were unusually abundant in the black hemlock and Douglas fir forests of the mountain sides. Here a birdlike twittering note caught my attention and occasional dark, sailing shapes were glimpsed against the clear sky. Eight traps set in the afternoon and visited at 11 p. m. held two flying squirrels. In the morning another was in a trap. Seemingly the squirrels are active most of the night. The food consists principally of conifer seeds and probably other nuts, seeds, and fruit. They eat the meat bait of traps set for fur bearers and probably eat the eggs of birds. =Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis= (Bachman) _Pteromys oregonensis_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8:101, 1839. _Sciuropterus alpinus oregonensis_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 324, June, 1897. _Sciuropterus alpinus olympicus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zoöl. ser., 1:225, February 1, 1899 (type from Happy Lake, Clallam County, Washington). _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:44, June 13, 1918. _Glaucomys sabrinus olympicus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:49, June 13, 1918. _Type._--Obtained "in pine [= conifer] woods of the Columbia near the sea" by J. K. Townsend in 1839. Probably near St. Helen, Columbia County, Oregon (Rhoads, 1897:324). _Racial characters._--Small size, rich color. _Measurements._--A male from Cottage Lake, King County, measured: total length 287; length of tail 125; hind foot 38. A female from 5 miles southeast of Sequim, Clallam County, measured: 303; 133; 41; ear 27. A male from Quilcene, Jefferson County, measured: 311; 140; 41. _Distribution._--Western Washington west of the Cascade Mountains. The locality records for flying squirrels in the northern Cascade Mountains, given by Taylor and Shaw (1929: 18), when plotted on a distribution map, show overlapping of ranges in this area. The ranges of the three races involved have been drawn on the accompanying map (fig. 92) on the basis of geographic probability and are subject to revision because the specimens from this area have not been examined. Marginal records that may apply to _G. s. oregonensis_ are, from Taylor and Shaw (1929: 18): Nooksack River, Rockport, North Bend and Skamania. _Remarks._--Of all the races occurring in Washington, _oregonensis_ is the most distinct. _Glaucomys s. olympicus_ Elliot must be regarded as a synonym of _oregonensis_. =Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi= (Rhoads) _Sciuropterus alpinus bangsi_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 321, June, 1897. _Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:38, June 13, 1918. _Type._--Obtained in Idaho County, Idaho, by Harbison and Bargamin on March 8, 1897; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Racial characters._--Similar to _oregonensis_ but larger and paler throughout. _Measurements._--A female from Wildcat Spring, Columbia County, measured: total length 333; length of tail 147; hind foot 45; ear 29; weight 151 grams. _Distribution._--Found only in the Blue Mountains of extreme southeastern Washington. =Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis= Howell _Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:111, May 27, 1915. _Type._--Obtained at Okanogan, British Columbia, by Allan Brooks on May 9, 1898; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Larger than _oregonensis_ and paler. Similar to _bangsi_ but paler, especially beneath, and less reddish above. _Measurements._--Howell (1918: 46) gives the average of two subadult topotypes as: total length 313; length of tail 143; hind foot 42. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, probably extending, from records of Taylor and Shaw (1929: 18), west to Mazama and Stehekin and east to Molson. =Glaucomys sabrinus latipes= Howell _Glaucomys sabrinus latipes_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:112, May 27, 1915. _Type._--Obtained at Glacier, British Columbia, by J. A. Loring, on August 13, 1894; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _bangsi_ and _columbiensis_ but with larger feet and grayer color. _Measurements._--Howell (1918: 49) gives the average of 10 specimens as: total length 342; length of tail 153; hind foot 41.5. _Distribution._--The Pend Oreille Mountains of extreme northeastern Washington, north (from records of Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 18-19, as revised) to Sullivan Lake and south to Loon Lake. =Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus= (Rhoads) _Sciuropterus alpinus fuliginosus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 321, June, 1897. _Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:47, June 13, 1918. _Type._--Obtained at Martin Station, Kittitas County, Washington, by Allan Rupert in March, 1893; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Racial characters._--Similar to _columbiensis_ but underparts darker and tail paler. Larger and paler than _oregonensis_. _Measurements._--Three females from the Cascades average: total length 327; length of tail 145; hind foot 40.7; ear 25. _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, according to Taylor and Shaw (1929: 18), as revised here, east to Entiat River and south to Carson. =Perognathus parvus= (Peale) Great Basin pocket mouse _Description._--Great Basin pocket mice are slightly larger than house mice. The ears are tiny and round; the tail is relatively long, slightly longer than the head and body; the forefeet are small but the hind feet are large and powerful, more than one-fourth as long as the head and body. They have relatively large, fur-lined, external cheek pouches. The color of the upper parts varies with the subspecies from blackish olive-gray to buffy olive-gray; a line of clear buff or buffy-olive extends along the lower part of side, separating the darker color of the upper parts from the white underparts; the tail is short-haired, blackish above, olive beneath. Pocket mice of the genus _Perognathus_ range from Mexico northward to British Columbia. Only one species, _parvus_, occurs in Washington where it is represented by three subspecies. Pocket mice are most common in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone in sandy areas dotted with desert shrubs. They are found occasionally in dry, grassy places in the Arid Transition Life-zone. They may be locally abundant in rocky areas and are often trapped high on talus slides, many yards from the nearest soil. Gray (1943: 191-193) estimates their numbers on the sagebrush areas of the Yakima Valley at 32 per acre. They are completely nocturnal. Their ordinary movements are rather slow and specimens studied by the aid of a searchlight usually crept quietly into the protection of the nearest desert shrub. The trail of a pocket mouse in soft sand may be recognized by the distinctive mark left by the dragging tail. Burrows of pocket mice usually are at the bases of shrubs where tough roots furnish protection. They are kept closed during the day by means of a plug of fresh earth or sand. Openings may often be recognized by a fan-shaped pile of fresh sand before the hole. Burrows excavated were usually less than four feet in length and branched from two to four times. No nests were found in the burrows but one contained a few fresh stalks of desert annuals. The air in the burrows seemed warm and humid. The pouches of pocket mice from Washington often contain the fresh, green tips of desert plants, grass seeds, seeds of plants other than grasses, and plant leaves. Because of their occasional great abundance, pocket mice may be a menace to agriculture. Fortunately much of their habitat is unsuited to farming. In Washington pocket mice breed in March and April. From 4 to 8 embryos were found in pregnant females. =Perognathus parvus parvus= (Peale) _Cricetodipus parvus_ Peale, U. S. Explor. Exped., 8 (mamm. and ornith.):53, 1848. _Perognathus parvus_ Cassin, U. S. Explor. Exped., 8 (mamm. and ornith.):48, 1858. _Perognathus parvus parvus_ Miller, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 128:278, April 29, 1924. [Illustration: FIG. 93. Distribution of the Great Basin pocket mouse in Washington. A. _Perognathus parvus parvus._ B. _Perognathus parvus columbianus._ C. _Perognathus parvus lordi._] _Type._--Probably obtained in the neighborhood of The Dalles, Wasco County, Oregon. _Racial characters._--Size small; upper parts brownish-buff washed with blackish or, in gray phase, ashy gray washed with blackish; sides buffy yellow; a buffy spot often present on throat; tail blackish above, olive below; facial markings usually brownish-buff but in older animals indistinct and washed with blackish. _Measurements._--Thirty-one males and 19 females from Washington average, respectively: total length 169, 164; length of tail 90, 86; hind foot 22.6, 21.8; ear 5, 5. _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington south of the Snake River, the area on the north side of the Columbia River in Klickitat County, and the Yakima Valley area as far north as the Vantage, Kittitas County (W. W. D.). Other marginal records are: Kennewick (W. W. D.), Atilla (W. W. D.) and Walla Walla (E. S. B.). _Remarks._--Dichromatism seems to be rather common in _Perognathus p. parvus_--so common that Osgood (1900: 35) recognized both a "red" and a "gray" phase. Anderson (1932: 102) found no dichromatism in _P. p. lordi_ in British Columbia. A single specimen from the Grand Coulee at Dry Falls, Grant County, does show dichromatism. It is even more red than the reddest topotypes of _parvus_ examined. Seemingly the recessive gene for red is still present in _lordi_, or has mutated anew. When present, the color is deeper and brighter than in the parent population, in keeping with the heavier pigmentation of the race _lordi_. =Perognathus parvus lordi= (Gray) _Abromys lordi_ Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 202, 1868. _Perognathus lordi_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 1:28, October 25, 1889. _Perognathus lordi lordi_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:279, April 29, 1924. _Perognathus parvus lordi_ Davis, Recent Mamm. of Idaho, p. 266, Caxton Printers, Caldwell, Idaho, April 5, 1939. _Type._--Obtained in southern British Columbia (probably near Lake Osoyoos) by J. K. Lord, probably in 1860. _Racial characters._--Size large; color of upper parts buffy-olive, washed with blackish; sides buff-olive; facial markings absent or, if present, indistinct and pale olive; tail blackish above, olive below. _Measurements._--Twenty-nine males and 10 females average, respectively: total length 175, 171; length of tail 93, 89; hind foot 23.4, 22.9; ear 5.3, 5.1. _Distribution._--Okanogan Valley and the Columbian Plateau, except for the southwestern part. Marginal localities are: Vantage, Grant County (W. W. D.), 10 mi. S. Moses Lake (W. W. D.), Washtucna (M. V. Z.) and Pullman (M. V. Z.). _Remarks._--There are constant differences between _Perognathus parvus parvus_ and _Perognathus parvus lordi_. The latter is larger, darker, and differs slightly in average cranial measurements. The Snake River, the Columbia River, and the Wenatchee Mountains separate the geographic ranges of the two subspecies and prevent intergradation between them. Nevertheless their close similarity and probable common origin indicate that both belong to one species, namely _parvus_. =Perognathus parvus columbianus= Merriam _Perognathus columbianus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 263, September 27, 1894. _Perognathus lordi columbianus_, Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 18:40, September 20, 1900. _Type._--Obtained at Pasco, Franklin County, Washington, by Clark P. Streator on May 9, 1891; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Size and color as in _lordi_ but skull considerably wider in mastoid region. _Measurements._--Twenty-one male and 9 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 173, 168; length of tail 91, 89; hind foot 23.9, 22.8; ear 5, 5. _Distribution._--The vicinity of the type locality and the part of the Columbian Plateau north of the Snake and east of the Columbia rivers. _Remarks._--This race is separated from _parvus_ by river barriers and the two do not intergrade. It differs significantly from _lordi_ only in the wider mastoid region. No barrier separates the range of _lordi_ from that of _parvus_, and the two races intergrade over a wide area (north to Moses Lake, east to Washtucna). The race _columbianus_ must have originated _in situ_ from _lordi_. The habitat of _columbianus_ seems not to differ from that of _parvus_ or _lordi_. =Dipodomys ordii columbianus= (Merriam) Ord kangaroo rat _Perodipus ordi columbianus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 9:115, June 21, 1894. _Dipodomys ordii columbianus_ Grinnell, Jour. Mamm., 2:96, May 2, 1921. _Type._--Obtained at Umatilla, Umatilla County, Oregon, by C. P. Streator on October 18, 1890; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Fourteen males and 9 females from Walla Walla County average, respectively: total length 261.5, 248.4; length of tail 137.2, 139.1; hind foot 40.6, 40.8; ear 13.1, 13.0; weight 52.1, 49.0 grams. _Distribution._--Western Walla Walla County from the Oregon boundary north to the Snake River and on Blalock Island in the Columbia River, Benton County. [Illustration: FIG. 94. Distribution of the Ord kangaroo rat, _Dipodomys ordii columbianus_, in Washington.] _Description._--The kangaroo rat with a body about the size of that of a chipmunk has an exceptionally large head and large, black eyes. The forelegs and forefeet are tiny but the hind feet and legs are large and powerful. The hind foot is almost a third as long as the head and body. The tail is long, longer than the head and body. Kangaroo rats possess fur-lined, external cheek pouches, like those of the pocket mice. The upper parts are soft buff in color. The underparts and a stripe on each flank are white. The tail is dusky above and below, with white sides; it is tufted at the tip. Kangaroo rats are typical of the desert regions of the southwestern United States, where numerous species and subspecies are found. A single subspecies of the wide-ranging species _ordii_ occurs into southeastern Washington, where it is restricted to sandy areas in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. In the soft, drifted sand along the Columbia River where sagebrush and other desert shrubs are low and widely spaced kangaroo rats are abundant. These rats are strictly nocturnal. When individuals are dug from their burrows in the daytime they usually hop about in a dazed manner and appear to be blinded by sunlight. Near Wallula, Walla Walla County, these rats were caught at night with a butterfly net as they stood "paralyzed" in the beam of a powerful searchlight. Such night hunting was unsuccessful on cloudy or windy nights when kangaroo rats seem not to move about. As might be guessed from their powerful hind legs, kangaroo rats travel in bounds. Near Wallula, where we watched them in their natural habitat, they traveled, when unfrightened, in slow hops, each hop followed by a pause. As they struck the surface of the ground an audible thud could be heard for a distance of several feet. After each jump they paused for a second or so, perhaps to allow a pursuing enemy to over-run them. Near Wallula the burrows of kangaroo rats were dug in large mounds of wind-blown sand. The burrows entered these natural mounds horizontally and branched two or three times. Their average length was about five feet. No nests or food stores were discovered although several kangaroo rats were caught as they burst from entrances at sides of the mounds. All entrances to burrows were plugged with soft sand. The air in the burrows seemed warm and humid. Food found in the cheek pouches of kangaroo rats from Washington included the seeds of desert annuals, short sections of sprouts of an unidentified plant, grass seeds, and the leaves of the hop-sage. A female taken March 22, 1939, contained 3 embryos. =Thomomys talpoides= (Richardson) Northern pocket gopher _Description._--The pocket gopher is a fossorial animal, being but slightly less adapted to an underground existence than the moles. The body is stout, the legs short and the head broad. The tail is short, sparsely haired, cylindrical and blunt-ended. The fur is soft and dense. The eyes are small and the ears tiny and naked. The incisor teeth are external, being separated from the mouth cavity by a furry strip of skin. Like the pocket mouse and kangaroo rat, the pocket gopher possesses external, fur-lined cheek pouches. The openings of these begin just below and posterior to the nostrils, sweep out and down in a semicircle, and end at the chin posterior to the base of the lower incisors. They extend laterally to the shoulders and easily accommodate a fifty-cent piece. [Illustration: FIG. 95. Northern pocket gopher (_Thomomys talpoides yelmensis_), from two miles southwest of Tenino, Washington, January 28, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1133.)] The family Geomyidae is composed of eight genera, so similar in appearance that the name "pocket gopher" is applied to all of them. The family is confined to North and Central America. Three genera occur in the United States but only one, _Thomomys_, occurs in Washington. _Thomomys_ is restricted to western North America where it ranges from central Canada south to the southern edge of the table land of Mexico. Several hundred kinds of _Thomomys_ have been described and as systematic work with this genus has been continued, more and more kinds, originally thought to be species, are found to intergrade and to be only subspecies. All of the 17 kinds of pocket gophers occurring in Washington belong to a single species. The pocket gopher is principally nocturnal or crepuscular but sometimes it is active at midday, especially if the day be dark and cloudy. Pocket-gopher activity is indicated by fresh mounds of earth on the surface of the ground. Rarely, an observer may see movement of plants as the gopher molests the roots of the plants, or even see the head and shoulders of an animal that partly emerges from an open burrow. The ordinary gopher mound consists of less than a cubic foot of earth. The earth is forced up from a single opening and usually is pushed out in one direction. In consequence it forms in a fan-shaped pile about the opening, and the last load forms a circular plug above and to one side of the burrow opening. When so much earth has been forced out of one opening that expulsion of additional loads of earth is overly difficult, the burrow is extended slightly to one side, or even extended into the newly formed mound, and another fan formed. Usually not more than three coalesced fans form a mound, but where the soil is exceedingly soft and fluffy, hundreds of fans may form a composite mound and the one mound may include a cubic yard of earth. Large composite mounds probably are formed gradually over a period of weeks or even months. The earth in a fresh gopher mound is usually "scratched," and gives the appearance of having been sieved. Pebbles weighing more than 100 grams are included in material ejected from burrows. The entrances to the burrows of gophers are usually solidly plugged with earth. The plug may be from a few inches to more than a foot in length. At times a burrow entrance may appear to be open, but in such cases investigation will usually reveal it to be plugged some distance back--sometimes several feet. In contrast to the gopher mounds described above, the mounds of moles are not fan-shaped but volcano-shaped. The earth from a mole's burrow is forced straight upwards, whence it falls to either side. Later loads are pushed up from beneath, raising the entire mound, with the last material ejected at the center and bottom. The earth of a fresh mole-mound is not of fine texture but instead is "clotted" and, if damp, gives the mound a fractured appearance. When mounds are older, perhaps changed by rain and sun, their identity as of mole-origin or pocket gopher-origin is more difficult to establish. In such cases, if no fresh mounds can be found, the observer must rely on the spacing of the mounds. Mole-mounds are spaced along a burrow, about as far apart as a man can step. Gopher mounds are irregularly spaced, and the course of the burrow cannot be traced merely by observing the arrangement of the mounds as can that of the mole. In addition to mounds, gopher burrows have plugged openings where a gopher has come to the surface, probably to cut plants. Such entrances are marked by a plug of earth several inches long. Mounds and feeding entrances of the gopher burrow are usually not constructed in the main burrow system itself, but at the ends of lateral burrows of varying length. If one traces the burrow back from the mound, a junction with the main, better-constructed burrow is found. The junction is usually T-shaped, with the lateral burrow at right angles to the main burrow. More rarely the junction has a Y-shape. [Illustration: FIG. 96. Giant mounds raised by pocket gophers on Mima Prairie, Thurston County, Washington, July 13, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1209.)] The burrow system of the pocket gopher may be divided into three main parts. These are the laterals, just discussed, the main burrow, and the deep nesting burrow. The main burrow is a sinuous tube or tunnel at a relatively uniform depth, that marks the extent of the gopher's home territory. This tunnel may branch, or even intersect. As it is extended in one direction, the earth excavated by the gopher may in part be thrust into an unused portion of the burrow. The deep, nesting burrows may be used only in the breeding season. They are connected with the main tunnel system but descend to a greater depth. Usually they descend into the harder, consolidated layers of soil below the zone where plant roots penetrate. Here chambers are constructed in which nests and food are stored. Usually a vertical shaft is dug in the burrow ahead of the nest to lead rain water away from the nest. In areas where gophers live in a thin layer of soil underlain by a more or less impenetrable layer of rock, clay or gravel, it has been suggested that they form unique structures known as Mima Mounds. The formation of these mounds has been discussed in detail elsewhere (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1942: 68-84). At least in the breeding season the gophers work mainly and make their nest where the soil is deepest. In the vicinity of this nest, considerable mounding and cultivation of soil ensues. This stimulates plant growth in the area. Much observation indicates that cultivation of earth by gophers stimulates plant growth to a greater extent than the depredations of the gopher deplete the ensuing growth. Thus the gopher, by cultivation of the soil in the area about its burrow, stimulates the growth of vegetation and so increases his own food supply. Consequently there is but little incentive for the gopher to leave the vicinity of the nest. The gopher does, however, construct lateral tunnels into surrounding areas. Earth from these lateral tunnels is, in part, thrown to the surface in mounds and in part transported back to fill the abandoned burrows near the nest. The earth from the burrows about the nest was earlier ejected on the surface. Slowly, then, earth is transported from surrounding areas to burrows in the vicinity of the original nest. Each succeeding generation finds in the vicinity of the original nest, better food and deeper soil, while areas surrounding the nest possess thinner soil and less vegetation. Over a period of thousands of generations of gophers, large mounds, known as Mima Mounds, are formed. Since the removal of earth from the surrounding areas and its accumulation in the Mima Mound are chance affairs, the contours of the mound are smooth and flowing while the contours of the intermound areas are smoothly convex. The pocket gophers in Washington are economically important. In truck and flower gardens they are a pest, especially if the crop be bulb plants. In grain fields they are a pest because their mounds cover considerable grain and are apt to clog or dull the knife of the mower. In fields of young alfalfa they are apt to crop back the plant more rapidly than it can grow. Once the alfalfa plant is well established, however, the cultivation resulting from activities of gophers, some persons believe, stimulates the plant to such an extent that it grows larger and healthier in spite of the gopher's feeding on it. In the White Salmon Valley, Klickitat County, I examined numerous alfalfa fields. The most luxuriant growth was invariably in fields where gophers were common. In these fields, the largest plants were those in the immediate vicinity of gopher activity. The commensal relation between the gopher and alfalfa was understood by many farmers, who forbade us to take gophers for specimens from their fields. Several told us that they always trapped the gophers from the fields of young alfalfa and from hay meadows but encouraged their presence in fields of older alfalfa. [Illustration: FIG. 97. Food cache of northern pocket gopher (_Thomomys talpoides tacomensis_), from chamber four inches below surface of ground, Tacoma, Washington, December 1, 1940. Contents 575 grams (about 2 liters) of roots, principally quackgrass, _Agropyron repens_. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1119.)] Another economic factor is the gopher's removal of certain weeds from grazing land. A number of introduced weeds form dense rosettes that prevent the growth of grass from several square inches of ground and themselves lie so close to the ground as to be unavailable as food to grazing stock. These weeds seem to be favored food of gophers which cut not only the rosettes but the roots of the weeds as well. In irrigated parts of eastern Washington the gopher is a serious pest. It burrows in the banks of the main ditches, causing cave-ins and occasional breaks with resultant water loss. The mounds of gophers fill in the smaller channels and divert the streams. Constant attention is necessary to keep the ditches free of gopher mounds. In uncultivated land the gopher is a distinct asset unless the land is near enough to cultivated land to serve as a reservoir of pests. In the mountains and on the desert the gopher cultivates and keeps the soil soft and stimulates the growth of water-retaining vegetation, thus preventing rapid run-off and erosion and keeping the flow of springs and streams constant. Boulders, logs, and other obstructions are undermined and, as a result of gopher activity, in time sink under the surface of the ground. Thus a larger surface is available for plant growth. Lastly the gopher furnishes an important food source for certain fur-bearing mammals and eases the predator pressure on game species. The subspecies of pocket gopher occupying the Puget Sound area are highly restricted in their habitat preference; they occur only on the grassy prairies of the glacial outwash aprons. They do not occur in woods, brush or even small openings on the borders of the prairies. The alpine forms occupy the mountain meadows and are slightly less selective in their habits. It should be noted that in western Washington the forests are far more open at higher altitudes than at low elevations. The races inhabiting the desert are found in open areas, often in sandy places. They occur more rarely in areas where the soil is baked and claylike, and then usually in the vicinity of springs or watercourses. The race _T. t. fuscus_ has a wide range of tolerance as regards environmental factors; it occurs near Wenatchee in essentially desert conditions, in alpine meadows of northeastern Washington, and in many habitats at intermediate elevations. It occurs also in brushy areas and is often abundant in open pine forests. Since the gopher usually has a narrow range of tolerance as regards its environmental adaptations, this has resulted in considerably more isolation than is the case with other mammals, and has probably contributed to the formation of the many subspecies. Within the range of almost every race, microgeographic races, or local populations with distinctive characters, are found. Many subspecies of _Thomomys_ are probably the result of chance fixation of genetic characters already present in a more genetically variable ancestral population, and the loss of other genetic factors. Such races might be considered degenerative (see Dalquest and Scheffer, 1944: 24). [Illustration: FIG. 98. Distribution of the northern pocket gopher in Washington. A. _Thomomys talpoides devexus._ B. _Thomomys talpoides columbianus._ C. _Thomomys talpoides aequalidens._ D. _Thomomys talpoides wallowa._ E. _Thomomys talpoides fuscus._ F. _Thomomys talpoides yakimensis._ G. _Thomomys talpoides shawii._ H. _Thomomys talpoides immunis._ I. _Thomomys talpoides limosus._ J. _Thomomys talpoides douglasii._ K. _Thomomys talpoides pugetensis._ L. _Thomomys talpoides tacomensis._ M. _Thomomys talpoides glacialis._ N. _Thomomys talpoides tumuli._ O. _Thomomys talpoides yelmensis._ P. _Thomomys talpoides couchii._ Q. _Thomomys talpoides melanops._] The history of the pocket gophers of Washington has been traced previously (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1942, 1944). It may be briefly summarized as follows: At the close of Vashon-Wisconsin times, gophers were found in the southern Cascades, on the Simcoe Bridge, the Columbian Plateau, and in southeastern Washington. Following the retreat of the ice, the gophers in the Mount Rainier area spread westward on the outwash of the Nisqually and perhaps other glaciers to the Vashon Outwash about southern Puget Sound and thence to the Olympic Mountains. In the southern Cascades, gophers spread westward on glacial terraces of the Columbia River to the vicinity of Vancouver, Clark County. The establishment and growth of the forests split up the original populations, and continued spread of forest has exterminated many units. All the races in the lowlands of western Washington face extermination as the prairies are reclaimed by forest. Pocket gophers also invaded northeastern Washington from Idaho and spread westward to the Cascades, thence southward until the native gophers were encountered north of Mount Rainier and in the Yakima Valley. The invading gophers nearly surrounded the Columbian Plateau. T. H. Scheffer (1938B: 220-224) found the gestation period of the pocket gopher to be approximately 28 days. No second brood is raised in Washington. Near Kennewick, Yakima County, the young are born from February to April. The average number of embryos found in 76 female gophers was 6.3. Near Olympia, Thurston County, the young are born from March to June. The average number of embryos from 312 females was 5.0. =Thomomys talpoides devexus= Hall and Dalquest _Thomomys talpoides devexus_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:3, April 30, 1939. _Thomomys talpoides ericaeus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:243, May 15, 1939 (type from Badger Mountains, Douglas County, Washington). _Type._--Obtained 1 mile west-southwest of Neppel (now Moses Lake), Grant County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on May 30, 1938; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Size medium; ears tiny; color of upper parts pale brownish gray; underparts white; postauricular spots dark. _Measurements._--Two male and 4 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 184, 184; length of tail 54, 55; hind foot 25, 25; weight 89, 71 grams. _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau. Marginal occurrences of the races of pocket gophers occurring in Washington are not listed here because they have recently been placed on record (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1944: 308-333, 423-450). _Remarks._--This is the smallest and palest race of pocket gopher found in Washington. =Thomomys talpoides columbianus= Bailey _Thomomys fuscus columbianus_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:117, July 10, 1914. _Thomomys columbianus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:106, November 15, 1915. _Thomomys talpoides columbianus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May 15, 1939. _Type._--Obtained at Touchet, Walla Walla County, Washington, by C. P. Streator on September 10, 1890; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Larger and brighter in color than _devexus_. Near ochraceous orange in color. _Measurements._--Five male and three female topotypes average, respectively: total length 213, 209; length of tail 60, 58; hind foot 29, 28. _Distribution._--Walla Walla County, between the Snake River and the Oregon boundary and from the Columbia River east to the Columbia County line. =Thomomys talpoides aequalidens= Dalquest _Thomomys talpoides aequalidens_ Dalquest, Murrelet, 23:3, May 14, 1942. _Type._--Obtained at Abel Place, 2,200 ft., 6 miles south-southeast of Dayton, Columbia County, Washington, by S. H. Lyman, on April 6, 1934; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Large size, very dark color. _Measurements._--The average of four male topotypes and the measurements of one female topotype are, respectively: total length 202, 201; length of tail 57, 59; hind foot 26, 27. _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington east of the range of _columbianus_ and north of the higher parts of the Blue Mountains. =Thomomys talpoides wallowa= Hall and Orr _Thomomys quadratus wallowa_ Hall and Orr, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 46:41, March 24, 1933. _Thomomys talpoides wallowa_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May 15, 1939. _Type._--Obtained at Catherine Creek, 7 miles east of Telocaset, 3,500 ft., Union County, Oregon, by R. T. Orr on June 29, 1932; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Similar to _devexus_ but much darker. Similar (in Washington) to _aequalidens_ but much smaller. _Measurements._--Four males and 4 females from Mountain Top and Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia County, average, respectively: total length 191, 180; length of tail 56, 52; hind foot 26, 25. _Distribution._--The higher parts of the Blue Mountains. _Remarks._--Washington specimens referred to this race are intermediate between _wallowa_ and _aequalidens_ but are colored like _aequalidens_. =Thomomys talpoides fuscus= Merriam _Thomomys clusius fuscus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:69, July 30, 1891. _Thomomys myops_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:112, July 19, 1901 (type from Conconnully, Okanogan County, Washington). _Thomomys fuscus fuscus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:126, November 15, 1915. _Thomomys talpoides fuscus_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4, April 30, 1939. _Type._--Obtained at the head of Big Lost River, Custer County, Idaho, by B. H. Dutcher on September 23, 1890; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _devexus_ but upper parts rich tawny in color. _Measurements._--Three males and 2 females from Newport, Pend Oreille County, average, respectively: total length 189, 186; length of tail 54, 57; hind foot 27, 26. _Distribution._--Along the eastern border of the state to the north of the Snake River, northeastern Washington, and the northeastern Cascades. =Thomomys talpoides yakimensis= Hall and Dalquest _Thomomys talpoides yakimensis_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4, April 30, 1939. _Thomomys talpoides badius_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:242, May 15, 1939 (type from Wenatchee, Chelan County, Washington). _Type._--Obtained at Selah, Yakima County, Washington, by P. Burgner, on November 27, 1938; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Similar to _fuscus_ but more orange, less red. _Measurements._--Four male and 3 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 209, 191; length of tail 60, 56; hind foot 27, 26. _Distribution._--The eastern edge of the Cascades from the Wenatchee Mountains south to the Simcoe Anticline. =Thomomys talpoides shawi= Taylor _Thomomys douglasii shawi_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 34:121, June 30, 1921. _Thomomys talpoides shawi_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4, April 30, 1939. _Type._--Obtained at Owyhigh Lakes, Mount Rainier, Pierce County, Washington, by G. G. Cantwell, on August 9, 1919; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--A large, tan-colored pocket gopher, similar to _aequalidens_ but paler. _Measurements._--Two male and 7 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 227, 213; length of tail 72, 64; hind foot 32, 30. _Distribution._--The higher Cascade Mountains from Mount Rainier southward. Southern limits of range unknown. =Thomomys talpoides immunis= Hall and Dalquest _Thomomys talpoides immunis_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4, April 30, 1939. _Type._--Obtained 5 miles south of Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on July 27, 1937; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Similar to _shawi_ but paler and grayer. _Measurements._--Two males and 2 females from Morrison Springs Ranger Station, Skamania County, average, respectively: total length 211, 212; length of tail 64, 58; hind foot 28, 29. _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains from the vicinity of Mount Adams north. The zone of intergradation between _shawi_ and _immunis_ is in the rugged, inaccessible mountains between Mount Rainier and Mount Adams. =Thomomys talpoides limosus= Merriam _Thomomys limosus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:116, July 19, 1901. _Thomomys talpoides limosus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May 15, 1939. _Type._--Obtained at White Salmon, Klickitat County, Washington, by J. A. Loring on June 26, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _immunis_ but darker with smaller, shorter skull. _Measurements._--One male and 13 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 210, 198; length of tail 55, 56; hind foot 30, 28. _Distribution._--The lower Columbia River Valley, from the type locality east to the Columbian Plateau. =Thomomys talpoides douglasii= (Richardson) _Geomys douglasii_ Richardson, Fauna Boreali-American, 1:200, 1829. _Geomys fuliginosus_ Schinz, Syn. Mamm., 2:136, 1846 (type from "Habitat ad fluvium Columbia"). _Thomomys douglasii_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:66, April 28, 1893. _Thomomys douglasi douglasi_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:116, November 15, 1915. _Thomomys talpoides douglasii_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May 15, 1939. _Type._--Obtained at Fort Vancouver (now the city of Vancouver), Clark County, Washington, by David Douglas, probably in 1825. Probably not now in existence. _Racial characters._--A medium-sized, yellowish gopher with tiny, pointed ears and very small postauricular patches. _Measurements._--Two male and 10 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 227, 213; length of tail 68, 63; hind foot 30, 30; and weight 148, 117 grams. _Distribution._--Known only from Clark County. =Thomomys talpoides glacialis= Dalquest and Scheffer _Thomomys talpoides glacialis_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:97, August 13, 1942. _Type._--Obtained 2 miles south of Roy, Pierce County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest, on December 19, 1941; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--A dark, yellowish-brown gopher with orange-tinged underparts. _Measurements._--Twenty male and 17 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 225, 220; length of tail 72, 71; hind foot 30, 30; and weight 128, 116 grams. _Distribution._--Known only from Roy Prairie, Pierce County. =Thomomys talpoides tacomensis= Taylor _Thomomys douglasii tacomensis_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 32:169, September 30, 1919. _Thomomys talpoides tacomensis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May 15, 1939. _Type._--Obtained 6 miles south of Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington, by G. G. Cantwell on December 24, 1918; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--A large, dark form; rich hazel in color with large, black postauricular patches and ochraceous underparts. _Measurements._--Thirteen male and 15 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 224, 196; length of tail 71, 57; hind foot 31, 29; and weight 127, 104 grams. _Distribution._--Restricted to the area about Steilacoom and Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington. =Thomomys talpoides pugetensis= Dalquest and Scheffer _Thomomys talpoides pugetensis_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:96, August 13, 1942. _Type._--Obtained 4 miles south of Olympia, Thurston County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest, on December 31, 1941; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _glacialis_ but underparts not tinged with orange and conspicuous dusky areas present on sides of neck. _Measurements._--Fourteen male and 19 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 223, 205; length of tail 62, 59; hind foot 30, 29; and weight 123, 96 grams. _Distribution._--Known only from the type locality. =Thomomys talpoides tumuli= Dalquest and Scheffer _Thomomys talpoides tumuli_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:96, August 13, 1942. _Type._--Obtained on Rocky Prairie, 7 miles north of Tenino, Thurston County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on January 2, 1942; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _pugetensis_ but grayer, less yellow. _Measurements._--Eleven male and 14 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 225, 216; length of tail 60, 64; hind foot 31, 30; and weight 140, 118 grams. _Distribution._--Known only from the type locality. =Thomomys talpoides yelmensis= Merriam _Thomomys douglasi yelmensis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:21, January 31, 1899. _Thomomys douglasii yelmensis_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 32:169, September 30, 1919. _Thomomys talpoides yelmensis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May 15, 1939. _Type._--Obtained at Tenino, Thurston County, Washington, by C. P. Streator on October 24, 1891; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--A rather small, yellowish race with whitish underparts. _Measurements._--Twenty-one male and 21 female topotypes average, respectively; total length 213, 202; length of tail 64, 61; hind foot 29, 28; and weight 121, 101 grams. _Distribution._--Known only from Grand Mound Prairie (type locality), Vail Prairie, near Vail, and Rochester Prairie, near Rochester, all in Thurston County. =Thomomys talpoides couchi= Goldman _Thomomys talpoides couchi_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:243, May 15, 1939. _Type._--Obtained on Scotts Prairie, 4 miles north of Shelton, Mason County, Washington, by L. K. Couch, on June 27, 1922; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--A small race; rich hazel in color. _Measurements._--Thirteen male and 9 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 196, 191; length of tail 55, 53; hind foot 27, 27; and weight 87, 79 grams. _Distribution._--Known only from the type locality and from Lost Lake Prairie, near Satsop, Mason County. =Thomomys talpoides melanops= Merriam _Thomomys melanops_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:21, January 31, 1899. _Thomomys douglasi melanops_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:119, November 15, 1915. _Thomomys talpoides melanops_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May 15, 1939. _Type._--Obtained at head of Sol Duc River, Clallam County, Washington, by V. Bailey on August 28, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Most like _shawi_ but smaller, with larger postauricular patches and dusky areas on side of head. _Measurements._--A male topotype measures: total length 211; length of tail 67; hind foot 28. _Distribution._--Higher Olympic Mountains. =Castor canadensis= Kuhl Beaver _Description._--The beaver is the largest rodent occurring in Washington. Large individuals weight approximately 50 pounds. They are heavily-built, robust animals with large heads and short necks. The large, flat, naked tail immediately separates them from all other mammals occurring in the state. The forelegs are short and the forefeet handlike. The hind legs are long, thick and powerful. The hind feet are large and webbed for swimming. The ears are small and the eyes, although of moderate size, are not prominent. The incisors are large and prominent with a distinct yellow or orange color. The close, dense underfur is overlaid with long, lax, rather stiff overfur or guardhairs. [Illustration: FIG. 99. Beaver (_Castor canadensis_). Silvana, Washington, August 15, 1921. (Fish and Wildlife Service by Leo K. Couch, No. B-21912.)] Beavers are found in Europe, Asia and North America. In America they range from Alaska to Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Many American subspecies have been described, all thought to belong to a single species. Beavers live in streams and lakes of Washington under diverse climatic conditions. They are perhaps most abundant in the western Washington lowlands where there are numerous watercourses. In the Cascade Mountains they are found well up into the Canadian Life-zone, where the streams are swift and clear with stony bottoms. The highest altitudinal record known to us is Reflection Lake, Mt. Rainier, 4,861 feet (Brockman, 1939: 71). Farther east, in the timbered regions of the eastern Cascades and in northeastern Washington, beavers live in deeper, more sluggish streams. Abundant beaver signs were noted at the junction of the Snake and Columbia rivers where the animals were occupying one of the hottest, most desertlike portions of the state. They are found in Moses Lake, in the center of the arid Columbian Plateau. Beavers once occurred in the San Juan Islands and have recently been reintroduced there. [Illustration: FIG. 100. Beaver (_Castor canadensis_): lodge and beaver pond, Elbe, Washington, August 24, 1926. (T. H. Scheffer photo.)] The part the beaver played in man's exploration of the state of Washington is a story in itself. The establishment of Fort Vancouver and Fort Spokane and other settlements was principally due to the trade in beaver pelts. These forts served as headquarters for Douglas, Suckley, Townsend, Nuttall and other early naturalists who contributed so greatly to the knowledge of the mammalian fauna of the western United States. [Illustration: FIG. 101. Cottonwood pole carved by beaver, Lake Wenatchee, Washington, May 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 33.)] Trapping for fur drastically reduced the number of beavers in Washington. After trapping was prohibited they were slow in recovering and, until about 1930, they were uncommon. After that date they seemed to increase rapidly, becoming abundant about 1940. The present system of removing beavers only from areas where they are doing damage, and then only under strict supervision from the State Department of Game, has held their numbers at a high level. The food of the beaver varies greatly with locality. Along the Columbia River, in eastern Washington, cottonwood (_Populus hastata_) and willow (_Salix_ sp.) seem to constitute favorite foods. Few other trees grow in this arid region. On Puget Island, near the mouth of the Columbia, willow, alder (_Alnus oregonus_) and probably other shrubs are eaten. In the many streams that run from the western Cascade Mountains to Puget Sound, various species of willow seem to be the principal food eaten. Some alder, cascara, Douglas fir, red huckleberry and salmonberry are eaten. In some streams on the eastern slope of the Cascades, coniferous trees, including Douglas fir, yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_), and red cedar (_Thuja plicata_) are used. Beaver dams are abundant in certain sections of Washington, notably the area between the Cascade Mountains and Puget Sound. Dams several hundred feet in length were seen in the valley of Cherry Creek, 7 miles northeast of Duvall, King County. However, in most parts of the state few dams are built. No dams are necessary in the larger streams and lakes while the smaller mountain streams possess a gradient too steep for successful damming. Spring floods and high water following rains would destroy such dams. True beaver houses, or lodges, are seldom seen in Washington. In the larger streams, rivers and lakes the beavers are "bank beavers," living in burrows with underwater entrances. In the mountain streams, log jams furnish protection. Great piles of logs and debris accumulate at bends of streams in periods of high water. These jams commonly contain large, well-anchored key logs and persist for years. Back-cutting by the stream often forms deep pools before the jams while the sloping bank opposite may support willows and alders. Thus beavers may find a home, food, and a protecting pool of deep water at a log jam. In periods of low water, and when meandering of the stream causes it to leave the log jam, canals are constructed by the beavers to connect the log jam with the stream. Where dams are built a few lodges may occur. For the most part, however, the beavers dig holes in the bank or in small islands that result from their dam-building activities. Burrows are occasionally easy to locate because of the mud and sticks laid on the ground above. At best these sticks form a layer only a few inches thick and are too loosely packed to furnish any additional protection. They probably represent a concession to the beavers' lodge-building instincts. The beaver probably breeds in January. A specimen from Cle Elum, taken on March 1, contained 4 embryos and one from the Teanaway River near Cle Elum held 2 embryos on February 28. One from Swauk Creek, Kittitas County, on the eastern slope of the Cascades, had 3 embryos on February 12. A young beaver was born to a captive animal on May 18. Its mother was taken at Soos Creek in southeastern King County. This baby weighed 884 grams. The majority of the beavers trapped are small animals, measuring from 725 to 900 mm. (total length) in February, and weighing from 10 to 20 pounds. These are kits, probably one and two years old. It is rather difficult to divide these animals into two age groups but probably the first year young (7 to 11 months old) weigh from 10 to 15 pounds and measure between 725 and 800 mm. in total length. Two-year olds (19 to 23 months) measure from 800 to 925 mm. and weigh from 15 to 25 pounds. They measure approximately 1050 mm. the third year, when they become adult, and weigh in the neighborhood of 45 pounds. Individuals occasionally weigh more than 50 pounds; these are probably old adults. Damage by beavers is limited. Their dams occasionally flood roads and rarely fields. In some parts of eastern Washington, where fruit raising is an important industry, an individual beaver may cause considerable damage by cutting valuable trees. Ornamental trees may be damaged near the larger cities. Beavers living in Lake Washington in almost the center of the city of Seattle, caused some damage to ornamental trees on the University of Washington Golf Course. Canals and dams in small streams and ditches in areas where stock raising is practiced, flood stock food and sometimes form mudholes or bogs where stock might be trapped. Where individual beavers are doing damage they are trapped and killed, or are live-trapped and transported to more favorable habitats. In places where any beaver may be potentially dangerous, as in the fruit-growing areas of eastern Washington or stock-raising areas in western Washington, their numbers should be kept down by continued trapping. [Illustration: FIG. 102. Forest road flooded by beavers which built a dam on the upstream (left) side of a bridge; Tronson Creek, Blewett Pass, Wenatchee National Forest, May 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 30.)] Probably the greatest value of beavers lies in the impounding of water by their dams. This is especially true in the arid mountains of eastern Washington and in the logged-off or burned-over parts of western Washington. These ponds prevent erosion, raise the water table and so stimulate the growth of vegetation, insure greater regularity of stream flow, provide suitable water for trout and muskrats as well as some breeding grounds for waterfowl. On burned-over or logged-off land, the greatest, and often the only, growth of new conifers is in the vicinity of beaver ponds. In the vicinity of beaver dams, rich growths of willows and other deciduous vegetation provides food and cover for deer and fur-bearing mammals. [Illustration: FIG. 103. Distribution of the beaver in Washington. A. _Castor canadensis leucodonta._ B. _Castor canadensis idoneus._] Trapping of beaver for their fur at present is not a private enterprise but controlled trapping by the state adds to public funds. =Castor canadensis leucodonta= Gray _Castor canadensis leucodonta_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4 (ser. 4):293, October, 1869. _Castor canadensis pacificus_ Rhoads, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 19 (n. s.):422, September, 1898 (type from Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington). _Type._--Obtained by Dr. Robert Brown, probably on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. _Racial characters._--Large size; reddish color; elongate skull. _Distribution._--Found over all but the southwestern corner of the state. The most westward locality from which specimens have been examined is Lake Crescent (U. S. N. M.). _Remarks._--The good series of beaver skulls available from several areas of Washington has led to careful comparison of Washington material with specimens from Vancouver Island. Skulls from extreme southwestern Washington are small and decidedly short, being referable to the race _idoneus_. No satisfactory way of distinguishing between the others could be found and all are consequently referred to the earliest named form, _leucodonta_. =Castor canadensis idoneus= Jewett and Hall _Castor canadensis idoneus_ Jewett and Hall, Jour. Mamm., 21:87, February 15, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at Foley Creek, tributary to Nehalem River, Tillamook County, Oregon, by C. Leach on December 15, 1914; type in California Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Description._--Similar to _leucodonta_ but smaller, darker, with shorter and wider skull. _Distribution._--Lowlands near the mouth of the Columbia River. Specimens from Puget Island (U. S. N. M.) have been examined. =Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus= Anthony Northern grasshopper mouse _Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus_ Anthony, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 32: 11, March 7, 1913. _Type._--Obtained at Ironside, Malheur County, Oregon, by H. E. Anthony, in 1912; type in American Museum of Natural History. _Measurements._--Nine males and 5 females from Franklin, Benton, and Walla Walla counties, Washington, average, respectively: total length 132.3, 133.0; length of tail 35.8, 35.6; hind foot 19.2, 19.6; ear 17.6, 17.6; weight 23.3, 24.1 grams. _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, southeastern Washington, and the Yakima Valley, ranging north to Douglas (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 21), west to Yakima (M. V. Z.), east to Asotin (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 21) and south to Wallula (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 21). [Illustration: FIG. 104. Distribution of the northern grasshopper mouse, _Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus_, in Washington.] _Description._--A mature grasshopper mouse is slightly larger than a house mouse; the head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail about 1-1/4 inches; it may be recognized by the rather plump body, naked ears, short, thick and tapering tail and soft, dense fur. The upper parts of adults are buffy. Younger animals are blue-gray above. Underparts and tail are white. Grasshopper mice of two species range over much of northern Mexico and the western United States. The species occurring in Washington, _leucogaster_, is found from southern Manitoba to northern Mexico, and from the Pacific states east to North Dakota. This species is characteristic of the Upper Sonoran Life-zone, and usually is associated with sagebrush and greasewood. It prefers open areas of sand and avoids heavy cover, and seems to be strictly nocturnal. It eats vegetation, seeds, insects, or the flesh of other mice. According to Bailey (1936: 178), grasshopper mice pursue, catch and kill other mice. They hunt by scent and follow tracks like a wolf. They make a sound, or "call," like a miniature wolf howl. They are said to be rather docile and make friends with humans quickly. On some occasions grasshopper mice are locally abundant, but for the most part they are rather uncommon over their range. Usually one is taken in about 200 traps set in suitable habitats. They do not hibernate; one was caught at Moses Lake, Grant County, on a freezing winter night. The grasshopper mouse is almost always associated with the pocket mouse (_Perognathus parvus_), deer-mouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus_), and often the harvest mouse (_Reithrodontomys megalotis_). The same snakes, owls, and carnivorous mammals that prey on these mice doubtless eat also the grasshopper mouse. R. D. Svihla (1936: 172) determined the gestation period of 3 lactating grasshopper mice captured at Lind, Adams County, as 33, 39 and 47 days. A non-lactating female gave birth to a litter in 32 days. Young varied from 2 to 5 in number and were pink and hairless at birth, with eyes and ears closed. =Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis= (Baird) Western harvest mouse _Reithrodon megalotis_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 451, 1857. _Reithrodontomys megalotis nigrescens_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 36:32, June 5, 1914 (type from Payette, Idaho). _Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:189, August 29, 1936. _Type._--Obtained between Janos, Chihuahua, and San Luis Springs, New Mexico, by C. B. R. Kennerly, in 1855; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Five males and 6 females, showing moderate wear on the third upper molars, from Walla Walla County, average, respectively: total length 141, 137.5; length of tail 71.8, 68.1; hind foot 17.2, 16.7; weight (males only) 10.5 grams. A female, 136 mm. long, from Grant County, weighed 9.5 grams. Over the range of _megalotis_ in the United States, males average consistently larger than females in length of the hind foot and consistently less in length of head and body. _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, the Upper Sonoran Life-zone area west of the Columbia River and south of the Wenatchee Mountains in Kittitas, Yakima, and Benton counties, the north side of the Columbia River in Klickitat County, and Okanogan County east of the Okanogan River. Marginal localities are: Timentwa (W. W. D.) on the north, Maryhill (M. V. Z.) on the west, Wallula (M. V. Z.) on the south, and Colfax (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 21) on the east. [Illustration: FIG. 105. Distribution of the western harvest mouse, _Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis_, in Washington.] _Remarks._--Harvest mice from the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, California, Arizona, and New Mexico were examined to ascertain the validity of the name _Reithrodontomys megalotis nigrescens_ Howell (type from Payette County, Idaho). No cranial characters or measurements could be found to separate _nigrescens_ from _megalotis_. Specimens from Washington, Oregon, and west-central Idaho, within the range ascribed to _nigrescens_, averaged slightly darker in color with a more distinct, blackish dorsal line than specimens from New Mexico. This difference is slight, and specimens from any one locality vary greatly in color. Some Washington specimens are as pale as the palest material from New Mexico, and some of the darkest _nigrescens_ can be matched by specimens of _megalotis_ from Arizona and New Mexico. This slight color variant is not worthy of recognition as a distinct subspecies, and I agree with Howell (1939: 390) that _nigrescens_ is a synonym of _megalotis_. _Description._--The western harvest mouse is about the size and shape of the common house mouse. The length of the tail is approximately equal to the length of the head and body. The tail is slim and lightly haired. The upper parts are brownish buff lightly washed with blackish. A faint but distinct dark dorsal stripe is usually present. The underparts are white. From _Mus_ and _Peromyscus_, _Reithrodontomys_ can be distinguished by the grooves on the anterior face of the upper incisors and the long brown hairs at the bases of the ears. This genus reaches the extreme northern limit of its distribution in the state of Washington, where it ranges to the Canadian border. A single subspecies occurs in Washington. The harvest mouse is a resident of the Upper Sonoran Life-zone and it is most abundant in dense growths of grass, weeds, and other vegetation. Along the Yakima River, near Ellensburg, it was abundant in thick, river-side jungle. Near Yakima many specimens were taken in a marsh of cattails and tules. In the Grand Coulee they live in thick grass. Near Moses Lake several were found in their nests in a thick growth of tumbleweed. Harvest mice occur also, although never in great numbers, in relatively open areas. At the Potholes near Moses Lake, Grant County, a few were caught on sand dunes among scattered bushes of sage. They were taken on sagebrush flats in several localities. Gray (1943: 191) estimates their numbers in the sagebrush area of the Yakima Valley at 5 per acre. Where harvest mice live in dense vegetation they make small runways and food piles similar to those of _Microtus_ but in more open areas they leave no perceptible signs. Near Yakima the nest of a harvest mouse was found among the roots of an overturned apple tree. This nest was an irregular ball composed of fine grasses and shredded bark closed above, with a side entrance and a central cavity three inches in diameter. Near Moses Lake three nests of harvest mice were discovered on the ground under cover of a dense growth of tumbleweed, and six live harvest mice were captured in the same area. These nests were cuplike, open above, and were composed of dry grasses, bits of weeds, and newspaper. The smoothly rounded inner cups measured about three inches in diameter. Embryos were found in harvest mice in Washington from March to April and numbered 3 to 6. =Peromyscus maniculatus= (Wagner) Deer mouse _Description._--The deer mouse is slightly larger than the house mouse, the head and body measuring from 3-1/2 to 4 inches. The length of the tail varies considerably in the several races, ranging from approximately 2-1/2 inches in _gambelii_ to 4 inches or more in some individuals of _oreas_. The eyes are large and protrude slightly. The ears are large, erect and naked. The tail is sparsely furred with short, posteriorly directed hairs. The color of the upper parts varies from yellowish buff in _gambelii_ to reddish brown in _oreas_ and dusky in _austerus_. Young deer mice are gray or bluish gray above. Underparts and feet are white. The tail is bicolored, being dusky above and white below. [Illustration: FIG. 106. Deer mouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus austerus_), in captivity, Seattle, Washington, September 18, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 723.)] In Washington _Peromyscus_ may be separated from other naked-eared mice by ungrooved teeth and slightly tapering, bicolor tail. Nearly every part of North America is inhabited by one or more kinds of _Peromyscus_. The single species, _maniculatus_, which occurs in Washington, ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Arctic to tropical Mexico. Osgood (1909: 17) remarks: "... it is probable that a line, or several lines, could be drawn from Labrador to Alaska and thence to southern Mexico throughout which not a single square mile is not inhabited by some form of this species." Deer mice are the most abundant mice in Washington. They occur at sea level on the ocean beaches and above timber-line, even breeding in the Arctic-alpine Life-zone. They occur on the islands in Puget Sound, the lowland marshes and deciduous thickets of western Washington, the great conifer forests, the alpine cirques and mountain parks, and the deserts of eastern Washington. Almost everywhere they are the commonest mammal encountered. They make their homes in city dwellings, under logs or in hollow trees in the forest, in the burrows of larger rodents and, if necessary, in burrows of their own construction. Nests are usually cup-shaped masses of soft material, 4 to 8 inches in diameter with central cavities 2 to 3 inches in diameter. Materials utilized include dry grass, shredded bark, rope, rags, newspaper, moss, cattail fluff, fur, wool, and feathers. One nest discovered in the attic of an old building near Coulee City, Grant County, consisted of the mummified body of a wood rat (_Neotoma cinerea_). The fur of the arched body of the rat formed one side of the nest, while the fur of the far side of the body had been plucked to form the remainder. In the extensive marshes along Lake Washington, King County, deer mice occupy the ball-shaped nests of tule wrens (_Telamtodytes palustris_). These are constructed entirely of fragments of cattail leaves and cattail fluff and are placed in the cattail rushes about four feet above the wet ground of the marsh. Other deer mouse nests were found in an unused typewriter, in the pocket of an old coat, in a window frame, under a piece of tar paper on the ground, in a cavity in the ground under a board, between a ceiling and a loose bit of roofing paper, under rocks and logs, in hollows in logs, and in an unused nest of a wood rat. Where plant cover is dense, nests are placed on the surface of the ground, as under thick growths of tumbleweed (_Salsola_) in eastern Washington. Deer mice are definitely nocturnal. Of thousands of specimens trapped only a few were taken in the daytime. Two of these were taken in a rock slide at Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County, on the same day, and some unusual conditions may have incited them to travel in daylight. Deer mice are active throughout the winter and their lacy footprints are seen on the snow in below-freezing weather. They are mainly terrestial but one race (_oreas_) is at least partly arboreal for it is often taken in traps set in trees for flying squirrels. One was caught in a trap set 50 feet from the ground. All are good climbers, and _oreas_ is perhaps the best. One was watched as it climbed the rough cedar shake wall of a cabin, ran upside-down across three feet of rough ceiling, and descended the opposite wall head first. They are equally agile in climbing rocks and cliffs. The ordinary gait of the deer mouse is a steady run. When frightened it may leap a distance of one foot or more. When surprised in its nest it usually remains in the vicinity, hopping about in confusion, returning time after time to the exposed nest. The food of deer mice consists principally of vegetable material such as seeds, nuts, berries, and the soft parts of fleshy plants. Mushrooms and lichens are eaten. Insect remains are present in small quantities in most stomachs examined. Flesh is also eaten and small mammals caught in traps are often eaten by deer mice. Cannibalism appears to be common only in captivity. [Illustration: FIG. 107. Distribution of the deer mouse in Washington. A. _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas._ B. _Peromyscus maniculatus austerus._ C. _Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri._ D. _Peromyscus maniculatus gambelii._ E. _Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae._] Deer mice are often heavily parasitized by tapeworms and roundworms. Virtually all of the deer mice taken on Jones Island in the San Juan Islands had livers so infected by the eggs of a nematode worm as to be swollen to several times their natural size, and had a yellow, crystalline appearance. The maggots of parasitic flies often occur in the anal and genital region of deer mice, effectively sterilizing some individuals. Predatory snakes, birds, and mammals doubtless kill and eat deer mice. Strangely enough, although deer mice may be the commonest mammal in an area, the pellets of owls collected in the same area usually contain the remains of relatively few deer mice. The impact of owls seems to be greatest upon mice, such as _Microtus_, which follow definite runways. The breeding season of the deer mouse extends over most of the spring and summer. Growth and development of the young of _Peromyscus m. oreas_ have been discussed by A. Svihla (1936A). Embryos found varied in number from 2 to 8 with a mean of 4.5. =Peromyscus maniculatus oreas= Bangs _Peromyscus oreas_ Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:84, March 24, 1898. _Peromyscus akeleyi_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30., zoöl. ser., 1:226. February 1, 1899 (type from Elwha River, Olympic Mountains, Washington). _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:51, April 17, 1909. _Type._--Obtained on Church Mountain, 6,500 ft., Mt. Baker Range, near the U. S. boundary, British Columbia, by Allan Brooks on August 29, 1896; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Size large; tail more than 50 per cent of total length; color of upper parts reddish. _Measurements._--Twenty-five males and 15 females average: total length 202; length of tail 110; hind foot 22.6; ear 18.7. _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains west to the Pacific Ocean, save for the Puget Sound area and a narrow band extending southward nearly to the Columbia River. Marginal localities along the west side of Puget Sound are: Deer Park (W.W.D.), Lake Cushman (W.W.D.), and Kelso (M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on the west side of the Cascade Mountains are: Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.), Forks of Skykomish River (W.W.D.), North Bend (W.W.D.), Mt. St. Helens (V.B.S.) and Yacolt (M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on the east slope of the Cascade Mountains are: Grouse Creek (W.W.D.), Lake Wenatchee (W.W.D.), Easton (W.W.D.), Morrison Springs Ranger Station (W.W.D.) and Wind River C.C.C. Camp (W.W.D.). =Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri= Osgood Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:62, April 17, 1909. _Type._--Obtained at Friday Harbor, San Juan Island, San Juan County, Washington, by N. Hollister on October 23, 1903; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _oreas_ but darker, less reddish, and with much shorter tail. Length of tail about 40 per cent of total length. _Measurements._--Populations of deer mice on the various islands vary slightly in average measurements. The average measurements of 10 males and 10 females from San Juan Island, 20 males and 15 females from Blakeley Island, and 20 males and 15 females from Cypress Island, are respectively: total length 189, 183, 179; length of tail 87, 82, 79; hind foot 22.8, 22, 19.5; ear 19.4, 18.7, 19.5; weight 33, 29, 32 grams. _Distribution._--The San Juan Islands, San Juan and Skagit counties, in northern Puget Sound. =Peromyscus maniculatus austerus= (Baird) _Hesperomys austerus_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:336, 1855. _Sitomys americanus austerus_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:192, August 18, 1893. _P[eromyscus]., austerus_ Bangs, Amer. Nat., 31:75, January 1, 1897. _Peromyscus maniculatus austerus_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:63, April 17, 1909. _Type._--Obtained at Old Fort Steilacoom, Pierce County, Washington, by J. G. Suckley, probably on January 20, 1854; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _oreas_ but smaller with relatively shorter tail; tail narrower at base, less sharply bicolor; upper parts duller, browner, less reddish. In _oreas_ the tail is usually more than 100 mm. In _austerus_ the tail is usually less than 90 mm. _Measurements._--Twenty-seven males and 23 females from Seattle, King County, average: total length 180.5; length of tail 88.6; hind foot 21; ear 18. The average weight of 15 adults is 21 grams. _Distribution._--The Puget Sound area and south to the Columbia River in a narrow band through the lowlands. Marginal localities on the west side of Puget Sound are: Port Angeles (W.W.D.), Bremerton (W.W.D.), 4 miles north of Shelton (W.W.D.), Tenino (W.W.D.) and Mouth of Klama River (M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on the east side of Puget Sound are: Bellingham (W.W.D.), Arlington (W.W.D.), Everett (W.W.D.), 4 miles east of Monroe (W.W.D.), Fall City (W.W.D.), and Vancouver (W.W.D.). =Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus= Osgood _Peromyscus oreas rubidus_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:193, December 12, 1901. _Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:65, April 17, 1909. _Type._--Obtained at Mendocino City, California, by J. A. Loring on November 17, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Closely similar to _austerus_ but paler with longer skull. Specimens from Washington are almost purplish-brown in appearance. _Measurements._--Six males and 2 females from Puget Island, Wahkiakum County, average: total length 177; length of tail 89; hind foot 21.9; ear 18.7. _Distribution._--This is the deer mouse of the humid coastal belt of Oregon and California. It enters Washington only at Puget Island, Wahkiakum County, in the Columbia River. =Peromyscus maniculatus gambelii= (Baird) _Peromyscus gambelii_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., Pacific R. R. Reports, 8:464, 1857. _Sitomys americanus gambelii_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:190, August 18, 1893. _P[eromyscus]., t[exanus]. gambelii_ Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 18:446, March 25, 1896. _Peromyscus maniculatus gambeli_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:67, April 17, 1909. _Type._--Obtained at Monterey, Monterey County, California, by W. P. Trowbridge; skin catalogued on January 4, 1853; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Size small; tail short; color pale, varying from buffy gray to rich buff; rarely dark reddish brown. _Measurements._--Twenty-five males and 15 females average: total length 160; length of tail 71; hind foot 19.8; ear 17.7. _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau. Intergradation with _oreas_ occurs between the Columbia River and the Cascade Mountains. Marginal records on the west are: Chelan (W.W.D.), Leavenworth (W.W.D.), Cle Elum (W.W.D.), Satus Pass (W.W.D.), Lyle (V.B.S.). Marginal localities on the north are: Chelan (W.W.D.), 5 miles north of Coulee (W.W.D.), Sprague (V.B.S.) and Steptoe Butte (M.V.Z.). =Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae= (Rhoads) _Sitomys americanus artemisiae_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 260, October 23, 1894. _Peromyscus texanus artemisiae_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:84, December, 1901. _Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:58, April 17, 1909. _Type._--Obtained at Ashcroft, British Columbia, by S. N. Rhoads on July 5, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Sciences. _Racial characters._--Similar to _gambelii_ but darker, more reddish; often with longer tail. _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from northeastern Washington average: total length 167; length of tail 80; hind foot 20; ear 17.8. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington, extending west, in northeastern Washington, to Conconully (W.W.D.) and south to Duly Lake (W.W.D.). =Neotoma cinerea= Ord Bushy-tailed wood rat _Description._--The bushy-tailed wood rat is slightly larger than the common Norway or brown rat. The head and body measure about 12-1/2 inches and the tail about 3-1/2 inches. It resembles the deer mouse in general proportions. The ears are large and naked and the black eyes are large and protruding. The tail is bushy, squirrel-like. The feet are small and have furry soles. The fur is soft and silky. Adults are brownish gray above with white underparts and a gray tail. Young individuals have blue-gray upper-parts. Wood rats range over most of North America. They exhibit great variation, especially in the southwestern United States. The bushy-tailed species occurs in the western United States and Canada. Wood rats are notorious for invading buildings in the mountains and in the desert. However, their natural habitat is broken rock or talus. This habitat preference accounts for their distribution in Washington, for talus is common except in the humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. Wood rats are probably most abundant in the talus slides of the Columbian Plateau, especially in the canyon of the Columbia River and in Moses and Grand coulees. They are common in all the mountainous areas in the state where high altitudes and steep slopes result in the accumulation of talus. Wood rats range from sea level to 10,000 feet elevation on Mount Rainier and from the Upper Sonoran to the Arctic-alpine life-zones. Great horned owls and probably all of the carnivores that share the range of the wood rat prey on it to some extent. Sperry (1941: 15) lists _Neotoma_ in four per cent of 8,339 coyote stomachs gathered throughout the United States. Wood rats in Washington are definitely nocturnal and are rarely seen in daylight. On January 10, 1939, however, near Colville, Stevens County, a companion and I were sitting on the porch of a deserted shack eating lunch. Suddenly a wood rat darted out of the open door into the full sunlight and tugged at a can, containing a few drops of tomato juice, which one of us was holding in his hand. When the rat looked up and saw the human, it hastily retreated. The wood rat has a habit of flattening its body tightly against the ground when observed and also of "drumming" with its feet when excited. This habit is shared by the snowshoe rabbit and the spotted skunk. A captive specimen "drummed" by lifting its back feet, alternately, about one-half inch from the surface of a piece of wood and striking downward with surprising power. The agility of the wood rat was demonstrated near Wallula where we watched a specimen by the light of a flashlight as it climbed an almost vertical rock wall, taking advantage of small fractures for toe-holds. Wood rats are far from noiseless in their nocturnal activities. Near Moses Coulee, Douglas County, wood rats were heard from a distance of 50 feet as they scampered back and forth through a concrete culvert under the highway. Many species of wood rats build complicated stick houses in which they live. In Washington, elaborate stick houses are sometimes built but are usually not occupied. In the attic of an old building near Pend Oreille Lakes, Stevens County, two large and complicated houses were discovered. These were built of sticks, paper and other debris and measured more than three feet in diameter. Three small, cup-shaped nests resembling those of a bird, made of soft grasses, moss, and shredded paper were found on the attic floor ten feet or more from the stick houses. These nests gave every indication of being used, while the piles of sticks contained no nests and seemed never to have been occupied. Near Moses Lake, Grant County, a wood rat house built in the rafters of an old shed was constructed entirely of tumbleweeds (_Salsola pestifer_). This house was spherical in shape and measured more than five feet in diameter. It appeared to be unoccupied and a wood rat, probably its builder, was living under the floor of the shed. Most wood rat houses consist of a half-dozen sticks arranged in a crevice in a rock pile or a cave. Wood rats were placing fresh material on a house in the Wenatchee National Forest on January 17, 1939, when there was two feet of snow on the ground and the temperature was hovering around zero. The house measured about one cubic yard and consisted of _Ceanothus_ leaves and steins, with some twigs of fir (_Abies_). It was built under a bunk in a broken-down cabin left by deer hunters. The collecting habit of the wood rat has gained it the name "pack-rat." Taylor (1920A: 91) lists the following materials from a wood rat nest on Mt. Rainier: _Nesting material_: rags, leaves, paper, thumb of a glove, string, thongs, oakum; _Food_: apple core, onion peel, bacon rind, raisins, 10 bars of chocolate, figs, puff balls, bread crust, meat scraps, cantaloupe rind, potatoes, dried apricots, lemons, mushrooms, beans, peanuts, banana, 15 lumps of sugar; _Miscellaneous_: dime, coffee can cover, paraffin from jelly glass, bones, 19 pieces of candles and several cakes of soap. As a rule only one or two wood rats are trapped at a given locality, indicating that the species is not gregarious. The presence of wood rats in a building, cave, mine tunnel, or talus slide can be detected in several ways. The white, mineral-like incrustation formed by the urine of many generations of wood rats is usually conspicuous on rocks near their homes. A strong musky odor pervades the atmosphere in every habitat occupied by wood rats. Wood rat feces, consisting of hard, black cylinders one-half inch long and three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, are invariably found scattered on stones or exposed areas of ground. [Illustration: FIG. 108. Distribution of the bushy-tailed wood rat in Washington. A. _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis._ B. _Neotoma cinerea alticola._] The food of the bushy-tailed wood rat is varied and includes insects and vegetation. A captive specimen that escaped in the University of Washington Zoölogical Laboratories killed and ate a number of lizards. Embryos found from April 18 to June 14 varied in number from 3 to 5. =Neotoma cinerea occidentalis= Baird _Neotoma occidentalis_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 335, 1855. _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:58, July 30, 1891. _Type._--Obtained at Shoalwater Bay (Willapa Bay), Pacific County, Washington, by J. G. Cooper, in June, 1854; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Size large; color of upper parts cinnamon brown. _Measurements._--A male and a female from Glade Creek, 1/2 mile north of the Columbia River, Benton County, measure, respectively: total length 425, 395; length of tail 181, 176; hind foot 50, 44; ear 32, 31; weight 532.5, 330.0 grams. _Distribution._--Throughout the state except in the Blue Mountains. _Remarks._--Specimens from the Olympic Mountains and western Washington are slightly duller-colored than specimens from eastern Washington and young from western Washington are more bluish, less gray, than young individuals from the Columbian Plateau. The specimens from the Columbian Plateau show some resemblance to _alticola_. Specimens from northeastern Washington are more like typical _occidentalis_. =Neotoma cinerea alticola= Hooper _Neotoma cinerca alticola_ Hooper, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 42:409, May 17, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at Parker Creek, 5,500 ft., Warner Mountains, Modoc County, California, by N. B. Stern on June 22, 1916; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Similar to _Neotoma c. occidentalis_ but slightly paler, with paler hind feet and narrower sphenopalatine vacuities. _Measurements._--A female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia County, measures: total length 387; length of tail 171; hind foot 43; ear 33; weight 330 grams. _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake River. _Remarks._--The only adult specimen available from the Blue Mountains shows well the characters attributed to _alticola_. =Synaptomys borealis wrangeli= Merriam Northern lemming mouse _Synaptomys (Mictomys) wrangeli_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:63, March 19, 1896. _Synaptomys (Mictomys) truei_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:62, March 19, 1896 (type from Skagit Valley, Skagit County, Washington). _Synaptomys borealis wrangeli_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 50:26, June 30, 1927. _Type._--Obtained at Wrangel, Alexander Archipelago, Alaska, by C. P. Streator on September 6, 1895; type in United States National Museum. _Racial character._--Dark color. _Distribution._--The northwestern Cascades, from Mt. Baker northward. _Remarks._--The relationship of this race to _artemisiae_ remains to be worked out. [Illustration: FIG. 109. Distribution of the northern lemming mouse in Washington. A. _Synaptomys borealis wrangeli._ B. Possible range of _Synaptomys borealis artemisiae_.] _Description._--Lemming mice may be recognized by their short, thick bodies, slightly larger than the bodies of the common house mouse (_Mus_); short tails, which are less than 20 per cent of their total length; small, inconspicuous ears; and grooved upper incisors. Mice of the genus _Synaptomys_ range over much of boreal North America. Two species and eleven races are recognized by Howell (1927B: 9). _Synaptomys borealis_ ranges westward across Canada from Labrador to the Pacific Coast and from Alaska south to Washington. The lemming mice are terrestrial and inhabit runways similar to those of meadow mice (_Microtus_). They are alpine in distribution. Shaw (1930: 7-10) found them among typical annual herbs in a cold, boggy mountain valley. Other than this, nothing is known of the species in Washington. Indeed little is known of the life history of any member of the genus. The lemming mouse possesses four pairs of mammae, two pectoral and two inguinal. It is the most primitive of the microtines. It seems to be of boreal origin but is not known from the Old World. It was evidently forced southward by the Pleistocene glaciers into Washington and is now retreating northward in the wake of the ice. The only specimens recorded from Washington are from the northern border of the state. =Phenacomys intermedius= Merriam Heather vole _Description._--Heather voles are heavy-bodied, short-legged mice, closely similar in general appearance to other microtines that occur in Washington. Their dull, brownish upper parts, lacking a distinct reddish dorsal stripe, separate them from the red-backed mice (_Clethrionomys_) and the lack of grooves on their upper incisors separates them from _Synaptomys_. Their relatively short tail (30 per cent or less of their total length) separates them from most meadow mice (_Microtus_). There are no external characters which serve to separate them from all species of _Microtus_ and the teeth must be examined certainly to identify _Phenacomys_. In _Microtus_ the angles between the cusps of the inner and outer sides of the lower molars are of approximately equal depth, but in _Phenacomys_ the angles on the inner side of the lower molars are at least twice as deep as those of the outer side of the jaw. In addition the molars of _Phenacomys_ are rooted while those of _Microtus_ are not. The heather voles and their relatives are primitive microtines that range through boreal North America including the higher parts of the Rocky Mountains and the cool area along the Pacific Coast. Several species are included in the genus: an arctic form (_ungava_), a lowland Pacific Coastal species (_albipes_), two tree-inhabiting species (_longicaudus_ and _silvicola_) and a mountain species (_intermedius_). Thus far only _intermedius_ has been found in Washington but further search may reveal that one or more of the arboreal species and possibly _albipes_ are also present. Heather voles are alpine animals, seldom occurring below the Hudsonian Life-zone. They are rare as compared with most microtines, and are seldom taken in traps, even by the experienced collector of small mammals. Evidence of their presence is most often found in the dense meadows of heather (_Cassiope_ and _Phyllodoce_) high on the mountains. Here their feces, runways, and old winter nests are not uncommon, and heather voles may be far more abundant than trapping records indicate. They are not restricted to the vicinity of heather, however, for one of my specimens was taken in a marshy willow thicket near Stevens Pass in King County, one in a patch of skunk-cabbage in a grassy glacial cirque near Tomyhoi Lake in Whatcom County, and one at the edge of a snowbank on a steep hillside at Deer Park, Clallam County. In each of these places, however, there were heather meadows within a thousand yards. Shaw (1924A: 12-15) also found the heather mouse on "comparatively dry hill slopes" and reports that it "rather characteristically occurs in such log-tangled areas as former fire zones." [Illustration: FIG. 110. Distribution of the heather vole in Washington. A. _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis._ B. _Phenacomys intermedius intermedius._] The winter nests of _Phenacomys intermedius_ are placed on the surface of the ground and in the season when occupied are deeply buried under the snow. They are spherical or oval in shape, six to eight inches in diameter and with a side entrance. One examined by Shaw was "formed of white heather twigs, the interstices being filled with leaves of huckleberry." It was "lined with finely shredded grass." All those examined by me were composed of grass and lichens. The principal foods of the heather vole seem to be white heather (_Cassiope mertensiana_) and huckleberry (_Vaccinium_). Red heather (_Phyllodoce empetriformis_) is not eaten. Shaw also lists beargrass (_Xerophyllum tenax_) and lousewort (_Pedicularis_) as eaten. A burrow excavated and figured by Shaw, was slightly more than a yard long and contained four young in a nest situated but a few inches from one of the three entrances. The nest was made of grass and moss. A female taken at Tye, King County, contained 4 embryos on May 28, 1939. One taken at Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County, contained 3 small embryos on June 14, 1938. =Phenacomys intermedius intermedius= Merriam _Phenacomys intermedius_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 2:32, October 30, 1889. _Phenacomys intermedius intermedius_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 48:15, October 12, 1926. _Type._--Obtained 20 miles north-northwest of Kamloops, 5,500 ft. elevation, British Columbia, by G. M. Dawson on October 2, 1888; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Size small; color of upper parts brownish gray; skull small. _Measurements._--A female from Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County, measured: total length 127; length of tail 29; hind foot 17; weight 25 grams. _Distribution._--Known only from extreme northeastern Washington at Pass Creek Pass (W.W.D.) and the Blue Mountains. =Phenacomys intermedius oramontis= Rhoads _Phenacomys oramontis_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 29:941, October, 1895. _Phenacomys olympicus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zoöl. ser., 1:225, February 1, 1899 (type from Happy Lake, 5,000 ft., Clallam County, Washington). _Microtus (Lagurus) pumilus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zoöl. ser., 1:226, February 1, 1899 (type from Happy Lake, 5,000 ft., Clallam County, Washington). _Phenacomys intermedius olympicus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 48:21, October 12, 1926. _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_ Anderson, Canadian Field Nat., 56:59, June 8, 1942. _Type._--Obtained on Church Mountain, 6,000 ft., Mt. Baker Range, British Columbia, just north of international boundary, by A. C. Brooks on August 6, 1895; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Racial characters._--Similar to _intermedius_ but darker, browner above and deeper gray beneath; skull large and heavy. _Measurements._--A female from Tye, King County, measures: total length 152; length of tail 40; hind foot 19; ear 12. A female from Tomyhoi Lake, Whatcom County, measures: 170; 45; 20; 15. _Distribution._--The Cascade and Olympic mountains, from Tomyhoi Lake (W. W. D.) on the north, to Mt. Adams (Taylor and Shaw, 1929:23) on the south. =Clethrionomys gapperi= (Vigors) Gapper red-backed mouse _Description._--Red-backed mice are heavy-bodied, short-tailed and short-legged mice, similar in general appearance to the meadow mice (_Microtus_). Unlike the meadow mice, they possess rooted molars, a primitive character. They do not have grooved incisors, like _Synaptomys_, or the great difference in the depth of the angles of the lower molars that characterizes both _Synaptomys_ and _Phenacomys_. Externally _Clethrionomys_ may be recognized by the broad red dorsal area from which they obtain their common name. Their sides are grayish or dusky and the undersides buffy white. The red-backed mice, including more than one species, range over the boreal parts of the Old and New World. In America they are found in most of Alaska, Canada and the northern United States, and extend southward in the Rocky Mountains and along the Pacific Coast. The one species _Clethrionomys gapperi_ ranges across southern Canada from the Atlantic to the Pacific, extending southward in forested areas to New Mexico. They usually live in clearings in the forest. In the Pend Oreille Mountains _saturatus_ was common in damp, mossy talus slides, along with _Microtus longicaudus_ and _Phenacomys intermedius_. The _Clethrionomys_ outnumbered the two latter species combined by 25 to 1. In nearby forest, red-backed mice were scarce but no other microtines were found. In the Kettle River Mountains a week later, red-backed mice were rare. A single specimen was taken in a damp place in the forest; none was found in talus slides. Near Stevens Pass, King County, in the Cascades, _cascadensis_ was taken in equal numbers in talus slides and under logs in the forest. Near Dewey Lake, Yakima County, in the Cascades, I took them only in an extensive grassy meadow. In the Blue Mountains I found _idahoensis_ in the dense chaparral, far from forests. Unlike _Microtus_, red-backed mice do not make runways, although they sometimes follow the runways of other mammals. Taylor (1920B: 92) found red-backed mice breeding on Mount Rainier from early July to the middle of September. One female gave birth to four young in a nest in his duffle bag. [Illustration: FIG. 111. Distribution of the Gapper and California red-backed mice in Washington. A. _Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus._ B. _Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis._ C. _Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius._ D. _Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis._ E. _Clethrionomys californicus occidentalis._] =Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus= (Rhoads) _Evotomys gapperi saturatus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 284, October 23, 1894. [_Clethrionomys gapperi_] _saturatus_ Whitlow and Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:265, September 30, 1933. _Type._--Obtained at Nelson, British Columbia, by S. N. Rhoads on August 27, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Sciences. _Racial characters._--Size small, about 140 mm. in total length; tail short, about one-third of total length; ears large, projecting above fur; color of head and sides gray tinged with yellowish; back with distinct red stripe; underparts whitish tinged with buff. _Measurements._--Five males and 10 females from Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County, average: total length 147; length of tail 43; hind foot 18.3; ear 14. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington from Sherman Creek Pass (W. W. D.) on the west to Pass Creek Pass on the east. =Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis= (Merriam) _Evotomys idahoensis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:66, July 30, 1891. _Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis_ Whitlow and Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:265, September 30, 1933. _Type._--Obtained at Sawtooth (Alturas) Lake, 7,200 ft., Blaine County, Idaho, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey, on October 4, 1890; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _saturatus_ but brain case longer and narrower and dorsal area more reddish. _Measurements._--Seven males and 6 females from the Blue Mountains average, respectively: total length 138, 142; length of tail 41, 41; hind foot 18.7, 19.0; ear 13.6, 13.5; weight 20.5, 22.7 grams. _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. =Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis= Booth _Evotomys gapperi saturatus_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:23, December, 1929. _Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis_ Booth, Murrelet, 26:27, August 10, 1945. _Type._--Obtained 2 miles south of Blewett Pass, 3,000 ft. elevation, Kittitas County, Washington, by G. G. Cantwell, on October 30, 1921; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Dark and dull with underparts dull buffy. _Measurements._--Ten adults from the Cascade Mountains average (Booth, 1945: 27): total length 162; length of tail 50; hind foot 19; ear 14. _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, according to Booth (_loc. cit._, p. 28), from Hannegan Pass south to Mount Adams. Marginal localities listed are: Swamp Creek, Glacier Peak, McKenna, and Mt. St. Helens. These, and other localities listed by Booth are not plotted on the accompanying distribution map (fig. 111). =Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius= (Bailey) _Evotomys nivarius_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:136, May 13, 1897. _Evotomys gapperi nivarius_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:23, 1929. _Clethrionomys nivarius_ Svihla, Murrelet, 12:54, May, 1931. _Type._--Obtained on the northwest slope of Mt. Ellinor, 4,000 ft. elevation, Mason County, Washington, by C. P. Streator, on July 9, 1894; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _saturatus_ but paler throughout. _Measurements._--Two males and a female from 1 mile northwest of Lake Cushman, Mason County, average: total length 140; length of tail 42; hind foot 18; ear 13. _Distribution._--The Olympic Mountains, from Sol Duc Hot Springs (W.S.M.) south and west at least to Staircase, on Lake Cushman (W.W.D.). =Clethrionomys californicus occidentalis= (Merriam) California red-backed mouse _Evotomys occidentalis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:25, October 8, 1890. _Evotomys pygmaeus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 284, October 23, 1894 (type from mouth of Nisqually River, Pierce County, Washington). _Evotomys gapperi occidentalis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:23, 1929. _Clethrionomys occidentalis_ Hall, Murrelet, 13:79, September, 1932. _Type._--Obtained at Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County, Washington, by T. S. Palmer, on August 16, 1889; type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females average: total length 137; length of tail 45; hind foot 18; ear 12.3. _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington, east at least to Cottage Lake (W. W. D.). _Remarks._--Specimens from the type locality of _occidentalis_ and other places along the ocean coast are larger and brighter in color than specimens from farther inland, but the difference appears to me to be insufficient to warrant subspecific separation of the two lots. _Clethrionomys californicus_ resembles _Clethrionomys gapperi_ but is darker and duller in color with the red dorsal area more obscured and forming less of a stripe. _C. californicus_ is found in the forested lowlands of western Washington, Oregon, and northern California, and in the Cascades of Oregon. In Washington, it is confined entirely to the forest where it is trapped under logs and on the layer of dead needles at the bases of conifers. Mice of this species were numerous in the forest along the Pacific Coast on the Long Beach Peninsula and at Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County. At Lost Lake Prairie, Mason County, at the southeastern base of the Olympic Mountains, they were rather scarce, but were the only mammals taken in the deep woods. Near Shelton, Mason County, at the eastern edge of the Olympic Mountains, a number of specimens were taken along with twice as many _Peromyscus maniculatus_. At Cottage Lake, King County, near Seattle, they were rare, comprising about two per cent of the mammals taken in two weeks' trapping. Almost nothing was learned of the habits of these mice. They seem to be rigidly restricted to a habitat where few plants other than trees grow. The stomachs examined contained pasty masses of finely chewed white vegetation with occasional gray particles that might have been bits of lichens. The mice do not make runways like those of _Microtus_. =Microtus pennsylvanicus= (Ord) Pennsylvanian meadow mouse _Description._--The upper parts are dark blackish brown and the underparts grayish or whitish. The tail comprises about a fourth of the total length and the foot does not exceed 21 mm. These two features separate it from most other species of meadow mice. From _Microtus oregoni_ it may be separated by its larger size, blackish color and well-developed eyes. From _Microtus montanus_ it differs in being larger, darker, and in having a closed posterior loop on the innerside of the second upper molar. [Illustration: FIG. 112. Pennsylvania meadow mouse (_Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi_), from ten miles south of Moses Lake, Washington, April 28, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 937.)] _Microtus pennsylvanicus_ is the most common meadow mouse of the eastern United States. It ranges westward through Canada and southward in the Rocky Mountains. A number of races occur in this extensive range. In northeastern Washington the eastern meadow mouse is locally common, being confined to marshes and damp meadows. Well-used runways are made through the dense vegetation and piles of feces and blades of grass are deposited therein. A number of broods are raised in a season, for young of many different ages are taken together in midsummer. On the Columbian Plateau this mouse lives in marshy areas about lakes and potholes. Narrow trails are constructed through the dense vegetation. It burrows in damp earth and some occupied burrows are half-full of seepage water. Cuttings found in runways show that the mice feed on a variety of plants, including sedge (_Carex_). In the Moses Lake area the breeding season begins in March. Embryos found March 24, 1940, varied from 4 to 7 in number. This species is cyclically abundant. [Illustration: FIG. 113. Distribution of the Pennsylvania meadow mouse in Washington. A. _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris._ B. _Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi._] =Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris= Dale _Microtus pennsylvanicus modestus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:20, June 6, 1900. _Microtus drummondii_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:22, June 6, 1900. _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris_ Dale, Jour. Mamm., 21:338, August 13, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at Coldstream. 1,450 ft., 3-1/2 miles southeast of Vernon. British Columbia, by T. P. Maslin. Jr., on August 2, 1937; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Size medium; color reddish brown; fur short, harsh; skull small and narrow. _Measurements._--Three males from Newport, Pend Oreille County, average: total length 165; length of tail 40; hind foot 20; ear 15.3. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, west to Conconully (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 24) and east to Newport (W. W. D.). _Remarks._--Specimens from northeastern Washington are larger and darker, more reddish and less gray, than _drummondii_. They are larger, more reddish, and have relatively narrower skulls, than _modestus_ from Colorado and Idaho. They closely resemble _funebris_ from south-central British Columbia, and are best referred to that race. Rand (1943: 123) considers _funebris_ a synonym of _modestus_ but I feel is incorrect in doing so. =Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi= Dalquest _Microtus montanus kincaidi_ Dalquest, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 54:145, September 30, 1941. _Type._--Obtained at The Potholes, 10 miles south of Moses Lake, Grant County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on March 24, 1940; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Large size; dark blackish color; long fur; wide, angular skull. _Measurements._--Six male and 12 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 176.6, 168.0; length of tail 45.1, 43.8; hind foot 20.8, 20.3; ear 14.0, 13.4. _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, in the Grand Coulee area. =Microtus montanus= (Peale) Montane meadow mouse _Description._--Montane meadow mice have short tails, flaring zygomatic arches, and heavily ridged skulls. They are small, about 6-1/2 inches long, and buffy-gray in color. Their short tails, less than one-third the length of head and body, and gray color separate them from all other Washington meadow mice. Montane meadow mice are widely distributed in the southwestern United States, where numerous races are found. They occupy damp meadows and marshes in the arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone of eastern Washington. They seem to require deep, dense cover of grasses, reeds, or sedges, near water. They are usually associated with harvest mice (_Reithrodontomys megalotis_), wandering shrews (_Sorex vagrans monticola_), and muskrats (_Ondatra zibethica_). Hawks and owls are their principal enemies, but predatory mammals and snakes probably kill many. Montane meadow mice evidently are both diurnal and nocturnal; specimens were taken in the daytime as well as at night, and captives were active periodically day and night. Captives were extremely quick in their movements. If disturbed they sat up on their haunches and chattered indignantly. It was almost impossible to handle them without being bitten. The trails of montane meadow mice are narrower than those of other meadow mice, and appear to be used the year around. Burrows are numerous where the mice are plentiful. A heap of damp earth marks the entrance to each burrow. One nest of _M. m. canescens_ near Lake Chelan, Chelan County, was under a log on a small knoll in a marsh. The nest was round, about 8 inches in diameter, and was composed of cattails, grasses, and moss. [Illustration: FIG. 114. Distribution of the montane and Townsend meadow mice in Washington. A. _Microtus montanus nanus._ B. _Microtus montanus canescens._ C. _Microtus townsendii townsendii._ D. _Microtus townsendii pugeti._] _Microtus montanus nanus_ (Merriam) _Arvicola (Mynomes) nanus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:63, July 30, 1891. _Microtus nanus_ Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:67, April 21, 1897. _Microtus nanus nanus_ Miller, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 128:409, April 29, 1924. _Microtus montanus nanus_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 51:133, August 23, 1938. _Type._--Obtained in the Pahsimeroi Mountains, 9,300 ft., Custer County, Idaho, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey on September 16, 1890; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Size medium; color of upper parts brownish gray; sides paler; underparts grayish white. _Measurements._--A large male from Prescott, Walla Walla County, measures: total length 168; length of tail 48; hind foot 20. A female from Prescott, Walla Walla County, and a female from Pullman, Whitman County, average: 133; 31; 18.5. _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, westward as far as 5 miles east of Wallula (M.V.Z.). =Microtus montanus canescens= Bailey _Microtus nanus canescens_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:87, April 30, 1898. _Microtus montanus canescens_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 51:133, August 23, 1938. _Type._--Obtained at Conconully, Okanogan County, Washington, by J. A. Loring, on September 12, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Size small; color of upper parts pale brownish gray; sides yellowish gray. This race differs from _Microtus m. nanus_ in generally paler, less brownish coloration. It does not differ from _nanus_ in any distinctive cranial features. _Measurements._--Two male and 2 female topotypes average, respectively: total length 151, 143; length of tail 35, 33.5; hind foot, 19.5, 19.5. A series of 8 males and 6 females from Selah, Yakima County, average, respectively: total length 151.7, 150.5; length of tail 41.5, 40.1; hind foot 19.7, 18.8; ear 12.8, 13.0; weight 47.2, 36.8 grams. _Distribution._--The eastern foothills of the Cascade Mountains from the British Columbian boundary south, probably to the Columbia River. Recorded east to Benton City (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 24). _Remarks._--A large series from Selah, Yakima County, is somewhat intermediate between _nanus_ and _canescens_. These specimens from south of the Wenatchee Mountains are, however, more like _canescens_ in color than they are like _nanus_. Bailey (1900: 32) records a specimen of this race from North Yakima as _Microtus canicaudus_. =Microtus townsendii= (Bachman) Townsend meadow mouse _Description._--The Townsend meadow mouse is a large-bodied, long-furred mouse with a tail of moderate length. Head and body measure about 8 inches, the tail about 2-1/2 inches. The legs are short and the ears scarcely project through the fur on the head. In summer the color is dark reddish-brown. The winter color is dark brownish-black. Underparts are paler, more grayish brown, than are the upper parts. The tail is sparsely haired. Townsend meadow mice occur west of the Cascade Mountains in California, Washington, Oregon, British Columbia, and on some British Columbian and Washington islands. The habitats of the two races of the Townsend meadow mice found in Washington are wholly in the humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone but vary somewhat in nature. The race _townsendii_ lives in marshes or damp meadows, under cover of deep, rank vegetation. These mice avoid forested areas or dry brush, but sometimes occur in dry grass when it is deep enough to conceal them from enemies. The race _pugeti_ has been recorded from meadows, salt marshes, driftwood strewn on sea-beaches, areas of sparse, dry grass, and piles of rocks. Townsend meadow mice are as diurnal as they are nocturnal; specimens have been trapped at almost all hours of the day and night. Their ordinary method of traveling is a slow run. When startled they make a dash for the nearest cover, into which they dive headlong. They make considerable noise while moving about and often may be heard from several feet away. Captives in the laboratory seemed rather dull and stupid as compared with other meadow mice. [Illustration: FIG. 115. Runways of Townsend meadow mice (_Microtus townsendii_) worn to grooves in the damp soil at Seattle; May 18, 1938; dense cover of cattails has been burned off (W. W. Dalquest photo).] In the fall, winter, and early spring the Townsend meadow mice keep to their runways. These runways are used by successive generations of mice, and often are worn into ditches several inches deep. In the late spring and summer, when the grass and other vegetation in their habitat is tall and rank, offering complete concealment, the runways are abandoned and cuttings of rejected food are found scattered over the surface of the ground. The food of the Townsend meadow mice includes the succulent leaves and stems of many grasses and annuals. Near Seattle the staple summer food is the velvet grass (_Holcus lanatus_), although many other plants, including the horsetail (_Equisetum arvense_), are eaten. In winter the common cattail is eaten. Couch (1925: 200) found caches of the roots of mint (_Mentha canadensis_) stored by this species. As much as 14 quarts was found in a single cache. The cup-shaped nests of Townsend meadow mice near Seattle were below ground. Embryos were found from May 4 to May 20 and varied in number from 5 to 8 with a mean of 7. In the San Juan Islands the nests of _M. t. pugeti_ were under driftwood. =Microtus townsendii townsendii= (Bachman) _Arvicola townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 (pt. 1):60, 1839. _Arvicola occidentalis_ Peale, U. S. Expl. Exped., Mammalogy, p. 45, 1848 (type from Puget Sound). _M[icrotus]. townsendi_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 12:66, July 23, 1896. _Microtus townsendii townsendii_ Svihla and Svihla, Murrelet, 14:40, May, 1933. _Type._--Obtained on the Columbia River (probably on or near Sauvie Island, Multnomah County, Oregon); type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Racial characters._--Size large; skull narrow in interorbital region. _Measurements._--Eight males and 5 females from Clark and Pacific counties, southwestern Washington, average, respectively: total length 208.0, 208.4; length of tail 65.7, 66.0; hind foot 26.5, 25.4; ear 15.0, 14.6; weight 80.8, 76.7 grams. Thirteen males and 9 females from Seattle average, respectively: 211.8, 209.0; 71.2, 68.6; 25.7, 26.0; 15.8, 15.4. _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington from Bellingham (J.M.E.) south to Puget Island (V.B.S.). =Microtus townsendii pugeti= Dalquest _Microtus townsendii pugeti_ Dalquest, Murrelet, 21:7, April 1, 1940. _Type._--Obtained at Neck Point, northwest corner of Shaw Island, San Juan County, Washington, by D. H. Johnson, on July 10, 1938; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Size small; skull wide in interorbital region, averaging about 4.0 mm. (3.8-4.2); basi-sphenoid truncate posteriorly; upper incisors strongly curved. _Measurements._--Two males and 6 females average: total length 182.6; length of tail 50.3; hind foot 23.2; ear 15.0. _Distribution._--Found only on the San Juan Islands, San Juan and Skagit counties. _Remarks._--The islands occupied by this race of mouse were heavily glaciated by the last continental glacier (Vashon). Mice of the species _townsendii_ apparently migrated to the islands early in the Recent era, and under isolation developed the differences which now separate them from the mainland population. =Microtus longicaudus= (Merriam) Long-tailed meadow mouse _Description._--The several races of this species vary from small to large in size. Their bodies are relatively longer and slimmer than those of the other meadow mice that occur in Washington. Their most distinctive feature is the long tail, only slightly shorter than the head and body. Their fur is rather coarse. The color varies from grayish brown to dull reddish brown with a brighter brown dorsal stripe. The tail is bicolor; black or dark brown above, yellowish below. The underparts are whitish gray. [Illustration: FIG. 116. Distribution of the long-tailed meadow mouse in Washington. A. _Microtus longicaudus macrurus._ B. _Microtus longicaudus halli._] Long-tailed meadow mice are widely distributed over the western United States, Canada, and Alaska. In Washington the long-tailed meadow mouse has been taken in many habitats. One specimen was taken along a small, temporary stream through sagebrush in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. Others were found in marshes and near water in the arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. In the humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone they are not uncommon in damp areas along the ocean coast, but are rather rare in dry, grassy habitats. In the Canadian and Hudsonian life-zones they are fairly common in forest-free, grassy places, being most abundant near talus slides. Altitudinally they range from sea level to 6,000 feet. Long-tailed meadow mice are rather rare. Several were taken in the daytime at Round Top Mountain, Pend Oreille County, and two others were taken in daytime two miles south of Tenino, Thurston County. However most of the specimens were caught at night. Long-tailed meadow mice do not, at least ordinarily, make trails as do other meadow mice. Specimens are usually taken unexpectedly, and intensive trapping in the area where a specimen or two is taken rarely yields additional individuals. Two specimens taken in the Cascade Mountains in September were pregnant; one contained two embryos and the other four. =Microtus longicaudus halli= Ellerman _Microtus mordax angustus_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 37:13, April 10, 1931 (not of Thomas, 1908). _Microtus longicaudus angustus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 19:491, November 14, 1938. _Microtus mordax halli_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., 2:603, March 21, 1941 (new name for _Microtus mordax angustus_ Hall). _Type._--Obtained at Godman Springs, 5,700 ft., Blue Mountains, Columbia County, Washington, by S. H. Lyman, on September 1, 1927; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Size small; color of sides pale grayish brown; brown dorsal stripe conspicuous; tail relatively short. _Measurements._--Four males and 5 females from eastern Washington average, respectively: total length 164.8, 166.6; length of tail 55.8, 55.8; hind foot 22.0, 21.4. _Distribution._--From the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington north, along the eastern edge of the state, to British Columbia, and thence west, north of the Columbia River, to the Cascades, and south along the eastern edge of the Cascades to the Wenatchee Mountains. Marginal occurrences are: Pasayten River (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 24), Hart Lake (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 24), Blewett Pass (W.W.D.), Boulder Cave (W.W.D.), and Satus Pass (W.W.D.). _Remarks._--Four specimens from Satus Pass, Klickitat County, are somewhat intermediate between this race and _macrurus_, and indicate that _halli_ crossed the Columbia River when an alpine meadow land extended from the Simcoe Anticline to southeastern Washington. One specimen from Selah, Yakima County, is colored somewhat like _halli_, and is smaller than _macrurus_. Possibly the _halli_ type of meadow mouse spread northward to the Yakima Valley. This specimen was taken in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. A specimen from the Arid Transition Zone at Naches, Yakima County (taken in almost Canadian Life-zone habitat), is like _macrurus-halli_ intergrades from the higher Cascade Mountains. =Microtus longicaudus macrurus= Merriam _Microtus macrurus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 353, October 4, 1898. _Microtus mordax macrurus_ Dice, Murrelet, 13:49, May, 1932. _Microtus longicaudus macrurus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 19:491, November 14, 1938. _Type._--Obtained at Lake Cushman, Mason County, Washington, by C. P. Streator on June 26, 1894; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Size large; tail relatively long, almost as long as head and body; color of upper parts dull brown; dorsal stripe obscure; underparts gray. _Measurements._--Two males and 4 females from the Olympic Mountains and the coast of Washington, average, respectively: total length 212.5, 220.5; length of tail 82.5, 86.8; hind foot 25.5, 24.7; ear 15.0, 13.7. _Distribution._--The Olympic Mountains, the coast region of western Washington, and the Cascade Mountains, save in the southeastern part. Marginal occurrences are: Sauk (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 24), Tye (W.W.D.), Naches River (W.W.D.), and Wind River (W.W.D.). _Remarks._--Specimens from the Cascade Mountains are referred to _macrurus_ but are intermediate between that race and _halli_. =Microtus richardsoni= (De Kay) Water rat _Description._--This is the largest meadow mouse found in Washington. It is too large to be called a mouse and the term water rat, applied to it by Merriam, suits it well. It is the only Washington microtine measuring more than 8 inches in total length. The upper parts are dark, reddish brown in color; the underparts are grayish brown. The tail comprises about one-third of the total length. This species of meadow mouse ranges from Canada south to Colorado in the Rocky Mountains and in the Cascades south into Oregon. The water rats are strictly alpine animals, occurring about streams, marshes and damp meadows. In the Cascade Mountains they are most common in the glacial cirques where tiny streams flow through grassy meadows to plunge over the lip of the cirque on a rocky course of cascades to the valley below. Here their broad trails occur along the stream banks, commonly entering the water where it is swift. These trails are well-worn roads, usually about four inches wide but often wider. The burrows of the water rat are about three inches in diameter and are constructed with no effort at concealment; large mounds of earth mark their entrances. Freshly dug burrows are so abundant that it seems likely more are dug than are actually inhabited. Burrows are often dug beneath rocks. The water rat is mainly nocturnal but not uncommonly is seen in the daytime. Twice I cornered a water rat away from its burrow and each time it escaped by swimming. The rats swam with great speed but with much splashing. One dived under the surface of a small pool and disappeared. Stones along the bank were pulled out until the rat was captured in a small chamber at the end of a burrow. The burrow entered the bank at the base of a large stone six inches beneath the surface. This burrow resembled a miniature muskrat burrow and apparently had been dug when the rat was under water. Like _Phenacomys_, the water rat constructs sub-snow nests on the surface of the ground. These are recognizable by their large size and by piles of ovoid droppings a quarter of an inch in length. These nests are loosely built and fall apart soon after the snow melts. The water rat is sometimes a pest to the mammal collector for they spring mouse traps set for other mammals without becoming caught. At times the greater part of an entire trap line was thus rendered ineffective by these mammals. Fully adult animals are uncommon in collections for a rat trap or steel trap is needed to take them and these items, when packed on back up mountains to water-rat habitat, are usually set for still larger animals. Racey (Racey and Cowan, 1935: H27) recounting his difficulty in securing specimens when no suitable traps were at hand, writes: "Killed one with my hands, shot another, and a third was stunned by a mouse trap." Taylor and Shaw (1927: 76) list food eaten by the water rat on Mount Rainier as the avalanche lily, dogtooth violet, _Ligusticum purpureum_, _Valeriana sitchensis_, _Polygonum bistortoides_, _Petasites frigida_, _Phyllodoce empetriformis_, _Potentilla flabellifolia_, _Aster_ sp., grass, wild clover, conifer seeds, two kinds of blueberry (_Vacinnium_) and _Xerophyllum tenax_. Racey and Cowan (1935) list foods eaten in the Cascades of southern British Columbia as _Lupinus polyphyllus_, _Senecio balsamitae_, _Pedicularis bractiosa_ and _Arnica alpinus_. A female from Dewey Lake, Yakima County, contained 4 embryos on September 1, 1940. One from Tye, King County, had 2 embryos on September 8, 1940. =Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides= (Rhoads) _Aulacomys arvicoloides_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 28:182, February, 1894. _Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:62, June 6, 1900. _Type._--Obtained at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington, by A. Rupert in September, 1893. Rhoads gives the altitude as 8,000 ft. This apparently is an error, for the elevation of the lake is 2,458 ft. and the summit of Snoqualmie Pass, to the west, is 3,100 ft. Probably 3,000 ft. was intended; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Racial characters._--Size large; color of upper parts dark reddish brown; underparts paler. [Illustration: FIG. 117. Distribution of the water rat in Washington. A. _Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides._ B. _Microtus richardsoni macropus._] _Measurements._--A female from Tomyhoi Lake, Whatcom County, measured: total length 242; length of tail 68; hind foot 27; ear 17. A female from Tye, King County, measured: 257; 83; 26; 17. _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, from Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.) south to Potato Hill (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 25). =Microtus richardsoni macropus= (Merriam) _Arvicola (Mynomes) macropus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:60, July 30, 1891. _Microtus richardsoni macropus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:61, June 6, 1900. _Microtus richardsonii macropus_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:25, December, 1929. _Type._--Obtained in the Pashimeroi Mountains, 9,700 ft., Custer County, Idaho, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey in 1890; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _arvicoloides_ but slightly smaller and redder. _Measurements._--A female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia County, measures: total length 228; length of tail 73; hind foot 25; ear 14. _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. =Microtus oregoni oregoni= (Bachman) Creeping mouse _Arvicola oregoni_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8:60, 1839. _Microtus oregoni_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 12:9, July 23, 1896. _Microtus morosus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zoöl. ser., 1:227, February 1, 1899 (type from Boulder Lake, 5,000 ft., Clallam County, Washington). _Microtus oregoni oregoni_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:227, December 31, 1912. _Microtus oregoni cantwelli_ Taylor, Jour. Mamm., 1:180, August 24, 1920 (type from Glacier Basin, 5,935 ft., Mt. Rainier, Pierce County, Washington). [Illustration: FIG. 118. Distribution of the creeping mouse, _Microtus oregoni oregoni_, in Washington.] _Type._--Obtained at Astoria, Clatsop County, Oregon, by J. K. Townsend in 1836; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from southwestern Washington, average, respectively: total length 133, 126; length of tail 35, 32; hind foot 16.9, 16.7; ear 9.8, 9.7; weight 19.3, 19.1 grams. _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, the Olympic Mountains, and the lowlands of western Washington. _Remarks._--A large series of topotypes of _Microtus o. oregoni_ in the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, and the rather large series from Cowlitz County, Washington, show a wide range of variation in color, size, and cranial characters. Specimens from the Cascade and Olympic Mountains seem to average a bit paler than topotypes of _oregoni_, but are not worthy of recognition as distinct races. Too few topotypes of _Microtus o. serpens_ from British Columbia are available to judge the status of that race with any certainty, but specimens from northwestern Washington are certainly _oregoni_. _Description._--The creeping mouse is a small species of general microtine form. The head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail about 1-1/2 inches. The ears are small and the eyes tiny, nearly buried in the fur. The fur is short and rather rough. It does not lie back smoothly, thereby giving a woolly appearance. The upper parts are reddish or grayish brown and the underparts are grayish white. The nondescript appearance suggests a young rather than adult mouse. The creeping mouse (subgenus _Chilotus_) is restricted to the Pacific Coast and ranges from British Columbia to California. In Washington it occupies almost every conceivable "mouse" habitat in its range, including wet marshes, damp ravines, dry forest, damp, mossy forest, meadows, alpine meadows and fields of short grass. It is rare in all but the latter habitat. In fields of short or dry grass it is often abundant. In the Cascade Mountains it was in relatively dry places along streams or rock slides. Altitudinally it ranges from sea level to at least 6,000 feet, and from the Humid Transition well into the Hudsonian life-zones. Creeping mice construct tiny tunnels among the grass roots and seldom venture out of them. In suitable habitat the surface of the ground beneath the grass is a maze of these tunnels, which cross, intersect, and divide in a complex network. An observer standing in a field occupied by creeping mice can scarcely conceive of the extent and perfection of the tiny tunnel system at his feet. Creeping mice lived but a day or two in captivity. Save for the bits of grass blades left in their runways, little is known of their food or other life habits. Their nests are round balls of dry grasses placed in cavities under logs. None of the many examined possessed a lining of softer materials. Embryos found in pregnant females from April 10 to May 18 numbered from 2 to 4. =Lagurus curtatus pauperrimus= (Cooper) Sagebrush vole _Arvicola pauperrima_ Cooper, Amer. Nat., 2:535, December, 1868. _Arvicola pauperrimus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:64, July 30, 1891. _L[agurus]. pauperrimus_ Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, 9:401, April, 1912. _Microtus pauperrimus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:214, August 29, 1936. _Lemmiscus pauperrimus_ Davis, Recent Mamm. Idaho, Caxton Printers, p. 327, April 5, 1939. _Lemmiscus curtatus pauperrimus_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 54:70, July 31, 1941. _Type._--Obtained on the "Plains of the Columbia" near the Snake River, southwestern Washington by J. G. Cooper on October 9, 1860. Probably from the Bunchgrass Hills near Wallula (Old Fort Walla Walla), Walla Walla County: type in United States National Museum. _Measurements._--Bailey (1900: 69) gives the average of 3 adults from the vicinity of Antelope, Oregon, as: total length 115; length of tail 20; hind foot 16. _Distribution._--Known in Washington only from the type and a specimen from Badger Mountains, 8 miles southwest of Waterville (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 25). _Remarks._--This rare vole is the smallest microtine rodent in Washington. The head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail about 1 inch. The upper parts are grayish or yellowish brown and the underparts grayish. The upper incisors are not grooved and the inner and outer angles of the molars are about equal in length. Mice of the genus _Lagurus_ occur in Siberia and in prairie areas of the northwestern United States and Canada. The sagebrush vole inhabits the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. It prefers upland areas of low sagebrush with sparse grass. Poorly formed runways and small piles of feces indicate its presence. The type of _Lagurus pauperrimus_ was obtained in southwestern Washington 80 years ago, and a single additional record has since been obtained. Nothing is known of its habits in Washington. The life history of related forms has been reported on by Hall (1928: 201-204) from Nevada and Moore (1943: 188-191) from Oregon. Davis (1939: 326) raised the subgenus _Lemmiscus_ Thomas (for American forms) to generic rank and Goldman (1941: 69) accepted this usage. Comparison of the Siberian and American species reveals but three impressive differences: the dorsal stripe of the Siberian mice, the greater development of prisms in the molars of the American species, and the presence of cement in the angles of the molars of the Siberian specimens and its lack in the American. These differences seem to be of no more than subgeneric value. Goldman (1941: 69) showed that all American _Lagurus_ belong to a single species. =Ondatra zibethicus= (Linnaeus) Muskrat _Description._--The muskrat is a large aquatic rodent. Head and body measure about 14 inches; the tail about 10 inches. The body is plump and the head small. Eyes and ears are relatively small. The forefeet are small and handlike with furred wrists. The hind feet are large with webbed toes and naked wrists. The tail is narrow, constricted at the base and flattened vertically. It is scaled and possesses scattered, stiff hairs. The underfur is dense and soft. The guard hair is stiff and shiny. The upper parts are rich, dark brown. The underparts are gray washed with cinnamon. [Illustration: FIG. 119. Muskrat (_Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis_), male, Lake Washington, Seattle, October 13, 1939; weight 906 grams on November 4, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 736.)] Muskrats are found in Canada and the United States. They are lowland animals, rarely ranging into the Canadian Life-zone. Their aquatic habitat makes them relatively independent of temperature, and consequently they occur in both the Transition and Upper Sonoran life-zones. The muskrat is well adapted to aquatic life. The toes of the large hind feet are webbed at the base, the hind feet are turned slightly outward, a fringe of stiff bristles at the rear edge of each foot furnishes additional aid in swimming, and the laterally compressed tail makes it an efficient rudder. In the water the surface of the fur flattens down to entrap air in the dense underfur, keeping the body dry. The typical habitat of the muskrat is slow-moving water or still water, such as in lakes, ponds, marshes and sluggish rivers and streams. Muskrats occur commonly, though not in large numbers, in more swiftly moving streams. In Puget Sound and the San Juan Islands they occupy a marine habitat. In the extensive marshes along Lake Washington, King County, muskrats are abundant. They occupy sluggish water, often water polluted by garbage and sewage. In these marshes, banks suitable for the construction of burrows are absent and houses are made of cattail stalks and leaves. The food of these marsh-living muskrats consists principally of cattail and other marsh vegetation. In contrast to the marsh-occupying muskrats, muskrats along the open, marsh-free shores of the lake live in deep clear water where waves lap the shore. These muskrats live exclusively in burrows dug in the banks and feed upon fresh-water mussels. In still greater contrast were muskrats living 20 miles away, near Cottage Lake, King County. Here we found them in small clear streams, 4 to 10 feet wide. Depth of the water varied from a few inches to three feet. The streams flowed through meadows, pastures and junglelike, deciduous woods. Muskrats were slightly more common along wooded stretches than in open areas. Some were trapped where the streams flowed at high velocity over shallow, gravel bottoms. The animals lived in burrows and fed upon fresh-water mussels and a variety of plants. Near Richmond Beach, Snohomish County, muskrats took up residence in a small tidal pool along Puget Sound. The nearest fresh water stream large enough to support a muskrat was two miles away. Two muskrats were trapped here. Investigation of a tidal pool a mile to the north disclosed unmistakable muskrat signs. Traps set in the culvert connecting the pool with Puget Sound at high tide took several specimens. Study showed that the muskrats were not living in the pool but among the large boulders forming the breakwater for the Great Northern Railroad, along the sound itself. They were feeding on marine mussels (_Mytilus_). These mussels lived in the salt water of the sound, not in the tidal pool. At Peavine Pass, Blakely Island, in the San Juan Islands, muskrats were living in the swift tidal current and deep, marine waters. Several were seen in late afternoon. All were swimming parallel to the shore about 50 feet out. Here also they fed on _Mytilus_, but their homes were not discovered. Certainly they were not living in the tidal pool at Flat Point, a half-mile away. In the interior of Blakely Island a colony of muskrats was discovered living in a marsh of about one acre. In the rainy season the ground of the marsh was covered with less than one inch of water. Residents said that in the dry season springs kept the ground moist. Muskrats were living in burrows whose entrances descended at a 45-degree angle and were filled with water. The ground about some occupied burrows was dry, the only water visible being in the burrow itself. A variety of marsh vegetation provided food. [Illustration: FIG. 120. Distribution of the muskrat in Washington. A. _Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis._ B. _Ondatra zibethicus occipitalis._] Burrows of muskrats always have entrances under water. Usually they enter a vertical bank 6 to 15 inches below water line and occasionally 3 feet below it. About half the burrows excavated near Lake Washington, King County, had a single entrance. About 40 per cent had double or triple entrances situated 2 to 3 feet apart and converging within a yard to a single burrow. About 10 per cent had double burrows more than 3 feet in length. Burrows were from 5 to 8 inches in diameter. Nest chambers were from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, spherical, and from 6 to 30 feet from the burrow entrance. The nests themselves were bulky, loose masses of cattail leaves. Embryos found in late February and early March numbered 4 to 8. Because it is abundant, widely spread and easy to trap, the muskrat is one of the most important fur bearers in the state. The fur is relatively stable in value. In recent years the average skin has brought the trapper slightly less than a dollar. Muskrat flesh is eaten and sold on the market in the eastern United States but has never been popular in Washington. The muskrat does little damage to agriculture, most complaints arising from its burrows which interfere with irrigation ditches. =Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis= (Lord) _Fiber osoyoosensis_ Lord, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 97, 1863. _F[iber]. z[ibethicus]. osoyoosensis_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 23:1, February 2, 1910. _Ondatra zibethica osoyoosensis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:231, December 31, 1912. _Type._--Obtained at Osoyoose Lake, British Columbia, on British Columbia-Washington boundary at head of Okanogan River, by J. K. Lord, in 1861 or 1862. _Racial characters._--Color of the upper parts rich, dark brown. _Measurements._--Two males and a female from Seattle, King County, average and measure respectively: total length 565, 555; length of tail 262, 257; hind foot 80.5, 79; weight 2 pounds 13 ounces and 2 pounds 3 ounces. _Distribution._--Eastern Washington generally and all but the southern part of western Washington. Specimens from as far southwest as Tenino (W.W.D.) are typical of _osoyoosensis_. =Ondatra zibethicus occipitalis= (Elliot) _Fiber occipitalis_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 74, zoöl. ser., 3:162, April, 1903. _Ondatra zibethica occipitalis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:231, December 31, 1912. _Type._--Obtained at Florence, Lane County, Oregon, by E. Heller, in 1901; type in Chicago Natural History Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _osoyoosensis_ but redder; fur shorter and interpterygoid spaces of skull narrower. _Measurements._--A male from Chinook, Pacific County, measures: total length 580; length of tail 248; hind foot 78; ear 21; weight 863 grams. _Distribution._--The southwestern corner of the state, extending north to Aberdeen (V.B.S.) and east to Cathlamet (V.B.S.). =Rattus rattus= (Linnaeus) Roof rat _Description._--Size large, total length approximately 400 mm.; tail long, naked, comprising 50 per cent or more of total length; color sooty black or brown; in brown phase, whitish beneath. The roof rat became established in Central America some 350 years ago, and entered the United States (English Colonies) late in the seventeenth century. Subsequent to the introduction of the Norway rat the roof rat decreased in numbers and is now found only in restricted areas. =Rattus rattus rattus= (Linnaeus) _[Mus] rattus_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (ed. 10):61, 1758. _Rattus rattus_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:126, June 6, 1916. _Type._--From Uppsala, Sweden. _Remarks._--In Washington I have taken specimens of the roof rat in the San Juan Islands and in the coniferous forests on the west slope of the Cascades. In the latter area it seems to be widely spread and to live in the wild. =Rattus rattus alexandrinus= (Geoffroy) _Mus alexandrinus_ Geoffroy, Catal. Mam. du Mus. Nat. d'Hist. Nat. Paris, p. 192, 1803. _R[attus]. rattus alexandrinus_ Hinton, Jour. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 26:63, December 20, 1918. _Type._--From Alexandria, Egypt. _Remarks._--This subspecies seems to be rare in Washington. My specimens are all from small, isolated islands in the San Juan group. All were taken in the vicinity of human habitations. _R. r. alexandrinus_ resembles _R. r. rattus_, differing only in brown color of upper parts. =Rattus norvegicus norvegicus= (Erxleben) Norway rat _[Mus] norvegicus_ Erxleben, Syst. Regni Anim., 1:381, 1777. _Rattus norvegicus_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 29:126, June 6, 1916. _Type._--From Norway. _Description._--Larger, heavier-bodied and coarser-furred than the black rat or roof rat with shorter, heavier tail. The tail is less than 50 per cent of the total length. The color of the back is dull, reddish brown, the sides are paler and the underparts are dirty gray. _Remarks._--The Norway rat was absent from the Pacific Coast of the United States before 1851. It probably reached the coast slightly after that date. It is common about all large cities in Washington. In the western part of the state it lives along streams and marshes under feral conditions. =Mus musculus= Linnaeus, subsp? House mouse _[Mus] musculus_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (ed. 10):62, 1758. _Description._--Size small; tail about 50 per cent of total length, naked; ears small, about 12 mm. in height; upper incisors not grooved; color of upper parts reddish or grayish brown; underparts brown or gray. _Remarks._--The house mouse became established in North America soon after its settlement by Europeans. It is now common throughout the state of Washington, principally near human habitations, but often lives in the wild. Races of the house mouse have been dealt with by Schwartz and Schwartz (1943: 59-72), and by Nichols (1944: 82-89), but lack of adequate material prevents subspecific identification of house mice from Washington at this time. =Aplodontia rufa= (Rafinesque) Mountain beaver _Description._--The mountain beaver is a stout-bodied animal about 14 inches in length, with a tiny tail that is almost invisible externally. The head is large, wide and low with small eyes, small ears and long vibrissae. The legs are short and heavy, but the forefeet are small and handlike; the hind feet are large and powerful. The claws of both forefeet and hind feet are long and strong. The pelage is short, coarse and rough. The upper parts are dark reddish brown and the underparts are grayish brown. The feet are pink. [Illustration: FIG. 121. Mountain beaver (_Aplodontia rufa rufa_), Seattle, Washington, March 19, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 919.)] Mountain beavers are confined to the Pacific Coast and range from southern British Columbia to central California. The genus contains a single species of which Taylor (1918) recognized nine races. The principal habitat of the mountain beaver is clearings at the edge of coniferous forests. The animals are most abundant near springs, streams and damp places, although they are not aquatic. The tangled jungles of deciduous trees and shrubs that grow in the ravines and stream valleys of the Puget Sound area present optimum habitat. They occur also on hillsides, on logged-off land and along roadside clearings. In the mountains they occur in thickets and forests, always, in our experience, near streams. The most conspicuous evidence of the presence of mountain beavers is their burrows. These are large tunnels, four to eight inches in diameter. To each set of tunnels there are numerous entrances, some partly concealed in brush or beside logs or stumps, and some are in the open. Those in the open are less used as entrances than as places for receiving the loose earth which the animals excavate. A pile may contain nearly a cubic yard of earth and stones. Many of the burrows are shallow, and cave-ins are common. Breaks in the roof of a burrow are not repaired, although debris is removed from the burrow itself. The burrows seem not to be constructed according to a system, but are extended to take in whatever brush, logs or other cover is available. They are commonly dug through damp or muddy soil. Small streams flow through some burrows. Such partly flooded runs seem to be favored by the animals. The nest of a mountain beaver excavated by Scheffer (1929: 15), under the roots of a fallen tree, was oval in shape, twenty inches high and 13 inches wide. The nest was protected from flooding by a basal chamber, or basin, six inches beneath the nest. Two drainage tunnels lead away from this basal chamber. The nest was composed of the leaves and stems of bracken laced together with grass and fine twigs. Two other nests examined by Scheffer measured 17 by 18 inches and 19 by 17 inches. Both were about two feet beneath the surface. Around Puget Sound the mountain beavers mate in early March. The young number two to three, rarely four, per litter and are born in early April. Mountain beavers enter water readily but wade rather than swim. They are rather noisy, splashing in water and breaking twigs or rustling leaves on the ground. They climb bushes and saplings, clipping off branches for food as they ascend. According to Scheffer (1929: 15) they leave the stubs of branches attached to the trunk to facilitate their descent. Twice a mountain beaver was found several feet up in a sapling. In both saplings the animal had clipped the branches close to the trunk and was desperately reaching with its hind feet for missing branches. When the observer came near, one animal squealed, tumbled to the ground, and scurried frantically to its burrow. Although principally nocturnal, mountain beavers are not infrequently active by day, especially in the fall. At this season they harvest food and spread it on logs to dry. The cured hay is removed to their burrows for nesting material and food. In winter mountain beavers are more restricted in habits and are rarely seen by day. Presumably they feed on stored food at this time but they forage somewhat. In winter they eat such evergreen shrubs as salal (_Gaultheria shallon_) and Oregon grape (_Berberis nervosa_). They eat also the bark of trees, especially that of the willow (_Salix_). Under cover of snow, in the mountains, they burrow to some extent and pack excavated earth in snow burrows. The melting of the snow in the spring reveals the earth core, six to eight inches in diameter and two to four feet long. Several such earth cores were forked, showing that part of the earth had been pushed into a branching burrow. [Illustration: FIG. 122. Distribution of the mountain beaver in Washington. A. _Aplodontia rufa rufa._ B. _Aplodontia rufa rainieri._] The mountain beaver holds its food in its forefeet, squirrel-like, when it eats. Its food consists of the leaves and bark of woody plants and entire herbs, including roots. The mountain beaver is the only mammal so far as known that eats the bracken fern. It feeds on the branches of coniferous trees, including Douglas fir, red cedar, and hemlock. Such thorny species as the blackberry, blackcap and devil's club are eaten. The odiferous skunk cabbage and the stinging nettle are on its bill of fare. A list of its food would include most plants found in its habitat, and we know of no species that it refuses as food. The mountain beaver is more of a nuisance than a pest. In most of its range there is but little farming although where crops are raised the mountain beaver may do some damage. It undermines roads and trails and defiles springs and streams. Control is simple for the animals readily enter steel traps set in their burrows. =Aplodontia rufa rufa= (Rafinesque) _Anisonyx? rufa_ Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag., 2:45, November, 1817. _Haplodon rufus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):596, 1885. _Aplodontia rufa_ Merriam, Ann. New York Acad. Sci., 3:316, May, 1886. _Aplodontia olympica_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:20, January 31, 1899 (type from Lake Quiniault, Grays Harbor County, Washington). _Aplodontia rufa grisea_ Taylor, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 12:497, May 6, 1916 (type from Renton, King County, Washington). _Aplodontia rufa rufa_ Taylor, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 12:497, May 6, 1916. _Type._--None. Based on a description by Lewis and Clark. Taylor (1918: 455) regarded as typical specimens collected at "Marmot, Clackamas County, Oregon (western slope of Mount Hood, not far from the Columbia River)." _Racial characters._--Size small; skull small. _Measurements._--Eight males and 7 females, from the area about Puget Sound, average, respectively: total length 343, 338; length of tail 37.5, 33.5; hind foot 57.8, 56; ear 25, 24.5; weight 1342, 1300 grams. _Distribution._--Western Washington, between Puget Sound and the Cascade Mountains and southward. Marginal localities are: Bellingham (U.S.N.M.), Sauk (U.S.N.M.), Forks of Skykomish River (W.W.D.), North Bend (U.S.N.M.), and mouth of Klama River (M.V.Z.). _Remarks._--Individual variation in mountain beavers is considerable. Two weakly defined races are recognized in Washington. =Aplodontia rufa rainieri= Merriam _Aplodontia major rainieri_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:21, January 31, 1899. _[Haplodontia rufa] raineri_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 45, zoöl. ser., 2:112, 1901. _[Aplodontia rufa] raineri_ Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv. foss., suppl. p. 348, 1904. _Aplodontia rufa columbiana_ Taylor, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 12:499, 1916 (type from Hope, British Columbia). _Type._--Obtained at Paradise Creek, 5, 200 ft., Mount Rainier, Pierce County, Washington, by V. Bailey on August 6, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _rufa_ but larger with larger skull. _Measurements._--Three males and a female from Tye, King County, average and measure respectively: total length 352, 340; length of tail 35, 40; hind foot 60, 59; ear 24, 19. _Distribution._--The higher Cascade Mountains from the Columbia River northward to the Canadian boundary. Marginal localities are: Canyon Creek (U.S.N.M.), Cascade Pass (U.S.N.M.), Tye (W.W.D.), Mt. Rainier (U.S.N.M.), Mt. St. Helens (U.S.N.M.), and Yacolt (M.V.Z.). _Remarks._--Intergradation between _rufa_ and _raineri_ is seen in specimens from the area between Stevens Pass and Skykomish, King County. =Zapus princeps= Allen Big jumping mouse [Illustration: FIG. 123. Big jumping mouse (_Zapus princeps trinotatus_) in hibernation. Puyallup, Washington, January 30, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 576.)] _Description._--The big jumping mouse is a medium-sized mouse, slightly larger than the house mouse, with an exceptionally long, tapering tail. Head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail about 5 inches. The body is slender with a small head, small eyes and small, naked ears. The forefeet are small and handlike but the hind feet are large with long, powerful legs. The long, naked tail is smoothly tapering to a narrow point. The fur is short, posteriorly directed, stiff and bristlelike. The dorsal area is dusky, the sides are orange or yellow, and the underparts are creamy white. Each upper incisor tooth has a groove on its anterior face. Jumping mice are boreal mammals occurring in wooded regions ranging from the Arctic region southward to North Carolina, New Mexico and California. Jumping mice are of rather general distribution in Washington, being only locally common. They are partial to damp, boggy areas but avoid true swamps. They occur in clearings in the forests in the Puget Sound area and in meadows in river bottoms and in jungles in ravines. They reach their greatest abundance in the boggy meadows and glacial cirques of the mountains and spread out from such areas to seemingly less favored habitat on dryer slopes and heather meadows. Unlike many species, they do not seem to inhabit talus slides. They are entirely absent from the eastern Washington desert. Sometimes the jumping mouse walks on all four feet but the ordinary means of progression is by short hops on the hind feet alone. When startled they travel in great bounds, covering six feet or more at a jump. When jumping they make considerable noise, swishing or rustling through the grass and landing with an audible thud. The long tail serves as a balancing organ. A specimen whose tail had been lost was reported by Svihla and Svihla (1933: 133) to turn somersaults in the air and invariably to land on its back rather than its feet. Jumping mice become very fat and hibernate in middle summer or early fall. In the lowlands they disappear by late July but in the mountains they remain active until the middle of September. They spend the winter in nests of grass several feet beneath the surface. A hibernating individual figured by Flahaut (1939: 17) was curled in a ball, head down with the tail wrapped completely around the greatest circumference of the ball. Near Seattle the principal food of the jumping mouse was the velvet grass (_Holchus lanatus_), and the seeds of grasses and the broad-leaved dock. The fruit of the blackberry (_Rubus macropetalus_) is eaten and occasional individuals are seen with the chin stained a deep purple from the juice. The new-born young of the jumping mouse were reported by Svihla and Svihla (1933: 132) to average 0.8 grams in weight. They are pink, hairless, lacking even the facial vibrissae, with eyes closed and ears folded. =Zapus princeps trinotatus= Rhoads _Zapus trinotatus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1894, p. 421, January 15, 1895. _Zapus imperator_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zoöl. ser., 1:228, February 1, 1899 (type from Sieg's Ranch, Elwha River, Olympic Mountains, Clallam County, Washington). _Type._--Obtained on Lulu Island, mouth of Fraser River, British Columbia, by S. N. Rhoads on May 31, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Racial characters._--Similar to _oregonus_ but brighter; sides orange; underparts creamy white; buffy area often present on chest. _Measurements._--Twenty males and 15 females from western Washington average, respectively: total length 230, 233; length of tail 140, 140; hind foot 33, 32.8; ear 14.9, 16.3; weight 23.7, 25.7 grams. _Distribution._--Western Washington and the Cascade Mountains, east in the northern Cascades at least to Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.). _Remarks._--Actual intergrades between _trinotatus_ and _kootenayensis_ have not been examined but the differences separating the two forms are of the degree that usually distinguish subspecies. Since _trinotatus_ occurs in the high Cascades as far east as Mount Baker, at least, and _kootenayensis_ probably occurs in the northeastern Cascades, the two forms doubtless come together in the rugged, inaccessible area between these two localities. Further collecting will probably show a narrow zone of intergradation in extreme western Okanogan County. [Illustration: FIG. 124. Distribution of the big jumping mouse in Washington. A. _Zapus princeps oregonus._ B. _Zapus princeps idahoensis._ C. _Zapus princeps kootenayensis._ D. _Zapus princeps trinotatus._] =Zapus princeps kootenayensis= Anderson _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_ Anderson, Ann. Rept. Nat. Mus. Canada for 1931, p. 108, November 24. 1932. _Type._--Obtained on Green Mountain, 6,000 ft., 10 miles north of Rossland, West Kootenay District, British Columbia, by R. M. Anderson, on July 18, 1929; type in National Museum of Canada. _Racial characters._--Similar to _oregonus_ but paler; yellow more faded. _Measurements._--Twenty females, including 15 topotypes, average (Anderson, 1932: 109): total length 245; length of tail 140; hind foot 30.5. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington. Specimens from Sullivan Lake (E.S.B.) have been examined. =Zapus princeps idahoensis= Davis _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ Davis, Jour. Mamm., 15:221, August 10, 1934. _Type._--Obtained 5 miles east of Warm Lake, 7,000 feet elevation, Valley County, Idaho, by W. B. Davis; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Similar to _kootenayensis_ but brighter in color, more ochraceous. Similar to _oregonus_ but paler, more yellowish. _Measurements._--Davis (1939:339) gives the measurements of six adult topotypes as: total length 240; length of tail 144; hind foot 31. _Distribution._--A single specimen in the Charles R. Conner Museum from Kamiak Butte, Whitman County, is referable to this race. =Zapus princeps oregonus= Preble _Zapus princeps oregonus_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna. 15:24, August 8, 1899. _Type._--Obtained at Elgin, Union County, Oregon, by E. A. Preble, on May 29, 1896; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Small size, pale color. _Measurements._--Three males and 3 females from the Blue Mountains average, respectively: total length 233, 234; length of tail 138, 139; hind foot 31.8, 31.8; ear 16, 16; weight 29, 33 grams. _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. =Erethizon dorsatum= (Linnaeus) Porcupine _Description._--The porcupine is one of the largest rodents found in Washington, being exceeded in size only by the beaver. Its body is heavy and stocky, its legs short, its tail long and thick and its eyes small. It is best known for the modified hairs, or quills, of its tail and dorsal area. These vary in greatest diameter from one-sixteenth to three-sixteenths of an inch and from three-quarters of an inch to five inches in length. They are ivory-white with black tips. In addition to quills, the porcupine possesses wooly, black underfur and long, banded guard hair. The bands of the guard hairs are black and yellow, varying in width. Commonly they are of a single color, black, yellow or brown. Porcupines range over virtually all wooded parts of North America north of Mexico, in and above the Transition Life-zone. The Canadian porcupines have been studied by Anderson and Rand (1943A) and intergradation between the eastern _dorsatum_ and the western _epixanthum_ has been shown. The porcupines are commonly considered to be forest animals. However, they are rather rare in the denser coniferous forests. In the more open areas on the Cascade Mountains, especially on the eastern slopes, they are not uncommon. They are rather common in the coniferous forests of northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains. They seem to be rather common also in desert areas at the southern edge of the Columbian Plateau. The huge incisors of the porcupine are adapted to feeding on bark. They do feed on bark to a certain extent in Washington, but it is my observation that more herbs and bushes are eaten than bark. In areas where porcupines are common, trees are commonly girdled, usually close to the top. Trees girdled in this manner in the Kettle River Mountains included western larch, ponderosa pine, and grand fir. The tops of some trees were killed. The ordinary walking gait of the porcupine is a slow deliberate walk in which he appears to waddle somewhat. They can increase their speed to a slow trot. They are slow, deliberate climbers, ascending and descending trees with head upward. They are able also to climb rocks and cliffs, sometimes being seen on the tops of large boulders. Despite their large size, porcupines are not commonly seen. They are mainly nocturnal and, in the daytime, find concealment high in the branches of some conifer or a cave between the rocks in a talus slide. While encamped near Sherman Creek Pass in the Kettle River Mountains my companion and I heard a crunching of gravel from the road fifty feet away. We listened intently, wondering what person would be abroad in the mountains at midnight. In the vicinity of our car, concealed from our view by trees, the noise stopped, to be followed a few minutes later by a rasping and clattering that could be heard far away. We raced to the car to discover a large porcupine crouched on the running board by a pile of "pick-up" antlers of the white-tailed deer left there by us. The "porkie" had been chewing on these, heedless of the noise made by the loose antlers clashing against the metal side of the car. [Illustration: FIG. 125. Distribution of the porcupine, _Erethizon epixanthum_ in Washington. Boundaries between ranges of subspecies are uncertain.] In Washington the single young is born late in May or early in June. There are two pairs of mammae, both pectoral, of which only the anterior are functional. =Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum= Brandt _Erethizon epixanthus_ Brandt, Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, ser. 6, 3 (Sci. Nat. vol. =1=): 390, 1835. _Erethizon dorsatus epixanthus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:600, 1885. _Erethizon epixanthum epixanthum_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:437, April 29, 1924. _Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum_ Anderson and Rand, Canadian Jour. Research, 21:293, September 24, 1943. _Type._--None. Type locality California. _Racial characters._--Size large, total length of adults approximately 30 inches; tail long (nearly one-third of total length), thick, heavy and spiny; body stout; legs short; claws long and curved; ears and eyes small; body spines short, thick and most abundant on posterior part of back, longer and more slender on sides and shoulders; guard hairs of shoulders and sides long, almost concealing spines; fur of underparts shorter; color variable, brown, black or yellow. In winter the fur is longer and woolly, concealing spines. _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau and the Blue Mountains. _Remarks._--Anderson and Rand (1943A: 295) ascribe two races to Washington. With inadequate material myself to verify this ascription. I think it probable that the northern forest porcupine and the Great Basin animal are racially different. In consequence the available names, _nigrescens_ and _epixanthum_, are here applied, pending a revision of the entire genus. =Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens= Allen _Erethizon epixanthus nigrescens_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 19:558, October 10, 1903. _Erethizon epixanthum nigrescens_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:437, April 29, 1924. _Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens_ Anderson and Rand, Canadian Jour. Research, 21:293, September 24, 1943. _Type._--Obtained on the Shesley River, British Columbia, by M. P. Anderson on August 23, 1902; type in American Museum of Natural History. _Measurements._--A female from Sherman Creek Pass, Ferry County, measured: total length 770; length of tail 250; hind foot 95; ear 37. A female from Tye, King County, measured: 930; 280; 125; weight 20 pounds. _Distribution._--Forested parts of the state, exclusive of the Blue Mountains. _Remarks._--Porcupines are extremely rare west of the Cascades but are occasionally reported from as far west as the Olympic Peninsula. =Myocastor coypus= (Molina) subsp? Coypu, nutria _Mus coypus_ Molina, Sagg. Stor. Nat. Chili, p. 287, 1782. _Myocastor coypus_ Kerr, Anim. Kingd., p. 225, 1792. _Type locality._--Chile. _Description._--Size large, slightly smaller than a beaver; color rich, reddish brown; tail long, round; hind feet webbed for swimming. _Remarks._--The nutria, a native of South America, has been brought to the United States and raised commercially on "fur farms." The species has become established in the wild in several localities in western Washington and at the Colville Indian Reservation in northeastern Washington. For further details see Larrison (1943). =Ochotona princeps= (Richardson) Pika or cony _Description._--The pika is of guinea-pig size, with a short, chunky body about 200 mm. in length. The tail is represented externally merely by a tuft of white fur. The short, wide head has large, circular ears, large black eyes, and long whiskers. The legs are short and the soles of the feet are furred. The color of the Washington races varies from grayish-yellow to dark reddish brown. Like rabbits, all pikas have two pairs of upper incisors. The second pair, located just in back of the first, is small and delicate. _Ochotona_ is a wide-ranging genus with many more species in Asia and extreme eastern Europe than in North America. Three races of the species _princeps_ occur in the state of Washington, where they are confined to the Cascade, Kettle River, and Pend Oreille Mountains. The ranges of all three races extend northward into British Columbia; one (_brunnescens_) occurs also in Oregon, and one (_cuppes_) in Idaho. In Washington pikas live only in talus slides and rock piles, where they find refuge from most of the carnivores that prey on small mammals. Their distribution in the state seems to be regulated by the distribution of talus slides, and areas free of talus act as effective barriers to pikas. They are abundant throughout the Cascades but are absent from the Olympic Mountains although conditions there are well suited to them. Probably the lowlands of western Washington which, owing to moderate temperature and low relief, have little talus and exposed rock, serve as a barrier. The Columbian Plateau is also free of pikas. This may be due to the relative scarcity of talus as compared with mountainous areas, and the fact that much of the talus on the Plateau is composed of fragments of basalt too small to afford the shelter needed by pikas. The aridity of the Columbian Plateau may contribute to the absence of pikas, although this seems unlikely in view of the fact that they occur on arid lands in Nevada and elsewhere. Altitudinally, pikas range from 300 feet, in Clark County, to 6,000 feet on Mt. Rainier, Pierce County, and on Round Top Mountain, Pend Oreille County. They occur from the arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone, at Milk Creek, Kittitas County, to the upper edge of the Hudsonian Life-zone, at Glacier Basin, Mt. Rainier. Generally speaking, they are mammals of the mountains. Common enemies of the pikas are the weasel (_Mustela frenata_), marten (_Martes caurina_), and hawks of several species. Pikas are active by day, especially in the early morning. Their call note is a short "eek!" which carries a long distance. This squeaking note is often heard throughout the night when rain threatens their drying hay. [Illustration: FIG. 126. Distribution of the pika in Washington. A. _Ochotona princeps brunnescens._ B. _Ochotona princeps fenisex._ C. _Ochotona princeps cuppes._] Vegetation used as food, either for immediate consumption or for winter use, includes almost all grasses, vines, shrubs, and trees available near the pika's home. The subalpine lupines are especially favored. Even such a thorny growth as the devil's club (_Oplopanax horridum_) is eaten. Heather (_Phyllodoce, Cassiope_) has not been found in any of the numerous hay piles examined, even when it is the commonest plant in the vicinity. Large bundles of plants are carried in the pika's mouth. The forefeet do not assist in transporting the load. If intended for immediate consumption, the plants are deposited on one of last year's hay piles and are eaten at leisure. The eating habits of the pika are rabbitlike. A large leaf is seized at the tip and drawn into the mouth with rapid chewing motions without assistance from the forefeet. Plants destined to become hay are carefully spread out and exposed to the sun. In cloudy or rainy weather the exposed plants are gathered and stored under large rocks, to be reëxposed for curing when the weather improves. Large hay piles often include more than fifty pounds of perfectly cured grasses, annuals, bushes and evergreens. No record of embryos is available for Washington pikas, but a male with enlarged testes was taken at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, on March 22, 1940. Half-grown young of _fenisex_ were taken at Sawtooth Mountain, Skamania County, on July 13, 1939, and of _brunnescens_ at Slate Creek, Whatcom County, on August 16, 1937. Nearly full-grown young of _fenisex_ are reported taken at Bald Mountain, head of Ashnola River, Okanogan County, on September 16, 1920. Young _cuppes_ of several sizes were taken at Sherman Creek Pass, Ferry County, on September 11, 1938. The breeding season possibly extends from March to August with a tendency to be earlier at lower elevations. =Ochotona princeps cuppes= Bangs _Ochotona cuppes_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:40, June 5, 1899. _Ochotona princeps cuppes_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:27, August 21, 1924. _Type._--Obtained by Allan Brooks at the Monashee Divide, 4,000 feet, Gold Range, British Columbia, on August 2, 1897; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Smallest and palest of the Washington pikas; total length less than 8 inches; color of upper parts grayish-yellow, grayest on posterior third of back; underparts pale buff; skull small, but with relatively wide zygomatic and interorbital regions. _Measurements._--Eight males and 3 females from Round Top Mountain, Pend Oreille County, average, respectively: total length 183.5, 181.5; hind foot 30.7, 31.0; ear 22.4, 23.7; one adult male from the same locality weighed 141.6 grams. _Distribution._--This pika has been found at Round Top Mountain (W.W.D.) and Pass Creek Pass (W.W.D.) in northeastern Washington. =Ochotona princeps fenisex= Osgood _Lagomys minimus_ Lord, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 98, 1863 (not of Schinz, 1821). _Ochotona minimus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:39, June 5, 1899. _Ochotona fenisex_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:80, March 22, 1913 (substitute for _minimus_ Lord). _Ochotona princeps fenisex_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:28, August 21, 1924. _Type._--Obtained by J. K. Lord at "Ptarmigan Hill," near head of Ashnola River, Cascade Range, British Columbia, in early fall of 1860 (?); type in British Museum. _Racial characters._--Size and color intermediate between _brunnescens_ and _cuppes_; length about 8 inches; color of upper parts near Pinkish Cinnamon, becoming gray on posterior third of back; underparts washed with buff; skull of medium size and proportions. _Measurements._--Nine males and 5 females from Okanogan and Chelan counties average, respectively: total length 190.0, 197.4; hind foot 31.1, 32.8; ear 21.6, 22.0. _Distribution._--Specimens referable to this race occur from the British Columbian boundary south, through the eastern Cascade Mountains. Along the western border of its range, _fenisex_ becomes larger and darker, merging into the race _brunnescens_. Marginal records are: Hidden Lakes (U.S.N.M.), Lyman Lake (U.S.N.M.), Mt. Stuart (W.W.D.), Easton (U.S.N.M.), Mt. Aix (U.S.N.M.), Steamboat Mt. (M.V.Z.). =Ochotona princeps brunnescens= Howell _Ochotona fenisex brunnescens_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 32:108, May 20, 1919. _Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna. 47:31, August 21, 1924. _Type._--Obtained by George G. Cantwell at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington, on August 23, 1917; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Largest and darkest of the three races of Washington pikas; total length 8 inches or more; color of upper parts rich cinnamon, heavily washed with blackish; posterior part of back slightly paler; underparts buffy cinnamon; skull large and heavy with wide zygomatic arches but relatively narrow interorbital region and relatively narrow across maxillary tooth rows. _Measurements._--Eight males and 9 females from within three miles of Stevens Pass, King and Chelan counties, average, respectively: total length 201.8, 208.3; hind foot 33.3, 33.0; ear 22.3, 22.6. The average weights of 4 males and 3 females from 3 mi. S E Tumtum Mountain, Clark County, are 178.0 and 174.3 grams, respectively. _Distribution._--From the British Columbia boundary south to the Columbia River and from the western Cascades east to the area of intergradation with _fenisex_. Marginal occurrences are: Whatcom Pass (U.S.N.M.), Stevens Pass (W.W.D.), Keechelus (U.S.N.M.), Cowlitz Pass (U.S.N.M.), Tumtum Mountain (M.V.Z.). =Lepus townsendii townsendii= Bachman White-tailed jack rabbit _Lepus townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 (pt. 1):90, pl. 2, 1839. _Lepus campestris townsendi_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:132, July 14, 1904. _Lepus townsendii townsendii_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:70, March 12, 1915. _Type._--Obtained by J. K. Townsend at old Fort Walla Walla (present town of Wallula), Walla Walla County, Washington; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Measurements._--A male from Miller's Island, Klickitat County, in the Columbia River, measured: total length 564; length of tail 117; hind foot 156; ear 110; weight 337.5 grams. _Distribution._--Previously found over the grasslands of eastern Washington. Now restricted and scarce except in the Okanogan Valley. _Remarks._--The white-tailed jack rabbit is the largest rabbit in the state, adults measuring 24 or more inches in length. The long legs and long ears accentuate the impression of large size. Its body is more bulky than that of its relative, the black-tailed jack rabbit. In summer the pelage of the upper parts is dark gray and in winter it is white over nearly the entire body. The white-tailed jack rabbit occurs from southern Saskatchewan south to extreme northern New Mexico, and from eastern Washington east to Wisconsin. A single race occurs in Washington. In eastern Washington "whitetails" favor the hilly, bunchgrass territory of the arid subdivision of the Transition and Upper Sonoran life-zones. In winter they descend to the lower sagebrush valleys. The principal enemies of the white-tailed jack rabbit are the eagle, coyote, and bobcat. Of 1,186 stomachs of coyotes from Washington, Sperry (1941: 11) found that 27 percent contained rabbits, including jack rabbits, snowshoe hares, and cottontails. In the daytime, white-tailed jack rabbits hide in forms which consist of shallow holes dug at the bases of bushes or beside rocks. They feed in the morning, evening, and in the night along wide, well-defined trails through the bunchgrass. If startled from their forms they dash off in bounding, erratic leaps, skimming away until lost to sight. A whitetail has been timed at a speed of 34 miles per hour (Cottam and Williams, 1943: 262). The early explorers and settlers found the white-tailed jack rabbits abundant in eastern Washington. With the invasion and spread of the black-tailed jack rabbit, and the reduction of native bunchgrass through overgrazing by livestock, the whitetail has become rare. In several years of field work on the Columbian Plateau, I saw none. Near Wallula, the type locality, residents had not seen whitetails for years, but thought there might be a few left "back in the hills." There are thought to be a few left near Ellensburg and Yakima. Only in the Okanogan Valley are the whitetails holding their own; they are reasonably common there. In winter they come down from the hills on to the sagebrush flats along the Okanogan River in Okanogan County. In January it is not unusual to see as many as five in a day's drive. When, as will most certainly occur, the black-tailed jack rabbit enters the Okanogan Valley, the splendid whitetail may be expected to disappear from Washington. Because this species has been so reduced in numbers, no distributional map has been included. Taylor and Shaw (1929: 28) give its range as: "north to Oroville, east to Pullman, south to Asotin, Walla Walla, and Kennewick, and west to Lake Chelan (Manson), Yakima Valley, and Klickitat County." This range is similar to that of the Nuttall Cottontail (Fig. 129). =Lepus americanus= Erxleben Snowshoe rabbit _Description._--The appearance, size, and proportions of the snowshoe rabbit are similar to those of the Belgian hare. The body is about 16 inches in length, the ears are midway in size between those of the cottontail and the jack rabbit, and the feet are relatively long and the tail is short. In summer the color of the upper parts is reddish brown, varying with the subspecies. The winter pelage of _Lepus a. washingtonii_ is a slightly paler brown than the summer coat. In the other three races in Washington the winter coat is entirely white, except for the dusky borders of the ears. Snowshoe rabbits occur in Alaska, Canada, and the northern United States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They are absent in desert or prairie regions but range far southward in the United States in mountainous areas. They are found throughout Washington, except on the Columbian Plateau and in the Okanogan River Valley. None of the four races found in Washington is restricted exclusively to the state. Snowshoe rabbits live only in wooded areas. Their habitat varies from dense, impenetrable rain-forests along the ocean to the alpine parks, dotted with trees, of the Hudsonian Life-zone. They occur in humid and arid subdivisions of the Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian life-zones. Altitudinally they range from sea level to 6,000 feet (Mt. Rainier). Enemies of the snowshoe rabbit include the coyote, bobcat, lynx, long-tailed weasel, and great horned owl. Snowshoe rabbits are largely nocturnal or crepuscular in habit. They are secretive and slip away quietly at the least threat of danger. Persons often live for years in localities where snowshoe rabbits are abundant without seeing a live individual. Those that are seen ordinarily have been startled from their forms at midday, or surprised while feeding on clover along a highway in the early morning. More commonly they are seen crossing a road in the lights of an automobile. Tracks, easily found after a fresh snowfall, give some indication of their numbers in any locality. Little information is available on the fluctuations of numbers of snowshoe rabbits in Washington. Floyd Thornton, a trapper living at Forks, Clallam County, states that they were numerous in 1924, scarce in 1930-31, and fairly common in 1938-39. More rabbits are seen shortly after the breeding season than at other times of the year. From April 8-10, 1941, I saw none on a highway extending about 100 miles along the west coast of the Olympic Peninsula, but on June 4-5 here counted 3 dead on the road and saw 3 running across it. One was about one-third grown and another two-thirds grown. [Illustration: FIG. 127. Distribution of the snowshoe hare in Washington. A. _Lepus americanus washingtonii._ B. _Lepus americanus cascadensis._ C. _Lepus americanus columbiensis._ D. _Lepus americanus pineus._] The snowshoe rabbits are classed as game animals in Washington but few people hunt them. Their winter food includes buds and needles of hemlock, Douglas fir, and probably other evergreens. Annuals, grasses, and shrubs, as well as Douglas fir needles, are eaten in the summer. Snowshoe rabbits do some damage by eating the bark of trees and the boughs of newly planted evergreens. Together with rodents they are responsible for serious damage to plantations of Douglas fir and hemlock on the Olympic Peninsula. At least in summer, they are heavily parasitized by fleas and ticks and may in addition carry tularemia, or rabbit fever. Scheffer (1933: 77-78) found that the young were born from May 5 to July 4 in the Puget Sound area and that there were from 2 to 5, usually 5 per litter. =Lepus americanus washingtonii= Baird _Lepus washingtonii_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:333, 1855. [_Lepus americanus_] var. _Washingtoni_ J. A. Allen, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 17:434, February 17, 1875. _Lepus americanus Washingtoni_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:601, 1885. _Type._--Obtained by G. Suckley at Steilacoom, Pierce County, Washington, on April 1, 1854; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--Size small for a snowshoe rabbit; color of upper parts dark, in summer between Sayal Brown and Cinnamon, in winter slightly paler, near Pale Cinnamon Buff (capitalized color terms in the accounts of the lagomorphs are after Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912); underparts white; soles of feet usually stained yellowish, brownish, or blackish. _Measurements._--Two males and 6 females from the Olympic Peninsula average, respectively: total length 407, 402.5; hind foot 114, 119. Weight of a 408 mm. male from the same locality 2-1/4 lbs. _Distribution._--This snowshoe rabbit occupies the humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone of western Washington from the British Columbian boundary south to the Columbia River. Marginal occurrences are (from Dalquest, 1942: 175): Mt. Vernon, Paradise Lake, Lake Kapowsin, and White Salmon. =Lepus americanus cascadensis= Nelson _Lepus bairdi cascadensis_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 20:87, December 11, 1907. _Lepus americanus cascadensis_ Racey and Cowan, Ann. Rept. Provincial Mus. British Columbia, p. H 18, 1935. _Type._--Obtained by W. C. Colt near Hope, British Columbia, on June 12, 1894; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Size medium for a snowshoe rabbit; color of upper parts in summer near Orange Cinnamon; head paler, sharply marked off from body; underparts white. Color in winter: entire body pure white except for dusky borders of ears and eyelids. _Measurements._--Three males and 5 females from Kittitas County, Washington, average, respectively: total length 405, 440; hind foot 124, 133. _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains from the British Columbia boundary south to Mount Adams. Marginal occurrences are: Skykomish (Dalquest, 1942: 177), Vance (Dalquest, 1942: 177) and 7 mi. W Guler (W.W.D.). =Lepus americanus pineus= Dalquest _Lepus americanus pineus_ Dalquest, Jour. Mamm., 23:178, May 14, 1942. _Type._--Obtained by P. G. Putnam at Cedar Mountain (now Moscow Mountain), Latah County, Idaho, on May 29, 1921; type in University of Michigan, Museum of Zoölogy. _Racial characters._--Size small for a snowshoe rabbit; in summer, upper parts Cinnamon Brown, with sides slightly paler and rump patch blackish; color of the head between Sayal Brown and Cinnamon; hips Light Olivaceous Buff; chest-band light Cinnamon; ears blackish, often edged with white. In winter the color of the entire body is white, save for the dusky edges of the ears and the blackish eyelids. The color of the underfur in winter is usually Pale Pinkish Cinnamon, rarely Light Vinaceous Cinnamon or Orange Cinnamon, with the basal portion slaty. _Measurements._--Two males and 5 females, from northeastern Washington, average, respectively: total length 419, 439; hind foot 138.5, 138. The average measurements of 3 males and 7 females from the Blue Mountains are: 407, 422; 128, 131. _Distribution._--The pine forests of the arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone along the eastern border of Washington, in the Blue Mountains, and in the forested parts of northeastern Washington as far west as the Kettle River Range. Western records of occurrence are (Dalquest, 1942: 179): Deep Lake, Colville, Calispel Peak. =Lepus americanus columbiensis= Rhoads _Lepus americanus columbiensis_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 242, June, 1895. _Type._--Obtained by S. N. Rhoads at Vernon, British Columbia, on July 29, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Racial characters._--Size large; color in summer: upper parts near Cinnamon Brown, sides and head slightly paler; top of tail and small rump-patch blackish; chest-band pale Cinnamon Brown; hips light Ochraceous Buff; chin and belly white. _Measurements._--A male from Molson, Okanogan County, measures: total length 435; length of tail 150. A male and a female from Danville, Ferry County, measure, respectively: 460, 430; 150, 142. _Distribution._--Only a small part of the range of this rabbit lies within the state of Washington; the greater part is in British Columbia. In Washington it occupies the timbered areas north of the Columbia River, east of the Okanogan River, and west of the Kettle River Range. Records are (Dalquest, 1942: 182): Molson, Danville and Republic. In the 1942 paper, the latter locality was erroneously listed under _pineus_. =Lepus californicus deserticola= Mearns Black-tailed jack rabbit _Lepus texianus deserticola_ Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 18:564, June 24, 1896. _Lepus texianus wallawalla_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:137, July 14, 1904 (type from Touchet, Walla Walla County, Washington). _Lepus californicus deserticola_ Nelson, N. Amer. Fauna, 29:137, August 31, 1909. _Type._--Obtained at western edge of Colorado desert, Imperial County, California; type in American Museum of Natural History. _Measurements._--Three males and 4 females from Union Gap, Yakima County, average, respectively: total length 538, 539; length of tail 72, 71; hind foot 128, 124; ear 120, 124. Two females from the same locality weighed 5 and 6-1/2 pounds, respectively. _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, southeastern Washington, and the Yakima Valley area. The northernmost locality record is Moses Coulee (W.W.D.). _Remarks._--The blacktail is the commonest jack rabbit of the West. It is larger than the domestic rabbit and its enormous ears, long, gangling legs, and bounding gait make it appear even larger than it really is. Its iron-gray color, black tail and black ear tips match its sagebrush habitat. [Illustration: FIG. 128. Distribution of the black-tailed jack rabbit, _Lepus californicus deserticola_, in Washington.] Black-tailed jack rabbits reach the northern limit of their distribution on the Columbian Plateau of eastern Washington. They extend from Washington south to the Valley of Mexico and from the Pacific Coast east to Missouri (Nelson, 1909: 127). About 20 races are recognized, of which only one is native to Washington. The blacktail is restricted to the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. Seldom is it found far from sagebrush (_Artemisia_) and rabbitbrush (_Chrysothamus_). It is well adapted to desert life, and is able to withstand the bitterly cold winters and hot, dry summers of eastern Washington. Blacktails are active in the evening, night, morning, and cooler parts of the day. In the daytime they crouch in forms consisting of shallow depressions at the bases of shrubs. Blacktails eat the twigs and leaves of sagebrush, rabbitbrush, other desert shrubs, and grasses. They are particularly fond of alfalfa and cultivated crops, of which they destroy great quantities. They are serious pests during periodic years of abundance. Some measure of their abundance may be gained by counting the bodies of jack rabbits killed by cars on well-traveled highways through sagebrush areas. In years of abundance these may number 50 to 100 per mile, while in years of scarcity these may number only one or two. Black-tailed jack rabbits are susceptible to numerous parasites and diseases including tularemia. Diseased rabbits are especially noticeable during years of abundance. Jack rabbits are almost never used as food although many are shot for sport or to protect crops. The black-tailed jack rabbit is a swift runner. Cottam and Williams (1943: 263) timed 6 individuals while running under varying conditions. Full speeds for 50 to 300 yards varied from 27 to 38 miles per hour. The maximum speed was attained by two individuals, each for 100 yards. Embryos found in March numbered 4, 5 and 6. =Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii= (Bachman) Nuttall cottontail _Lepus nuttallii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:345, 1837. _Lepus artemisia_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8:94, 1839 (type from Wallula, Walla Walla County, Washington). [_Lepus sylvaticus_] var. _Nuttallii_ Allen, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 17:434, February 17, 1875. _Lepus sylvaticus Nuttalli_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:601, 1885. _Sylvilagus (Sylvilagus) nuttallii_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 45 (no. 1456):336, June 15, 1904. _Sylvilagus nuttalli_ Nelson, N. A. Fauna, 29:201, August 31, 1909. _Type._--Obtained near mouth of Malheur River, Malheur County, Oregon. by T. Nuttall in August, 1834; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. _Measurements._--Two males and 4 females from Moses Lake, Grant County, average, respectively: total length 355, 348; length of tail 33, 35; hind foot 83, 83; ear 63.5, 60. _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, Okanogan Valley, Yakima Valley and Columbia Valley in southeastern Washington; in general, the sagebrush area of eastern Washington; north in the Okanogan River Valley to Oroville and in the Columbia Valley to Kettle Falls (W.W.D., records not all shown on map). _Remarks._--Nuttall cottontails are small, grayish-brown rabbits with relatively short, rounded ears and short legs. Their small size and small ears, which lack black tips, distinguish them from jack rabbits where the two occur together. [Illustration: FIG. 129. Distribution of the Nuttall cottontail. _Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii_, in Washington.] The genus _Sylvilagus_ is found in both North and South America. The species _nuttallii_, with three subspecies, is restricted to the western part of the United States. It ranges from southern Canada south to central New Mexico and from western South Dakota west to the Cascades. A single race occurs in Washington. Nuttall cottontails depend on cover for concealment from enemies. They frequent thick stands of tall sagebrush, riparian thickets, or rocky coulees. Seldom are they encountered in the open. In the sand-dune areas near Moses Lake cottontails were abundant in the dense, thorny thickets about potholes and in areas of tall sagebrush. They are especially common near the talus at the bases of the walls of Grand Coulee, and Moses Coulee where they do not hesitate to enter crevices in rock slides for protection. Indeed, cottontails are abundant everywhere within their range in the state of Washington, where suitable cover and food are present. They seem to be confined to the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. Cottontails are most active at night, as is attested by the number killed then by automobiles on highways. The greatest number are seen by observers in the morning and evening but it is not unusual to see an animal feeding at midday. When startled they dash for the nearest thicket or pile of rocks with their tiny white tails erect. They travel in relatively straight lines and do not dash from side to side in flight as do jack rabbits. They sometimes seek concealment by "freezing" motionlessly in plain sight. When feeding undisturbed they travel by slow hops. The trails of cottontails are characteristic of thickets in sagebrush country. The trails are narrow, less than four inches wide, and often enter thickets of strong, thorny growths which can scarcely be penetrated by man. Near Okanogan Lake the trails of cottontails were found among greasewood bushes on hard-packed gravel. Trails are usually most abundant in thickets near water. Permanent trails are not made through low sagebrush or over sandy areas where the animals prefer to pick their way when traveling from one clump of cover to another. Nuttall cottontails probably eat many desert grasses, annuals, and shrubs; observation indicates that sagebrush (_Artemisiae tridentata_) and rabbit brush (_Chrysothamnus nauseosus_) are particularly important as food. The young of cottontails in Washington seem to vary from one to four per litter and are born between April and June. =Sylvilagus floridanus= (Allen) subsp.? Florida cottontail _Lepus sylvaticus floridanus_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:160, October 8, 1890. _Sylvilagus floridanus_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 45 (no. 1456):322, June 15, 1904. _Description._--Slightly larger than the sagebrush cottontail; smaller than the snowshoe rabbit; ears small; color of upper parts pinkish cinnamon-brown; sides pale grayish-cinnamon; underparts white; nape of neck cinnamon; chest band paler cinnamon; tail brown above, white beneath; forefeet and sides of hind feet cinnamon. _Remarks._--The Florida cottontail is not native to the state of Washington but has been introduced at several localities. It is spreading rapidly at the present time. Points of introduction include Pullman, Whitman County (1926-1927); Battleground, Clark County (1933); Auburn, King County (1927); and Whidby Island, Island County (1931). At least two subspecies (_mearnsi_, _alacer_) have been introduced and a third (_similis_) may have been introduced. For further information on introduced cottontails see Dalquest (1941B: 408-411). =Sylvilagus idahoensis= (Merriam) Pigmy rabbit _Lepus idahoensis_ Merriam. N. Amer. Fauna, 5:75, July 30, 1891. _Brachylagus idahoensis_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 45 (no. 1456):323, June 15, 1904. _Sylvilagus idahoensis_ Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 35:553, October 10, 1930. _Type._--Obtained in the Pahsimeroi Valley, Custer County, Idaho, by V. Bailey and B. H. Dutcher on September 16, 1890; type in United States National Museum. _Distribution._--Known only from the central part of the Columbian Plateau. _Description._--The pigmy rabbit is a tiny species, differing from the cottontail in smaller size, paler, grayer color, shorter ears and smaller legs. The pigmy rabbit is restricted to the Great Basin region. No subspecies has been described. It is rare and of local occurrence in Washington, having been recorded only from the central part of the Columbian Plateau. Orr (1940), who studied the species in California, found them only in stands of tall, dense sage (_Artemisiae tridentata_). It is a burrowing form, not straying far from its hole. =Cervus canadensis= (Erxleben) Elk or wapiti _Description._--The elk, next to the moose, is our largest deer. The legs of the elk are slender. The tail is a short, pointed stub a few inches long. The neck is thick in proportion to the head. Both males and females possess the canine teeth familiar as "elk tooth charms." Only the males possess antlers. These are huge, slender beams that curve up, out and back with the basal tine or "dog killer" and four to six points on each antler. The antlers are deciduous and are shed annually. The body is grayish or tan in color. The head, neck, chest and legs are rich, dark brown, strongly contrasting with the paler body. The distinctive rump patch is pale tan or white. In the past the elk was found over most of the forested areas of Washington. Lumbering, agriculture and settlement as well as excessive hunting removed it from parts of eastern Washington and all except the most inaccessible parts of the lowlands of western Washington. Only in the Cascade and Olympic Mountains and the coastal strip between the Columbia River and the Olympic Mountains, did the elk survive in appreciable numbers. Conservationists and a more enlightened game policy began to protect the elk at the turn of the century. It was already too late to save the species in eastern Washington, where it seems never to have been truly abundant and where relatively open country afforded little protection from the high-powered rifle. In the dense, rugged forests of western Washington a sizable number remained on the Olympic Peninsula and these, under protection, increased to their present numbers. The dense, tangled forests of the southwestern coastal area and the western Cascades lack conditions suitable to support truly large elk herds. These areas probably now have as large an elk population as can safely be supported and fed. The elk of eastern Washington had disappeared or nearly disappeared by 1910. The race originally occurring there was the Rocky Mountain form; it has been reintroduced from Montana and Wyoming into northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains area. These plantings have not been very successful. Introduced in the eastern Cascades, however, the Rocky Mountain elk thrived and increased on what was probably once the peripheral range of the coastal elk. The habits of the elk are best known from the herds in the Olympic Mountains and on the Rattlesnake Game Refuge in the eastern Cascade Mountains. Here the animals are numerous and relatively tame. Their habits seem to differ somewhat in the forests of the lowlands from those of the animals in the higher Olympics where the topography and climate are very different. [Illustration: FIG. 130. Elk or wapiti (_Cervus canadensis nelsoni_), Banff, Alberta, October, 1939. (G. A. Thomas photo.)] The elk is a social animal, gathering in herds over most of the year. The old males leave the herds in the spring but seem to stay in small bands while their antlers are growing. In the Olympic Mountains, herds of 100 or more animals have been seen. In the lowlands there are ordinarily from five to ten in a herd. [Illustration: FIG. 131. Group of elk or wapiti (_Cervus canadensis nelsoni_), Banff, Alberta, October 10, 1939. (G. A. Thomas photo.)] The elk is a browsing animal, feeding on twigs and leaves of deciduous trees, shrubs and evergreens. In spring and summer it eats grasses and succulent annuals, but in winter twigs and needles of evergreens, perennial ferns, dry grass and even moss is utilized. To a certain extent the elk are migratory, ascending to the open meadows of the Hudsonian Life-zone in the early summer and returning to the dense forests of the Transition and lower Canadian Life-zones with the winter snows. The lowland elk make no such migrations, merely leaving the riverbottom jungles when the leaves are off the deciduous plants growing there, and live in the coniferous timber. In the forests the elk is capable of swift and almost silent movement. It is an eerie experience to trail a herd of elk through a dense forest in a winter rain, knowing that a number of the large animals are within a few feet, moving swiftly but silently away. When a herd is feeding and does not suspect the presence of an observer, the animals rustle branches, break twigs, snort and wheeze as they breathe. The antlers of the males are shed in March. The bulls retire from the herd until the new horns are well grown, in late August or September. Breeding takes place in September or October and the young are born the following April or May. =Cervus canadensis roosevelti= Merriam _Cervus roosevelti_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:272, December 17, 1897. _Cervus canadensis occidentalis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:29, December, 1929. _Type._--Obtained on Mount Elaine, Mason County, Washington, by H. and C. Emmet on October 4, 1897; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--A large, dark elk with short, heavy antlers. _Measurements._--The type measured, in the flesh (Bailey, 1936:81): total length 2,490; tail 80; ear (dry) 208. _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains westward; possibly occurred formerly in the eastern Cascades, and perhaps still present there, in places, or mixed with introduced _nelsoni_. _Remarks._--For use of the name _roosevelti_ rather than _occidentalis_ see Bailey (1936:81). =Cervus canadensis nelsoni= Bailey _Cervus canadensis canadensis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:29, December, 1929. _Cervus canadensis nelsoni_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Sec. Washington, 48:188, November 15, 1935. _Type._--Obtained at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, by J. Pitcher; died in captivity on September 21, 1904; type in United States National Museum. _Description._--Smaller and paler than _roosevelti_ with longer, slimmer antlers. _Distribution._--Formerly occurred in northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. Since then exterminated and reintroduced to both areas from the Rocky Mountains. Also introduced and established in the eastern Cascades. =Odocoileus virginianus= (Boddaert) White-tailed deer _Description._--The white-tailed deer differs from the black-tailed and mule deer in several anatomical details. The tail is long, wide, and when the animal is frightened is carried upright with the long, white hair of the underside spread out. The antlers of the buck are not of a biramous system of branching but instead consist of a main beam which curves sharply out and forward, remaining low. All subsidiary tines, save the basal one, emerge from the dorsal side of the main beam. The basal tine is usually a spurlike point arising vertically from the main beam not far from the base of the antler. In exceptional specimens the basal tine is large and divided into several points. The body of the "whitetail" is more smoothly rounded, and more graceful, than that of the mule deer. [Illustration: FIG. 132. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus leucurus_), doe at least nine years old, kept as a pet by Mrs. Jack Hovis, Puget Island, Washington, December 16, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 750.)] White-tailed deer range from Canada south to Panama and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Their range is much more extensive to the east and south than that of the "blacktail" and mule deer. In western Washington the whitetail occupies a limited habitat near the mouth of the Columbia River. Its geographic range was probably somewhat greater in the past. Its habitat includes the low, damp, marshy islands and floodplain of the Columbia. Blacktail range in the wooded hills surrounding the whitetail's range but rarely enter it to compete with the whitetail (Scheffer, 1940A: 282). In northeastern Washington the whitetail shows the same tendency to occupy low, marshy areas and valleys. The habitat preference of the whitetail in northeastern Washington is less exact than in western Washington, for the species ranges up from the valleys into the forests of larch and cottonwood of the Transition Life-zone. Its habitat includes denser forest and brushy areas. Rarely does it occur in the open type of forest occupied by the mule deer. [Illustration: FIG. 133. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus_): fawn kept as a pet by L. E. Borud, Ione, Washington, June 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 69.)] In Washington the whitetail is not an important game animal. The race occurring in western Washington is characterized by small size and small antlers. Further, its total population is estimated at but 400 to 900 individuals. The whitetail of northeastern Washington is larger and possesses larger antlers. Indeed, some antlers from Ferry County are the largest antlers of whitetail that I have ever seen. Nevertheless, the whitetail of northeastern Washington is smaller than the mule deer and far less common. The habitat is dense and difficult to traverse. The animal is shy and silent, fleeing soundlessly when approached. For these reasons most hunters in northeastern Washington prefer to hunt the mule deer. [Illustration: FIG. 134. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus_): left antler found on ground at Park Rapids, Pend Oreille County, Washington, October 1, 1937. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 756.)] =Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus= Bailey _Odocoileus virginianus macrourus_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:30, December, 1929. _Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 45:43, April 2, 1932. [Illustration: FIG. 135. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus leucurus_), antlers of large buck killed in the fall of 1939 at Cathlamet, Washington, by Paul Lewis. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer. No. 752.)] _Type._--Obtained at Coolin, south end of Priest Lake, Bonner County, Idaho, by F. Lemmer on December 27, 1908; type in United States National Museum. _Racial characters._--A large, pale white tail with large, low antlers and distinctive cranial features. _Measurements._--The type, an adult male, measures (Bailey, 1936. p. 43): total length 1,752; tail 265; hind foot 483; ear (dry) 120. _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington. Probably once occurred in southeastern Washington. =Odocoileus virginianus leucurus= (Douglas) _Cervus leucurus_ Douglas, Zoöl. Jour., 4:330, 1829. _Odocoileus leucurus_ Thompson, Forest and Stream, 51:286, October 8, 1898. _Odocoileus virginianus leucurus_ Lydekker, Cat. Ung. Mamm. British Mus., 4:162, 1915. _Type._--Obtained on the North Umpqua River, Oregon, by David Douglas on October 17, 1826; type originally, and perhaps still, in British Museum. _Racial characters._--A small, handsome whitetail with slender, erect antlers and brownish or grayish color. _Measurements._--A young adult female from 1 mile south of Skamokawa, Wahkiakum County, measured: total length 1,545; length of tail 250; hind foot 458; ear 143; weight 88 pounds. _Distribution._--Previously occurred over much of southwestern Washington; now confined to the banks and islands of the Columbia River in Wahkiakum County. =Odocoileus hemionus= (Rafinesque) Mule deer and black-tailed deer _Description._--The mule and black-tailed deer are among deer of medium to large size. Adult mule deer may weigh up to 400 pounds while some fully adult blacktail bucks may weigh as little as 100 pounds. The body is heavily muscled, the legs long and the tail only about 6 inches in length. The ears are long, from 6 to 8 inches from notch to tip. The head is long and the male has well-developed antlers. The first antlers are almost straight spikes. Those of the second year are bent slightly outward and forward and are equally or subequally forked with the anterior branch usually the stouter. In the third year the anteriolateral curvature is more pronounced and one or both of the forks again fork. In succeeding years forks are larger and more numerous but the essential biramous arrangement of forking is maintained. The "blacktail" and mule deer are strongly marked races. The blacktail differs from the mule deer in: smaller size; darker color, especially on face and tail; tail dark brown above with dark tip rather than whitish with black tip; tail haired beneath, not naked for half its length; antlers smaller and lighter; and skull and teeth smaller. Mule deer and black-tailed deer range over western North America from southeastern Alaska southward into northern Mexico. They inhabit forested parts of the state of Washington. Blacktails occupy the San Juan Islands, the islands in Puget Sound, the Olympic Mountains, the lowlands of western Washington, and the Cascade Mountains. Mule deer occupy the Cascades, including their eastern slope, northeastern and southeastern Washington and parts of the Columbian Plateau. Over this large range there is considerable local geographic variation. Jackson (1944: 1-56) estimated that 109,600 blacktail and 175,725 mule deer live in Washington. Thus Washington is second only to California in number of blacktail and ranks fifth in number of mule deer. Individual variation over the range of the mule deer is considerable but no trends of variation are distinguishable. Mule deer from the Blue Mountains, northeastern Washington and the eastern Cascades are essentially similar. There is geographic variation as well as great individual variation in the black-tailed deer of Washington. The deer of the San Juan Islands and the islands of Puget Sound are smaller and darker than those of the mainland and possess smaller, lighter antlers. The deer of Whidby Island are sometimes contemptuously referred to by residents as jackrabbit deer. Fully grown bucks on the Islands weigh in the neighborhood of 100 pounds, rarely exceeding 150 pounds, whereas bucks on the mainland commonly weigh more than 150 pounds dressed. [Illustration: FIG. 136. Mule deer (_Odocoileus hemionus hemionus_), subadult male from Okanogan County, Washington, raised in captivity; photographed June 29, 1938, on Hurricane Ridge, Olympic National Park. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 99.)] The dividing line between the ranges of the black-tailed and mule deer in general is the summit of the Cascade Mountains. In summer the two races come together and doubtless mingle in the Cascades but as fall approaches they migrate. The mule deer moves eastward to the yellow-pine areas on the lower slopes while the blacktails descend westward to the denser Douglas fir and hemlock forests on the western flanks of the Cascades. In the breeding season the two races are separated. However, as shown by Cowan (1936A: 219), in the Pemberton Valley, British Columbia, the two forms occur together during the breeding season and intergradation occurs there. Intergradation occurs also in the Lake Wenatchee area of Chelan County. Observation of hunters' specimens showed some undoubted intergrades among the more abundant, typical mule deer. Both the mule deer and blacktail have a characteristic bounding gait, unlike the smooth run of the white-tailed deer. The tail is usually held down, rarely erect. When not frightened they move with dainty steps, making little noise. [Illustration: FIG. 137. Black-tailed deer (_Odocoileus hemionus columbianus_), buck resting at midday, Van Trump Park, Mt. Rainier, Washington, August, 1931. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 260.)] The black-tailed deer in certain areas is more nocturnal than diurnal. They feed principally in the early morning and evening. In the Olympic Mountains, on the North Fork of the Quinault River, in July, 1937, blacktails were watched feeding and playing until midnight. Also in December, 1939, deer, near the forks of the Skykomish River, were moving about, browsing as late as 11 p. m. while a light snow was falling. In the San Juan Islands, in the summer of 1939, deer were observed feeding at all hours of the day. The blacktail lives in some of the most dense jungle areas of western Washington. On Whidby Island and some of the San Juan Islands the brush and vines grow so densely that a man can scarcely penetrate them. Were it not for the deer trails, formed by generations of deer, our small mammal investigations would have been far more difficult. The blacktail lives also in the dense forests where fir, hemlock and cedars grow to heights of more than 150 feet. Here lack of light allows only ferns and moss to form an understory vegetation. These forests often clothe the steep glacial hills and the trails of the deer on such hills show them to be adept climbers. Deer trails generally avoid fallen trees and other obstacles. When startled, however, a stump, fence or log is easily leaped by a blacktail. Often they are in small bands of 6 to 10 individuals, but almost as often are solitary, or in pairs. The habitat of the mule deer is generally more open than that of the blacktail. In the summer, it may occupy rough and rugged country; in the higher Cascades individuals were found in the rocky and brushy country and in open glades and meadows. Farther east they were in the open yellow-pine forests where extensive grassy slopes, free of trees, existed. In some parts of northeastern Washington they lived in the larch and lodgepole pine forests almost dense enough to be "blacktail country." In the Okanogan Valley and on the northwestern corner of the Columbia Plateau mule deer lived in open prairie country where a few cottonwoods and willows were the only trees. The mule deer seem more social than the blacktail. In the late summer they gather in bands of 10 to 20 or more. In winter, under pressure of hunger, they gather in herds and raid haystacks and pastures. Farmers in the Methow Valley, Okanogan County, report herds of 200 to 400 mule deer about a single haystack. The mule deer and blacktail are the principal game mammals of the state of Washington. Thousands of hunters enter the woods each year in search of a buck. Eastern Washington is the favored hunting grounds for that is the home of the mule deer, the larger size of which makes it a more desirable trophy. Also the open country which it inhabits makes hunting more productive. Sums spent on equipment, gasoline and hunting licenses are tremendous but the feeling is that the return in recreational value and venison are worth the cost. A few casualties result each year among the army of deer hunters. =Odocoileus hemionus hemionus= (Rafinesque) _Cervus hemionus_ Rafinesque, Amer. Month. Mag., 1:436, October, 1817. _Cariacus macrotis_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:592, 1885. _Odocoileus hemionus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:100, April 30, 1898. _Odocoileus hemionus macrotis_ Bailey, National Geographic, 20:64, 1932. _Type locality._--Vicinity of Big Sioux River, South Dakota. _Racial characters._--Large size, pale color. _Measurements._--Two adult males from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia County, measure respectively: total length 1,751, 1,559; length of tail 172, 205; hind foot 515, 485; ear 210, 211; length of metatarsal gland 150, 135. _Distribution._--Summit of Cascades eastward, in forested areas, exact limits not certainly known. =Odocoileus hemionus columbianus= (Richardson) _Cervus macrotis_ var. _columbiana_ Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:257, 1829. _Cariacus columbianus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):592, 1885. _Cervus columbianus_ Baird, U. S. Pacific R. R. Exp. and Surveys, p. 659, 1857. _Eucervus columbianus_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 18 (ser. 3):338, 1866. _Odocoileus columbianus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:100, April 30, 1898. _Odocoileus columbianus columbianus_ Swarth, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 10:85, February 13, 1912. _Odocoileus hemionus columbianus_ Cowan, California Fish and Game, 22:215, July, 1936. _Type._--Obtained at Cape Disappointment, Pacific County, Washington, by Lewis and Clark on November 19, 1805 (Cowan, 1936A: 218). _Racial characters._--Small size, dark color. _Distribution._--Summit of Cascades westward, including islands in Puget Sound and San Juan Islands; exact limits of range uncertain. =Alce americana shirasi= Nelson Moose _Alces americanus shirasi_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:72, April 25, 1914. _Type._--Obtained near the Snake River, Lincoln County, Wyoming, by J. Shire on December 11, 1913; type in United States National Museum. _Distribution._--Casual wanderer into northeastern Washington from Canada. _Remarks._--The moose is the largest North American deer. Its large size and huge, palmate antlers serve to separate it from any other member of the deer tribe. Moose range from northern United States to central Canada and Alaska. The European elk and the American moose are subspecies of the same species. The moose is of only casual occurrence in Washington. The latest authentic record for Washington is a bull that wandered southward and westward from Canada until it was killed on an Indian reservation in Ferry County. Other moose are reported to have wandered into northeastern Washington from Canada in past years. Dice (1919) was told that moose once occurred in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington but there is no confirmation of this report. =Rangifer arcticus montanus= Seton-Thompson Caribou _Rangifer montanus_ Seton-Thompson, Ottawa Naturalist, 13:129-30, August, 1899. _Rangifer arcticus montanus_ Jacobi, Erganzungsband, Zoöl. Anz., 96:92, November, 1931. _Type._--Obtained near Revelstoke, Selkirk Range, British Columbia. _Distribution._--Rare or casual along the Canadian boundary in northeastern Washington. _Remarks._--The caribou is a rather stout-bodied deer with large hoofs, short, rounded muzzle and long, erect, flattened antlers. Caribou and their relatives, the reindeer, range over Arctic Europe, Asia, Greenland and America. In North America they range from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the northern border of the United States northward into the Arctic. The caribou was, until recent years, a regular winter resident in small numbers in northeastern Washington near the Canadian Boundary. Their wintering grounds in Washington were said to have been destroyed by fire in 1915 and the species has appeared in the state only casually since then. Two were killed in 1940 by hunters who thought they were deer. Caribou are protected by law in Washington. =Bison bison oregonus= Bailey Bison _Bison bison bison_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:31, December, 1929. _Bison bison oregonus_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 45:48, April 2, 1932. _Type._--Skull and skeleton picked up at Malheur Lake, Oregon, by G. M. Benson in November, 1931; type in United States National Museum. _Distribution._--Perhaps casual in eastern Washington before coming of the white man. _Remarks._--Bison, or buffalo, occurred in southeastern Oregon but disappeared before white men reached the country (Bailey, 1936: 57). Gibbs (1860: 138) was told by an Indian hunter in 1853 that a lost bull had been killed in the Grand Coulee (state of Washington) 25 years before but that "this was an extraordinary occurrence, perhaps before unknown." In the days before horses reached the Indian tribes of eastern Washington and Oregon, wandering bison from herds in Oregon probably strayed into Washington, in somewhat the manner that the moose today stray in from Canada. =Ovis canadensis= Shaw Mountain sheep _Description._--The mountain sheep is the size of a small deer. The horns of the males are massive spirals. Those of the females are smaller, curve upward and backward, rarely forming a semicircle. The horns are permanent structures, enlarged each year by growth at the base. Growth is irregular, probably as the result of seasonal reproductive activities. As a result the horns are "ringed" with concentric ridges. The color of the upper parts is dark, grayish brown. The face is paler, yellowish brown. The outer sides of the legs are dark brown. The rump, abdomen, and insides of legs are white. Mountain sheep of the genus _Ovis_ are abundantly represented in Asia. Two species occur in North America, _Ovis dalli_ in Alaska, and _Ovis canadensis_ in western North America. They range from Alaska south to northern Mexico. In the past the mountain sheep inhabited most of the eastern Cascade Mountains, the Blue Mountains, Pend Oreille Mountains, and the cliffs of the Columbia River Valley in eastern Washington. They occurred on the eastern or Columbian Plateau side of the river and therefore probably occupied the cliffs of Moses Coulee and the Grand Coulee. Their habitat seems thus to have included rocky areas from the Upper Sonoran to the Hudsonian life-zones. At the present time they are extinct over most of their range. A small band still remains in the extreme northeastern Cascades near Mount Chopaka. Little has been published concerning the habits of the mountain sheep in Washington. In caves along the Columbia River in Grant County, bones of sheep are found in association with stone arrowheads and other human artifacts. Presumably the sheep were killed and eaten by the Indians. The history of the mountain sheep in North America is outlined by Cowan (1940: 506). The genus is thought to have crossed from Asia to America by the land bridge now under Bering Strait in the early Pleistocene and spread southward through the Rockies. The advance of the glacial ice forced them farther southward and the southern (_canadensis_) sheep were separated from their relatives farther north. The present differences between the Rocky Mountain and western sheep seem to have resulted from separation by glaciers during Wisconsin Time. =Ovis canadensis canadensis= Shaw _Ovis canadensis_ Shaw, Nat. Misc., vol. 15, text to pl. 610, about December, 1803. _Type._--Obtained in the mountains on Bow River; W. B. Davis (1939: 377) gives Dew River near Exshaw, Alberta. _Racial characters._--Large size; heavy, closely coiled horns. _Measurements._--Cowan (1940: 533) gives the measurements of a fully adult (6-year old) ram from Colorado as: total length 1,953; length of tail 127; hind foot 394; ear (dry) 63. _Distribution._--Now extinct in Washington. Cowan (_op. cit._: 535) refers to this race as the sheep that formerly occurred in the Blue Mountains. This view seems logical but I feel that the sheep formerly occurring in the Pend Oreille Mountains of extreme northeastern Washington should, on the basis of geographic probability, also be referred to _canadensis_. =Ovis canadensis californiana= Douglas _Ovis californianus_ Douglas, Zoöl. Jour., 4:332, 1829. _Ovis californica_ Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:272, 1829. _Ovis californiana_ Biddulph, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 683, 1885. _Ovis canadensis californiana_ Lydekker, The Sheep and its Cousins, p. 288, 1912. _Type._--Obtained from near Mount Adams, Yakima County, Washington, by D. Douglas on August 27, 1826; type in British Museum. _Racial characters._--Similar to _canadensis_ but smaller with more slender, spreading horns and horn tips less blunt. _Measurements._--Cowan (1940: 545) gives the measurements of a ram, five years old, from Owens Valley, California, as: total length, 1,582; length of tail, 110; hind foot, 240. _Distribution._--Formerly occupied the eastern Cascades, the valley of the Columbia and possibly the cliffs bordering Moses Coulee and The Grand Coulee. Now it is found only near Mt. Chopaka in the extreme northeastern Cascades. =Oreamnos americanus= (Blainville) Mountain goat _Description._--The mountain goat is of deer-size, with a stout body and a pronounced hump on the shoulders. The legs are short but the hoofs are large with large dewclaws. The neck is short and thick. The head is large and goatlike in appearance. The tail is tiny. The horns are slim, round and curve up and slightly backwards. They are hollow and are permanent structures, added to each year. The body is snow white, consisting of long, soft wool, which is longer and coarser on forelegs, neck and chin than on the body. Males have a distinct beard. Mountain goats range from Washington and Idaho north to Alaska. Their nearest relatives are the Old-World antelopes, especially the alpine species of Europe and Asia. The mountain goat is an animal of the high mountains. Their habitat is the bare-rock cliffs and rock-strewn slopes of the Arctic-alpine and Hudsonian Life-zones. Where extensive, open rocky areas occur they descend to the Canadian Life-zone. Even in winter they keep to the high cliffs where steep slopes and strong winds keep the snow from the plants on which they feed. Mountain goats are considered a game animal in Canada and Idaho. The species has been protected in Washington for many years. As a result they are common, although not present in numbers sufficient to withstand hunting. The high country which they occupy is unsuited to any of man's domestic animals and no reason is apparent at present why the mountain goat should not be protected and conserved for many years. [Illustration: FIG. 138. Mountain goat (_Oreamnos americanus americanus_), old female, Lake Chelan, Washington, March 6, 1937. (Forest Service photo by Oliver T. Edwards, No. 348491.)] In spite of the protection accorded them, the mountain goat has not become tame. In driving over Stevens Pass, King County, one can, with the aid of glasses, usually pick out one or more mountain goats on nearby mountains. Nevertheless, I have never seen one within 100 yards of a highway, nor heard of one being killed by cars on a highway. The mountain goat does not, as a rule, allow close approach by man. At Goat Basin, Deception Creek, King County, circumstances are particularly favorable for goats and several are usually to be seen. While studying them on several occasions, I was never able to get truly close to them. On the few occasions when I came upon a band unexpectedly, they rapidly went over the mountain or up the nearest cliff. [Illustration: FIG. 139. Group of mountain goats (_Oreamnos americanus americanus_), northern Cascade Mountains, Washington. (Forest Service photo, No. 348490.)] When unfrightened, these mountain goats spent much time standing, or lying with forefeet folded under them, looking into space. For such large animals they seemed to spend little time feeding. At intervals of about five minutes they plucked the ferns or other plants that grew in abundance on ledges or in tiny crevices in the cliffs. Some animals did browse for several minutes at a time. They seemed rather particular as to their food, plucking only one or two stems from a clump of vegetation. The ordinary movements of the mountain goats are deliberate. They rarely move more than a few feet at a time. They climb with sure-footed ease but usually slowly. In climbing, the forelegs are spread and the knees are bent. The animal moves as if it were climbing steps. The greatest action is in the knee joints. If surprised in the open they run with a smoother gait, the legs moving from the shoulder and hip. If near a cliff they climb rapidly, jumping when necessary, and rarely stop while in sight. Evidence of the presence of mountain goats is usually seen in the form of tufts and strands of wool. Their wool becomes caught in bushes and rough rocks and seemingly pulls out easily. The range of the mountain goat in Washington includes the entire Cascade range from Mt. Adams and Mt. Saint Helens north to the Canadian boundary. They extend west to Mt. Baker, Mt. Higgins and Mt. Index and east to Lake Chelan and, in the Wenatchee Range, east of Mt. Stuart, perhaps almost to the Columbia River. Dice (1919: 21) was told that mountain goats once occurred in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. We know of no suitable goat country in the Blue Mountains of Washington and feel that the report was probably based on an erroneous identification. There is a single record, supported by specimen, of a mountain goat from northeastern Washington. This individual probably wandered into Washington from northern Idaho, Montana, or adjacent British Columbia. =Oreamnos americanus americanus= (Blainville) _Ovis montanus_ Ord, Guthrie's Geol., 2d Amer. Ed., p. 292, 1815 (preoccupied). _R[upicapra]. americana_ Blainville, Bull. Sci. Soc. Philomath, Paris, p. 80, 1816. _Mazama dorsata_ Rafinesque, Amer. Month. Mag., 2:44, 1817 (new name for _Ovis montanus_ Ord). _Mazama montana_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):592, 1885. _Oreamnos montanus_ Merriam, Science, n. s., 1:19, 1895. _Oreamnos montanus montanus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:398, December 31, 1912. _Oreamnos americanus americanus_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 25:186, December 24, 1912. _Type._--None. Descriptions all based on _Ovis montanus_ Ord who, in turn, based his description on the account of skins seen by Lewis and Clark on the Columbia River of Washington or Oregon. As the mountain goat is not known to have ever occurred in Oregon in Recent times, the type locality is probably near Mt. Adams, Washington, the point where goats come nearest the Columbia. _Measurements._--The measurements of a large male killed "west of North Yakima" were reported by A. S. Harmer as: 8 feet 3 inches from tip of nose to tip of tail; horns 10 inches; weight 507 pounds (Outdoor Life, 1915: 459). _Distribution._--Throughout the higher Cascade Mountains. =Oreamnos americanus missoulae= Allen _Oreamnos montanus missoulae_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 20:20, February 10, 1904. _Oreamnos americanus missoulae_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 25:186, December 24, 1912. _Type._--Obtained at Missoula, Missoula County, Montana; type in American Museum of Natural History. _Distribution._--A single record for northeastern Washington. Seemingly a rare wanderer from outside the state. ORDER CETACEA Whales and porpoises Because Victor B. Scheffer and John W. Slipp have in preparation a detailed account of Cetaceans properly ascribable to Washington, members of this order here are not treated in as much detail as are other native mammals. =Berardius bairdii= Stejneger Baird beaked whale _Description._--Length about 40 feet; mandibles elongate, "beak-like"; one or two large teeth at tip of lower jaw; dorsal fin small and situated posteriorly; color black but abdomen occasionally grayish. _Remarks._--This rare whale is known from a few specimens recorded from Alaska south to California. =Mesoplodon stejnegeri= True Stejneger beaked whale _Description._--Similar to the previous species in proportions but smaller; length about 17 feet. Differs in possessing one large flat tusk in lower jaw. _Remarks._--Known only from a specimen from Alaska and another from the coast of Oregon. =Delphinus bairdii= Dall Dolphin _Description._--A slender porpoise about 6 or 7 feet long; long, narrow beak with 80-120 conical teeth; color above black tinged with greenish; sides gray; belly and throat white. _Remarks._--Recorded from California and probably ranges into Washington in off-shore waters. =Lissodelphis borealis= (Peale) Right whale porpoise _Description._--A small, beaked porpoise lacking a dorsal fin; color black with narrow white area from breast to tail; length about 4 feet. _Remarks._--A rare species described from waters 500 miles off the mouth of the Columbia River. =Lagenorhynchus obliquidens= Gill Striped porpoise _Description._--Length about 7 feet; beak not prominent; 44-46 conical teeth in each jaw; anterior edge of dorsal fin curved; color of upper parts greenish black; sides with one white or gray stripe posteriorly; underparts white. _Remarks._--This is the common porpoise in the Straits of Juan De Fuca from about the vicinity of Port Townsend to the ocean and in immediate off-shore waters. One specimen was obtained 100 miles off Grays Harbor. Rarely seen in Puget Sound. =Grampus rectipinna= (Cope) Killer whale _Description._--A large porpoise, 20-30 feet in length; dorsal fin high and nearly straight; teeth large, conical, 12 above, 13 below; color black above with white patch on side anteriorly. _Remarks._--The killer is common in Puget Sound and off the ocean coast. Both the killer and the true blackfish are locally termed "blackfish." =Grampidelphis griseus= (Cuvier) Grampus _Description._--A round-headed porpoise about 10 feet in length; dorsal fin high and narrow; 4 to 6 teeth in each jaw; color black, occasionally with white head or with body mottled with white and gray. _Remarks._--An off-shore species, probably not uncommon off the coast of Washington at times. =Globicephalus scammonii= (Cope) Blackfish _Description._--A large, stout-bodied, round-headed porpoise about 20 feet in length. Teeth large; 8-10 in lower jaw; 10-12 in upper jaw. Color black. Differs from the killer whale in possessing a low, long dorsal fin rather than a high, erect one. _Remarks._--The blackfish is a colonial species, often common in Puget Sound. It is frequently confused with the killer whale. =Phocoena vomerina= (Gill) Harbor porpoise _Description._--A small, stout-bodied porpoise with a rounded head. Length 5 to 6 feet. Teeth small, slightly flattened; about 25 above, 24 below; color blackish or brownish to liver color. _Remarks._--Small schools of harbor porpoises are common in Puget Sound, among the San Juan Islands, and in the Straits of Juan De Fuca. This is the commonest inshore porpoise but, because of its smaller size, is less well known to most persons than are the blackfish and killer whale. =Phocoenoides dalli= (True) Dall porpoise _Description._--A small porpoise, about 6 feet in length, with pointed head and moderately stout body. Teeth small, 23 above and 27 below. Color greenish black with flanks or posterior sides white. _Remarks._--A rare off-shore species. =Physeter catodon= Linnaeus Sperm whale _Description._--A toothed whale about 60 feet long; head enormous, squarish; teeth conical, 50 or fewer in lower jaw. _Remarks._--Occurs off the coast of Washington and rarely enters the Straits of Juan De Fuca. =Kogia breviceps= (Blainville) Pigmy sperm whale _Description._--Similar to the sperm whale in proportions but less than 10 feet in length. _Remarks._--A rare species whose habits are little known. The available information concerning this species in the Atlantic has been summarized by Allen (1941). =Rhachianectes glaucus= (Cope) Gray whale _Description._--A relatively slender whale, about 40 feet in length; dorsal fin absent; baleen short, yellow in color; color of body mottled gray or blackish. _Remarks._--The gray whale was once abundant and occurred off the coast of Washington in spring and summer migrations. Hunted until now rare. =Balaenoptera physalus= (Linnaeus) Finback whale _Description._--A relatively slender whale, up to 82 feet in length; dorsal fin far posterior, prominent; baleen in two slabs, well developed, about two feet in length and gray in color; color of body blackish or brownish above, white below. _Remarks._--Recorded off-shore. =Balaenoptera borealis= Lesson Sei or Pollack whale _Description._--Similar to the finback whale but dorsal fin larger; baleen dark; body dark blue or brownish; belly with restricted white area. _Remarks._--Recorded off-shore. =Balaenoptera acutorostrata= Lacépède Pike whale _Description._--A small whalebone whale, about 30 feet in length; body slender; head pointed; pectoral fin well developed and prominent; baleen short, white; color black above, white beneath. _Remarks._--A rare species that has been recorded from Washington. =Sibbaldus musculus= (Linnaeus) Blue whale or sulphur-bottom whale _Description._--Largest of the whales; length up to 100 feet; body slender; head flat above, rounded beneath; dorsal fin slender but prominent; baleen in two series, heavy and black; belly with numerous longitudinal ridges; color bluish black above, yellow beneath. _Remarks._--Probably uncommon off-shore. =Megaptera novaeangliae= (Borowski) Humpback whale _Description._--A medium-sized, stout-bodied whale up to 54 feet in length; dorsal fin low, not prominent; head flat above, rounded beneath; prominent "hump" at back of head; belly with numerous longitudinal ridges; baleen small; color blackish or grayish above, paler below; body characteristically blotched with patches of whitish barnacles. _Remarks._--The humpback is the commonest whale off the coast of Washington, often coming into northern Puget Sound. =Eubalaena sieboldii= (Gray) Pacific right whale _Description._--A large whale, 60-70 feet in length, with enormous, rounded head; dorsal fin absent; belly lacking longitudinal ridges; baleen blackish, 8 feet in length; color uniformly blackish. _Remarks._--A much hunted species now probably rare off shore. HYPOTHETICAL LIST MAMMALS OTHER THAN CETACEANS POSSIBLY OCCURRING IN WASHINGTON OF WHICH SATISFACTORY RECORD IS LACKING 1. _Ursus canadensis_ Merriam, grizzly bear.--This species has been recorded from Kootenay Lake, British Columbia, 30 miles northeast from the northeastern corner of the state of Washington and may have occurred in northeastern Washington. 2. _Ursus idahoensis_ Merriam, grizzly bear.--Recorded by Merriam (1918: 54) from the Wallowa Mountains, Oregon. This form may have occurred in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. 3. _Vulpes fulva macroura_ Baird, red fox.--Reported from the Blue Mountains and northeastern Washington; no specimen recorded. 4. _Canis lupus columbianus_ Goldman, wolf.--Possibly occurred in northeastern Washington in historic time, and perhaps is occasionally still found there. 5. _Canis lupus irremotus_ Goldman, wolf.--Perhaps once occurred in southeastern Washington. 6. _Mirounga angustirostris_ (Gill), sea elephant.--May occur as a casual wanderer off the coast of Washington. The home of this species is Lower California but a dead specimen was washed upon the shore of Prince of Wales Island, Alaska (Willett, 1943: 500). 7. _Perognathus parvus laingi_ Anderson, Great Basin pocket mouse.--Probably present in the mountains east of Lake Osoyoos in Washington, but no specimens have yet been collected. 8. _Synaptomys borealis artemisiae_ Anderson, northern lemming mouse.--Probably present in the Cascades of northern Okanogan County but no specimens have yet been obtained. 9. _Antilocapra americana_ (Ord) subsp?, pronghorned antelope.--This species is restricted to North America and once ranged over much of the plains region of the western part of the continent. Taylor and Shaw (1929: 31) included the antelope in their list of Washington mammals with the statement "Now extirpated within State; the former range of the pronghorn included much of the plains country of eastern Washington." So far as known to me, there is no record by any of the early explorers of antelope killed or seen in what is now Washington. No bones of antelope have been discovered in caves in eastern Washington. Ogden (1909: 339) mentions an antelope killed in Oregon a day's journey south of The Dalles. This record is fairly close to Washington and indicates that antelope might have occurred at least in southeastern Washington in historic times. ADDENDA 1. The antelope (_Antilocapra americana_) has been introduced into the Yakima Valley by the state of Washington, Department of Game. 2. The elephant seal (_Mirounga angustirostris_) has been discovered off the coast of Washington (Seattle _Times_, April 15, 1947, p. 3). 3. The yellow-pine chipmunk of the Blue Mountains has been described as a new subspecies, _Eutamias [Tamias] amoenus albiventris_ Booth, Murrelet, 28 (no. 1):7, 1947. Type locality Wickiup Spring, 23 miles west of Anatone, Asotin-Garfield County boundary. BIBLIOGRAPHY ALLEN, G. 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Mamm., 24:400. _Transmitted August 14, 1947._ INDEX Abromys lordi, 299 Accounts of species, 121 acutorostrata, Balaenoptera, 413 addenda, 416 aequalidens, Thomomys talpoides, 310 affinis, Eutamias amoenus, 257 Tamias amoenus, 257 akeleyi, Peromyscus, 330 alascanus, Callorhinus, 246 alascensis, Myotis lucifugus, 148 Alaska fur seal, 246 albiventer, Neosorex bendirii, 144 Sorex bendirii, 144 albiventris, Tamias amoenus, 416 Alce, americana, 403 shirasi, 403 Alces, americanus, 403 shirasi, 403 alexandrinus, Mus, 364 Rattus rattus, 364 alpinus, Sciuropterus, 295 alticola, Neotoma cinerea, 336 altifrontalis, Euarctos, 176 Mustela frenata, 198 Ursus, 176 americana, Alce, 403 Antilocapra, 415, 416 Martes, 186 Mephitis, 217 Rupicapra, 409 americanus, Euarctos, 176 Lepus, 382 Oreamnos, 406 Sitomys, 331 Ursus, 171 amoenus, Eutamias, 255 Tamias, 253 angustirostris, Mirounga, 415, 416 angustus, Microtus, 353 Anisonyx rufa, 369 antelope, 415, 416 Antilocapra americana, 415, 416 Antrozous, cantwelli, 169 pallidus, 169 Aplodontia, columbiana, 369 grisea, 369 olympica, 369 raineri, 369 rainieri, 369 rufa, 366 Arctic-alpine Life-zone, 33 arcticus, Rangifer, 404 Sorex, 132 Arctomys, avarus, 263 columbianus, 275 douglasii, 276 flaviventer, 263 olympus, 267 Arean arean, 137 arizonensis, Mustela, 197 artemisia, Lepus, 387 artemisiae, Peromyscus maniculatus, 332 Sitomys americanus, 332 Synaptomys borealis, 415 Artiodactyla, 118 Arvicola, macropus, 356 nanus, 348 occidentalis, 351 oregoni, 357 pauperrimus, 359 townsendii, 351 arvicoloides, Aulacomys, 356 Microtus, 356 asiaticus, Tamias, 262 Atophyrax bendirii, 144 Aulacomys arvicoloides, 356 austerus, Hesperomys, 331 Peromyscus, 331 Sitomys americanus, 331 avara, Marmota flaviventris, 263 avarus, Arctomys flaviventer, 263 badger, 220 badius, Thomomys talpoides, 311 Baird beaked whale, 410 bairdi, Lepus, 384 Sorex obscurus, 140 bairdii, Berardius, 410 Delphinus, 410 Balaenoptera, acutorostrata, 413 borealis, 413 physalus, 413 Balanus, 207 bangsi, Glaucomys sabrinus, 295 Sciuropterus alpinus, 295 bat, big-brown, 165 hoary, 168 long-eared, 161 pallid, 170 silvery-haired, 159 bats, mouse-eared, 146 beaked whale, Baird, 410 Stejneger, 410 bear, black, 170 grizzly, 176, 415 beaver, 315 mountain, 366 Beechey ground squirrel, 276 Bendirei, Atophyrax, 144 bendirii, Atophyrax, 144 Sorex, 144 Neosorex, 144 Berardius bairdii, 410 bernardinus, Eptesicus fuscus, 165 bibliography, 417 big, brown bat, 417 jumping mouse, 370 myotis, 147 Bison, bison, 404 oregonus, 404 bison, Bison, 404 black bear, 171 blackfish, 411 black tailed, deer, 399 jack rabbit, 385 blue whale, 413 bobcat, 241 borealis, Balaenoptera, 413 Lissodelphis, 410 Lynx, 239 Synaptomys, 337 Brachylagus idahoensis, 390 breviceps, Kogia, 412 brown bat, big, 165 brunnescens, Ochotona princeps, 380 bushy-tailed wood rat, 333 California, myotis, 156 red-backed mouse, 344 sea lion, 244 californiana, Ovis, 406 californianus, Otaria, 244 Ovis, 406 Zalophus, 244 californicus, Clethrionomys, 344 Lepus, 385 Myotis, 156 Vespertilio, 158 Callorhinus, alascanus, 246 cynocephalus, 246 ursinus, 246 Callospermophilus, chrysodeirus, 280 connectens, 280 lateralis, 279 saturatus, 281 tescorum, 279 Callotaria ursina cynocephala, 246 campestris, Lepus, 380 canadensis, Castor, 315 Cervus, 391 Lutra, 205 Lynx, 239 Mustela, 187 Ovis, 405 Canadian, Life-zone, 37 lynx, 239 Cancer productus, 180, 207 canescens, Microtus montanus, 349 canicaudus, Eutamias amoenus, 257 Tamias amoenus, 257 Canis, columbianus, 415 familiaris, 234 fuscus, 232 gigas, 232 incolatus, 231 irremotus, 415 latrans, 226 lestes, 226 lupus, 232 lycaon, 232 occidentalis, 232 cantwelli, Antrozous pallidus, 169 Microtus oregoni, 357 Cariacus, hemionus, 403 macrotis, 403 caribou, 404 carissima, Myotis lucifugus, 148 Carnivora, 113 carolinensis, Sciurus, 286 cascadensis, Clethrionomys gapperi, 343 Lepus americanus, 384 Sciurus, 290 Vulpes, 224 Castor, canadensis, 315 idoneus, 322 pacificus, 322 leucodonta, 322 cat, civet, 212 catodon, Physeter, 412 caurina, Martes, 183 Mustela, 186 caurinus, Eutamias, 255 Myotis californicus, 157 Tamias amoenus, 255 Cervus, canadensis, 391 columbianus, 403 hemionus, 403 leucurus, 398 macrotis, 403 nelsoni, 394 occidentalis, 394 roosevelti, 394 Cetacea, 410 Check List, 112 cheiragonus, Telmessus, 207 chelan, Ursus, 176 Chincha, hudsonica, 217 major, 218 occidentalis, 219 spissigrada, 219 chipmunk, least, 251 red-tailed, 258 Townsend, 259 Yellow-pine, 253, 416 Chipmunks, 250 Chiroptera, 112 cicognanii, Mustela, 193 cinerea, Atalapha, 168 Neotoma, 333 cinereus, Lasiurus, 168 Sorex, 132 Vespertilio, 168 cinnamomum, Euarctos, 176 Ursus, 176 Citellus, beecheyi, 276 columbianus, 272 connectens, 280 douglasii, 276 lateralis, 278 loringi, 271 mollis, 268 ruficaudus, 275 saturatus, 281 tescorum, 279 townsendii, 268 washingtoni, 271 yakimensis, 268 civet cat, 212 Clethrionomys, californicus, 344 cascadensis, 343 gapperi, 341 idahoensis, 342 nivarius, 343 occidentalis, 344 saturatus, 342 Climate and vegetation, 20 clusius, Thomomys, 310 Columbian ground squirrel, 272 columbianus, Arctomys, 275 Canis lupus, 415 Cariacus, 403 Cervus, 403 Citellus, 272 Eucervus, 403 Odocoileus, 403 Perognathus, 299 Spermophilus, 275 Thomomys, 310 columbiensis, Glaucomys sabrinus, 296 Lepus americanus, 385 concolor, Felis, 234 connectens, Callospermophilus chrysodeirus, 280 Citellus lateralis, 280 cony, 377 cooperi, Eutamias, 262 Tamias, 262 coots, 209 Corynorhinus, macrotis, 163 megalotis, 163 intermedius, 164 rafinesquii, 161 townsendii, 163 cottontail, Florida, 389 Nuttall, 387 couchi, Thomomys talpoides, 314 cougar, 234 coyote, 226 coypu, 376 crayfish, 209, 216 creeping mouse, 357 curtatus, Lagurus, 359 Lemmiscus, 359 cuppes, Ochotona, 379 cynocephala, Callotaria, 246 cynocephalus, Callorhinus, 246 Siren, 246 Dall porpoise, 412 dalli, Phocenoides, 412 deer, black-tailed, 399 mouse, 327 mule, 399 white-tailed, 395 Delphinus bairdii, 410 dermestes, 162 deserticola, Lepus californicus, 385 destructioni, Sorex trowbridgii, 136 devexus, Thomomys talpoides, 309 Didelphis virginiana, 121 Dipodomys, columbianus, 300 ordii, 300 Distributional, areas, 20 history, 68 dog, 234 dolphin, 410 dorsata, Mazama, 409 dorsatum, Erethizon, 374 Douglas squirrel, 290 douglasii, Arctomys, 276 Citellus, 276 Geomys, 312 Otospermophilus grammurus, 276 Sciurus, 290 Spermophilus, 276 Tamiasciurus, 290 Thomomys, 312 drummondii, Microtus, 346 Dytiscidae, 216 Ecology, Life-zones and, 32 edulis, Mytilus, 180, 207 effera, Mustela frenata, 198 elk, 391 Emmigrational history, 54 energumenos, Mustela vison, 199 Putorius vison, 199 Enhydra lutris nereis, 211 epixanthum, Erethizon, 376 Eptesicus, bernardinus, 165 fuscus, 165 pallidus, 165 Erethizon, dorsatum, 374 epixanthum, 376 epixanthus, 376 nigrescens, 376 ericacus, Thomomys talpoides, 309 eriomerus, Petrolisthes, 180, 207 ermine, 191 erminea, Mustela, 190 Euarctos, altifrontalis, 176 americanus, 176 cinnamomum, 176 Eubalaena sieboldii, 414 Eumetopias, jubata, 244 stelleri, 244 Eutamias, affinis, 257 albiventris, 416 amoenus, 255 canicaudus, 257 caurinus, 255 cooperi, 262 felix, 262 grisescens, 253 ludibundus, 257 luteiventris, 258 minimus, 252 pictus, 252 quadrivittatus, 256 ruficaudus, 258 scrutator, 252 simulans, 258 townsendii, 258 evotis, Myotis, 151 Vespertilio, 153 Evotomys, gapperi, 342 idahoensis, 342 nivarius, 343 occidentalis, 344 pygmaeus, 344 saturatus, 342 excelsus, Procyon lotor, 182 fallenda, Mustela erminea, 191 familiaris, Canis, 234 fasciatus, Lynx, 243 Faunas, Great Basin, 32 Pacific Coastal, 52 Rocky Mountain, 53 Felis, concolor, 234 hippolestes, 237 olympus, 237 oregonensis, 237 missoulensis, 237 felix, Eutamias amoenus, 256 Tamias amoenus, 256 fenisex, Ochotona, 379 Fiber, occipitalis, 363 osoyoosensis, 363 zibethicus, 363 finback whale, 413 fisher, 187 flaviventris, Marmota, 263 Florida cottontail, 389 floridanus, Lepus sylvaticus, 389 Sylvilagus, 389 flying squirrel, northern, 292 foetulenta, Mephitis, 219 fox, red, 224 squirrel, 286 frenata, Mustela, 194 fringe-tailed myotis, 153 fuliginosus, Geomys, 312 Glaucomys sabrinus, 296 fulva, Vulpes, 224 funebris, Microtus pennsylvanicus, 346 fur seal, 246 fuscogriseus, Onychomys leucogaster, 323 fuscus, Canis lupus, 232 Eptesicus, 165 Thomomys, 310 gambelii, Hesperomys, 331 Peromyscus maniculatus, 331 Sitomys americanus, 331 gapperi, Clethrionomys, 341 Evotomys, 342 Gapper red-backed mouse, 341 Geologic history, 46 Geomys, douglasii, 312 fuliginosus, 312 gibbsii, Neurotrichus, 124, 122 Urotrichus, 124 gigas, Canis, 232 Lupus, 232 glacialis, Thomomys talpoides, 312 Glaciation, 47 Glaucomys, bangsi, 295 columbiensis, 296 fuliginosus, 296 latipes, 296 olympicus, 295 oregonensis, 295 sabrinus, 292 glaucus, Rhachianectes, 412 Globicephalus scammonii, 411 goat, mountain, 406 Golden-mantled ground squirrel, 278, 281 gopher, northern pocket, 302 gracilis, Spilogale, 212 grammurus, Otospermophilus, 276 Spermophilus, 276 Grampidelphis griseus, 411 Grampus rectipinna, 411 grampus, 411 grasshopper mouse, northern, 323 gray squirrel, eastern, 286 western, 284 gray whale, 412 Great Basin pocket mouse, 297 grisea, Aplodontia rufa, 369 grisescens, Eutamias minimus, 253 Tamias minimus, 253 griseus, Grampidelphis, 411 Sciurus, 284 ground squirrel, Beechey, 276 Columbian, 272 golden-mantled, 278, 281 Townsend, 268 Washington, 271 gryphus, Vespertilio, 148 gulosa, Mustela erminea, 193 hair seal, 247 hairy-winged myotis, 154 halli, Microtus longicaudus, 353 Haplodon rufus, 369 Haplodontia, raineri, 369 rufa, 369 harbor, porpoise, 412 seal, 247 harvest mouse, western, 324 heather vole, 338 Helisoma occidentalis, 137 Hemigrapsus, oregonensis, 180 nudus, 180, 207, 216 hemionus, Cervus, 403 Odocoileus, 403 Hesperomys, austerus, 331 gambelii, 331 hesperus, Pipistrellus, 165 Scotophilus, 165 Vespertilio, 165 hippolestes, Felis, 237 hoary marmot, 265 hollisteri, Peromyscus maniculatus, 330 house mouse, 365 hoyi, Microsorex, 145 Hudsonian Life-zone, 39 hudsonica, Chincha, 217 Lutra, 210 Mephitis, 217 hudsonicus, Sciurus, 288 Tamiasciurus, 286 humpback whale, 413 Hyla, 180 regilla, 137 hypophaeus, Sciurus carolinensis, 286 hypothetical list, 415 idahoensis, Brachylagus, 390 Clethrionomys gapperi, 342 Evotomys, 342 Lepus, 390 Sylvilagus, 390 Zapus princeps, 373 idoneus, Castor canadensis, 322 immunis, Thomomys talpoides, 311 imperator, Zapus, 372 incolatus, Canis latrans, 231 Insectivora, 112 interior, Myotis volans, 155 intermedius, Corynorhinus rafinesquii, 164 Phenacomys, 338 invicta, Mustela erminea, 191 irremotus, Canis lupus, 415 jack rabbit, black-tailed, 385 white-tailed, 380 jubata, Eumetopias, 244 Phoca, 244 jumping mouse, big, 370 kangaroo rat, Ord, 300 Keen myotis, 151 keenii, Myotis, 151 Vespertilio, 151 killer whale, 411 kincaidi, Microtus pennsylvanicus, 347 Kogia breviceps, 412 kootenayensis, Zapus princeps, 373 Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, 411 Lagomorpha, 118 Lagomys minimus, 379 Lagurus, curtatus, 359 pauperrimus, 359 laingi, Perognathus parvus, 415 Lasionycteris noctivagans, 159 Latax lutris nereis, 211 lateralis, Callospermophilus, 279 Citellus, 278 Spermophilus, 281 Tamias, 281 latifrons, Spilogale, 215 latipes, Glaucomys sabrinus, 296 latrans, Canis, 226 lemming mouse, northern, 337 Lemmiscus, curtatus, 359 pauperrimus, 359 lepta, Mustela cicognanii, 193 Lepus, americanus, 382 artemisia, 387 bairdi, 384 californicus, 385 campestris, 380 cascadensis, 384 columbiensis, 385 deserticola, 385 floridanus, 389 nuttallii, 387 pineus, 384 sylvaticus, 387 texianus, 385 townsendii, 380 lestes, Canis, 230 leucodonta, Castor canadensis, 322 leucogaster, Onychomys, 323 leucurus, Cervus, 398 Odocoileus, 398 Life-zones and ecology, 32 limosus, Thomomys, 312 lion, mountain, 234 Lissodelphis borealis, 410 Littorina, 207 long-eared myotis, 151 long-tailed, meadow mouse, 352 shrews, 131 weasel, 194 longicaudus, Microtus, 352 longicrus, Myotis, 155 Vespertilio, 155 lordi, Abromys, 299 Perognathus, 299 loringi, Citellus washingtoni, 271 lotor, Procyon, 179 ludibundus, Eutamias, 257 Tamias amoenus, 257 lucifugus, Gryphus, 148 Myotis, 148 Vespertilio, 148 Lupus gigas, 232 lupus, Canis, 232 luteiventris, Eutamias amoenus, 258 Tamias amoenus, 258 Lutra, canadensis, 205 hudsonica, 210 pacifica, 210 vancouverensis, 210 lutris, Enhydra, 211 Latax, 211 lycaon, Canis, 232 Lynx, borealis, 239 canadensis, 239 fasciatus, 243 pallescens, 243 rufus, 241 uinta, 243 lynx, Canadian, 239 machetes, Ursus, 171 macropus, Arvicola, 356 Microtus, 356 Mynomes, 356 macroschisma, Pododesmus, 207 macrotis, Cariacus, 403 Cervus, 403 Corynorhinus, 163 Odocoileus hemionus, 403 macroura, Vulpes fulva, 415 macrurus, Microtus, 354 major, Chincha occidentalis, 218 Mephitis mephitis, 218 maniculatus, Peromyscus, 327 Margarites, 207 marmot, hoary, 265 Olympic, 267 yellow-bellied, 263 Marmota, avara, 263 flaviventris, 263 monax, 263 olympus, 267 petrensis, 263 Marsupalia, 112 marten, western, 183 Martes, americana, 186 caurina, 183 origenes, 186 pacifica, 187 pennanti, 187 Mazama, dorsata, 409 montana, 409 megalotis, Corynorhinus, 163 Reithrodon, 324 Reithrodontomys, 324 Megaptera novaeangliae, 413 melanops, Thomomys, 314 melanorhinus, Myotis, 158 Vespertilio, 158 Mephitis, americana, 217 foetulenta, 219 hudsonica, 217 major, 218 mephitis, 216 notata, 219 spissigrada, 219 mephitis, Mephitis, 216 merriami, Sorex, 134 Mesoplodon stejnegeri, 410 Microsorex, hoyi, 145 washingtoni, 145 Microtus, angustus, 353 arvicoloides, 356 canescens, 349 cantwelli, 357 drummondii, 346 funebris, 346 halli, 353 kincaidi, 347 longicaudus, 352 macropus, 356 macrurus, 354 modestus, 346 montanus, 347 mordax, 353 morosus, 357 nanus, 348 oregoni, 357 pauperrimus, 359 pennsylvanicus, 345 pugeti, 351 richardsonii, 354 townsendii, 349 minimus, Eutamias, 252 Ochotona, 379 Lagomys, 379 Tamias, 251 minor, Neurotrichus, 124 Mirounga angustirostris, 415, 416 missoulae, Oreamnos americanus, 409 missoulensis, Felis concolor, 237 modestus, Microtus pennsylvanicus, 346 mole, 125 coast, 127 Gibbs shrew-, 122 shrew-, 122 Townsend, 126 mollis, Citellus, 268 Spermophilus, 268 monax, Marmota, 263 montana, Mazama, 409 Montane meadow mouse, 347 montanus, Microtus, 347 Oreamnos, 409 Rangifer, 404 monticola, Sorex vagrans, 138 monticolus, Sorex, 138 moose, 403 Mopalia muscosa, 207 mordax, Microtus, 353 morosus, Microtus, 357 mountain, beaver, 366 goat, 406 lion, 234 sheep, 405 mouse, big jumping, 370 California red-backed, 344 creeping, 357 deer, 327 Gapper red-backed, 341 grasshopper, northern, 323 Great Basin pocket, 297 harvest, western, 324 house, 365 jumping, big, 370 lemming, northern, 337 long-tailed meadow, 352 meadow, 345 montane meadow, 347 northern grasshopper, 323 northern lemming, 337 Pennsylvania meadow, 345 pocket, Great Basin, 297 red-backed, California, 344 red-backed, Gapper, 341 Townsend meadow, 349 western harvest, 324 mouse-eared bats, 146 mule deer, 399 murica, Mustela erminea, 193 muricus, Mustela, 193 Putorius, 193 Mus, alexandrinus, 364 musculus, 365 norvegicus, 365 rattus, 364 muscosa, Mopalia, 207 musculus, Mus, 365 Sibbaldus, 413 muskrat, 360 Mustela, altifrontalis, 198 arizonensis, 197 canadensis, 187 caurina, 186 cicognanii, 193 effera, 190 energumenos, 199 erminea, 198 fallenda, 191 frenata, 194 gulosa, 193 invicta, 191 lepta, 193 murica, 193 nevadensis, 197 olympica, 192 origenes, 186 pacifica, 187 pennanti, 187 saturata, 198 streatori, 193 washingtoni, 198 Mynomes, macropus, 356 nanus, 348 myops, Thomomys, 310 Myotis, 146 big, 147 California, 156 californicus, 156 carissima, 148 caurinus, 157 evotis, 151 fringe-tailed, 153 hairy-winged, 154 interior, 155 Keen, 151 keenii, 151 long-eared, 151 longicrus, 155 lucifugus, 147 melanorhinus, 158 pacificus, 153 saturatus, 150 sociabilis, 150 small-footed, 158 subulatus, 158 thysanodes, 153 volans, 154 Yuma, 149 yumanensis, 149 Mytilus edulis, 180, 207 nanus, Arvicola, 348 Microtus, 348 navigator, Neosorex, 141 Sorex palustris, 141 neglecta, Taxidea taxus, 220 nelsoni, Cervus canadensis, 394 Neosorex, albiventer, 144 bendirii, 144 navigator, 141 Neotoma, alticola, 336 cinerea, 333 occidentalis, 336 nereis, Enhydra lutris, 211 Latax lutris, 211 Neurotrichus, gibbsii, 124 minor, 124 nevadensis, Mustela frenata, 197 niger, Sciurus, 286 nigrescens, Erethizon dorsatum, 376 Reithrodontomys megalotis, 324 nitidus, Vespertilio, 155, 157 nivarius, Clethrionomys gapperi, 343 Evotomys, 343 noctivagans, Lasionycteris, 159 Vespertilio, 159 Vesperugo, 159 northern, flying squirrel, 292 grasshopper mouse, 323 lemming mouse, 337 pocket gopher, 302 norvegicus, Mus, 365 Rattus, 365 Norway rat, 365 notata, Mephitis mephitis, 219 novaeangliae, Megaptera, 413 nudus, Hemigrapsus, 180, 207, 216 nutria, 376 Nuttall cottontail, 387 nuttallii, Lepus, 387 Sylvilagus, 387 obliquidens, Lagenorhynchus, 411 obscurus, Sorex, 138 occidentalis, Arvicola, 351 Canis, 232 Cervus canadensis, 394 Chincha, 219 Clethrionomys californicus, 344 Evotomys, 344 Helisoma, 137 Neotoma, 336 occipitalis, Fiber, 363 Ondatra zibethicus, 363 Ochotona, brunnescens, 380 cuppes, 379 fenisex, 379 minimus, 379 princeps, 377 ochrourus, Odocoileus virginianus, 398 Odocoileus, columbianus, 403 hemionus, 399 leucurus, 398 macrotis, 403 ochrourus, 398 virginianus, 398 Olympic marmot, 267 olympica, Aplodontia, 369 Mustela erminea, 192 Spilogale, 215 olympicus, Glaucomys sabrinus, 295 Phenacomys, 340 Sciuropterus alpinus, 295 olympus, Felis, 237 Marmota, 267 Ondatra, occipitalis, 363 osoyoosensis, 363 zibethicus, 360 Onychomys, fuscogriseus, 323 leucogaster, 323 opossum, 121 oramontis, Phenacomys, 340 orarius, Scapanus, 127 Ord kangaroo rat, 300 ordii, Dipodomys, 300 Perodipus, 300 Oreamnos, americanus, 409 missoulae, 409 montanus, 409 oreas, Peromyscus, 330 oregonensis, Felis, 237 Glaucomys sabrinus, 295 Hemigrapsus, 180 Pteromys, 295 Sciuropterus alpinus, 295 oregoni, Arvicola, 357 Microtus, 357 oregonus, Bison, 404 Zapus princeps, 373 origenes, Martes caurina, 186 osoyoosensis, Fiber, 363 Ondatra, 363 Otaria californianus, 244 otter, river, 205 sea, 211 Ovis, californiana, 406 canadensis, 405 Pacific right whale, 414 pacifica, Lutra hudsonica, 210 Martes pennanti, 187 Mustela canadensis, 187 Procyon lotor, 181 pacificus, Castor canadensis, 322 Myotis evotis, 153 pallescens, Lynx, 243 pallidus, Antrozous, 169 Eptesicus fuscus, 165 palustris, Sorex, 140 panther, 235 parvus, Cricetodops, 298 Perognathus, 297 pauperrimus, Arvicola, 359 Lagurus, 359 Lemmiscus, 359 Microtus, 359 pennanti, Martes, 187 Mustela, 187 Pennsylvanian meadow mouse, 345 pennsylvanicus, Microtus, 345 Perodipus, columbianus, 300 ordii, 300 Perognathus, columbianus, 299 laingi, 415 lordi, 299 parvus, 297 Peromyscus, akeleyi, 330 americanus, 331 artemisiae, 332 austerus, 331 gambelii, 331 hollisteri, 330 maniculatus, 327 oreas, 330 rubidus, 331 texianus, 331 personatus, Sorex, 133 petrensis, Marmota monax, 263 Petrolisthes eriomerus, 180, 207 Phenacomys, intermedius, 338 oramontis, 340 olympicus, 340 Phoca, jubata, 244 richardii, 247 vitulina, 247 Phocena vomerina, 412 Phocenoides dalli, 412 physalus, Balaenoptera, 413 Physeter catodon, 412 Physiographic provinces, 16 pictus, Eutamias minimus, 252 pigmy, rabbit, 390 sperm whale, 412 pika, 377 pike whale, 413 pineus, Lepus americanus, 384 Pinnipedia, 114 pipistrelle, western, 165 Pipistrellus hesperus, 165 pocket, gopher, northern, 302 mouse, Great Basin, 297 Podedesmus macroschisma, 207 Plecotus townsendii, 163 Plethodon vehiculum, 137 Pollack whale, 413 porcupine, 374 porpoise, Dall, 412 harbor, 412 right whale, 410 striped, 411 porpoises, 410 princeps, Ochotona, 377 Zapus, 371 Procyon, excelsus, 182 lotor, 179 pacifica, 181 proteus, 181 psora, 181 productus, Cancer, 180, 207 pronghorned antelope, 415 proteus, Procyon, 181 psora, Procyon, 181 Pteromys oregonensis, 295 pugetensis, Thomomys talpoides, 312 pugeti, Microtus townsendii, 351 puma, 235 pygmacus, Evotomys, 344 quadratus, Thomomys, 310 quadrivittatus, Eutamias, 256 Tamias, 256 rabbit, black-tailed jack, 385 jack, 380 pigmy, 390 snowshoe, 382 white-tailed jack, 380 raccoon, 179 rafinesquii, Carynorhinus, 161 raineri, Aplodontia, 369 Haplodontia, 369 rainieri, Aplodontia rufa, 369 Rana, 180 Rangifer, arcticus, 404 montanus, 404 rat, bushy-tailed wood, 333 kangaroo, Ord, 300 Norway, 365 Ord kangaroo, 300 roof, 364 sage, 271 water, 354 wood, bushy-tailed, 333 Rattus, alexandrinus, 364 norvegicus, 365 rattus, 364 rattus, Mus, 364 Rattus, 364 rectipinna, Grampus, 411 red-backed mouse, California, 344 Gapper, 341 red, fox, 224 squirrel, 286 regilla, Hyla, 137 Reithrodon megalotis, 324 Reithrodontomys, megalotis, 324 nigrescens, 324 richardii, Halicyon, 247 Phoca, 247 richardsonii, Microtus, 354 Sciurus, 289 Tamiasciurus, 289 right, whale, Pacific, 414 whale porpoise, 410 river otter, 205 Rhachianectes glaucus, 412 Rodentia, 115 roof rat, 364 roosevelti, Cervus, 394 rubidus, Peromyscus maniculatus, 331 rufa, Aplodontia, 366 Anisonyx, 369 Haplodon, 369 ruficaudus, Citellus columbianus, 275 Eutamias, 258 Tamias, 258 rufus, Haplodon, 369 Lynx, 241 Rupicapra americana, 409 sabrinus, Glaucomys, 292 sage rat, 271 sagebrush vole, 359 saturata, Mustela, 198 saturatus, Callospermophilus lateralis, 281 Citellus, 281 Clethrionomys gapperi, 342 Evotomys gapperi, 342 Myotis yumanensis, 150 Spermophilus, 281 Tamias, 281 saxatilis, Spilogale, 215 Scalops townsendii, 126 scammonii, Globicephalus, 411 Scapanus, 125 orarius, 127 schefferi, 130 townsendii, 126 yakimensis, 130 schefferi, Scapanus orarius, 130 Sciuropterus, alpinus, 295 bangsi, 295 olympicus, 295 oregonensis, 295 Sciurus, cascadensis, 290 carolinensis, 286 douglasii, 290 griseus, 284 hudsonicus, 288 hypophaeus, 286 niger, 286 richardsonii, 289 streatori, 290 Scotophilus hesperus, 165 scrutator, Eutamias minimus, 252 Tamias minimus, 252 sea lion, California, 244 Steller, 244 sea otter, 211 seal, Alaska fur, 246 fur, Alaska, 246 hair, 247 harbor, 247 Sei whale, 413 setosus, 140 shawi, Thomomys talpoides, 311 sheep, mountain, 405 shirasi, Alce americanus, 403 shrew, Bendire, 143 cinereous, 132 dusky, 138 long-tailed, 131 -mole, 122 Merriam, 134 mountain, 141 pigmy, 145 Trowbridge, 134 wandering, 136 water, 141, 143 shrew-mole, Gibbs, 122 shrews, long-tailed, 131 Sibbaldus musculus, 413 sieboldii, Eubalaena, 414 silvery-haired bat, 159 similis, Sorex vagrans, 140 simulans, Eutamias ruficaudus, 258 Tamias ruficaudus, 258 Siren cynocephalus, 246 Sitomys, americanus, 331 artemisiae, 332 austerus, 331 gambelii, 331 skunk, spotted, 212 striped, 216 small-footed myotis, 158 snowshoe rabbit, 382 sociabilis, Myotis yumanensis, 150 sorex, 131, albiventer, 144 areticus, 132 bairdi, 140 bendirei, 144 bendirii, 144 cinereus, 132 destructioni, 136 merriami, 134 monticola, 138 monticolus, 138 navigator, 141 obscurus, 138 palustris, 141 personatus, 133 setosus, 140 similis, 140 streatori, 133 suckleyi, 138 trowbridgii, 134 vagrans, 136 sperm whale, 412 Spermophilus, columbianus, 275 douglasii, 276 grammurus, 276 lateralis, 281 mollis, 268 saturatus, 281 townsendii, 268 Spilogale, gracilis, 212 latifrons, 215 olympica, 215 saxatilis, 215 spissigrada, Chincha occidentalis, 219 Mephitis, 219 spotted skunk, 212 squirrel, Beechey ground, 276 Columbian ground, 272 Douglas, 290 eastern gray, 286 flying, northern, 292 fox, 286 golden-mantled ground, 278, 281 gray, eastern, 286 gray, western, 284 northern flying, 292 red, 286 Townsend ground, 268 Washington ground, 271 western gray, 284 steelhead trout, 209 Stejneger beaked whale, 410 stejnegeri, Mesoplodon, 410 Steller sea lion, 244 Stenopalmatus, 170 streatori, Mustela, 193 Putorius, 193 Sciurus, 288 Sorex cinereus, 133 Tamiasciurus, 288 striped, porpoise, 411 skunk, 216 subulatus, Myotis, 151, 158 Vespertilio, 151 suckleyi, Sorex, 138 sulphur-bottom whale, 413 sylvaticus, Lepus, 387 Sylvilagus, floridanus, 389 idahoensis, 390 nuttallii, 387 Synaptomys, artemisiae, 415 borealis, 337 truei, 337 wrangeli, 337 tacomensis, Thomomys talpoides, 312 talpoides, Thomomys, 302 Tamias, affinis, 257 albiventris, 416 amoenus, 253 asiaticus, 262 canicaudus, 257 caurinus, 255 cooperi, 262 felix, 256 grisescens, 253 lateralis, 281 ludibundus, 257 luteiventris, 258 minimus, 251 quadrivittatus, 256 ruficaudus, 258 saturatus, 281 scrutator, 252 simulans, 258 townsendii, 258 Tamiasciurus, douglasii, 290 hudsonicus, 286 richardsonii, 289 streatori, 290 Taxidea, neglecta, 220 taxus, 220 taxus, Taxidea, 220 Ursus, 220 Telmessus cheiragonus, 207 tescorum, Callospermophilus lateralis, 279 Citellus lateralis, 279 texanus, Peromyscus, 331 texianus, Lepus, 385 Thomomys, aequalidens, 310 badius, 311 clusius, 310 columbianus, 310 couchi, 314 devexus, 309 douglasii, 312 ericaeus, 309 fuscus, 310 glacialis, 312 immunis, 311 limosus, 312 melanops, 314 myops, 310 pugetensis, 312 quadratus, 310 shawi, 311 tacomensis, 312 talpoides, 302 tumuli, 313 wallowa, 310 yakimensis, 311 yelmensis, 313 thysanodes, Myotis, 153 timber wolf, 232 Townsend, ground squirrel, 268 meadow mouse, 349 townsendii, Arvicola, 351 Citellus, 268 Corynorhinus, 163 Corynorhinus rafinesquii, 163 Eutamias, 262 Lepus, 380 Microtus, 349 Plecotus, 163 Scalops, 126 Scapanus, 125 Spermophilus, 268 Tamias, 259 Transition Life-zone, 32 trinotatus, Zapus, 372 trout, steelhead, 209 trowbridgii, Sorex, 134 truei, Synaptomys, 337 tumuli, Thomomys talpoides, 313 uinta, Lynx, 243 Upper Sonoran Life-zone, 36 Urotrichus, gibbsii, 124 ursina, Callotaria, 246 ursinus, Callorhinus, 246 Ursus, altifrontalis, 176 americanus, 176 canadensis, 415 cinnamomum, 176 chelan, 176 idahoensis, 415 machetes, 171 taxus, 220 vagrans, Sorex, 136 vancouverensis, Lutra, 210 Vegetation, Climate and, 25 vehiculum, Plethodon, 137 Vespertilio, californicus, 158 cinereus, 168 evotis, 153 gryphus, 148 hesperus, 165 keenii, 151 lucifugus, 155 longicrus, 148 nitidus, 155, 157 noctivagans, 159 subulatus, 151 Vesperugo, hesperus, 165 noctivagans, 159 virginiana, Didelphis, 121 virginianus, Odocoileus, 398 vitulina, Phoca, 247 volans, Myotis, 154 vole, heather, 338 sagebrush, 359 vomerina, Phocena, 412 Vulpes, cascadensis, 224 fulva, 224 macroura, 415 wallowa, Thomomys talpoides, 310 wallawalla, Lepus texianus, 385 wapiti, 391 Washington ground squirrel, 271 washingtoni, Citellus, 271 Microsorex hoyi, 145 Mustela, 198 Putorius, 198 washingtonii, Lepus, 384 water rat, 354 weasel, long-tailed, 194 western, gray squirrel, 284 harvest mouse, 324 pipistrelle, 165 whale, Baird beaked, 410 blue, 413 finback, 413 gray, 412 humpback, 413 killer, 411 Pacific right, 414 pigmy sperm, 412 pike, 413 Pollack, 413 Sei, 413 sperm, 412 sulphur-bottom, 413 Stejneger beaked, 410 whales, 410 white-tailed, deer, 395 jack rabbit, 380 wolf, timber, 232 woodchuck, 263 wood rat, bushy-tailed, 333 wrangeli, Synaptomys, 337 yakimensis, Citellus mollis, 268 Scapanus orarius, 130 Thomomys talpoides, 311 yellow-bellied marmot, 263 yelmensis, Thomomys talpoides, 313 Yuma myotis, 149 yumanensis, Myotis, 149 Zalophus californianus, 244 Zapus, idahoensis, 373 imperator, 372 kootenayensis, 373 oregonus, 363 princeps, 371 trinotatus, 372 zibethicus, Fiber, 363 Ondatra, 360 Transcriber's notes: Bold text marked as = ... = Italic text marked as _ ... _ Legend for column headers (TABLE 1) inserted. Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected, but other variations in spelling and punctuation remain unchanged. 
39887	----	Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. * * * * * THE CAMBRIDGE NATURAL HISTORY EDITED BY S. F. HARMER AND A. E. SHIPLEY * * * * * VOLUME X MAMMALIA by F. BEDDARD Reprint Edition _1958_ CODICOTE, ENGLAND WHELDON & WESLEY, LTD. WEINHEIM, GERMANY H. R. ENGELMANN (J. CRAMER) NEW YORK HAFNER PUBLISHING CO. © 1902, by Macmillan & Co., Limited Authorized reprint by Wheldon & Wesley, Ltd. and H. R. Engelmann (J. Cramer) Printed in Germany * * * * * {iii} PREFACE Inasmuch as Sir W. H. Flower and Mr. Lydekker could not profess to treat the Mammalia exhaustively within the limits of nearly 800 pages, in their _Introduction to the Study of Mammals_, it is obvious that the present volume, which appears ten years later and is of rather less size, can contain but a selection of the enormous mass of facts at the disposal of the student of this group. Thus the chief question for myself was what to select and what to leave aside. It will be observed that I have reduced the pages of this book to conformity with those of other volumes of the series by treating some groups more briefly than others. It has appeared to me to be desirable to treat fully such groups as the Edentata and the Marsupialia, and permissible to be more brief in dealing with such huge Orders as those of the Rodentia and Chiroptera. Lengthy disquisitions upon such familiar and comparatively uninteresting animals as the Lion and Leopard have been curtailed, and the space thus saved has been devoted to shorter and more numerous accounts of other creatures. As there are nearly six hundred genera of living Mammals known to science, omission as well as compression became an absolute necessity. I have given, I hope, adequate treatment from the standpoint of a necessarily limited treatise to the majority of the more important genera of Mammals both living and extinct; but the length of this part of the book had to be increased by the discoveries, which give me at once an advantage and a disadvantage as compared with the two authors whose names I have quoted, of a considerable number of important new types in the last ten years. {iv} Such forms as _Notoryctes_, _Romerolagus_, _Caenolestes_, "_Neomylodon_," and _Ocapia_ could not possibly have been omitted. In preparing my accounts of both living and extinct forms I have nearly invariably consulted the original authorities, and have often supplemented or verified these accounts by my own dissections at the Zoological Society's Gardens. My rule has not, however, been invariable in this matter, inasmuch as there exist two recent and trustworthy text-books of Mammalian Palaeontology--Professor Zittel's _Handbuch der Palaeontologie_, and Dr. A. Smith Woodward's manual, _Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology_, in the Cambridge Biological Series. Where the name of a genus only or its range, or merely one or two facts about it, are mentioned, I have not thought it necessary to go further than these two works. But a good deal has been done even since the appearance of these two volumes which it will be found that I have not ignored. I have to thank my editors for the trouble which they have taken in the revision of the proofs and for many suggestions. To Professor Osborn, of Columbia University, New York, I am indebted for some kind suggestions. My daughter Iris has assisted me in various ways. Finally, I desire to express my indebtedness to Mr. Dixon and to Mr. M. P. Parker for the care which they have taken in the preparation of the figures which were drawn by them especially for this work. FRANK E. BEDDARD. LONDON, _February 28, 1902_. * * * * * {v} CONTENTS Page PREFACE iii SCHEME OF THE CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN THIS BOOK ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY 1 CHAPTER II STRUCTURE AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAMMALIA 5 CHAPTER III THE POSSIBLE FORERUNNERS OF THE MAMMALIA 90 CHAPTER IV THE DAWN OF MAMMALIAN LIFE 96 CHAPTER V THE EXISTING ORDERS OF MAMMALS: PROTOTHERIA--MONOTREMATA 105 CHAPTER VI INTRODUCTION TO THE SUB-CLASS EUTHERIA 116 CHAPTER VII EUTHERIA--MARSUPIALIA 122 {vi} CHAPTER VIII EDENTATA--GANODONTA 161 CHAPTER IX UNGULATA--CONDYLARTHRA--AMBLYPODA--ANCYLOPODA--TYPOTHERIA-- TOXODONTIA--PROBOSCIDEA--HYRACOIDEA 195 CHAPTER X UNGULATA (_continued_)--PERISSODACTYLA (ODD-TOED UNGULATES)-- LITOPTERNA 235 CHAPTER XI UNGULATA (_continued_)--ARTIODACTYLA (EVEN-TOED UNGULATES)--SIRENIA 269 CHAPTER XII CETACEA--WHALES AND DOLPHINS 339 CHAPTER XIII CARNIVORA--FISSIPEDIA 386 CHAPTER XIV CARNIVORA (_continued_)--PINNIPEDIA (SEALS AND WALRUSES)--CREODONTA 446 CHAPTER XV RODENTIA--TILLODONTIA 458 CHAPTER XVI INSECTIVORA--CHIROPTERA 508 CHAPTER XVII PRIMATES 533 INDEX 591 * * * * * {vii} Scheme of the Classification Adopted In This Book Sub-Class Prototheria (p. 105). Order. Sub-order. Family. Sub-family. MONOTREMATA { { Echidnidae (p. 110). (p. 106) { { Ornithorhynchidae { (p. 112). ?ALLOTHERIA (p. 96). Sub-class Eutheria (p. 116) { { Macropodinae { Macropodinae (p. 132). { { (p. 129) { Potoroinae (p. 137). { { { Hypsiprymnodontinae { { { (p. 138). { { { Diprotodontia { Phalangeridae { Phalangerinae (p. 140). { (p. 128) { (p. 138) { Phascolarctinae { { { (p. 144). { { { Phascolomyinae { { { (p. 144). MARSUPIALIA { { { Tarsipedinae (p. 145). (p. 122) { { Epanorthidae (p. 145). { { { Dasyuridae (p. 149). { Polyprotodontia { Didelphyidae (p. 155). { (p. 149) { Peramelidae (p. 156). { { Notoryctidae (p. 158). { { Myrmecophagidae (p. 166). { { Bradypodidae (p. 170). { Xenarthra { Dasypodidae (p. 173). EDENTATA { (p. 166) { Mylodontidae (p. 179). (p. 161) { { Megalonychidae (p. 183). { { Megatheriidae (p. 183). { { Glyptodontidae (p. 184). { { Nomarthra { Orycteropodidae (p. 187). { (p. 186) { Manidae (p. 188). GANODONTA { { Stylinodontidae (p. 191). (p. 190) { { Conoryctidae (p. 193). {viii} { Condylarthra (p. 202). { Amblypoda (p. 205). { Ancylopoda (p. 211). { Typotheria (p. 212). { Toxodontia (p. 214). { Proboscidea { Elephantidae (p. 217). { (p. 216) { Dinotheriidae (p. 231). { Hyracoidea (p. 232). { { Equidae (p. 237). { { Lophiodontidae (p. 247). { Perissodactyla { Palaeotheriidae (p. 247). { (p. 235) { Tapiridae (p. 260). { { Rhinocerotidae (p. 253). { { Titanotheriidae (p. 264). UNGULATA { (p. 195) { Litopterna { Macraucheniidae (p. 267). { (p. 267) { { { Hippopotamidae (p. 273). { { Suidae (p. 275). { { Dicotylidae (p. 278). { { Tragulidae (p. 282). { { Proceratidae (p. 284). { { Camelidae (p. 285). { { Cervidae (p. 291) { Cervinae (p. 293). { Artiodactyla { { Moschinae (p. 299). { (p. 269) { Giraffidae (p. 301). { { Antilocapridae (p. 306). { { Bovidae (p. 307). { { Anthracotheriidae (p. 328). { { Caenotheriidae (p. 329). { { Xiphodontidae (p. 329). { { Oreodontidae (p. 330). { { Anoplotheriidae (p. 332). SIRENIA (p. 333). { Mystacoceti { Balaenopteridae { (p. 353) { (p. 355). { { Balaenidae (p. 358). CETACEA { (p. 339) { Odontoceti { Physeteridae { Physeterinae (p. 363). { (p. 362) { (p. 362) { Ziphiinae (p. 367). { { Delphinidae (p. 372). { { Platanistidae (p. 380). { { Squalodontidae (p. 384). { { Archaeoceti { Zeuglodontidae (p. 384). { (p. 384) { { Felidae (p. 390). { { Machaerodontidae { { (p. 401). { { { { { Euplerinae (p. 403). { { { Galidictiinae (p. 404). { { Viverridae { Cryptoproctinae (p. 404). { { (p. 403) { Viverrinae (p. 405). CARNIVORA { Fissipedia { { Herpestinae (p. 409). {ix} (p. 386) { (p. 387) { Hyaenidae (p. 411). { { Canidae (p. 413). { { Procyonidae (p. 426). { { { Melinae (p. 432). { { Mustelidae { Mustelinae (p. 433). { { (p. 431) { Lutrinae (p. 439). { { Ursidae (p. 442). { { Pinnipedia { Otariidae (p. 450). { (p. 446) { Trichechidae (p. 451). { { Phocidae (p. 452). CREODONTA (p. 455). { { Anomaluridae (p. 462). { { Soiuridae (p. 463). { { Castoridae (p. 467). { { Haplodontidae (p. 469). { { Gliridae (p. 470). { { { Murinae (p. 471). { { { Phlaeomyinae (p. 473). { { { Hydromyinae (p. 474). { { { Rhynchomyinae (p. 474). { { { Gerbillinae (p. 475). { { Muridae { Otomyinae (p. 475). { { (p. 471) { Dendromyinae (p. 476). { { { Lophiomyinae (p. 476). { { { Microtinae (p. 477). { { { Sigmodontinae (p. 479). { Simplicidentata { { Neotominae (p. 480). RODENTIA { (p. 462) { Bathyergidae (p. 480). (p. 458) { { Spalacidae (p. 482). { { Geomyidae (p. 483). { { Heteromyidae (p. 484). { { Dipodidae (p. 484). { { Pedetidae (p. 486). { { { Octodontinae (p. 487). { { Octodontidae { Loncherinae (p. 488). { { (p. 487) { Capromyinae (p. 489). { { Ctenodactylidae (p. 490). { { Caviidae (p. 491). { { Dasyproctidae (p. 493). { { Dinomyidae (p. 495). { { Chinchillidae (p. 496). { { Cercolabidae (p. 497). { { Hystricidae (p. 499). { { Duplicidentata { Leporidae (p. 502). { (p. 502) { Lagomyidae (p. 505). TILLODONTIA (p. 506). { { Erinaceidae (p. 509). { { Tupaiidae (p. 511). { { Centetidae (p. 511). { Insectivora { Potamogalidae (p. 513). { Vera { Solenodontidae (p. 513). { (p. 509) { Chrysochloridae (p. 514). INSECTIVORA { { Macroscelidae (p. 515). (p. 508) { { Talpidae (p. 516). { { Soricidae (p. 518). { { Dermoptera { Galeopithecidae (p. 520). { (p. 520) {x} { Megachiroptera { Pteropodidae (p. 524). { (p. 524) { { { Rhinolophidae (p. 527). CHIROPTERA { { Nycteridae (p. 527). (p. 521) { Microchiroptera { Vespertilionidae (p. 528). { (p. 526) { Emballonuridae (p. 530). { Phyllostomatidae { (p. 531). { { { Indrisinae (p. 538). { { Lemuridae { Lemurinae (p. 540). { { (p. 538) { Galagininae (p. 542). { { { Lorisinae (p. 545). { Lemuroidea { Chiromyidae (p. 548). { (p. 534) { Tarsiidae (p. 550). PRIMATES { { Anaptomorphidae (p. 552). (p. 533) { { Chriacidae (p. 552). { { Megaladapididae (p. 554). { { { Hapalidae (p. 556). { Anthropoidea { Cebidae (p. 557). { (p. 554) { Cercopithecidae (p. 562). { { Simiidae (p. 570). { { Hominidae (p. 585). * * * * * {1} CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY The Mammalia form a group of vertebrated animals which roughly correspond with what are termed in popular language "quadrupeds," or with the still more vernacular terms of "beasts" or "animals." The name "Mammal" is derived from the most salient characteristic of the group, _i.e._ the possession of teats; but if the term were used in an absolutely strict etymological sense, it could not include the Monotremes, which, though they have mammary glands, have not fully-differentiated teats (see p. 16). There are, however, as will be seen shortly, other characters which necessitate the inclusion of these egg-laying quadrupeds within the class Mammalia. The Mammalia are unquestionably the highest of the Vertebrata. This statement, however, though generally acceptable, needs some explanation and justification. "Highest" implies perfection, or, at any rate, relative perfection. It might be said with perfect truth that a serpent is in its way an example of perfection of structure: not incommoded with limbs it can slip rapidly through the grass, swim like a fish, climb like a monkey, and dart upon its prey with rapidity and accuracy. It is an example of an extremely specialised reptile, the loss of the limbs being the most obvious way in which it is specialised from more generalised reptilian types. Specialisation in fact is often synonymous with degradation, and, this being the case, implies a restricted life. On the other hand, simplification is not always to be read as degeneration. The lower jaw, for instance, of mammals has fewer bones in it than that of reptiles, and is more concisely articulated to the skull; this implies greater efficiency {2} as a biting organ. The term highest, however, includes increased complexity as well as simplification, the two series of modifications being interwoven to form a more efficient organism. It cannot be doubted that the increased complexity of the brain of mammals raises them in the scale, as does also the complex and delicately adjusted series of bonelets which form the organ for the transmission of sound to the internal ear. The separation of the cavity containing the lungs, and the investment of the partition so formed with muscular fibres, renders the action of the lungs more effective; and there are other instances among the Mammalia of greater complexity of the various parts and organs of the body when compared with lower forms, which help to justify the term "highest" generally applied to these creatures. Complexity and finish of structure are often accompanied by large size; and the Mammalia are, on the whole, larger than any other Vertebrates, and also contain the most colossal species. The huge Dinosaurs of the Mesozoic epoch, though among the largest of animals, are exceeded by the Whales; and the latter group includes the mightiest creature that exists or has ever existed, the eighty-five-feet-long Sibbald's Rorqual. Confining ourselves rigidly to facts, and avoiding all theorising on the possible relation between complexity and nicety of build and the capacity for increase in bulk, it is plain from the history of more than one group of mammals that increase in bulk accompanies specialisation of structure. The huge Dinocerata when compared with the ancestral _Pantolambda_ teach us this, as do many similar examples. Within the mammalian group, as in the case of other Vertebrates, difference of size has a certain rough correspondence with difference of habitat. The Whales not only contain the largest of animals, but their average size is great; so too with the equally aquatic Sirenia and very aquatic Pinnipedia. Here the support offered by the water and the consequent decreased need for muscular power to neutralise the effects of gravity permit of an increase in bulk. Purely terrestrial animals come next; and finally arboreal, and, still more, "flying" mammals are of small size, since the maintenance of the position when moving and feeding needs enormous muscular effort. The Mammals are more easily to be separated from the Vertebrates lying lower in the series than any of the latter are from each other in ascending order. A large number of {3} characters might be used in addition to those which will be made use of in the following brief catalogue of essential mammalian features, were it not for the low-placed Monotremata on the one hand and the highly specialised Whales on the other. Including those forms, the Mammalia are to be distinguished from all other Vertebrates by the following series of structural features, which will be expanded later into a short disquisition upon the general structure of the Mammalia. The class Mammalia may, in fact, be thus defined:-- Hair-clad Vertebrates, with cutaneous glands in the female, secreting milk for the nourishment of the young. Skull without prefrontal, postfrontal, quadrato-jugal, and some other bones, and with two occipital condyles formed entirely by the exoccipitals. Lower jaw composed of dentary bone only, articulating only with the squamosal. Ear bones a chain of three or four separate bonelets. Cervical vertebrae sharply distinguished from the dorsals, and if with free ribs, showing no transition between these and the thoracic ribs. Brain with four optic lobes. Lungs and heart separated from abdominal cavity by a muscular diaphragm. Heart with a single left aortic arch. Red blood-corpuscles non-nucleate. The following characters are also very nearly universal, and in any case absolutely distinctive:--Cervical vertebrae, seven; vertebrae with epiphyses. Ankle-joint "cruro-tarsal," _i.e._ between the leg and the ankle, and not in the middle of the ankle.[1] Attachment of the pelvis to the vertebral column pre-acetabular in position. The Mammalia since they are hot-blooded creatures are more independent of temperature than reptiles; they are thus found spread over a wider area of the earth's surface. As however, though hot-blooded, they have not the powers of locomotion possessed by birds, they are not quite so widely distributed as are those animals. The Mammalia range up into the extreme north, but, excepting only forms mainly aquatic, such as the Sea Lions, are not known to occur on the Antarctic continent. With the exception of the flying Bats, indigenous mammals are totally absent from New Zealand; and it seems to be doubtful whether those supposed oceanic islands which have a mammalian fauna are really {4} oceanic in origin. The continents and oceans are peopled by rather over three thousand species of Mammalia, a number which is considerably less than that of either birds or reptiles. It seems clear that, so far at any rate as concerns the numbers of families and genera, the mammalian fauna of to-day is less varied than it was during the Mid-tertiary period, the heyday of mammalian life. It is rather remarkable to contrast in this way the mammals and the birds. The two classes of the animal kingdom seem to have come into being at about the same period; but the birds either have reached their culminating point to-day, or have not yet reached it. The Mammalia, on the other hand, multiplied to an extraordinary extent during the Eocene and the Miocene periods, and have since dwindled. The break is most marked at the close of the Pleistocene, and may be in part due to the direct influence of man. At present man exercises so enormous an effect, both directly and indirectly, that the future history of the Mammalia is probably foreshadowed by the instances of the White Rhinoceros and the Quagga. On the other hand, the economic usefulness of the Mammalia is greater than that of any other animals; and the next most important era in their history will be probably that of domesticity and "preservation." * * * * * {5} CHAPTER II STRUCTURE AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAMMALIA EXTERNAL FORM.--It would be quite impossible for any one to confuse any other quadrupedal animal with a mammal. The body of a reptile is, as it were, slung between its limbs, like the body of an eighteenth century chariot between its four wheels; in the mammal the body is raised entirely above, and is supported by, the four limbs. The axes of these limbs too, as a general rule, are parallel with the vertical axis of the body of their possessor. There is thus a greater perfection of the relations of the limbs to the trunk from the point of view of a terrestrial creature, which has to use those limbs for rapid movement. The same perfection in these relations is to be seen, it should be observed, in such running forms among the lower Vertebrata as the Birds and the Dinosaurs, where the actual angulation of the limbs is as in the purely running Mammalia. These relations are of course absolutely lost in the aquatic Cetacea, and not marked in various burrowing creatures. The way in which the fore- and hind-limbs are angulated is considerably different in the two cases. In the latter, which are most used and, as it were, push on the anterior part of the body, the femur has its lower end directed forwards, the tibia and the fibula project backwards at the lower end, while the ankle and foot are again inclined in the same direction as the femur. With the fore-limbs there is not this regular alternation. The humerus is directed backwards, the fore-arm forwards, and the hand still more forwards. This angulation seems to facilitate movement, inasmuch as it is seen in even the Amphibia and the lower Reptiles, in which, however, the differences between the fore- and hind-limbs are less marked, {6} indicating therefore a less specialised condition of the limbs. It is an interesting fact that the angulation of the limbs is to some extent obliterated in very bulky creatures, and almost entirely so in the elephants (see p. 217), which seem to need strong and straight pillars for the due support of their huge bodies. The alertness and general intellectual superiority of mammals to all animals lying below them in the series (with the exception of the birds, which are in their way almost on a level with the Mammalia) are seen by their active and continuous movements. The lengthy periods of absolute motionlessness, so familiar to everybody in such a creature as the Crocodile, are unknown among the more typical Mammalia except indeed during sleep. This mental condition is clearly shown by the proportionate development of the external parts of all the organs of the higher senses. The Mammalia as a rule have well-developed, often extremely large, flaps of skin surrounding the entrance to the organ of hearing, often called "ears," but better termed "pinnae." These are provided with special muscles, and can be often moved and in many directions. The nose is always, or nearly always, very conspicuous by its naked character; by the large surface, often moist, which surrounds the nostrils; and again by the muscles, which enable this tract of the integument to be moved at will. The eyes, perhaps, are less marked in their predominance over the eyes of lower Vertebrates than are the ears and nose; but they are provided as a rule with upper and lower eyelids, as well as by a nictitating membrane as in lower Vertebrates. The apparent predominance of the senses of smell and hearing over that of sight appears to be marked in the Mammalia, and may account for their diversity of voice as well as of odour, and for the general sameness of coloration which distinguishes this group from the brilliantly-coloured birds and reptiles. The head, too, which bears these organs of special sense, is more obviously marked out from the neck and body than is the case with the duller creatures occupying the lower branches of the Vertebrate stem. [Illustration] FIG. 1.--A, Section of human skin. _Co_, Dermis; _D_, sebaceous glands; _F_, fat in dermis; _G_, vessels in dermis; _GP_, vascular papillae; _H_, hair; _N_, nerves in dermis; _NP_, nervous papillae; _Sc_, horny layer of epidermis; _SD_, sweat gland; _SD_^1, duct of sweat gland; _SM_, Malpighian layer. B, Longitudinal section through a hair (diagrammatic). _Ap_, Band of muscular fibres inserted into the hair-follicle; _Co_, corium (dermis); _F_, external longitudinal; _F_^1, internal circular, fibrous layer of follicle; _Ft_, fatty tissue in the dermis; _GH_, hyaline membrane between the root-sheath and the follicle; _HBD_, sebaceous gland; _HP_, hair-papilla with vessels in its interior; _M_, medullary substance (pith) of the hair; _O_, cuticle of root-sheath; _R_, cortical layer; _Sc_, horny layer of epidermis; _Sch_, Hair shaft; _SM_, Malpighian layer of epidermis; _WS_, _WS_^1, outer and inner layers of root-sheath. (From Wiedersheim's _Comparative Anatomy_.) [Illustration] THE HAIR.--The Mammalia are absolutely distinguished from all other Vertebrates (or, for the matter of that, Invertebrates) by the possession of hair. To define a mammal as a Vertebrate with hair would be an entirely exclusive definition; even in the smooth Whales a few hairs at least are present, which may be {7} reduced to as few as two bristles on the lips. The term "hair," however, is apt to be somewhat loosely applied; it has been made use of to describe, for example, the slender processes of the chitinous skin of the Crustacea. It will be necessary, therefore, to enter into the microscopical structure and development of the mammalian hair. Hair is found in every mammal. The first appearance of a hair is a slight thickening of the stratum Malpighii of the epidermis, the cells taking part in this being {8} elongated and converging slightly above and below. Dr. Maurer has called attention to the remarkable likeness between the embryonic hair when at this stage and the simple sense-organs of lower Vertebrates. Later there is formed below this a denser aggregation of the corium, which ultimately becomes the papilla of the hair. This is the apparent homologue of the first formed part of a feather, which projects as a papilla before the epidermis has undergone any modification. Hence there is from the very first a difference between feathers and hairs--a difference which must be carefully borne in mind, especially when we consider the strong superficial resemblance between hairs and the simple barbless feathers. Still later the knob of epidermic cells becomes depressed into a tubular structure, which is lined with cells also derived from the stratum Malpighii, but is filled with a continuation of the more superficial cells of the epidermis. This is the hair-follicle, and from the epidermic cells arises the hair by direct metamorphosis of those cells; there is no excretion of the hair by the cells, but the cells become the hair. From the hair-follicle also grows out a pair of sebaceous glands, which serve to keep the fully-formed hair moist. [Illustration] FIG. 2.--Four diagrams of stages in the development of a hair. A, Earliest stage in one of those mammals in which the dermal papilla appears first; B, C, D, three stages in the development of the hair in the human embryo. _blb_, Hair-bulb; _crn_, horny layer of the epidermis; _foll_, hair-follicle; _grm_, hair-germ; _h_, hair, in D, projecting on the surface; _muc_, Malpighian layer of epidermis; _pp_, dermal papilla; _seb_, developing sebaceous glands; _sh.1_, _sh.2_, inner and outer root-sheaths. (After Hertwig.) Dr. Meijerle[2] has lately described in some detail the {9} particular arrangement of the individual hairs among mammals; they are not by any manner of means scattered without order, but show a definite and regular arrangement, which varies with the animal. For instance, in an American Monkey (_Midas_), the hairs arise in threes--three hairs of equal size springing from the epidermis close together; in the Paca (_Coelogenys_) there are in each group three stout hairs alternating with three slender hairs. In some forms a number of hairs spring from a common point: in the Jerboa (_Dipus_) twelve or thirteen arise from a single hole; in _Ursus arctos_ there is the same general plan, but there is one stout hair and four or five slender ones. There are numerous other complications and modifications, but the facts, although interesting, do not appear to throw any light upon the mutual affinities of the animals. Allied forms may have a very different arrangement, while in forms which have no near relationship the plan may be very similar, as is shown by the examples cited from Dr. Meijerle's paper. The groups of hairs, moreover, have themselves a definite placing, which the same anatomist has compared with the disposition of the bundles of hairs behind and between the scales of the Armadillo, and which has led him to the view that the ancestors of mammals were scaly creatures--a view also supported by Professor Max Weber,[3]and not in itself unreasonable when we consider the numerous points of affinity between the primitive Mammalia and certain extinct forms of reptiles.[4] The hairs are greatly modified in form in different mammals and in different parts of their bodies. It is very commonly the case that a soft under-fur can be distinguished from the longer and coarser hairs, which to some extent hide the latter. Thus the "sealskin" of commerce is the under-fur of the _Otaria ursina_ of the North. The coarser hairs may be further differentiated into bristles; these again into spines, such as those of the Hedgehog and of the Porcupine. Again, the flattening and agglutination of hairs seems to be responsible for the scales of the _Manis_ {10} and for the horns of the _Rhinoceros_. It is a matter of common knowledge that upon the head of various animals, _e.g._ the Domestic Cat, long and sensitive hairs are developed, which are connected with the terminations of nerves, and perform a sensory, probably tactile function. These occur on the snout, above the eyes, and in the neighbourhood of the ears. It is an interesting fact that a tuft of quite similar hairs occurs on the hand of many mammals close to the wrist, which, at least in the case of _Bassaricyon_, are connected with a strong branch from the arm-nerve. These tufts also occur in Lemurs, in the Cat, various Rodents and Marsupials, and are probably quite general in mammals who "feel" with their fore-limbs;--in which, in fact, the fore-limbs are not exclusively running organs. That the last remaining hairs of the Cetacea are found upon the muzzle, is perhaps significant of the importance of these sensory bristles. The entire absence of hairs is quite common in this order, although traces of them are sometimes found in the embryo. The Sirenia, too, are comparatively hairless, as are also many Ungulates. Whether the presence of blubber in the former case and the existence of a very thick skin in the latter animals are facts which have had anything to do with the disappearance of hair or not, is a matter for further inquiry. The intimate structure of the hair varies considerably. The variations concern the form of the hair, which may be round in transverse section, or so oval as to appear quite flat when the hair is examined in its entirety. The substance of the hair is made up of a central medulla or pith with a peripheral cortex; the latter is scaled, and the scales are often imbricated and with prominent edges. The amount of the two constituents also differs, and the cortex may be reduced to a series of bands surrounding only tracts of the enclosed pith. In the hair is contained the pigment to which the colour of mammals is chiefly due. Tracts of brightly-coloured skin may exist, as in the Apes of certain genera; but such structures are not general. The pigment of the hair seems to consist of those pigmentary substances known as melanins. It is remarkable to find such a uniform cause of coloration, when we consider the great variety of feather-pigments found in birds. The variations of colour of the hair of mammals are due to the unequal distribution of these brown pigments. There are very few mammals which can {11} be called brightly coloured. The Bats of the genus _Kerivoula_ have been compared to large butterflies, and some of the Flying Squirrels have strongly-marked contrasts of reddish brown, white, and yellow. The same may be said of the spines of certain Porcupines. But we find in the hair no bright blues, greens, and reds such as are common among birds. There are certain general facts about the coloration of mammals which require some notice here. Next to the usually sombre hues of these animals the general absence of secondary sexual coloration is noteworthy. In but a few cases among the Lemurs and Bats do we find any marked divergences in hues between males and females. Secondary sexual characters in mammals are, it is true, often exhibited by the great length of certain hair-tracts in the male, such as the mane of the Lion, the throat- and leg-tufts of the Barbary Sheep, and so forth; but apart from these, the secondary sexual characters of mammals are chiefly shown in size, _e.g._ the Gorilla, or in the presence of tusks, _e.g._ various Boars, or of horns, as in the Deer, etc. The coloration of mammals frequently exhibits conspicuous patterns of marking. These are in the form of longitudinal stripes, of cross-stripes, or of spots; the latter may be "solid" spots, or broken up, as in the Leopard and Jaguar, into groups of smaller spots arranged in a rosette-fashion. We never find in mammals the complicated "eyes" and other markings which occur in so many birds and in other lower Vertebrates. It is important to note that in the Mammalia whose sense of sight is quite keen there should be a practical absence of secondary sexual colours. As to the relationship of the various forms of marking that do occur, it seems clear that there has been a progression from a striped or spotted condition to uniform coloration. For we find that many Deer have spotted young; that the young Tapir of the New World is spotted, while its parents are uniform blackish brown; the strongly-marked spotting of the young Puma contrasts with the uniform brown of the adult; and the Lion cub, as every one knows, is also spotted, the adult lioness showing considerable traces of the spots. The seasonal change in the colours of certain mammals is a subject upon which much has been written. The extreme of this is seen in those creatures, such as the Polar Hare and the Arctic Fox, which become entirely blanched in the winter, recovering {12} their darker coat in the spring. This is, however, only an extreme case of a change which is general. Most animals get a thicker fur in winter and exchange it for a lighter one in summer. And the hues of the coat change in correspondence. GLANDS OF THE SKIN.--The great variety of integumental glands possessed by the Mammalia distinguishes them from any group of lower Vertebrates. This variability, however, only concerns the anatomical structure of the glands in question. Histologically they are all of them apparently to be referred to one of two types, the sudoriparous or sweat gland and the sebaceous gland. Simple sweat and sebaceous glands are abundant in mammals, with but a few exceptions. The structures that we are now concerned with are agglomerations of these glands. The mammary glands will be treated of in connexion with the marsupium; they are either masses of sweat glands, or of sebaceous glands whose secretion has been converted into milk. Many Carnivora possess glands opening to the exterior, near the anus, by a large orifice. These secrete various odoriferous substances, of which the well-known "civet" is an example. Other odoriferous glands are the musk glands of the Musk-deer and of the Beaver; the suborbital gland of many Antelopes; the dorsal gland of the Peccary, which has given the name of _Dicotyles_ to the genus on account of its resemblance in form to a navel. This gland may be seen to secrete a clear watery fluid. The Elephant has a gland situated on the temple, which is said to secrete during certain periods only, and to be a warning to leave the animal alone. Very remarkable are the foot glands of certain species of _Rhinoceros_; they are not universally present in those animals, and are therefore useful as specific distinctions. On the back of the root of the tail in many Dogs are similar glands. The Gentle Lemur (_Hapalemur_) has a peculiar gland upon the arm, about the size of an almond, which in the male underlies a patch of spiny outgrowths. In _Lemur varius_ is a hard patch of black skin which may be the remnants of such a gland. It is thought that the callosities on the legs of Horses and Asses are remnants of glands. One of the most complex of these structures which has been examined microscopically exists in the Marsupial _Myrmecobius_.[5] On the skin of the anterior part of the chest, just in front of the {13} sternum, is a naked patch of skin which is seen to be perforated by numerous pores. Besides the ordinary sebaceous and sweat glands there are a series of masses of glands, opening by larger orifices, which present the appearance of groups of sebaceous glands, and are of a racemose character; but the existence of muscular fibres in their coats seems to show that they should be referred rather to the sudoriparous series. Beneath the integument is a large compound tubular gland quite half an inch in diameter. In _Didelphys dimidiata_ there is a precisely similar glandular area and large underlying gland, the correspondence being remarkable in two Marsupials so distant in geographical position and affinities. Even among the Diprotodont genera there is something of the kind; for in _Dorcopsis luctuosa_ and _D. muelleri_ is a collection of four unusually large sebaceous follicles upon the throat, and in the Tree Kangaroo (_Dendrolagus bennettii_) there is the same collection of enlarged hair-follicles, though they are apparently somewhat reduced as compared with those of _Dorcopsis_. These are of course a few examples out of many. It seems to be possible that the functions of these various glands is at least twofold. In the first place, they may serve, where predominant in one sex, to attract the sexes together. In the second place, the glands may be useful to enable a strayed animal of a gregarious species to regain the herd. It is perfectly conceivable too that in other cases the glands may be a protection, as they most undoubtedly are in the Skunk, from attacks. In connexion with the first, and more especially the second, of the possible uses of these glands, it is interesting to note that in purely terrestrial creatures, such as the Rhinoceros, the glands are situated on the feet, and would therefore taint the grass and herbage as the animal passed, and thus leave a track for the benefit of its mate. The same may be said of the rudimentary glands of Horses if they are really glands. The secretion of the "crumen" of Antelopes is sometimes deposited deliberately by _Oreotragus_ upon surrounding objects, a proceeding which would attain the same end. One may even perhaps detect "mimicry" in the similar odours of certain animals. Prey may be lured to their destruction, or enemies frightened away. The defenceless Musk-deer may escape its foes by the suggestion of the musky odour of a crocodile. It is at any rate perfectly conceivable that the variety of odours among mammals may play a very {14} important part in their life, and it is perhaps worthy of note that birds with highly-variegated plumage are provided only with the uropygial gland, while mammals with usually dull and similar coloration have a great variety of skin glands. Scent is no doubt a sense of higher importance in mammals than in birds. The subject is one which will bear further study. NAILS AND CLAWS.--Except for the Cetacea (where rudiments have been found in the foetus), the extremities of the fingers and of the toes of mammals are covered by, or encased in, horny epidermic plates, known as nails, claws, and hoofs. The variety in the shape and development of these corneous sheaths to the digits is highly characteristic of mammals as opposed to lower Vertebrates. If we take extreme cases, such as the nail of the thumb in Man, the hoof of a Horse, and the claw of a Cat, it is easy to distinguish the three kinds of phalangeal horny coverings. But the differences become extinguished as we pass from these to related types. The nail of the little finger in Man approaches the claw-like form; and the hoofs of the Lama are almost claws in the sharpness of their extremities. On the whole it may be said that claws and hoofs embrace the bone which they cover, while nails lie only upon its dorsal surface. The form of the distal phalanx which bears the nail shows, however, two kinds of modification which do not support such a classification. When those phalanges are clad with hoofs or covered by a nail they end in a rounded and flattened termination. On the other hand, when they bear a claw they are themselves sharpened at the extremity and often grooved above. THE MARSUPIUM.--It may appear to be unnecessary at this juncture to speak of the marsupial pouch, which is so usually believed to be a characteristic of the group Marsupialia. Rudiments of this structure have, however, been recently discovered in the higher mammals, and, as Dr. Klaatsch[6] has remarked, all researches into the "history of the mammals culminate in the question whether the placental mammals pass through a marsupial stage or not." We cannot, therefore, look upon the marsupial pouch as a matter affecting only the Marsupials, though it is true that this organ is at present functional only in them and in the Monotremata. {15} [Illustration] FIG. 3.--_Echidna hystrix._ A, Lower surface of brooding female; B; dissection showing a dorsal view of the pouch and mammary glands; ++, the two tufts of hair in the lateral folds of the mammary pouch from which the secretion flows, _b.m_, Pouch; _cl_, cloaca; _g.m_, groups of mammary glands. (From Wiedersheim's _Comparative Anatomy_, after W. Haacke.) In the Marsupials the pouch shelters the young, which are born in an exceedingly imperfect state, minute, nude, and blind, with a "larval" mouth fitted only to grasp in a permanent fashion the teat, upon which they are carefully fixed by the parent. But even later the pouch is made use of as a temporary harbour of refuge: from the pouch of female Kangaroos at the Zoological Gardens may frequently be observed to protrude the tail and hind-legs of a young Kangaroo as big as a Cat, and perfectly well able to take care of itself. In the Monotremata (in _Echidna_) there is a deep fold of the skin which lodges the unhatched egg, and into which the mammary glands open, one on either side. This structure is only periodically developed, and arises from two rudiments, one corresponding to each mammary area; but in the female with eggs or young there is but a single deep depression, which occupies the same region of the body as the marsupial pouch of the {16} Marsupials.[7] It is usually held that this structure is not of precisely the same morphological value as the pouch of the Marsupial; and the difference is expressed by terming the one (that of _Echidna_) the mammary pouch, and the other the marsupium. At first sight it may appear to be an unnecessary refinement to separate two structures which have so many and such obvious likenesses. It is not quite certain, however, that the difference is not even more profound than later opinions seem to indicate. The Monotremata not only have no teats, as has already been pointed out, but the mammary glands themselves are of a perfectly different nature to those of the higher mammals, including the Marsupials. There is therefore no _a priori_ objection to the view that the accessory parts developed in connexion with the mammary glands should also be different. The teat of the higher Mammalia grows up round the area upon which the ducts of the mammary glands open; it is a fold of skin which eventually assumes the cylindrical form of the adult teat, and which includes the ducts of the milk glands. It has been suggested that the two folds of skin which form the mammary pouch of _Echidna_ are to be looked upon as the equivalent of the commencing teat of the higher mammal.[8] In this case it is clear that the marsupial folds of the Marsupial cannot correspond accurately with the apparently similar folds of _Echidna_, because there are teats as well. It is the teats which correspond to the marsupial folds of _Echidna_. This view is in apparent contradiction to an interesting discovery in a specimen of a Phalanger by Dr. Klaatsch.[9] This Marsupial, like most others, has a well-developed marsupial pouch, in which the young are lodged at birth; but round two of the teats is another distinct fold on either side, the outer wall of which forms the general wall of the pouch. Dr. Klaatsch thinks that these smaller and included pouches are the equivalents of the mammary pouches of _Echidna_. They contain teats, but this comparison does not do away with the validity of Gegenbaur's suggestion already referred to, because the teats are (see above) {17} secondary. If this fact be fairly to be interpreted in the sense which Dr. Klaatsch attaches to it, we have an interesting case of the growth of a new organ out of and partly replacing an old organ. In the Monotremes there is a pouch which facilitates or performs both nutritive and protective functions; in the Phalanger these two functions are carried on in separate pouches; finally, in other Marsupials, there is a return to the undifferentiated state of affairs found in the Monotremata, but with the help of a new organ not found in them. [Illustration] FIG. 4.--Diagram of the development of the nipple (in vertical section). A, Indifferent stage, glandular area flat; B, elevation of the glandular area with the nipple; C, elevation of the periphery of the glandular area into the false teat, _a_, Periphery of the glandular area; _b_, glandular area; _gl_, glands. (From Gegenbaur.) Though so characteristic of Marsupials, the marsupial pouch is not always developed in them. It is present in all the Kangaroos, Wallabies, and Wombats, in fact in the Diprotodonts. It is also present in a number of the carnivorous Polyprotodont Marsupials; but in _Phascologale_ it is only present in rudiment, and in _Myrmecobius_ it is entirely obsolete. In the American Opossums the state of the pouch is variable. "Generally absent, sometimes merely composed of two lateral folds of skin separate at each end, rarely complete," is Mr. Thomas' summary in his definition of the family Didelphyidae.[10] Another curious feature of the pouch in the Marsupials is the variability in the position of the mouth of the pouch: in all the Diprotodonts it looks forward; but in many Polyprotodonts it looks backward. This, however, has some connexion with the habitual attitude of the possessor: in the Kangaroo, leaping along on its hind-legs, it is requisite that the pouch should open forwards; but in the dog-like Thylacine, going on all fours, the fact that the pouch {18} opens backwards is less disadvantageous to the contained young. The male Thylacine has a pouch which is quite or very nearly as well formed as in the female. There are also rudiments of a pouch in the male foetuses of many Marsupials, especially of those belonging to the Polyprotodont section of the order, though these rudiments are by no means confined to that subdivision. Up to so late a period as the age of four months (length 19.8 cm.) the male _Dasyurus ursinus_ has a pouch. We have now to consider the interesting series of facts relative to the permanence--in a rudimentary condition it is true--of the mammary pouch in the higher Mammalia, facts which seem to be an additional proof that they have been derived from an ancestor in which the pouch was an organ of functional importance. The first definite proof of the occurrence of a pouch in any mammal not a Marsupial or a Monotreme was made by Malkmus, who found this structure in a Sheep. It seems, however, that the structures found in the higher mammals are not always comparable to the marsupium of the Marsupials, but sometimes to the mammary pouch of the Monotreme. That the Marsupials are a side line, and not involved in the ancestry of the Eutheria, is an opinion which is at present widely held. At the same time it is reasonable to suppose that the original stock lying between the Prototheria and the Metatheria, whence the latter and the Eutheria have arisen, preserved both the mammary pouch of the lower mammal and the marsupium of the further-developed stage, as does _Phalangista_ occasionally at the present day. Hence to find remnants of both structures in existing mammals would not so incredible. This is what Dr. Klaatsch believes to be the case. In certain Ungulates, including two species of Antelope, Dr. Klaatsch found very considerable rudiments of folds provided with unstriated muscular fibre; there were in the adult _Cervicapra isabellina_ a pair of pouches, one on each side, and a rudiment of a second on either side; possibly this multiplication of the pouches has relation to the number of young. That there is more than one pouch makes a comparison with the mammary pouch rather than with the marsupium probable. The Ungulate teat, it must be remembered (see p. 16), is a secondary teat; hence there is no difficulty in the comparison from this point of view. A pouch containing a primary {19} teat would of course be absolutely incomparable with a mammary pouch, because in that case the wall of the teat itself would be the pouch. Mammals belonging to quite different Orders show traces more or less marked of a marsupium. In young Dogs the teats are borne upon an area where the skin is thinner, the covering of hair less dense than elsewhere--all points of resemblance to the inside of the pouch of a Marsupial; in addition to this there are traces of the sphincter marsupii muscle. In other Carnivora there are similar vestiges. In _Lemur catta_ a more complete rudiment of a marsupial pouch is to be met with. In this Lemur the teats are both inguinal and pectoral; the skin in these regions is thin and but slightly hairy, and extends forwards as two bands of the same thinness and smoothness on each side of the densely hairy skin covering the sternum. This area is sharply separated from the rest of the integument by a fold which runs parallel to the longitudinal axis of the body, and can be comparable with nothing save the rudiment of the marsupial fold. One is tempted to wonder how far the habit which certain Lemurs have of carrying their young across the abdomen with the tail wrapped round the body of the mother is a reminiscence of a marsupial pouch. SKELETON. The skeleton of the Mammalia consists almost solely of the endoskeleton. It is only among the Edentata that an exoskeleton of bony plates in the skin is met with. As in other Vertebrates, the skeleton is divisible into an axial portion, the skull and vertebral column, and an appendicular skeleton, that of the limbs. The bones of mammals are well ossified, and in the adult there are but few and small tracts of cartilage left. VERTEBRAL COLUMN.--The vertebral column of the mammals, like that of the higher Vertebrata, consists of a number of separate and fully-ossified vertebrae. The constitution of a vertebra upon which all the usual processes are marked is as follows:--There is first of all the body or centrum of the vertebra, a massive piece of bone shaped like a disc or a cylinder. The centra of contiguous vertebrae {20} are separated by a certain amount of fibrous tissue forming the intervertebral disc, and the apposed surfaces of the centra are as a rule nearly flat. In this last feature, and in the important fact that the centra are ossified from three distinct centres, the anterior and posterior pieces ("epiphyses") remaining distinct for a time, even for a long time (as in the Whales), the centra in the mammals differ from those of reptiles and birds. The epiphyses are not found throughout the vertebral column of the lowly-organised Monotremata, and they do not appear to exist in the Sirenia. [Illustration] [Illustration] FIG. 5.--Anterior surface of Human thoracic vertebra (fourth), × 2/3. _az_, Anterior zygapophysis; _c_, body or centrum; _l_, lamina, and _p_, pedicle, of the neural arch; _nc_, neural canal; _t_, transverse process. (From Flower's _Osteology of the Mammalia_.) FIG. 6.--Side view of first lumbar vertebra of Dog (_Canis familiaris_). × ¾. _a_, Anapophysis; _az_, anterior zygapophysis; _m_, metapophysis; _pz_, posterior zygapophysis; _s_, spinous process; _t_, transverse process. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) From each side of the centrum on the dorsal side arises a process of bone which meets its fellow in the middle line above, and is from there often prolonged into a spine. A canal is thus formed which lodges the spinal cord. This arch of bone is known as the neural arch, and the dorsal process of the same as the spinous process. The sides of the neural arch bear oval facets, by which successive vertebrae articulate with one another: those situated anteriorly are the anterior zygapophyses, while those on the posterior aspect of the arch are the posterior zygapophyses; these articular facets do not exist in the tail-region of many mammals, _e.g._ Whales. In addition to the dorsal median spinous process of the {21} vertebra there may be a ventral median process, arising of course from the centrum, termed the hypapophysis. From the sides of the neural arch, or from the centrum itself, there is commonly a longer or shorter process on each side, known as the transverse process. This is sometimes formed of two distinct processes, one above the other; in such cases the upper part is called a diapophysis, the lower a parapophysis. The neural arch may also bear other lateral processes, of which one directed forwards is the metapophysis, the other directed backwards the anapophysis. The series of bones which constitute the vertebral column can be divided into regions. It is possible to recognise cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral, and caudal vertebrae. In the case of animals with only rudimentary hind-limbs, such as the Whales, there is no recognisable sacral region. The neck or cervical vertebrae are nearly always seven in number. The well-known exceptions are the Manatee, where there are six, and certain Sloths, where there are six, eight, or nine. These rare exceptions only accentuate the very remarkable constancy in number, which is very distinctive of the mammals as compared with lower Vertebrata. There are of course abnormalities, the last cervical, and sometimes the last two, assuming the characters of the ensuing dorsals, by developing a more or less complete rib. There are also recorded examples of _Bradypus_, in which the number of cervicals is increased to ten. The characteristics, then, of the cervical vertebrae are, in the first place, that they do not normally bear free ribs, and that there is a break as a rule between the last cervical and the first dorsal on this account. In birds, for example, the cervicals, differing in number in different families and genera, gradually approach the dorsals by the gradually lengthening ribs. The transverse processes of the vertebrae are commonly perforated by a canal for the vertebral artery, and are bifid at their extremities. In some Ungulates these vertebrae, moreover, approximate to the vertebrae of lower Vertebrata in the fact that there are ball and socket joints between the centra, instead of only the fibrous discs of the remaining vertebrae. The first two vertebrae of the series are always very different from those which follow. The first is termed the {22} atlas, and articulates with the skull. The most remarkable fact about this bone (shared, however, by lower Vertebrates) is that its centrum is detached from it and attached to the next vertebra, in connexion with which it will be referred to immediately. The whole bone thus gets a ring-like form, and the salient processes of other vertebrae are but little developed, with the exception of the transverse processes, which are wide and wing-like. In many Marsupials, such as the Wombat and Kangaroo, the arch of the atlas is open below, there being no centre of ossification. In others, such as _Thylacinus_, there is a distinct nodule of bone in this situation not concrescent with the rest of the arch. [Illustration] [Illustration] FIG. 7.--Human atlas (young), showing development. × ¾. _as_, Articular surface for occiput; _g_, groove for first spinal nerve and vertebral artery; _i a_, inferior arch; _t_, transverse process. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) FIG. 8.--Inferior surface of atlas of Dog. × ½. _sn_, Foramen for first spinal nerve; _v_, vertebrarterial canal. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) [Illustration] FIG. 9.--Atlas of Kangaroo.... (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) The second vertebra, which is known as the axis or epistropheus, is a compound structure, the anterior "odontoid process," which fits into the ring of the atlas, being in reality the detached centrum of that vertebra.[11] It is a curious fact about that process that it has independently become spoon-shaped in two divisions of Ungulates; that it has become so seems to be shown by the fact that in the earlier types of both it has the simple peg-like form, which is the prevailing form. The cervical {23} vertebrae are occasionally wholly (Right Whales) or partially (many Whales, Jerboa, certain Edentates) welded into a combined mass. Indications of this have even been recorded in the human subject. [Illustration] [Illustration] FIG. 10.--Side view of axis of Dog. × 2/3. _o_, Odontoid process; _pz_, posterior zygapophysis; _s_, spinous process; _t_, transverse process; _v_, vertebrarterial canal. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) FIG. 11.--Anterior surface of axis of Red Deer. × 2/3. _o_, Odontoid process; _pz_, posterior zygapophysis; _sn_, foramen for second spinal nerve. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The dorsal vertebrae vary greatly in number: nine (_Hyperoodon_) seems to be the lowest number existing normally; while there may be as many as nineteen, as in _Centetes_, or twenty-two, as in _Hyrax_. These vertebrae are to be defined by the fact that they carry ribs, and the first one or two lumbars are often "converted into" dorsals by the appearance of a small supernumerary rib. The spinous processes of these vertebrae are commonly long, and sometimes very long. It is only among the Glyptodons that any of these vertebrae are fused together into a mass. The lumbar vertebrae, which follow the dorsal, vary greatly in number. There are as few as two in the whale _Neobalaena_, as many as seventeen in _Tursiops_; this group, the Cetacea, contains the extremes. Nine lumbars are found in the Lemurs _Indris_ and _Loris_. As a rule the number of lumbars is to some extent dependent upon that of the dorsals. It often happens that the number of thoraco-lumbar vertebrae is constant for a given group. Thus the Artiodactyles have nineteen of these vertebrae, and the Perissodactyles as a rule twenty-three. A greater number of dorsals implies a smaller number of lumbars, and of course _vice versa_. The existence of a sacral region formed of a {24} number of vertebrae fused together and supported by the pelvic girdle is characteristic of the mammals, but is not found in the Cetacea and the Sirenia, where functional hind-limbs are wanting. Strictly speaking, the sacrum is limited to the two or three vertebrae whose expanded transverse processes meet the ilia. But to these are or may be added a variable number of vertebrae withdrawn from both the lumbar and the caudal series, which unite with each other to form the massive piece of bone which constitutes the sacrum of the adult. [Illustration] [Illustration] FIG. 12.--_Lepus cuniculus_. Innominate bones and sacrum, ventral aspect. _acet_, Acetabulum; _il_, ilium; _isch_, ischium; _obt_, obturator foramen; pub, pubis; _sacr_, sacrum; _sy_, symphysis. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) FIG. 13.--Anterior surface of fourth caudal vertebra of Porpoise (_Phocoena communis_), × ½. _h_, Chevron bone; _m_, metapophysis; _s_, spinous process; _t_, transverse process. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The caudal vertebrae complete the series. They begin in as fully developed a condition as the lumbars, with well-marked transverse processes, etc.; but they end as no more than centra, from which sometimes tiny outgrowths represent in a rudimentary way the neural arches, etc. Very often the caudal vertebrae are furnished with ventral, generally [12]-shaped, appendages, the chevron bones or intercentra.[13] These are {25} particularly conspicuous in the Whales and in the Edentates. In the former group the occurrence of the first intercentrum serves to mark the separation of the caudal from the lumbar series. The number of caudals varies from three in Man--and those quite rudimentary--to nearly fifty in _Manis macrura_ and _Microgale longicaudata_. [Illustration] FIG. 14.--Lateral view of skull of a Dog. _C.occ_, Occipital condyle; _F_, frontal; _F.inf_, infra-orbital foramen; _Jg_, jugal; _Jm_, premaxilla; _L_, lachrymal; _M_, maxilla; _Maud_, external auditory meatus; _Md_, mandible; _N_, nasal; _P_, parietal; _Pal_, palatine; _Pjt_, process of squamosal; _Pt_, pterygoid; _Sph_, alisphenoid; _Sq_, squamosal; _Sq.occ_, supraoccipital; _T_, tympanic. (From Wiedersheim's _Comparative Anatomy_.) THE SKULL.--The skull in the Mammalia differs from that of the lower Vertebrata in a number of important features, which will be enumerated in the following brief sketch of its structure. In the first place, the skull is a more consolidated whole than in reptiles; the number of elements entering into its formation is less, and they are on the whole more firmly welded together than in Vertebrates standing below the Mammalia in the series. Thus in the cranial region the post- and pre-frontals, the post-orbitals and the supra-orbitals have disappeared, though now and again we are reminded of their occurrence in the ancestors of the Mammalia by a separate ossification corresponding to some of the bones. Nowhere is this consolidation seen with greater clearness than in the lower jaw. That bone, or rather each half of it, is in mammals formed of one bone, the dentary (to which occasionally, as it appears, a separate mento-Meckelian {26} ossification may be added). The angular, splenial, and all the other elements of the reptilian jaw have vanished, though the numerous points from which the mammalian dentary ossifies is a reminiscence of a former state of affairs; and here again an occasional continuance of the separation is preserved, as the case observed by Professor Albrecht of a separate supra-angular bone in a Rorqual attests. Among other reptilian bones that are not to be found in the mammalian skull are the basipterygoids, quadrato-jugal, and supratemporal. A few of these bones, however, though no longer traceable in the adult skull save in cases of what we term abnormalities, do find their representatives in the foetal skull. Professor Parker, for example, has described a supra-orbital in the embryo Hedgehog; a supratemporal also appears to be occasionally independent. [Illustration] FIG. 15.--Head of a Human embryo of the fourth month. Dissected to show the auditory ossicles, tympanic ring, and Meckel's cartilage, with the hyoid and thyroid apparatus. All these parts are delineated on a larger scale than the rest of the skull. _an_, Tympanic ring; _b.hy_, basihyal element; _hy_, so-called hyoid bone; _in_, incus; _md_, bony mandible; _ml_, malleus; _st_, stapes; _tp_, tympanum; _tr_, trachea; I. (_mk_), first skeletal (mandibular) arch (Meckel's cartilage); II. second skeletal (hyoid) arch; III. third (first branchial) arch; IV. V. fourth and fifth arches (thyroid cartilage). (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) In the mode of the articulation of the lower jaw to the skull the Mammalia apparently, perhaps really, differ from other Vertebrates. In the Amphibia and Reptilia, with which groups alone any comparisons are profitable, the lower jaw articulates by means of a quadrate bone, which may be movably or firmly attached to the skull. In the mammals the articulation of the lower jaw is with the squamosal. The nature of this articulation is one of the most debated points in comparative anatomy. Seeing that Professor Kingsley[14] in the most recent contribution to the subject quotes no less than fifty-two different views, many of which are more or less convergent, it will be obvious that in a work like the present the matter cannot be treated exhaustively. As, however, Professor Kingsley justly says that "no single bone occupies a more important position in the discussion of the origin of the Mammalia than does the quadrate," and with equal justice adds that "upon the answer given as to its fate in this group depends, in large measure, the broader problem of the phylogeny of the Mammalia," it becomes, or indeed has long been, a matter which cannot be ignored in any work dealing with the mammals. A simple view, due to the late Dr. Baur and to Professor Dollo, commends itself at first sight as meeting the case. The last-named author holds, or held, that in all the higher Vertebrates it is at least on _a priori_ grounds likely that two such characteristically vertebrate features as the lower jaw and the chain of bones bringing the outer world {27} into communication with the internal organ of hearing would be homologous throughout the series. He believed, therefore, that the entire chain of ossicula auditus in the mammal is equal to the columella of the reptile, since their relations are the same to the tympanum on the one hand and to the foramen ovale on the other; and that the lower jaw articulates in the same way in both. It follows, therefore, that the glenoid part of the squamosal must be the quadrate which has become ankylosed with it after the fashion of concentration in the mammalian skull that has already been referred to. The fact that occasionally the glenoid part of the squamosal is a separate bone[15] appeared to confirm this way of looking at the {28} matter. But the hall-mark of truth is not always simplicity; indeed the converse appears to be frequently the case. And on the whole this view does not commend itself to zoologists at present. For it must be borne in mind that the lower jaw of the mammal is not the precise equivalent of that of the reptiles. Apart from the membrane bones, which may be collectively the equivalents of the dentary of the mammal, there is the cartilaginous articular bone to be considered, which forms the connexion between the rest of the jaw and the quadrate in reptiles. Even in the Anomodontia, whose relations to the Mammalia are considered elsewhere, there is this bone. But in these reptiles the articular bone articulates not only with the quadrate, but also to a large extent with the squamosal, the quadrate shrinking in size and developing processes which give to it very much the look of either the incus or the malleus of the mammalian ear. In fact it seems on the whole to fit in with the views of the majority, as well as with a fair interpretation of the facts of embryology, to consider that the chain of ear bones in the mammal is not the equivalent of the columella of the reptile, but that the stapes of the mammal is the columella, and that the articulare is represented by the malleus and the quadrate by the incus. It is very interesting to note this entire change of function in the bones in question. Bones which in the reptile serve as a means of attachment of the lower jaw to the skull are used in the mammal to convey the waves of sound from the tympanum of the ear to the internal organ of hearing. Another important and diagnostic feature in the mammalian skull is that the first vertebra of the vertebral column always articulates with two separate occipital condyles, which are borne by the exoccipital bones and formed mainly though not entirely by them. Certain Anomodontia form the nearest approach to the mammals in this particular. The two condyles of Amphibia are purely exoccipital in origin. In the Mammalia, unlike what is found in lower Vertebrates (but here again the Anomodontia form at least a partial exception), the jugal arch does not connect the face with the quadrate, for, as already said, that bone does not exist, in the Sauropsidan form, in mammals. This arch passes from the squamosal to the maxillary, and has but one separate bone in addition to those two, viz. the jugal or malar. {29} [Illustration] FIG. 16.--Under surface of the cranium of a Dog. × ½. _apf_, Anterior palatine foramen; _as_, posterior opening of alisphenoid canal; _AS_, alisphenoid; _BO_, basioccipital; _BS_, basisphenoid; _cf_, condylar foramen; _eam_, external auditory meatus; _Ex.O_, exoccipital; _flm_, foramen lacerum medium; _flp_, foramen lacerum posterius; _fm_, foramen magnum; _fo_, foramen ovale; _fr_, foramen rotundum; _Fr_, frontal; _gf_, glenoid fossa; _gp_, post-glenoid process; _Ma_, malar; _Mx_, maxilla; _oc_, occipital condyle; _op_, optic foramen; _Per_, mastoid portion of periotic; _pgf_, post-glenoid fossa; _Pl_, palatine; _PMx_, premaxilla; _pp_, paroccipital process; _ppf_, posterior palatine foramen; _PS_, presphenoid; _Pt_, pterygoid; _sf_, sphenoidal fissure or foramen lacerum anterius; _sm_, stylomastoid foramen; _SO_, supraoccipital; _Sq_, zygomatic process of squamosal; _Ty_, tympanic bulla; _Vo_, vomer. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) In connexion with the elaboration of the chain of auditory ossicles it is very usual for mammals to possess a thin inflated bone, sometimes partly or entirely formed out of the tympanic bone, and known as the tympanic bulla. Whether this structure is thin and inflated or thick and depressed in form it is characteristic of the mammals, and does not occur below them in the series. But it is not present in all mammals. It is absent, for example, in the Monotremes. When it is present it is sometimes formed from other bones, as, for instance, from the alisphenoids. The tympanic ring has been held to be the equivalent of the quadrate. It is more probably the quadrato-jugal.[16] [Illustration] FIG. 17.--A, First thoracic skeletal segment for comparison with B, fifth cervical vertebra (Man), _b.v._ Body of vertebra; _c_, first thoracic rib; _c_', cervical rib (which has become united with the transverse process, _tr_), the two enclosing the costo-transverse foramen (_f.c.t_); _st_, sternum; _zy_, articular process of the arch (zygapophysis). (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) RIBS.--All mammals are furnished with ribs, of which the number of pairs differs considerably from group to group, or it may be even from species to species. The ribs are attached as a rule by two heads, of which one, the capitulum, arises as a rule between two centra of successive vertebrae. The other, the tuberculum, springs from the transverse process. Only in the Monotremes {30} are there ribs with but one, the capitular, head. In the posterior part of the series the two heads often gradually coalesce, so that there comes to be but one, the capitular, head. The Whales also, at least the Whalebone Whales, are exceptional in possessing but one head to the ribs, which is the capitular. The first rib joins the sternum below, and a variable number after this have the same attachment. There are always a number of ribs, sometimes called floating ribs, which have no sternal attachment. In the Whalebone Whales it is the first rib alone which is so attached. As a rule, to which the Whales mentioned are again an exception, the rib is divided into at least two regions--the vertebral portion which is always ossified, and the sternal moiety which is usually cartilaginous. This is, however, often very short in the first rib. They are, however, ossified in the Armadillos and in some other animals. Between the vertebral and sternal portions an intermediate tract is separated off and ossified in the Monotremata. The ribs of existing mammals belong only to the dorsal region of the vertebral column, but there are traces of lumbar ribs and also of cervical ribs. In the Monotremata, indeed, these latter {31} are persistently free for a very long period, and in some cases never become ankylosed with their vertebrae. But it should be noted that in this group there is no approximation to the state of affairs which exists in many lower Vertebrates, where there is a gradual transition between the ribs of the cervical and those of the dorsal region of the vertebral column; for that of the seventh ribs in Monotremes is smaller than those which precede it. [Illustration] [Illustration] FIG. 18.--Sternum and sternal ribs of the Common Mole (_Talpa europaea_), with the clavicles (_cl_) and humeri (_H_); _M_, manubrium sterni. Nat. size. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) FIG. 19.--Sternum of the Pig (_Sus scrofa_). × ¼. _ms_, Mesosternum; _ps_, presternum; _xs_, xiphisternum. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) THE STERNUM.--All the Mammalia so far as is known possess a sternum. This is the bone, or series of bones (sternebrae), which lies upon the ventral surface of the chest, and to which the ribs are attached below. The development of the sternum has been shown to take place from the fusion of the ribs below into two lateral bands, one on each side; the approximation of these bands forms the single and unpaired sternum of most mammals. Very considerable traces, however, of the paired state of the sternal bones often exist; thus in the Sperm Whale the first piece of the sternum is divided into two by a longitudinal division, and the second piece is longitudinally grooved. The development of the sternum out of the fused ends of ribs is shown in a more complete condition in some species of _Manis_ than in many other mammals. Thus in _M. tricuspis_ the last ribs of those which are attached to the sternum are completely fused together into a single piece on each side.[17] As a general rule the last ribs which come into relation with the sternum do so only in an imperfect way, being simply firmly attached at their sides to, but not fused with, the last ribs which are definitely articulated with the sternum. Contrary to what is found in lower {32} Vertebrates, the sternum of the Mammalia consists of a series of pieces, as many as eight or nine or even sixteen in _Choloepus_, of which the first is called the manubrium sterni, and the last the ensiform cartilage, xiphisternum, or xiphoid process. The latter often remains largely cartilaginous throughout life; in fact this is generally but not universally the case with that part of the breastbone. The most extraordinary modification of the xiphoid process is seen in the African species of the genus _Manis_, where it diverges into two long cartilages, which run back to the pelvis and then, curving round, run forwards and fuse together in the middle line anteriorly. These processes serve for the attachment of certain tongue-muscles. They were looked upon by Professor Parker as the equivalents of the "abdominal ribs" of reptiles elsewhere non-existent among mammals. This view is not, however, usually held. The manubrium sterni is often keeled in the middle line below; this is so with the Bats, which thus approach the birds, and probably for the same reason, i.e. the need of an enlarged origin for the pectoral muscle, which is concerned in the movements of flight. In many forms this part of the sternum is much broader than the pieces which follow; this is so with the Viscacha. In the Pig the precise reverse is seen, the manubrium being narrower than the rest of the sternal bonelets. It will be noticed, however, that in this and similar cases there are no clavicles. Ribs are attached between the successive pieces of the sternum. When the sternum is reduced, as it is in the Cetacea and in the Sirenia, it is the intermediate part of the series of bones which becomes abbreviated or vanishes. The Sperm Whale has only a manubrium sterni and a following piece belonging to the mesosternum. It is fair to say that the xiphoid process and the rest of the sternum have disappeared, since among the Toothed Whales a progressive shortening of the sternum can be seen. In the Whalebone Whales the sternum is still further reduced; the manubrium is alone left, and to it are attached but a single pair of ribs. In _Balaena_, however, a rudimentary {33} piece, apparently comparable to a xiphoid process, has been detected. [Illustration] [Illustration] FIG. 20.--Sternum of Rudolphi's Whale (_Balaenoptera borealis_), showing its relation to the inferior extremities of the first pair of ribs. × 1/10. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) FIG. 21.--Sternum of a young Dugong (_Halicore indicus_). × ¼. From a specimen in the Leyden Museum, _ps_, Presternum; _xs_, xiphisternum. (From Flower's _Osteology_). From the instances which have been described, as well as from the mode of development of the sternum and from the number of free ribs, _i.e._ ribs which are not attached to it, it would seem that the sternum has undergone a considerable reduction in its size. This reduction may be possibly accounted for by the need for respiratory activity, which is clearly increased by a less-marked fixity of the walls of the thoracic cavity. In the case of the Whales one can hardly help coming to that conclusion. The arrangement in the Monotremata does not, however, point in the same direction; for these animals are precisely like the higher Mammalia in the reduction of the sternum and of the number of ribs which reach it. [Illustration] FIG. 22.--Shoulder girdle of Ornithorhynchus. _c_^1, _c_^2, _c_^3, First, second, third ribs; _cl_, clavicle; _e.c_, epicoracoid; _es_' and _es_", interclavicle (episternum); _m.c_, metacoracoid; _m.s_, manubrium sterni; _sc_, scapula; _st_, sternebra. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) [Illustration] FIG. 23.--Episternum of an embryo Mole. (After A. Götte.) _cl_, Clavicle; _es_', central portion of the episternum; _es_", lateral portion of the same; _r.c_, costal ribs; _st_, sternum. (The figure was constructed from two consecutive horizontal sections.) (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) THE EPISTERNUM.--The Mammalia are as a rule to be distinguished from lower Vertebrates by the absence of an episternum, or interclavicle as it is also called. In the Monotremata, however, there is a large [18]-shaped bone which does not overlie the sternum as in reptiles, but is anterior to it. The relations of this bone to the clavicles seem to leave no doubt that it is the equivalent of the Lacertilian interclavicle or episternum. The Monotremata are not, however, the only mammals in which this structure is to be seen. The Mole in the embryonic condition is {34} provided with pieces of bone which overlie the manubrium sterni and are attached to the clavicles, and are no doubt to be regarded as the same structure. Probably in many mammals the manubrium will be found to be partly made up of corresponding rudiments. In any case, vestiges of an episternum in the shape of two minute ossicles have been discovered in Man, lying in front of the manubrium. They have been termed ossa suprasternalia. In Man and in the Mole the paired nature of the episternum is clearly apparent. It has been suggested that this structure in its entirety belongs to the clavicles, just as the sternum belongs to the ribs; _i.e._ that it formed out of the approximated and fused ends of the clavicles. Dr. Mivart[19] figured a good many years since a pair of ossicles in _Mycetes_, lying in one case between the ends of the clavicles and the manubrium sterni, and in another example anterior to the ventral ends of the clavicles. Gegenbaur has figured a {35} pair of similar bones in the Hamster.[20] It is possible that these are to be referred to the same category. It has also been suggested that these supposed episternal rudiments are the vestiges of a pair of cervical ribs. [Illustration] FIG. 24.--Episternal vestiges in Man. _cl_, Clavicle, sawn through; _es_, "episternum" (sternoclavicular cartilage); _l_', interclavicular ligament; _l_", costoclavicular ligament; _m.s_, manubrium sterni; _o.s_, ossa suprasternalia; _r.c_, first rib; _st_, sternum. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) THE PECTORAL GIRDLE.--The skeleton by which the fore-limb is connected with the trunk is known as the Pectoral Girdle. The main part of this girdle is formed by the large scapula, or blade-bone as it is often termed. The coracoidal elements will be dealt with later. The scapula is not firmly connected with the backbone; it is attached merely by muscles, thus presenting a great difference from the corresponding pelvic girdle. The reason for this difference is not easy to understand. On the one hand it may be pointed out that in all running animals at any rate there is a greater need for the fixation in a particularly firm way of the hind-limbs; but, again, in the climbing creatures both limbs would, one might suppose, be bettered by a firm fixation. It must be remembered, however, that in the latter case the same result is at least partly brought about by a well-developed clavicle, which fixes the girdle to the sternum and so to the vertebral column by means of the ribs. Broadly speaking, too, the fore-limbs require a greater freedom and variety of movement than the hind-limbs, which are supports {36} for or serve to push along the rapidly-moving body. Stronger fixation is therefore a greater necessity posteriorly than anteriorly. In any case, whatever the explanation, this important difference exists. [Illustration] FIG. 25.--Right scapula of Dog (_Canis familiaris_). × ¼. _a_, Acromion; _af_, prescapular fossa; _c_, coracoid; _cb_, coracoid or anterior border; _css_, indicates the position of the coraco-scapular suture, obliterated in adult animals by the complete ankylosis of the two bones; _gb_, glenoid or posterior border; _gc_, glenoid cavity; _pf_, postscapular fossa; _s_, spine; _ss_, suprascapular border. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) [Illustration] FIG. 26.--Right scapula of Red Deer (Cervus elaphus). × ¼. _a_, Acromion; _af_, anterior or prescapular fossa; _c_, coracoid; _gc_, glenoid cavity; _pf_, postscapular fossa; _ss_, partially ossified suprascapular border. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The shoulder-blade of mammals is as a rule a much-flattened bone with a ridge on the outer surface known as the spine; this ridge ends in a freely-projecting process, the acromion, from which a branch often arises known as the metacromion. This gives a bifurcate appearance to the end of the ridge. The spine is less developed and the scapula is narrower in such animals as the Dog and the Deer which simply run, and whose fore-limbs therefore are not endowed with the complexity of movement seen, for instance, in the Apes. {37} [Illustration] FIG. 27.--Right scapula of Dolphin (_Tursiops tursio_). × ¼. _a_, Acromion; _af_, prescapular fossa; _c_, coracoid; _gc_, glenoid cavity; _pf_, postscapular fossa. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) [Illustration] FIG. 28.--Side view of right half of shoulder girdle of a young Echidna (_Echidna hystrix_). × 2/3. _a_, Acromion; _c_, coracoid; _cb_, coracoid border; _cl_, clavicle; _css_, coraco-scapular suture; _ec_, epicoracoid; gb, glenoid border; _gc_, glenoid cavity; _ic_, interclavicle; _pf_, postscapular fossa; _ps_, presternum; _s_, spine; _ss_, suprascapular epiphysis; _ssf_, subscapular fossa. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) It has been pointed out that the area which lies in front of the spine, the prescapular lamina, is most extensively developed in such animals as perform complex movements with the fore-limbs. The Sea Lion and the Great Anteater are cited by Professor G. B. Howes as examples of this preponderance of the anterior portion of the scapula over that which lies behind the spine. The general shape of the scapula varies considerably among the different orders of mammals; but it always presents the characters mentioned, which are nowhere seen among the Sauropsida except among certain Anomodonts, which will be duly referred to (see p. 90). The most conspicuous divergences from the normal are to be found in the Cetacea and the Monotremata. In the former the acromion is approximated so nearly to the anterior border of the blade-bone that the prescapular fossa is reduced to a very small area; and in _Platanista_ the acromion actually coincides with the anterior border, so that that fossa actually disappears. In the Whales, too, the scapula is as a rule very broad, especially above; it has frequently a fan-like contour. In the Monotremata the acromion also coincides with the anterior border of the scapula; but the sameness of appearance which it thus presents (in this feature) to the Cetacean scapula is {38} apparently not due to real resemblance. What has happened in the Monotremata is, that the prescapular fossa is so enormously expanded that it occupies the whole of the inner side of the blade-bone, while the subscapular fossa which, so to speak, should occupy that situation, has been thus pushed round to the front, where it is divided from the postscapular fossa by a slight ridge only. The clavicle is a bone which varies much in mammals. It is sometimes indeed, as in the Ungulata, entirely absent; in other forms it shows varying degrees of retrocession in importance; it is only in climbing, burrowing, digging, and flying mammals that it is really well developed. [Illustration] FIG. 29.--Shoulder girdle, with upper end of sternum (inner surface) of Shrew (_Sorex_), after Parker, × 7. _a_, Acromion; _c_, coracoid; _cl_, clavicle; _ec_, partially ossified "epicoracoid" of Parker, or rudiment of the sternal extremity of the coracoid; ''ma'', metacromial process; _mss_, ossified "mesoscapular segment"; _ost_, omosternum; _pc_, rudiment of precoracoid (Parker); _ps_, presternum; _sr_^1, first sternal rib; _sr_^2, second sternal rib. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) In the higher Mammalia the coracoid[21] is present, but does not reach the sternum as in the Monotremata. It is known to human anatomists as the coracoid process of the scapula. It has been found, however, by Professor Howes[22] and others, that this process really consists of two separate centres of ossification, forming two separate bonelets, which in the adult become firmly ankylosed to each other and to the scapula. These two separate bones have been met with in the embryo of _Lepus, Sciurus_, and the young of various other mammals belonging to very diverse orders, such as Edentates and Primates. The separation even occasionally persists in the adult. The question is, What is the relation of these bonelets to the coracoid of the Monotremata and to the corresponding regions of reptiles? Professor Howes terms the lower patch of bone the metacoracoid and the upper the epicoracoid; {39} the former is alone concerned with the glenoid cavity. It must therefore, one would suppose, correspond to the "coracoid" of the Monotremata, while the upper piece of bone is the epicoracoid process of that mammal. The Mammalia, therefore, higher as well as lower, differ from the reptiles in that the coracoid is formed of two bones, the exceptions being, among some other extinct forms, certain of the Anomodontia, a group which it will be recollected is the nearest of all reptiles to the mammals. [Illustration] FIG. 30.--Distal extremity of the humerus to show Epicondylar Foramina. A, In _Hatteria_; B, in a Lizard (_Lacerta ocellata_); C, in the Domestic Cat; D, in Man. _c.e_, External condyle; _c.i_, internal condyle. In A the two foramina are developed (at _i_, the entepicondylar; at _ii_, the ectepicondylar). The only canal (+) present in the Lizard (B) is on the external ulnar side, in the cartilaginous distal extremity. In Man (D) an entepicondylar process (_pr_) is sometimes developed and continued as a fibrous band. (From Wiedersheim's _Anatomy of Man_.) THE FORE-LIMB.--The humerus is of varying length among mammals. A feature which it sometimes shares with the humerus of lower forms is the presence of an entepicondylar foramen, a defect of ossification situated above the inner condyle of that bone which transmits a nerve. The same foramen and an additional ectepicondylar foramen are found in the ancient reptilian type _Hatteria_ (_Sphenodon_); it occurs also in the Anomodont reptiles. It is as a rule only the lower forms among mammals which show this foramen; thus it is present in the Mole and absent in the {40} Horse. The fact that it is occasionally met with in Man is an additional proof of the, in many respects, ancient structure of the highest type of Primate. The radius and the ulna, which together constitute the fore-arm, are both present in a large number of mammals, but the ulna tends to vanish in the purely walking and digitigrade Ungulates, being present, however, in the more ancient forms of these Ungulates. In Man and in many other mammals the radius can be moved from its normal position and crossed over the ulna; this movement of pronation has been permanently fixed in the Elephant, where the bones are crossed but cannot be altered in position by the contractions of any muscles. Other types agree with the Elephant in this fixation of the two bones. [Illustration] FIG. 31.--Bones of fore-arm and manus of Mole (_Talpa europaea_). × 2. _c_, Cuneiform; _ce_, centrale; _l_, lunar; _m_, magnum; _p_, pisiform; _R_, radius; _rs_, radial sesamoid (falciform); _s_, scaphoid; _td_, trapezoid; _tm_, trapezium; _U_, ulna; _u_, unciform; _I-V_, the digits. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The bones of the wrist show great variation among mammals. The greatest number present are to be seen in such a type as the Mole. Here we have a proximal row, consisting of the scaphoid, lunar, cuneiform, and pisiform, which are arranged in their proper order, beginning with that on the radial side of the limb, that side which bears the first digit. A second row articulates proximally with these bonelets and distally with the metacarpals; the bones composing it are, mentioning them in the same order, trapezium, trapezoid, centrale, magnum, unciform. The centrale does not, however, really belong to the distal carpal row, and is as a rule situated in the middle of the carpus away from articulation with the metacarpals. It is a bone which is not commonly present in the mammalian hand, but is present in various lower forms, such as the Beaver and Hyrax. It also occurs in such high types as the majority of Monkeys; it is to be found in the Human foetal carpus. Many extinct forms possessed a separate centrale. Its importance in the formation of the interlocking condition of the Ungulate foot is referred to later, {41} on p. 196. The only mammal which appears to have the proper five bones in the distal row of the carpus corresponding to the five metacarpals is _Hyperoodon_, where this state of affairs at least occasionally occurs. The final bone of that series, the unciform, seems to represent two bones fused. Very often the carpus is reduced by the fusion of certain of the carpal bones; thus among the Carnivora it is usual for the scaphoid and the lunar to be fused. It is interestingly significant that these bones retain their distinctness in the ancestral Creodonts. In many Ungulates the trapezium vanishes. The reduction of the toes in fact implies a reduction of the separate elements of the carpus. As to the digits of the mammalian hand, the greatest number is five, the various supplementary bonelets known as prepollex and postminimus being, it is now generally held, merely supplementary ossifications not representing the rudiments of pre-existing fingers. They may, however, bear claws.[23] The number of phalanges which follow upon the metacarpals is almost constantly three in the mammals, excepting for the thumb, which has only two. This is highly characteristic of the group as opposed to reptiles and birds, and the increase in the number of these bones in the Whales and to a very faint degree in the Sirenia is a special reduplication, which will be mentioned when those animals are treated of. THE PELVIC GIRDLE.--The pelvic girdle or hip girdle is the combined set of bones which are attached on the one hand to the sacrum and on the other articulate with the hind-limb. Four distinct elements are to be recognised in each "os innominatum," the name given to the conjoined bones of each half of the entire pelvis. These are:--the ilium, which articulates with the sacrum; the ischium, which is posterior; the pubis, which is anterior; and finally, a small element, the cotyloid, which lies within the acetabular cavity where the femur articulates. The epipubes of the Monotreme and the Marsupial are dealt with elsewhere (see p. 116) as they are peculiar to those groups. Professor Huxley pointed out many years since that while the Eutherian Mammalia differ from the reptiles in the fact that the axis of the ilium lies at a less angle with that of the sacrum, {42} _Ornithorhynchus_ comes nearest to the reptile in the fact that this axis is nearly at right angles to that of the sacrum. It is particularly interesting to find that this peculiarity of _Ornithorhynchus_ is only acquired later in life, and that the pelvis of the foetus conforms in these angles to the adults of other mammalian groups. In any case, the backward rotation of the pelvis is a mammalian characteristic, and it is most nearly approached among reptiles by the extinct Anomodontia, whose affinities to mammals will be dealt with on a later page (p. 90). Another peculiarity of the mammalian pelvis appears to be the cotyloid bone already referred to. In the Rabbit this bone completely shuts out the pubis from any share in the acetabular cavity; later it ankyloses with that bone. In _Ornithorhynchus_ the cotyloid or os acetabuli is a larger element of the girdle than is the pubis. In other mammals, therefore, it seems to be a rudimentary structure. But it seems to be a bone peculiar to and thus distinctive of the mammals as compared with other vertebrates. The acetabular cavity is perforated in _Echidna_ as in birds; but in certain Rodents the same region is very thin and only closed by membrane, as in _Circolabes villosus_. The number and the arrangement of the bones in the HIND-LIMB correspond exactly to those of the fore-limb. The femur, which corresponds to the humerus, shows some diversities of form. The neck, which follows upon the almost globular head, the surface of articulation to the acetabular cavity of the pelvis, has two roughened areas or tuberosities for the insertions of muscles. A third such area, known as the third trochanter, is present or absent as the case may be, and its presence or absence is of systematic import. As a general rule the thigh-bones of the ancient types of mammals are smoother and less roughened by the presence of these three trochanters than in their modern representatives. The radius and the ulna are represented in the hind-leg by the tibia and the fibula. These bones are not crossed, and do not allow of rotation as is the case with the radius and the ulna. In Ungulate animals there is the same tendency to the shortening and rudimentary character of the fibula that occurs in the case of the ulna, but it is more marked. It has been shown in tracing the history of fossil Ungulates that the hind-limbs in their degree of degeneration are as a rule ahead of the fore-limbs. This is natural when we reflect that {43} the hind-limbs must have preceded the fore-limbs in their thorough adaptation to the cursorial mode of progression. In the Mammalia the ankle-joint is always what is termed cruro-tarsal, _i.e._ between the ends of the limb-bones and the proximal row of tarsals; not in the middle of the tarsus as in some Sauropsida (reptiles and birds). The bones of the ankle are much like those of the hand; but there are never more than two bones in the proximal row, which are the astragalus and the calcaneum. The former is perhaps to be looked upon as the equivalent of the cuneiform and lunar together. But the views as to the homologies of the tarsal bones differ widely. Below these is the navicular, regarded as a centrale. The distal row of the tarsus has four bones, three cuneiforms and a cuboid. Reduction is effected by the soldering together of two cuneiforms as in the Horse, by the fusion of the navicular and cuboid as in the Deer. No mammal has more than five toes, and the number tends to become reduced in cursorial animals (Rodents, Ungulates, Kangaroos). [Illustration] FIG. 32.--Anterior aspect of right femur of Rhinoceros (_Rhinoceros indicus_). × ½. _h_, Head; _t_, great trochanter; _t_', third trochanter. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) TEETH.--The teeth of the Mammalia[24] differ from those of other vertebrated animals in a number of important points. These, however, entirely concern the form of the adult teeth, their position in the mouth, and the succession of the series of teeth. Developmentally and histologically there are no fundamental divergences from the teeth of vertebrates lower in the scale. In mammals, as for example in the Dog, the teeth consist of three kinds of tissue--the enamel, the dentine, and the cement. The enamel is derived from the epidermis of the mouth cavity, and the two remaining constituents from the underlying dermis. The teeth originate quite independently of the jaws, with which they are later so intimately connected; the independence of origin being one of the facts upon which the current theory {44} of the nature of teeth is founded. It has been pointed out that the scales of the Elasmobranch fishes consist of a cap of enamel upon a base of dentine, the former being derived from the epidermis and modelled upon a papilla of the dermis whose cells secrete the dentine. The fact that similar structures arise within the mouth (_i.e._ the teeth) is explicable when it is remembered that the mouth itself is a late invagination from the outside of the body, and that therefore the retention by its tissues of the capacity to produce such structures is not remarkable. [Illustration] FIG. 33.--Diagrammatic sections of various forms of teeth. _I_, Incisor or tusk of Elephant, with pulp cavity persistently open at base; _II_, Human incisor during development, with root imperfectly formed, and pulp cavity widely open at base; _III_, completely formed Human incisor, with pulp cavity opening by a contracted aperture at base of root; _IV_, Human molar with broad crown and two roots; _V_, molar of the Ox, with the enamel covering the crown deeply folded, and the depressions filled up with cement; the surface is worn by use, otherwise the enamel coating would be continuous at the top of the ridges. In all the figures the enamel is black, the pulp white; the dentine represented by horizontal lines, and the cement by dots. (After Flower and Lydekker.) The relations of the three constituents of the tooth in its simplest form is shown in the accompanying diagram, where the intimate structure of the enamel, dentine, and cement (or crusta petrosa as it is sometimes called) is not indicated. The latter has the closest resemblance to bone. The dentine is traversed by fine canals which run parallel to each other and anastomose here and there. The enamel is formed of long prismatic fibres, and is excessively hard in structure, containing less animal matter than the other tooth tissues. To this fact is frequently {45} due the complicated patterns upon the grinding teeth of Ungulates, which are produced by the wearing away of the dentine and the cement, and the resistance of the enamel. The centre of the tooth papilla remains soft and forms the pulp of the tooth, which is continuous with the underlying tissues of the gum by a fine canal or a wide cavity as the case may be. In teeth which persistently grow throughout the lifetime of the animal, as for example the incisors of the Rodents, there is a wide intercommunication between the cavity of the tooth and the tissues of the gum; only a narrow canal exists in, for instance, the teeth of Man, and in fact in the vast majority of cases. The three constituents of the typical teeth are not, however, found in all mammals; the layer which is sometimes wanting is the enamel. This is the case with most Edentates; but the interesting discovery has been made (by Tomes) that in the Armadillo there is a downgrowth of the epidermis similar to that which forms the enamel in other mammals, a rudimentary "enamel organ." Teeth are present in nearly all the Mammalia; and where they are absent there is frequently some evidence to show that the loss is a recent one. The Whalebone Whales, the Monotremata, _Manis_, and the American Anteaters among the Edentata are devoid of teeth in the adult state. In several of these instances, however, more or less rudimentary teeth have been found, which either never cut the gums or else become lost early in life. The latter is the case with _Ornithorhynchus_, where there are teeth up to maturity (see p. 113). Kükenthal has found germs of teeth in Whales, and Röse in the Oriental _Manis_. The loss of the teeth in these cases seems to have some relation to the nature of the food. In ant-eating mammals, as in the Anteaters and _Echidna_, the ants are licked up by the long and viscid tongue, and require no mastication. Yet it must be remembered that _Orycteropus_ is also an anteater, like the Marsupial _Myrmecobius_, both of which genera have teeth. The first of the essential peculiarities of the mammalian teeth as compared with those of other vertebrates concerns the position of the teeth in the mouth. There is no undoubted mammal extinct or living in which the teeth are attached to any bones other than the dentary, the maxilla, and the {46} premaxilla. There are no vomerine, palatine, or pterygoid teeth, such as are met with in Amphibia and Reptilia. The other peculiarities of the mammalian teeth, though true of the great majority of cases, are none of them absolutely universal. But it is necessary to go into the subject at some length on account of the great importance which has been laid upon the teeth in deciding questions of relationship; moreover, largely no doubt on account of their hardness and imperishability, our knowledge of certain extinct forms of Mammalia is entirely based upon a few scattered teeth; while of some others, notably of the Triassic and Jurassic genera, there is not a great deal of evidence except that which is furnished by the teeth. Indeed the important place which odontography holds in comparative anatomy is from many points of view to be regretted, though inevitable. "In hardly any other system of organs of vertebrated animals," remarks Dr. Leche, "is there so much danger of confounding the results of convergence of development with true homologies, for scarcely any other set of organs is less conservative and more completely subservient to the lightest impulse from without." Affinities as indicated by the teeth are sometimes in direct contradiction to those afforded by other organs; or, as in the case of the simple Toothed Whales, no evidence of any kind is forthcoming. Dr. Leche has pointed out that, judged merely from its teeth, _Arctictis_ would be referred to the Raccoons, though it is really a Viverrid; while _Bassariscus_, which Sir W. Flower showed to be a Raccoon, is in its teeth a Viverrid. Mr. Bateson has been obliged to hamper the subject with another difficulty. In dealing with the variations of teeth,[25] Mr. Bateson has brought together an immense number of facts, which tend to prove that the variability of these structures is much greater than had been previously recognised; that this variability is often symmetrical; and that in some animals, as in "_Canis cancrivorus_, a South American fox, the majority showed some abnormality." When we learn from Mr. Bateson that "of _Felis fontanieri_, an aberrant leopard, two skulls only are known, both showing dental abnormalities," it seems dangerous to rear too lofty a superstructure upon a single fossil jaw. It must be noted too that, {47} contrary to the prevailing superstition, it is not domestic animals which show the greatest amount of tooth variation. As to special homologies between tooth and tooth, with which we shall deal on a later page, Mr. Bateson has urged almost insuperable difficulties. [Illustration] FIG. 34.--Skull of Dasyurus (lateral view). _al.sph_, Alisphenoid; _ang_, angular process of mandible; _fr_, frontal; _ju_, jugal; _lcr_, lachrymal; _max_, maxilla; _nas_, nasal; _oc.cond_, occipital condyle; _par_, parietal; _par.oc_, paroccipital process; _p.max_, premaxilla; _s.oc_, supraoccipital; _sq_, squamosal; _sq_', zygomatic process of squamosal. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) [Illustration] FIG. 35.--Upper and lower teeth of one side of the mouth of a Dolphin (_Lagenorhynchus_), illustrating the homodont type of dentition in a mammal. (After Flower and Lydekker.) The teeth of the Mammalia are almost without exception "heterodont," _i.e._ they show differences of structure in different parts of the mouth. As a general rule, teeth can be grouped into cutting incisors, sharp conical canines, and molars, with a surface which is in the majority of cases suited for grinding. In this they contrast with the majority of the lower vertebrates, where the teeth are "homodont" (or, better, _homoeodont_), _i.e._ all more or less similar and not fitted by change of form to perform different duties. But there are exceptions on both sides. In {48} the Toothed Whales the teeth are homodont, as they are in the frog and in most reptiles; on the other hand, some of the remarkable reptiles belonging to Professor Huxley's order of the Anomodontia have distinct canines, and show other differentiations in their teeth. A second characteristic of the mammalian dentition is the limited number of the teeth, which rarely exceeds fifty-four. Here again the Toothed Whales are an exception, the number of their teeth being as great as in many reptiles. In the Mammalia the number of the teeth is fixed (excepting of course for abnormalities), while in reptiles there is frequently no precise normal. Two regions may be distinguished in every tooth--the crown and the root; the latter, as its name denotes, is imbedded in the gum, while the crown is the freely-projecting summit of the tooth. The varying proportions of these two regions of the tooth enables us to divide teeth into two series--the brachyodont and the hypselodont; in the latter the crown is developed at the expense of the root, which is small; the hypselodont tooth is one that grows from a persistent pulp or, at any rate, one that is long open. Brachyodont teeth on the contrary have narrow canals running into the dentine. The primitive form of the tooth seems undoubtedly to be a conical single-rooted tooth, such as is now preserved in the Toothed Whales and in the canine teeth of nearly all animals. The development of the teeth, that is, the simple bell-shaped form of the enamel organ, seems to go some way towards proving this; but it is quite another question whether we can fairly regard the Whales as having retained this early form of tooth. In their case the simplification, as is so often the case where organs are simplified, seems to be rather degeneration than retention of primitive characters. But this is a matter which must be deferred for the present. The incisor teeth are generally of simple structure and nearly always single rooted. In the Rodents, in the extinct Tillodontia and in Diprotodont Marsupials, they have grown large, and, as has been already stated, they increase in size continuously from the growing pulp. These teeth have a layer of enamel only on the anterior face, which keeps a sharp chisel-like edge upon them by reason of the fact that the harder enamel is worn away more slowly than the comparatively soft dentine. The {49} "horn" of the Narwhal is another modification of an incisor, as are the tusks of Elephants. Among the Lemurs the incisors are denticulate, and serve to clean the fur in a comb-like fashion. This is markedly the case in _Galeopithecus_. The incisors are sometimes totally absent, as in the Sloths, sometimes partially absent, as in many Artiodactyles, where the lower incisors bite against a callous pad in the upper jaw, in which no trace of incisors has been found. Canine teeth are present in the majority of mammals, but are absent without a single exception from the jaws of the Rodentia. The canine tooth of the upper jaw is that tooth which comes immediately after the suture dividing the premaxillary from the maxillary bone. The canines are as a rule simple conical teeth, with but a single root; indeed they resemble what we may presume to have been the first kind of tooth developed in mammals. In this they resemble also as a general rule the foregoing incisors. But instances are known where the canines are implanted by two roots. This is to be seen in _Triconodon_, in the pig _Hyotherium_, in the Mole and some other Insectivores, and in _Galeopithecus_, where the incisors also may be thus implanted in the jaw. Furthermore, the simple condition of the crown of the tooth may be departed from. This is the case with a Fruit Bat belonging to the genus _Pteralopex_. In the more primitive Mammalia it is common to find no great difference between the canines and incisors; such is the case with the early Ungulate types of Eocene times, such as _Xiphodon_. In modern mammals, however, especially among the Carnivora, the canines tend to become larger and stronger than the incisors, and in some of the Cats and in the Walrus these teeth are represented by enormous offensive tusks. It is not rare for the canines of male animals to be larger than those of their mates. There are also cases such as the Musk-deer and the Kanchil where the male alone possesses these teeth, but only in the upper jaw. The teeth which follow the canines are known as the grinders or cheek teeth, or more technically as premolars and molars. These two latter terms separate teeth which arise at different periods, and their use will be explained later. In the meantime it may be pointed out that the cheek teeth are the teeth which show the greatest amount of variation in their structure; this is shown by the number and variety of the cusps in which {50} the biting surface ends. The grinding teeth vary from simple one-cusped teeth, precisely like canines, to teeth with an enormous number of separate tubercles. In the former case it is hard to distinguish between incisors, canines, and cheek teeth in the lower jaw, where no suture separates the bone. Moreover it is quite common for the first cheek tooth in the lower jaw to have the characters of a canine, while the true canine approximates in its form to the antecedent incisors. This is so, for instance, with the Lemurs, where the first premolar is caniniform, and the canine shares in the curious procumbent attitude which distinguishes the lower incisors of many of those animals. A variable number of the anterior cheek teeth may be little more than simple conical teeth; but the rest of the set are commonly more complicated. No definite laws can be laid down as to the complication of the posterior as compared with the anterior set. Broadly speaking, it is purely herbivorous creatures in which the least difference can be detected at the two extremities, and which are at the same time the most elaborately decorated with tubercles and ridges. The converse is true that in purely carnivorous animals, including insect- and fish-eating forms, there is the greatest difference between the anterior set of grinding teeth and those which follow. In these two respects such animals as a Lemur and a Rhinoceros occupy the extremes. Furthermore, it may be said that omnivorous creatures lie, as their diet would suggest, in an intermediate position. Generally speaking, when there is a marked difference between the first premolar and molars at the end of the series, there is a gradual approximation in structure of a progressive kind. The tubercles become more numerous in successive teeth; but the corollary which is apparently deducible from this, _i.e._ that the last molar is the most elaborate of the series, is by no means always true. The last cheek tooth indeed is often degenerate. On the other hand, it is very markedly the largest of the series in such diverse types as the Elephant, the hog _Phacochoerus_, and the Rodent _Hydrochoerus_. It is a rule that the cheek teeth of the upper jaw are more complicated than the corresponding teeth of the lower jaw. The structure of the cheek teeth is very diverse among the Mammalia. Broadly, two types are to be recognised. There are {51} teeth in which the grinding surface is raised into a series of two, to many, tubercles sharper or blunter as the case may be;--sharper and fewer at the same time in carnivorous and especially in insectivorous types, more abundant in omnivorous animals. To this form of tooth the term "bunodont" is applied. There is no doubt that this is the earliest type of tooth; but whether the fewer or the more cusped condition is the primitive one is a question that is reserved for consideration at the end of the present chapter. The other type of grinding tooth is known as "lophodont." This is exemplified by such types as the Perissodactyla and Ungulates generally, and by the Rodents. The tooth is traversed by ridges which have generally a transverse direction to the long axis of the jaw in which the tooth lies. The ridges may be regarded as having been developed between tubercles which they connect and whose distinctness as tubercles is thereby destroyed. Lophodont teeth are only found in vegetable-feeding animals. [Illustration] FIG. 36.--Molar teeth of _Aceratherium platycephalum_. × ½. _m.1-m.3_., Molars; _mh_, metaloph; _p.1-p.4_, premolars; _ph_, protoloph; _ps.f_, parastyle fossa; _te_, tetartocone. (After Osborn.) The special characteristics of the teeth of various groups of animals will be considered further under the accounts of the several orders of recent and fossil Mammalia. [Illustration] FIG. 37.--Two stages in the development of the teeth of a Mammal (diagrammatic sections). _alv_, Bone of alveolus; _dent_, dentine; _dent.s_, dental sac; _en_, enamel; _en.m_, enamel membrane; _en.m_^2, enamel membrane of permanent tooth; _en.plp_, enamel pulp; _gr_, dental groove; _lam_, dental lamina; _lam_', part of dental lamina which grows downwards below the tooth germ; _n_, neck connecting germs of milk and permanent tooth; _pap_, dental papilla; _pap_^2, dental papilla of permanent tooth. (After O. Hertwig.) A very general feature of the teeth of the Mammalia is what is usually termed the diphyodont dentition. In the majority of cases there are two sets of teeth developed, of which the first lasts for a comparatively short time, and is termed on account of its usual time of appearance the "milk dentition"; this is replaced later by the permanent dentition. In lower vertebrates the teeth are replaced as worn away. There is not, however, so great an antithesis in this matter between the Mammalia {52} and other vertebrates as was at one time assumed. But in order to explain this very important part of the subject it will be necessary to give some account of the development of the teeth. The type selected is the Hedgehog, which has been recently and carefully described by Dr. Leche of Stockholm, which type has furthermore the advantage of being a "central" type of mammal. The first step in the formation of the teeth is a continuous invagination of the epithelium covering the jaw to form a deepish wall of tissue running in the thickness of the jaw; this is perfectly continuous from end to end of the lower jaw. From this "common enamel germ" (_Schmelzleiste_ of the Germans[26]) "special enamel germs" (_Schmelzorgane_, enamel organs) are developed here and there as thickenings in the form of buds {53} which arise on the outer side of the fold of epithelium and some way above its lower termination. These ultimately acquire a bell-like form, and are as it were moulded on to a thickened concentration of the dermis beneath; they then become separate from the downgrowth of the epithelium whence they have arisen. Finally, each of the eight germs becomes one of the milk teeth of the animal. The lower end of the sheet of invaginated epithelium, the common enamel germ, is the seat of the formation of the second set of teeth, of which, however, in the animal under consideration, there are only two in each jaw. But corresponding to each of the enamel germs of the milk dentition, with the exception of the first two molars, there is a slight thickening of the end of the common enamel germ, which at a certain stage is indistinguishable from the thickening which will become one of the permanent teeth. We have thus the diphyodont arrangement. But this does not exhaust the series of rudimentary teeth, though no more come to maturity than those whose development has already been touched upon. In the upper jaw a small outgrowth of the common enamel germ arises above and to the outer side of the enamel germ of the third milk incisor; this does not develop any further, but its resemblance to the commencing germ of a tooth seems to indicate that it is the remnant of a tooth series antecedent to the milk series. Furthermore, there are indications in the fourth premolar of a fourth series of teeth posterior in appearance to the permanent dentition. We arrive therefore at the important conclusion that although here as elsewhere there are only two sets of calcified teeth ever developed, there are feeble though unmistakable remains of two other series, one antecedent to and the other posterior to the diphyodont dentition. The gap therefore which separates the mammalian dentition from that of reptiles is less than has hitherto appeared. Dr. Leche also carefully studied the tooth development of _Iguana_; he found that in this lizard there are four series of teeth which come to maturity, and a rudimentary series antecedent to these which never produces fully formed teeth. In a few mammals there is a kind of dentition known as the monophyodont, in which only one series of teeth reaches maturity; where in fact there is no replacement of a milk series by a permanent dentition. Of the monophyodont dentition Whales form an example. The Marsupials are very nearly an instance of the {54} same phenomenon; for Sir W. Flower showed, and Mr. Thomas confirmed his discovery, that only one tooth, according to Mr. Thomas the fourth premolar, is replaced in that group. But even the purely monophyodont dentition of the Toothed Whales is a more apparent than real contrast to the diphyodont dentition elsewhere prevalent. An investigation of the embryos of various Toothed Whales by Dr. Kükenthal and by Dr. Leche has brought to light the highly important fact that two dentitions are present, but that one only comes to maturity; from this fact obviously follows the interesting question:--To which of the two dentitions of more normal Mammalia does the monophyodont dentition of the Whales and Marsupials belong? To this question a clear answer is fortunately possible. As has been pointed out in the foregoing sketch of tooth development, and has been illustrated in the figures, the milk teeth develop as lateral outgrowths of the common enamel germ, while the permanent teeth arise from the end of the same band of tissue. This fact enables it to be stated apparently beyond a doubt that in the Whales and in the Marsupials it is the milk dentition which is the only one to arrive at maturity. Thus the earlier theoretical conclusion that the Marsupial dentition "is a secondary dentition with only one tooth of the primary set left," is proved on embryological grounds to be untrue. But there are other monophyodont animals than those already mentioned.[27] _Orycteropus_, the Cape Anteater, is an example. Mr. Thomas has lately discovered that in this Edentate there is a set of minute though calcified milk teeth which probably never cut the gum; here we have a different sort of monophyodontism, in which the teeth belong to the second and not to the first set. Between the latter condition and the diphyodont state are intermediate stages. Thus in the Sea Lions the milk teeth are developed but disappear early, probably before the animal is born. In the typical diphyodont dentition, such as is exhibited for example in Man and the vast majority of mammals, the milk teeth eventually completely disappear and are entirely replaced by the permanent set of teeth, with the exception, of course, of the molars, which though they are developed late belong to the milk series. {55} Their correspondence with the milk series is shown in an interesting way by the close resemblance which the last milk premolar often bears to the first molar. These two extremes of dentition, _i.e._ purely monophyodont and, excepting for the molars, purely diphyodont, are however connected by an intermediate state of affairs, which is represented by more than one stage. In _Borhyaena_ (probably a Sparassodont) the incisors and the canines and two out of the four premolars belong to the permanent dentition, while the two remaining premolars and of course the three molars are of the milk series. _Prothylacinus_, a genus belonging to the same group, has a dentition which is a step or two further advanced in the direction of the recent Marsupials. We find, according to Ameghino,[28] whose conclusions are accepted by Mr. Lydekker, that the incisors, canines, and two premolars belong to the milk series, while the permanent series is represented only by the two remaining premolars. We can tabulate this series as follows:-- (1) Purely monophyodont, with teeth only of the first set--Toothed Whales. (2) Incompletely monophyodont, as in the Marsupials, where there is a milk dentition with only one tooth replaced.[29] (3) Incompletely diphyodont, with the dentition made up partly of milk, partly of permanent teeth, as in _Borhyaena_. (4) Diphyodont, where all the teeth except the molars are of the second set; this characterises nearly all the mammals. As we pass from older forms to their more recent representatives there is as a rule a progressive development of the form of the teeth. This is especially marked among the Ungulata. The extremely complicated type of tooth found in such a form as the existing Horse can be traced back through a series of stages to a tooth in which the crown is marked by a few separated tubercles or cusps. Arrived at this point, the differences between the teeth of ancestral Horses and ancestral Rhinoceroses and Tapirs are hard to distinguish with accuracy; and the same difficulty is experienced in attempting to give a definition of other large orders by the characters of the teeth, such as will apply to the Eocene or {56} even earlier representatives of these families. Fig. 36 (p. 51) illustrating a series of mammalian teeth will illustrate the above remarks. That there is such a convergence in tooth structure shows that it is, theoretically at least, possible to determine the ancestral form of the mammalian tooth. Practically, however, the difficulties which beset such theorising are great; that there are such divergent and such strongly-held antithetical views is sufficient proof of this. Two main views hold the field: one, which has found most favour in America, and is due chiefly to the labours and persuasiveness of Professors Cope, Scott, Osborn, and others, is known as "trituberculy."[30] The alternative view, as urged by Forsyth Major, Woodward, and Goodrich, attempts to show that the dentition of the original mammal included grinding teeth which were multicuspidate or "multitubercular." There is much to be said for both views, and something to be said against both. [Illustration] FIG. 38.--Molar teeth of A, _Phenacodus_, and B, the Creodont _Palaeonictis_. _End_, endoconid; _hld_, hypoconulid; _hyd_, hypoconid; _med_, metaconid; _prd_, protoconid. (After Osborn and Wortman.) This question is, however, wrapped up in a wider one. Its solution depends upon the ancestry of mammals. If the Mammalia are to be derived from reptiles with simple conical teeth, then the first stage in the development of trituberculy is proved. On the other hand, however, the evidence is gradually growing that the Theromorpha represent more nearly than any non-mammalian group with which we are acquainted the probable ancestral form of the mammals. These animals offer some support to both the leading views. _Cynognathus_ had triconodont teeth which, as will be pointed out later, are a theoretically intermediate stage in the evolution of tritubercular teeth; on the other hand, the teeth of _Diademodon_ and some others are multituberculate, and have been very properly compared to the multitubercular teeth of such primitive mammalia as the Ornithorhynchus. Professor Osborn is no doubt correct in italicising a remark of an anonymous writer in _Science_ to the effect that in _Diademodon_ the teeth, though multitubercular, show the prevalence of three cusps arranged in the tritubercular fashion. {57} But this may be only a proof that the multitubercular antedates the tritubercular. It may be, indeed, that the mammalian tooth was already differentiated among the mammal-like Saurians and that from such a form as _Cynognathus_ the Eutheria and other forms in which a tritubercular arrangement can be detected were evolved, and from such form as _Tritylodon_ the Monotrematous branch of the mammals. This way of looking at the matter harmonises a much-disputed question, but involves a diphyletic origin of the mammals--an origin which for other reasons is not without its supporters. We shall now attempt to give a general idea of the facts and arguments which support or tend to support "trituberculy." As a matter of fact the name is inaccurate; for the holders of this view do not derive the mammalian molar from a trituberculate condition, but in the first place from a simple cone such as that of a crocodile! To this main and at first only cusp came as a reinforcement an additional cusp at each side, or rather at each end, having regard to their position with reference to the long axis of the jaw. This stage is the "triconodont" stage, and teeth exist among living as well as extinct mammals which show this early form of tooth. We have, indeed, the genus _Triconodon_, so named on that very account. Among living mammals the Seals and the Thylacine all show some triconodont teeth. A Toothed Whale, it may be remarked, is a living example of a mammal with monoconodont teeth. The three primary cusps, as the supporters of Cope's theory of trituberculism denominate them, are termed respectively the protocone, paracone, and metacone, or, if they are in the teeth of the lower jaw, protoconid, paraconid, and metaconid. At a slightly later stage, or coincidently, a rim partly surrounded the crown of the tooth; the rim is known as the cingulum, and from a prominent elevation of this rim a fourth cusp, the hypocone, was developed. The three main cones then moved, or rather two of them moved, so as to form a triangle; this is the tritubercular stage. Teeth of this pattern are common, and occur in such ancient forms as Insectivora and Lemurs, besides numerous extinct groups. An amendment has been suggested, and that is to term the teeth with the simple primitive triangle "trigonodont," and to reserve the term tritubercular for those teeth in which the hypocone has appeared. The platform bearing the hypocone widened into the {58} "talon"; and this ledge became produced into two additional cusps, the hypoconule or hypoconulid, and the ectocone or ectoconid. Thus the typical sextuberculate tooth of the primitive Ungulate, and indeed of many primitive Eutherians, is arrived at. From this the still further complicated teeth of modern Ungulates can be derived by further additions or fusions, etc.[31] On the other hand, the development of the Primate molar stops short at the stage of four cusps. [Illustration] FIG. 39.--Epitome of the evolution of a cusped tooth. 1, Reptile; 2, _Dromatherium_; 3, _Microconodon_; 4, _Spalacotherium_; _me_, metaconid; _pa_, paraconid; _pr_, protoconid; 5, _Amphitherium_. (After Osborn.) That such a series can be traced is an undoubted fact. Every stage exists, or has existed. But whether the stages can be connected or not is quite another question. It is by three main lines of argument that the view here sketched out in brief is supported. In the first place, the tracing of the pedigrees of many groups of mammals has met with very considerable success; and it is clear that as we pass from the living Horse and Rhinoceros, with their complicated molars, to their forerunners, we find that both can be referred to a primitive Ungulate molar with but six cusps. Going still further back to the lowest Eocene and ancestral type as it appears, _Euprotogonia_, we still find in the molar tooth the sextubercular plan of structure. We can hardly get further back in the evolution of the Perissodactyles with any probability of security. On the other hand, many facts point to a fundamental relationship between the primitive Ungulates and the early Creodonts. The latter frequently show plainly tritubercular molars. Such Ungulates as _Euprotogonia_ and _Protogonodon_, though sex- or quinque-tubercular as to their molars, have a distinctly prevailing trituberculism, when the _size_ and importance of three of the cusps is taken into account. But this {59} lacks finality as a convincing proof of the tritubercular tooth as a primitive Ungulate tooth. Professor Osborn has ingeniously utilised certain deviations from the normal type of tooth structure (for the group) in favour of his strongly-urged opinions. If the stages of development have been as he suggests, a retrogression would naturally be in the inverse order; thus the "apparently 'triconodont' lower molar of _Thylacinus_" may be interpreted as a retrogression from a tritubercular tooth. In the same way may be explained the triconodont teeth of Seals and of the Cetacean _Zeuglodon_. Finally, the modern Toothed Whales have retrograded into "haplodonty." Embryological evidence has also been called in, and with some success, to contribute towards the proof of the tritubercular theory of teeth. Taeker has shown that in the Horse and the Pig, and some other Ungulates, there is first of all a single hillock or cusp, and that later the additional cones arise separately. An apparent stumbling-block raised by these investigations is that it is not always the protocone or its equivalent in the upper jaw which arises first, as it obviously ought to do phylogenetically. This, however, is not a final argument in either direction. We know from plenty of examples that ontogenetic processes sometimes do not correspond in their order with phylogenetic changes. Thus in the mammalian heart the ventricle divides before the auricle; and of coarse, phylogenetically, the reverse ought to occur, since a divided auricle precedes a divided ventricle. This method of development has, moreover, been interpreted otherwise. It has been held to signify that the complex teeth of mammals are indeed derived from simple cones but by the fusion of a number of those cones. On the other hand there are the claims of the multitubercular theory of the origin of mammalian teeth to be considered. The palaeontological evidence has been already, to some extent, utilised. The occurrence of such teeth among the possible forerunners of mammals, and in some of the most primitive types of Mammalia, has been referred to. Señor Ameghino dwells upon the sextubercular condition of many primitive mammals even belonging to the Eutheria. In a recent communication[32] he attempts to identify six tubercles in the molars of types belonging to a {60} variety of Orders. The same condition, as has been noted, characterises that ancient Ungulate form _Euprotogonia_. Even where the teeth seem at first sight to be tritubercular a detailed study shows traces of otherwise vanished cusps. It must be remembered in basing arguments upon the early Jurassic and Cretaceous mammals, that our knowledge of them mainly depends upon lower jaws, the teeth of which are usually simpler in pattern than those of the upper jaws. Moreover, another fact, not always insisted upon, must not be lost sight of. In many of those creatures the jaws were of small size, and yet accommodated a large series of molar teeth. _Amphitherium_, for example, had six molar teeth, and five is a number frequently met with. As the teeth are so numerous and the jaws so small it seems reasonable to connect the simplicity of the structure of the teeth with the need for crowding a number together. The same argument may partly account for the superabundant teeth of many Toothed Whales. It is true that the Manatee has very numerous grinders which are yet complex; but then in this animal there is a succession, and the jaw does not hold at a given time the entire series, with which it is provided in relays. On the other hand, where there are few molars they are often of the multitubercular type, or at least approach it; of this the Multituberculate _Polymastodon_ is a good example; so, too, the molars of _Hydrochoerus_, and of many other Rodents. It is well known that the fourth deciduous molar of the upper jaw, which is replaced by a permanent premolar in the fully adult animal, is of a more complex structure than its successor. This may indeed be extended to premolars earlier in the series. In the Dog "the second and first milk molars closely resemble the third and second premolars"; now the milk premolars belong evidently to the same dentition as the permanent molars, and they are earlier teeth than the later-developed replacing teeth. It is therefore significant that these earlier teeth should be more cuspidate than the later teeth. It tells distinctly in favour of the simplification as opposed to the complication of teeth in time, in the groups concerned. These facts may possibly be applied in explanation of the simple teeth of some of the Jurassic and Cretaceous mammals. It has been mentioned that absolute trituberculy is exceedingly rare among those ancient creatures; more generally there are to {61} be found at least traces of more cusps. Now in some of them we may be dealing with instances of a complete tooth change; the suppression, save for one tooth, which is found in Marsupials, was probably not developed in at least some of these early mammals. The simplicity may therefore have been preceded by complexity, and may have been merely an adaptation to an insectivorous diet. ALIMENTARY CANAL.--The _mouth_ of the Mammalia is remarkable for the fact that with a few exceptions, such as the Whales, there are thick and fleshy lips. The office of these is to seize the food. The roof of the mouth is formed by the "hard palate" in front, which covers over the maxillary and palatine regions. This region is often covered with raised ridges, which have a symmetrical disposition, and are particularly strong in Ruminant animals. They are much reduced in the Rodents, where the anterior part of the palate is ill-defined owing to the way in which its sides fade into the lateral surface of the face. It has been shown that these ridges, in the Cat at least, develop as separate papilliform outgrowths, and it has been suggested that these papillae, which later become united to form the ridges, are the last remnant of palatine teeth such as occur in lower vertebrates. [Illustration] FIG. 40.--Palatal folds of the Raccoon (_Procyon lotor_). _p.p_, Papilla palatina; _r.p_, palatal folds. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) The _tongue_ is a well-developed organ, usually playing a double part. It acts as an organ of prehension, especially in such animals as the Giraffe and the Anteater, where it is long and protrusible beyond the mouth for a considerable distance. It also carries gustatory organs, which serve for the discrimination of the nature of the food. Beneath the tongue there may be a hardish plate, known as the sublingua. This is especially prominent in the Lemurs, where it projects as a horny structure below the tongue, and has an independent and free tip. It is supported in some of these animals by a cartilaginous {62} structure. It is held by Gegenbaur that this organ is the equivalent of the reptilian tongue, and that in the skeletal vestiges which it contains are to be found the equivalents of the hyoid skeletal cartilages which support the tongue in lizards. In this case the tongue of mammals is a subsequently added structure. The _oesophagus_ leads from the mouth cavity to the _stomach_. The latter organ has commonly a distinctive shape in mammals. This is well shown in Man. The orifices of the oesophagus and intestine are somewhat approximated; and this causes a bulging of the lower border of the organ, usually spoken of as the greater curvature. A stomach of this typical form is found in many orders of mammals, and is unlike the stomach in any of the groups of lower vertebrates in shape. Sometimes the shape of the organ is greatly altered: it may be drawn out, sacculated, or divided, as in the Ruminants and Whales, into a series of differentiated chambers, each of which plays some special part in the phenomena of digestion. The _intestine_ of mammals is always long and much coiled, though the length and consequent degree of coiling naturally varies. On the whole it is perhaps safe to say that it is shorter in carnivorous than in vegetable-feeding beasts. Thus the Paca has an intestine of 39 inches total length, while the Cat, an animal of about the same size, has an intestine which is only 36 inches long. A fish diet, however, to judge from the Seals, is associated with a long intestinal tract. The intestine is divisible in the vast majority of mammals into a small and a large intestine. The two are separated by a valvular constriction save in certain Carnivores; and in the majority of cases the distinction is also emphasised by the presence at the junction of a blindly-ending diverticulum, the _caecum_. This latter organ varies greatly in length, being very short in the Cat-tribe and exceedingly long in Rodents. Its size is, to some extent, dependent upon the flesh-eating or grass-eating propensities of the animal in which it occurs. One of the longest caeca is possessed by the Vulpine Phalanger, in which the organ is one-fifth of the length of the small intestine; while the opposite extremity is reached by _Felis macroscelis_, which has a small intestine one hundred times the length of the caecum. {63} [Illustration] FIG. 41.--Different forms of the stomach in Mammals. A, Dog; B, _Mus decumanus_; C, _Mus musculus_; D, Weasel; E, scheme of the Ruminant stomach, the arrow with the dotted line showing the course taken by the food; F, Human stomach. _a_, Minor curvature; _b_, major curvature; _c_, cardiac end. G, Camel; H, _Echidna aculeata_. _Cma_, Major curvature; _Cmi_, minor curvature. I, _Bradypus tridactylus_. _Du_, Duodenum; _MB_, coecal diverticulum; **, outgrowths of duodenum; +, reticulum; ++, rumen. _A_ (in E and G), Abomasum; _Ca_, cardiac division; _O_, psalterium; _Oe_, oesophagus; _P_, pylorus; _R_ (to the right in E and to the left in G), rumen; _R_ (to the left in E and to the right in G), reticulum; _Sc_, cardiac division; _Sp_, pyloric division; _WZ_, water-cells. (From Wiedersheim's _Comparative Anatomy_.) An interesting point in connexion with the gut of mammals is the varying proportion of the small to the large intestine. As a general rule the former is very considerably longer than the latter; in _Paradoxurus_, for instance, the small intestine may be fifteen times the length of the large. The excess of length of one section over the other is not generally so marked {64} as this. In _Phalanger maculatus_ the two sections of the gut are as nearly as possible equal in length, while in _Phaseolarctos_ the large intestine is considerably longer than the small, the lengths being respectively 160 inches and 111 inches. It is common among the Marsupials and also among the Rodents for these proportions to exist, _i.e._ for the large intestine to be as long as, or longer than, the small. But there are so many exceptions that no general statements can be extracted from the facts. Some few details will be found in the systematic part of this book. Mr. Chalmers Mitchell has brought forward some reasons for associating a great length of large intestine with an archaic systematic position, in the birds at any rate. The facts here briefly touched upon are not at variance with the extension of such a view to the mammals. [Illustration] FIG. 42.--Diagrammatic plan of the liver of a Mammal (posterior surface). _c_, Caudate lobe; _cf_, cystic fissure; _dv_, ductus venosus; _g_, gall-bladder; _lc_, left central lobe; _ll_, left lateral lobe; _llf_, left lateral fissure; _p_, portal vein entering transverse fissure; _rc_, right central lobe; _rl_, right lateral lobe; _rlf_, right lateral fissure; _s_, Spigelian lobe; _u_, umbilical vein; _vc_, post-caval vein. (After Flower and Lydekker.) Appended to the alimentary tract are three glands or sets of glands. Opening into the mouth cavity are the _salivary glands_, which are of enormous size in Anteaters, and small or absent in Whales. In their number and position these glands are characteristic of mammals. Into the intestine open the ducts of the pancreas and liver, two glands which the mammals share with lower vertebrates. The form of the _liver_ is, however, generally characteristic of mammals. It is divided as a rule into a right and a left half, the line of division being marked by the insertion of the umbilical ligament, a vestige of the primitive ventral mesentery. Each half is again commonly subdivided into central and lateral lobes. In addition to these, two other divisions are often to be seen--the Spigelian and the caudate lobe. The liver is less divided in Cetacea and {65} some others, very much subdivided in Rodents and other groups. The degree of subdivision and the proportions of the several lobes frequently offer valuable systematic characters. The gall-bladder may be present or absent; it is always a diverticulum of the hepatic duct. The two are never separate, as in birds, for instance. ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.--The heart of all mammals is a completely four-chambered organ. In the adult heart there is no communication between the right and left halves. The auricles are comparatively thin-walled, the ventricles thick-walled, in relation to the amount of work that they have severally to perform. The right ventricle, moreover, which has only to drive the blood into the lungs, is much thinner-walled than the left ventricle, which is concerned with the entire systemic circulation. The exits of the arteries and the auriculo-ventricular orifices are guarded by valves, which are so arranged as only to permit the blood to flow in the proper direction. But these valves have a morphological as well as a physiological interest. At the origin of each artery, the aorta and the pulmonary, there is a row of three watch-pocket valves, as they have been generally termed on account of their form. These three valves meet accurately in the middle of the lumen of the arterial tube when liquid is poured into them from above, and thus completely occlude the orifice. The auriculo-ventricular valves differ in structure in the two ventricles. That of the left ventricle has only two flaps, and is therefore often spoken of as the bicuspid or mitral valve. Both these flaps are membranous, and together they completely surround the exit from the auricle into the ventricle. The edges of the valve are bound down to the parietes of the heart by numerous branching tendinous threads, the chordae tendineae, which often take their origin from pillar-like muscles arising from the walls of the heart, the so-called musculi papillares. The valve of the right ventricle is composed of three flaps, and is therefore often spoken of as the tricuspid valve; it is in the same way membranous, and has chordae tendineae and musculi papillares connected with it. The disposition of the musculi papillares and their number differ in different mammals, but no exhaustive study has as yet been made of the arrangements in different groups; the amount of individual variation even is not known, though it is certainly considerable in some cases, for {66} instance in the heart of the Rabbit. The heart of the Monotremata presents differences of some importance from those of other Mammalia; the modern knowledge of the Monotrematous heart is mainly due to Gegenbaur[33] and Lankester,[34] in whose memoirs references to the older literature will be found. The principal features of interest in which the heart of the Monotremata differs from that of the higher Mammalia are these. When the two ventricles are cut across transversely, the cavity of the right is seen to be wrapped round that of the left in a fashion precisely like that of the bird's heart; on the other hand in the higher mammal the two cavities lie side by side. The main difference between Monotremes and other Mammals concerns the right auriculo-ventricular valve. The differences which it presents from the corresponding structure of the rest of the Mammalia are two: in the first place, the valve itself does not completely surround the ostium; it is only developed on one side; the septal half (_i.e._ that turned towards the interventricular septum) is either entirely absent or more generally represented by a small bit of membrane; nevertheless I found[35] recently in an _Ornithorhynchus_ heart a complete septal half to the right auriculo-ventricular valve. The second point of interest in connexion with this valve is, that the musculi papillares instead of ending in chordae tendineae attached to the free edge of the valve are directly attached to the valve, and in some cases pass through its membranous flap, to be attached to its origin at the boundary of the auricle and of the ventricle. The invading of the valve-flap by muscle in this way is highly interesting, as it recalls the heart of the bird and of the crocodile. The imperfect condition of the valve (from which, as has already been stated, the septal half is as a rule nearly absent) is a point of resemblance to the heart of the bird; the corresponding valve of the crocodile's heart being complete. {67} [Illustration] FIG. 43.--_Lepus cuniculus._ Ventral view of the vascular system. The heart is somewhat displaced towards the left of the subject; the arteries of the right and the veins of the left side are in great measure removed. _a.epg_, internal mammary artery; _a.f_, anterior facial vein; _a.m_, anterior mesenteric artery; _a.ph_, anterior phrenic vein; _az.v_, azygos vein; _br_, brachial artery; _c.il.a_, common iliac artery; _c.il.v_, common iliac vein; _coe_, coeliac artery; _d.ao_, dorsal aorta: _e.c_, external carotid artery; _e.il.a_, external iliac artery; _e.il.v_, external iliac vein; _e.ju_, external jugular vein; _fm.a_, femoral artery; _fm.v_, femoral vein; _h.v_, hepatic veins; _i.c_, internal carotid artery; _i.cs_, intercostal vessels; _i.il.a_, internal iliac artery; _i.il.v_, internal iliac vein; _i.ju_, internal jugular vein; _i.l_, iliolumbar artery and vein; _in_, innominate artery; _l.au_, left auricle; _l.c.c_; left common carotid artery; _l.pr.c_, left pre-caval vein; _l.v_, left ventricle; _m.sc_, median sacral artery; _p.a_, pulmonary artery; _p.epg_, epigastric artery and vein; _p.f_, posterior facial vein; _p.m_, posterior mesenteric artery; _p.ph_, posterior phrenic veins; _pt.c_, post-caval vein; _p.v_, pulmonary vein; _r_, renal artery and vein; _r.au_, right auricle; _r.c.c_, right common carotid artery; _r.prc_, right pre-caval vein; _r.v_, right ventricle; _s.cl.a_, right subclavian artery; _s.cl.v_, subclavian vein; _spm_, spermatic artery; _s.vs_, vesical artery; _ut_, uterine artery and vein; _vr_, vertebral artery. (From Parker's _Zootomy_.) There are also features in the system of arteries and veins which are eminently distinctive of mammals. In the first place, the aorta leaving the heart and conveying blood to the body is only a half arch, and bends to the left side as seen in Fig. 43. The right and left halves are present in reptiles, and meet behind the heart. In the bird the right half alone has remained. This fact, therefore, shows that the mammal cannot have been derived from a bird-like ancestor, but that both must have independently come from an ancestor with both halves of the aortic arch present, of which one half has disappeared in one group, and the other half in the other. It is an interesting fact, too, to notice that the four {68} cavities of the mammal's heart, which fourfold division it shares with birds alone, do not exactly correspond compartment for compartment with those of the bird's heart, at least in so far as concerns the ventricles. For the reptilian heart is provided with only one ventricle, and therefore the division of that cavity must have been independently accomplished in mammals and in birds. There are two features in the venous system which distinguish all the Mammalia (with the exception of _Echidna_ in one of these points) from vertebrates standing lower in the series. The hepatic portal system is limited to a vein which conveys to the liver blood derived from the alimentary tract; in no mammal except in _Echidna_ is there any representative of the anterior abdominal vein of lower vertebrates. In that animal there is such a vein, which apparently arises from a capillary network upon the bladder and passes up, supported by a membrane, along the ventral wall of the abdomen to the liver, thus emptying blood into that organ exactly as does the anterior abdominal vein of the frog. In no mammal is there any trace of a renal portal system. The kidneys derive their blood from the renal arteries only. Many mammals have two superior venae cavae; this is the case, for instance, in the Elephant and the Rodents and other types lying comparatively far down in the series. In most if not in all mammals there are considerable remains of one of the posterior cardinals, in the form of the azygos vein, which opens into the vena cava superior or pre-caval vein, _i.e._ the superior cardinal just before the latter debouches into the heart. This one posterior cardinal is usually on the right side; but it may be on the left side, for instance in _Trichosurus vulpecula_. In _Halmaturus bennettii_ there are two azygos veins, one left and one right, of which the left is rather the larger.[36] URINARY ORGANS.--The kidneys in the Mammalia have a compact form, which contrasts with the somewhat diffuse and vaguely-outlined kidneys of the Sauropsida. In mammals the organ is as a rule of that peculiar shape which is called "kidney-shaped"; a depression termed the hilum, which receives the ducts of the glands, indenting the border of an otherwise oval-shaped gland. In some few mammals the kidney is broken up {69} into lobules; this is the case with the Whales, the Bears, the Oxen, and a few other forms. A curious fact about the kidneys of the Mammalia is their very general asymmetry of position. One of them usually lies in a more advanced position than the other. The ureters lead from the kidneys to the urinary bladder, which in its form and relations is quite distinctive of the Mammalia. The bladder is formed out of the remains of the allantois, and is therefore not the exact homologue of the bladder of the frog, which is the equivalent of the entire sac which grows out of the cloaca in the mammal, and is the foetal allantois. The ureters open into the bladder in the higher Mammalia, but lower down in the urino-genital passage in the more primitive mammals. THE BODY CAVITY.--The Mammalia differ from all other living vertebrates by the arrangement of the body cavity in which lie the viscera. That cavity is divided into two by a partly muscular and partly tendinous partition, the diaphragm. No other vertebrate has this precise disposition of the coelom. The diaphragm lies usually transversely to the longitudinal axis of the body, but gets a much more oblique arrangement in the Cetacea and the Sirenia, whose needs demand a more expanded chamber for the lungs. For in front of the diaphragm lie the lungs and heart; behind it the stomach, liver, intestines, and the organs of reproduction and excretion. The diaphragm is used in respiration; when its muscles contract, the surface directed toward the pleural cavity becomes less convex, and the cavity of the lungs is thus increased, allowing them to expand under the pressure of the entering air. THE LUNGS.--The lungs of the Mammalia differ from those of animals lying lower in the series by the fact, just referred to, that they occupy a pleural cavity completely shut off from the abdomen by the diaphragm. As a rule the lungs of the Mammalia are to be distinguished by their more or less extensive lobation. In the Whales, however, and in the Sirenia, they are not much divided, but present the appearance of the simple sac-like lungs of the reptiles. In some mammals there is a median and posterior unpaired lobe of the lung, which lies in the post-pericardial cavity behind the pericardium. This is not universally present. The lungs are very frequently not symmetrical in their lobation, the number of separate lobes on the right side {70} and on the left being different. The lungs of mammals agree with those of the lower reptiles in being freely suspended within their coelomic cavity, and in not being, as in birds, crocodiles, and the Varanidae among lizards, tied down to the dorsal surface of that cavity by a sheet of peritoneum covering them. [Illustration] FIG. 44.--Part of a sagittal section of an ovary of a child just born. _bl.v_, Blood-vessels; _foll_, strings and groups of cells derived from the germinal epithelium becoming developed into follicles; _g.ep_, germinal epithelium; _in_, ingrowing cord of cells from the germinal epithelium; _pr.ov_, primitive ova. (From Hertwig, after Waldeyer.) THE GONADS (OVARIES AND TESTES).--The ovary in the Mammalia is always paired; there is never a partial or complete abortion of one gonad as in birds--except of course in pathological cases. The ovaries are small, and lie in the abdominal cavity behind the kidneys. In the immense majority of the Mammalia the ova which are produced within the ovaries are of minute size; those of even the colossal Rorqual are, so far as we know, not markedly larger than the ova of a Mouse. The smallness of size of these reproductive elements implies necessarily an absence of much nutritive yolk; and as a consequence the developing embryo, since it is not hatched in an early stage as a free living larva, has to be nourished by the mother, to whose tissues it is attached through the intermediary of the placenta, a structure partly composed of foetal structures derived from the embryo, and partly of portions of the lining membranes of the uterus of the mother. The ova of the {71} Eutherian mammals, including the Marsupials, are very small as compared with those of any other vertebrates, excepting only _Amphioxus_, where the young are hatched early as free swimming larvae. They also differ in a highly characteristic way in the mode of their development within the ovary. These processes are to some extent illustrated in Fig. 44. The main framework of the ovary is formed of the so-called "stroma," which is a mass of tissue formed of more or less connective-tissue-like cells. Within this are numerous cavities, the Graafian follicles. The very young follicles consist of but a single layer of follicular cells surrounding the ovum, which lies centrally. The follicular cells gradually increase in number until the ovum lies in the midst of several layers of cells. At this period a vacuity is formed between some of these cells, and grows into a large cell-free cavity; the ovum does not lie loosely in this space, but is connected at one side with the follicular cells, which still line the interior of the Graafian follicle by the so-called discus or cumulus proligerus. The egg or ovum has, moreover, a layer of cells immediately surrounding itself. All these facts can be gathered by an inspection of Fig. 45. It has been shown that, as in lower vertebrates, the cells immediately surrounding the ovum are connected with it directly by delicate processes which penetrate the actual membrane of the egg. [Illustration] FIG. 45.--Two stages in the development of the Graafian follicle. A, With the follicular fluid beginning to appear; B, after the space has largely increased. _caps_, Capsule; _disc_, cumulus proligerus; _memb_, membrana granulosa; _ov_, ovum; _sp_, space containing fluid. (After Hertwig.) [Illustration] FIG. 46.--Ovarian egg of _Echidna_. _b_, Basilar membrane; _fe_, follicular epithelium; _o_, oil globules; _vm_, vitelline membrane; _y_^1, _y_^2, yolk. (Partly after Caldwell.) The only ova which depart at all in structure from that above described are those of the Monotremata. The credit of this {72} discovery rests with Owen and with Professor Poulton, who pointed out in 1884,[37] that the ovum of _Ornithorhynchus_ is very large as compared with those of other Mammalia (6 mm. as against .2 mm.), that it is filled with yolk, and that it completely fills the follicle, being surrounded by two layers of follicular cells only. This latter fact was proved by Caldwell. Subsequently Gyldberg[38] and I[39] described the ovarian ovum of _Echidna_, showing it to be identical with that of _Ornithorhynchus_. Later still a more elaborate and beautifully illustrated paper was published by Caldwell[40] upon the early stages of development in the Monotremata and Marsupials, in which the ovum of the former was accurately described (see Fig. 46). In the particulars mentioned above, the ovum of the Monotremata is practically identical with that of the large-yolked ova of the Sauropsida. {73} [Illustration] FIG. 47.--_Lepus cuniculus._ The anterior end of the vagina, with the right uterus, Fallopian tube, and ovary. (Nat. size.) Part of the ventral wall of the vagina is removed, and the proximal end of the left uterus is shown in longitudinal section, _fl.t_, Fallopian tube; _fl.t_', its peritoneal aperture; _l.ut_, left uterus; _l.ut_', left os uteri; _ov_, ovary; _r.ut_, right uterus; _r.ut_', right os uteri; _s_, vaginal septum; _va_, vagina. (From Parker's _Zootomy_.) It is the general rule among vertebrate animals that the ovaries are completely independent of the ducts which convey their products to the exterior. In certain fishes, however, there is an absolute continuity between the two structures, which is believed to be due to a simple concrescence between the originally distinct ovary and oviduct. The latter has grown round the former, an obvious advantage in preventing the eggs from wandering into the abdominal cavity and becoming lost. In the Mammalia we find discontinuity as a general rule. But in quite a number of forms folds of the lining membrane of the abdominal cavity are developed, which practically ensure the passage of the ova into the oviduct when they are extruded from the ovaries. The oviduct, moreover, has a large and fimbriated mouth, called in human anatomy--which is provided with a number of fanciful names--the morsus diaboli. This almost wraps round the ovary, and thus prevents the ova from straying in the wrong direction. Moreover, the ovary itself is often so arranged that it can easily be withdrawn into a pocket of the peritoneum, from which the obvious exit is by the gaping mouth of the oviduct. This disposition of the generative parts is still further modified in a few animals, such as the Rat[41] and the Kinkajou.[42] In these animals the mouth of the oviduct actually opens into the interior of a closed chamber which contains the ovary. In this case there is but one route for the {74} extruded ova to follow. This series of steps in the perfecting of the mode of safe extrusion of the ova is highly interesting, and is a piece of evidence in favour of the high position of the mammals. [Illustration] FIG. 48.--Female urino-genital apparatus of various Marsupials. A, _Didelphys dorsigera_ (young); B, _Trichosurus_; C, _Phascolomys wombat_. _B_, Urinary bladder; _Cl_, "cloaca"; _Fim_, fimbriae; _g_, clitoris; _N_, kidney; _Od_, Fallopian tube; _Ot_, aperture of Fallopian tube; _Ov_, ovary; _r_, rectum; _Sp_, septum dividing vagina; _Sug_, urino-genital sinus; _Ur_, ureter; _Ut_, uterus; _Ut_', opening of the uterus into the median vagina (_VgB_); _Vg_, lateral vagina; _Vg_', its opening into the urino-genital sinus; + (in B), point of approximation of uteri; + (in C) and *, rectal glands. (From Wiedersheim's _Comparative Anatomy_.) {75} The oviducal apparatus of the mammal is more specialised than that of lower vertebrates. It is most simple, as might be imagined, in the egg-laying Monotremes, where, indeed, it is on the same level as that of reptiles. But in the Eutheria the fimbriated mouth of the oviduct passes into a narrow and winding tube, the Fallopian tube; this widens into a uterus, and the two uteri combine into a single tube in the higher forms. They are called the Monodelphia on this account. In the Marsupials the uteri are distinct though they often join above, and from this junction depends a median "uterus." After the uterus or the uteri follows in every case a single vagina. The testes of the Mammalia, like those of other vertebrates, occupy primitively a position within the body cavity precisely corresponding to that of the ovaries. And in the lowly-organised Monotremata, and some other forms, such as the Whales, they retain that primitive position within the body. It is, however, distinctive of the Mammalia as opposed to lower vertebrates that the testes descend later into a scrotum, which is simply a protrusion of the skin of the body surrounded by muscles, and, of course, containing a section of the body cavity in which lie the testes. The penis of the Mammalia, represented by the clitoris and associated structures in the female, is of a structure entirely peculiar to this group. [Illustration] FIG. 49.--Brain of Dog. A, ventral; B, dorsal; C, lateral aspect. _B.ol_, Olfactory lobe; _Cr.ce_, crura cerebri; _Fi.p_, great longitudinal fissure; _HH_, _HH_^1, lateral lobes of cerebellum; _Hyp_, hypophysis; _Med_, spinal cord; _NH_, medulla oblongata; _Po_, pons Varolii; _VH_, cerebral hemispheres; _Wu_, middle lobe (vermis) of cerebellum; _I-XII_, cerebral nerves. (From Wiedersheim's _Comparative Anatomy_.) THE BRAIN.--Inasmuch as Professor Wiedersheim has said with perfect truth that "the brain of the extinct Ungulate _Dinoceras_ shows so striking a likeness to that of a lizard that one would be compelled to explain it as that of a lizard without a knowledge of the skeleton," it is clear that to define the mammalian brain is a difficult matter. The existing Mammalia, however, all possess brains which can be readily distinguished from those of vertebrates lying lower in the scale. They are of relatively large size, brought about mainly by the dimensions of the cerebral hemispheres, which have an importance in this class of vertebrates that they have not elsewhere. Coupled with this large size of the hemispheres is a more elaborate system of transverse commissures uniting the two; and this culminates in the higher Mammalia, where the corpus callosum attains a large size and great physiological importance. A {76} very marked feature, moreover, of the mammal's brain is the development of regular fissures upon its surface, which fissures are only absent from _Ornithorhynchus_, various small Rodents, Bats, and Insectivores, among living mammals. It is sometimes, but erroneously, said that the more complicated the fissures of the brain are, the higher in intelligence and "zoological position" is the possessor of that brain. Instances can undoubtedly be quoted to support such a view; but they are {77} merely selected cases, which do not indicate a wide applicability of such a generalisation. Thus it is true that the brain of a Man is more elaborate in its furrows and convolutions than is that of a Cat. The real fact of the matter is, that the complexity of the brain from this point of view increases with the size of the animal within the group. [Illustration] FIG. 50.--_Lepus cuniculus._ Longitudinal vertical section of the brain. (Nat. size.) _a.co_, Anterior commissure; _b.fo_, body of the fornix; _cb_, cerebellum, showing arbor vitae; _c.c_, crus cerebri; _c.h_^1, parencephalon or cerebral hemisphere; _c.h_^2, temporal lobe; _c.ma_, corpus mammillare; _cp.cl_, corpus callosum; _f.m_, foramen of Monro; _inf_, infundibulum; _l.t_, lamina terminalis; _ly_, lyra; _m.co_, middle commissure; _m.o_, medulla oblongata; _o.ch_, optic chiasma; _o.l_^1, _o.l_^2, corpora quadrigemina or optic lobes; _olf_, olfactory lobe; _p.co_, posterior commissure; _pd.pn_, peduncle of the pineal "gland," _pn_; _p.fo_, anterior pillar of the fornix; _pty_, pituitary body; _pv.a_, pons Varolii; _sp.lu_, septum lucidum; _v_^4, fourth ventricle; _vl.ip_, velum interpositum; _v.vn_, valve of Vicussens; _II_, optic nerve. (From Parker's _Zootomy_.) The Gorilla and the Chimpanzee have a more furrowed brain than has the little Marmoset; the Bear a more complicated brain than the Weasel, etc. The most highly-convoluted brains of all mammals are those of the Elephants, and there does not seem in the Ungulates to be so marked a relation between size and abundance of fissures as there is among other mammals. A regular plan of the fissures can be detected with certainty for each group considered by itself; but it is not so easy to homologise the details of arrangement from group to group. This is so far in accord with the view that the existing groups of mammals have diverged from each other _ab initio_. Another marked characteristic of the mammalian as opposed to other brains is the relatively small importance in size and yet the fourfold nature of the optic lobes. What was the case with the optic lobes of the early Ungulates is difficult to understand, on account of the fact that the casts are necessarily imperfect. {78} Altogether the enormous progress in the complexity of the brain from the early Tertiary mammals down to the present, is one of the most remarkable revelations of palaeontology. It goes perhaps some way in explaining the remarkable diversity in mode of life exhibited by the mammals as compared, for example, with the birds, whose brains have not diverged so much or in so many directions from the primitive form. THE PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAMMALIA.--In the following pages some of the principal facts in the geographical range of the orders, families, and many of the genera of Mammalia will be given. It has been justly observed by Mr. Sclater that the habitat of an animal is as much a part of its definition as is its structure or external form. No systematic account of the Mammalia would therefore be complete without such geographical facts. But that branch of zoology which is concerned with the past and present distribution of animals is wider in scope than this. Zoogeography deals not only with the actual facts in the range of animals, but with the inferences as to past changes in the relations of land and sea which the facts seem to indicate, and with speculations as to the place of origin of the different groups, of which more than hints are sometimes given by their past and present distribution. In addition to this, the earth can be mapped out into provinces and regions which are definable by their animal inhabitants. In the present volume, dealing only with the Mammalia, it will be obviously impossible to enter fully into the entire subject of zoogeography. All that will be attempted is a brief general survey of the science so far as it can be illustrated by the Mammalia. For fuller knowledge the reader is referred to the treatises mentioned below.[43] There are certain facts in the distribution of animals which are commonplaces of knowledge, but which may be set forth with definiteness. Everybody knows that an animal has a given range: Elephants, for example, are found in India and certain adjacent parts of Asia, and again in Africa; the Rhinoceroses have roughly the same range; the Tiger is limited to Asia; the {79} Jaguar to America, and so forth. The entire expanse of country which is inhabited by an animal is called its area of distribution. Such areas are larger or smaller. The Lion ranges over the whole of Africa, a small part of India, and some neighbouring countries; on the other hand, the Insectivore _Solenodon_ is limited to Cuba and Hayti, a separate species to each. Among other groups of animals are instances of an even more restricted range. There are humming-birds confined to the slopes of a single mountain, and fishes limited in their range to a single small lake. A species may be found everywhere within the area of its distribution, or it may be confined to a number of limited tracts within that area. In this case it is usual to speak of "stations." In such cases the species in question is generally suited to some particular kind of environment. Thus the Otter and other aquatic mammals will only be found where there is water; and intervening tracts of waterless country will contain no Otters. Goats and Chamois live only upon mountains; the intervening plains are destitute of them. This discontinuity of distribution within the area is very general. But a discontinuity of area is also seen--not so commonly however; and, indeed, when it does occur, it is a matter of a genus and not of a species. Thus the Tapir is found in the East Indies on the one hand and in South and Central America on the other, being absent in the intermediate tracts. It is clear that tracts of country eminently suitable for the housing of a particular mammal do not always possess that kind, or even an allied form. Africa, for example, possesses no arboreal Anteaters; there are no Anteaters at all (of the order Edentata) in Australia, though there are plenty of ants for them to feed upon, and tropical conditions of climate prevail. But as in these cases the inference may be denied on the grounds that no experiments exist to prove or to disprove the assertion, the matter may be better emphasised by such cases as the introduction of the Rabbit into Australia, and various mammals, such as Goats, into oceanic islands. The plague caused by the former is a matter of notoriety. But although climate and conditions and animal inhabitants do not march accurately together, there is certainly some connexion between temperature and the range of animals. Mr. Lydekker writes on this point as follows: "The llama-like animals, respectively known as vicunas and guanacos, are met with in {80} company on the highlands of the Cordillera in Peru and Ecuador, but as we go farther south the latter are found on the plains of southern Argentina and Patagonia, as well as on the island of Tierra del Fuego at the sea level. Here then is a clear proof of the intimate connexion existing between temperature and station; the guanaco being an animal which can only live in cold or temperate climates, finds suitable conditions for its existence in tropical latitudes solely at a height of so many thousands of feet, although farther south it is able to thrive at the sea level." This, however, cannot be pushed too far--the world cannot be mapped out into areas bounded by parallels of temperature as was once attempted--since there are plenty of cases like that of the Tiger, which is as much at home in a tropical jungle as on the icy plains of Northern Asia. Seeing that there are in many cases no climatic barriers to the spreading of a given race of animals over a larger area of distribution than it actually occupies, it becomes important to inquire why there are so many cases of restriction in range. It is possible to see, at any rate, three causes which are responsible for a large number of such cases. In the first place, a given species of animal must have originated at a certain spot; its multiplication in individuals must always be a slow matter, since enemies, and untoward events generally, would conspire to check the natural multiplication by geometrical progression. A long time might therefore elapse before the species greatly extended its range. A restricted distribution may therefore, in some cases, mean a modern race. In the second place, there are definite physical barriers which check the migration of species. The terrestrial Mammalia cannot cross wide arms of the sea; that they can and do swim for considerable distances has been proved in several instances; but, as has been pointed out, it is unlikely that a purely terrestrial mammal would voluntarily swim out into an unknown sea. And then if it did, and successfully reached the opposite side, nothing would happen unless it were a pregnant female; or, if not pregnant, till a male swam very soon afterwards in exactly the same direction. Many travellers have told of floating islands, formed of torn-up trees and brushwood, which have been seen at the mouths of large rivers, with animal passengers upon them. These are, however, so much at the mercy of currents and storms, {81} that but little reliance can be placed on them as a means of transit; besides, here again, two individuals, or a pregnant female, would be required to effect a settlement on a foreign shore. The existence of oceanic islands is often urged as a proof of this inability to cross tracts of sea; even those which are comparatively near an extensive continent, such as, for example, Fernando Noronha in the Atlantic, are destitute of mammals (except, indeed, the ubiquitous Mouse, which is believed to have been carried there, often in company with the equally widely-spread Rat, in ships). This argument, however, is not so conclusive as might appear; it doubtless is in the case of far-distant islands. But the size of the islands has to be taken into account. For there are islands, such as the Galapagos, or, to take a less contested instance, some of the islands of the Malagasy Archipelago, undoubtedly continental, which have an exceedingly reduced number of mammals. An area of a certain size seems to be a necessity. The converse of this is in many cases easy to show, that is, the wide range of animals when there are no marine barriers to stop their spreading. John Hunter, the celebrated anatomist and surgeon (not often quoted, however, as an authority upon geographical distribution), observes: "It is a curious circumstance in the natural history of animals to find most of the northern animals the same both on the continent of America and what is called the Old World, while those of the warmer parts of both continents are not so. Thus we find the bear, fox, wolf, elk, reindeer, ptarmigan, etc., in the northern parts of both.... The reason why the same animals are to be found in the northern parts is the nearness of the two continents. They are so near as to be within the power of accident to bring the animals, especially the large ones, from one continent to the other either on the ice or even by water. But the continents diverging from each other southward, so as to be at a very considerable distance from each other even beyond the flight of birds, is the reason why the quadrupeds are not the same." There is no doubt, in fact, that the ocean is the most insuperable of all barriers to the dispersal of mammals. In a less degree mountain ranges and deserts are also barriers. The Desert of Sahara is a striking instance to the point; it separates two exceedingly different faunas. {82} A third cause of more or less limited range is the barrier due to competition. If the ground is already taken up, there is no room for new immigrants. There is obviously a limit to the number of Antelopes or Deer that can graze upon a given tract of grassy plain. These two groups of Ungulates illustrate the matter well: the Antelopes are African and Indian, especially the former, while Africa has no Deer at all; America, on the other hand, has plenty of Deer but no Antelopes, save the Prong-horn. The more nearly akin the two species or groups of species are, the fiercer will be the competition; for a near kinship will at least often imply similar habits, the need for similar food, and other likenesses which will prevent both from successfully occupying the same tract of country. The remarkable fauna of Australia is believed to afford an example of this. In that country the prevalent inhabitants are the Marsupials. The Monotremes are found there also, and nowhere else save in New Guinea and Tasmania. The remaining mammals are inconspicuous; they embrace a few Rodents and Bats, and the doubtfully indigenous Dingo-dog. Now the Marsupials are fitted to every variety of life. We have the grazing Kangaroos and Wallabies, the burrowing Wombats, the arboreal Phalangers, and the carnivorous Dasyures. In the second place, it is an unquestioned fact that the Marsupials are an older race than are the existing Eutherian mammals; they were the dominant mammals during the Secondary epoch. At that time they were more widely distributed than at present. In most parts of the world they are now absent, since they have been successfully ousted by the more highly organised groups of Eutheria. But at that period, when the higher Eutheria were in the ascendant, Australia and the islands to the north became cut off from Asia, and thus became freed from inroads of Eutheria, which were partly prevented by the physical barrier of the sea from effecting a settlement, and partly perhaps prevented owing to the ground being already taken up by the Marsupials. Likeness of habit gave the older inhabitants victory in the struggle for existence. The general statements that have been here made are in accord with current opinion upon the factors of geographical distribution. But the past range of animals appears to be less consonant with the received views. In the Tertiary {83} period, groups of animals had often a far wider range than at present. To-day the Rhinoceroses are limited to Asia and Africa, and to quite limited parts of the former continent. In the past, these animals were abundant in Europe and North America. Wild Horses now have a range which is not widely different from that of the Rhinoceroses, save that they extend into the more northern regions of Asia. Their remains are abundant both in North and South America. The Hippopotamus, now confined to Africa, once ranged over Europe, Madagascar, and India. There were plenty of American and European Lemurs. Elephants were nearly world-wide in their range; and, in short, restricted distribution seems to be on the whole a characteristic of animals of the present day. These statements, however, though perfectly true, must not lead to erroneous inferences. It is rather impressed upon the reader, in books which contain sections dealing with geographical distribution, that animals on the whole occupy more restricted areas at present than in the past. There are, however, plenty of examples of groups of extinct creatures which had, so far as we know, quite a restricted range. Thus the Toxodonts were purely South American, as were the Glyptodonts and some other forms. And, on the other hand, the Cervidae of to-day are as widely, if not more widely, distributed than at any other time. The Hares and Rabbits are now nearly universal in range; the Cats almost so. We meet with Bovidae, even excluding the Sheep and Goats, in all the four quarters of the globe, excluding only South America and, of course, Australia. The Camelidae are still common to both the Old and the New Worlds. During certain periods of the Tertiary epoch it is true that there was more similarity between Europe and North America than there is at present. It would have been quite necessary to unite both into a Holarctic area, such as is now insisted upon by many; but the reasons for this union would then have been stronger. The fact is, however, that the closer resemblances were due to the larger number of families of animals which existed then than now; these have decayed away from both continents, and allowed the unlikenesses between the mammalian fauna of both to become evident. But the likenesses which still survive have led many to associate the two regions closely together. So far as the history of a genus or family or larger division {84} can be traced, it results as a conclusion that from a given area of origin the group in question migrated in all directions where possible to a varying degree; it then died out in intervening tracts, or was left only in a certain part of its former and more extensive area of range. ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS.--Seeing that each species of animal has its own definite range, it is clear that the earth's surface can be apportioned into divisions which are characterised by their animal inhabitants. We shall divide the earth into realms, which are the largest divisions; then into regions; and finally into subregions. It must be borne in mind that the various groups of the animal kingdom are of different ages, geologically speaking, and have therefore had less or more time, as the case may be, to settle down into their present distribution, and that different animals differ greatly in their rate of multiplication, their power of migration, and their susceptibility to the effectiveness of various natural and other barriers to distribution. It is not, therefore, possible to divide the world into realms and regions which shall express the facts of distribution of the entire animal kingdom. Such divisions, which are common in text-books of zoology having but a small section devoted to zoogeography, are at best mere approximations and averages; no good is gained by taking such a comprehensive view of the matter, as the essential object of subdividing the earth's surface is thereby lost sight of. The zoogeographical division of the earth which will be adopted here is that originally recommended by Dr. Blanford, and now accepted by a number of authorities. There are three "realms," to which a fourth may perhaps be added--though on negative grounds, and merely for the purpose of emphasising the parts of the world to which mammals have not gained access. The realms are again divisible into regions, at least in the case of one of them, and the regions may be again separated into more or less distinct subregions or provinces. The three primary divisions or realms which contain mammals are the Notogaean, including Australia and certain islands to the north of it; the Neogaean, or the South American continent and Central America; the Arctogaean, including the continents of North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, together with the adjacent islands, such as the West Indies, East Indies (exclusive of those which fall within {85} the realm of Notogaea), and Madagascar; and finally, the realm of Antarctogaea or Atheriogaea, which embraces New Zealand, the Antarctic continent, and a series of islands such as South Georgia and Kerguelen, and possibly even the extreme south of Patagonia. This latter quarter of the globe will need no further reference, as it has no truly indigenous terrestrial mammalian inhabitants. We cannot include the Bats in this statement, as their distribution is due to different powers of extending their range, and to different barriers from those which govern the range of other groups of mammals. (1) Notogaea.[44] This realm is characterised by the exclusive possession of the Monotremes:--that is to say, one of the two primary divisions of the Mammalia is absolutely restricted to this area. It contains, moreover, the vast majority of the Marsupials. Further, the realm of Notogaea is to be distinguished by the entire absence of the higher mammals, with the exception of a few small Rodents. (The Bats are ignored for the reasons stated, and the Dingo is believed to have been an importation.) It cannot be disputed that this is a very distinctly-marked area of the earth's surface. (2) Neogaea. The continent of South America has no Monotremes and only a few Marsupials, all of which, with the exception of _Caenolestes_, belong to the Polyprotodont division of that order, and to a peculiar family, Didelphyidae. The recent discovery of other fossil Marsupials, however, to some extent favours Huxley's view that Neogaea and Notogaea form one realm as opposed to the rest of the world. Besides this, Neogaea possesses the Edentata, which are found nowhere else;--that is, the division of the Edentata to which the name is now restricted by some authorities. It is also characterised by the nearly entire absence of the important order of Insectivora; and, as minor marks of distinction, by the absence of Antelopes, Oxen and Sheep, of the Ichneumon tribe, of Horses, and of Lemurs. It has the exclusive possession of the Hapalidae and Cebidae, and of several families of Rodents. (3) Arctogaea. This vast realm is clearly capable of subdivision into four regions, which will be considered in detail later. In the meantime the points of likeness between these subdivisions is more marked than are either the resemblances or the {86} differences of any one of them to either of the two realms which have just been defined. The two realms that have been discussed retain their distinctness from each other and from Arctogaea for a considerable way back into the Tertiary period. It is not until we reach very early Tertiary times that Edentates are met with in North America; and then it cannot be regarded as absolutely settled that the Ganodonta are really the forerunners of the Armadillos, Sloths, etc. Nor do we find Marsupials in Europe until far back in time, and at a corresponding period in North America. Indeed the fauna of South America in late Tertiary times was even more distinct than it is now; for then we had confined to that region the Toxodonts, Glyptodonts, _Macrauchenia_, and other forms, while in Australia there were still Marsupials. In late Tertiary times Europe and India were by no means so distinct from Africa as they are to-day. North America does not resemble the Old World quite so much as the subdivisions of the Old World resemble each other; but, as will be pointed out later, there are and were very substantial agreements. The Elephants, Rhinoceroses, Giraffe, Hippopotamus, _Orycteropus_, are now distinctively African or Indian animals; but all these genera, or at least families (in the case of the Giraffe), have occurred in Europe during quite recent times. _Lycaon_ indeed, now confined to Africa, is thought to have had a European origin from its occurrence in caves there. The Hyaena and the Lion, certain members of the Horse tribe, Apes, and other animals, were also but are not now European. India again, and the Oriental region generally, once possessed the Hippopotamus, the Chimpanzee, Giraffidae, the Antelopes, _Cobus_, _Hippotragus_, _Strepsiceros_, and _Orias_, which are now purely African animals. It shares at present with the Ethiopian region the Catarhines, including the Anthropoid Apes, the Lemurs, Tragulina (the genus _Dorcatherium_ is also known from fossils in India), _Manis_, _Hyaena_, the Cheetah, Elephant, Rhinoceros, and the Ratel. There is, in fact, no order of mammals which is now absent from one of these three regions though present in the others, save the Lemurs, and they occurred in past times in Europe. The Tapir of India is known fossil in Europe, and the latter continent had its Monkeys and even Anthropoids. On the other hand, North America is more distinct. It has no Lemurs, Apes, Elephants, Rhinoceroses, Tapirs, Old World Edentates {87} (Effodientia), Viverridae, Horses, or Antelopes, excepting _Antilocapra_, a type of a separate division of Bovidae. But since several of these groups have been represented in recent times, no primary line of division can be profitably drawn. Arctogaea as a whole may be characterised by both negative and positive characters. As negative features may be mentioned;--the entire absence of Edentates (_Necrodasypus_ of Filhol is rather doubtful, see p. 164, n.), though a few crept up into the Nearctic region from Neogaea during past times; and of Hapalidae, Cebidae, and Marsupials, except an Opossum in North America. This realm has, on the other hand, all the Lemurs, all the Insectivores with the exception of the West Indian _Solenodon_, all the Proboscidea, Rhinoceroses, Horses, Deer, Antelopes, the last group including the Oxen and a variety of other important families. It is in fact the headquarters of all the Eutheria with the exception of the Edentata and Marsupials. The subdivisions of this realm have been variously effected. The classical subdivisions are of course those of Mr. Sclater, who would recognise (1) the Nearctic, North America; (2) the Palaearctic, including Europe, Northern Asia, and Japan; (3) the Oriental, including Asia south of the Himalayas and the islands of the Malay Archipelago as far east as the Australian region; and (4) the Ethiopian, _i.e._ tropical Africa and Madagascar. Some would alter this by uniting America and the north of the Old World into a Holarctic region, separating off the southern parts of the North American continent into a Sonoran region. To some, the claims of Madagascar to form a separate region are convincing. To distinguish the boundaries of the several regions is a difficult task; they dovetail into each other on the frontiers with the complex curves of a puzzle-map. The difficulty has been grappled with by the suggestion of intermediate transitional areas; but this proceeding really doubles the difficulty, for there are then two frontiers to delimit in each case instead of only one. The animal inhabitants must be expected to mingle somewhat at the lines of junction of one region with another. The Sonoran region does not appear to us to have great claims to recognition. It shows a mingling of southern with northern forms exactly as might be expected. An Armadillo and _Didelphys_ have, as it is believed, invaded it from the Neogaeic realm; it possesses also the South American genera, _Dicotyles_, _Nasua_, {88} _Conepatus_, _Sigmodon_. On the other hand, the Sonoran genera _Antilocapra_, _Cynomys_, _Procyon_, and the Insectivora _Blarina_ and _Scapanus_, extend further north. Peculiar to this region are only six genera of Rodents, which seems an insufficient reason for raising the Sonoran province to the dignity of a region. Considered from the point of view of numbers of peculiar forms, the Thibetan subregion has more claims to distinction as a region; for confined to that area we have the genera _Nectogale_, _Aeluropus_, _Eupetaurus_, _Pantholops_, _Budorcas_; while by slightly extending its limits, a number of other peculiar forms might be added. Madagascar has distinctly more claims to regional division. Absolutely confined to it are eleven of the seventeen existing genera of Lemurs, the family Centetidae among the Insectivora, which contains seven genera, and another recently discovered and peculiar genus, _Geogale_; it has six peculiar genera of Viverridae; it has five peculiar genera of Rodents. In addition to this it is negatively characterised by the absence of the following typical African animals, Felidae, Proboscidea, Rhinocerotidae, Equidae, Monkeys, etc. It seems to be impossible to avoid allowing the rank of a region to this part of the world. In separating the Nearctic from the Palaearctic region, stress must be laid rather upon the absence of Asiatic and European forms from North America than upon the existence in the northern half of the New World of many peculiar forms. Peculiar to the Nearctic are the Goat genus _Haploceros_, the Rodents _Erethizon_, _Zapus_, and the family Haplodontidae. The Mole genus _Condylura_ is also restricted to this part of the New World. Even so it has more peculiar forms than the Sonoran. If we add to this the absence of Horses, Antelopes except _Antilocapra_, Pigs, Hyaenas, etc., there are strong grounds for retaining this division. It must be agreed, however, that it comes rather nearer to the Eurasian district than the latter does to the Oriental. The Oriental region has many characteristic animals. It has among the Anthropoid Apes the Orangs and Gibbons; of Old World Apes it has confined to its own area the genera _Semnopithecus_ and _Nasalis_. Of Lemurs there are _Loris_ and _Nycticebus_, and _Tarsius_, representing a family of that order, or even a sub-order. The Galeopithecidae are entirely Malayan. There are many Rodent, Carnivorous, and Insectivorous genera; the Rhinoceroses and the Elephant of this region differ from those of Africa. {89} _Tragulus_ concludes a sample from a very rich list of peculiar forms. The Ethiopian region has also its Anthropoids, the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee, but they belong to genera or a genus different from those which include the Oriental forms. There are five peculiar genera of Cercopithecidae. The Lemurs restricted to this region are _Galago_, _Perodicticus_ and _Arctocebus_. The peculiar Insectivorous families Macroscelidae and Chrysochloridae are only found here, besides many other peculiar genera. Africa is especially the home of Antelopes, and the Giraffe is not found now outside its borders. The Elephant and the Rhinoceroses are of different species from those of India. There are many peculiar Rodents and Ungulates. * * * * * {90} CHAPTER III THE POSSIBLE FORERUNNERS OF THE MAMMALIA The relationship of Mammals to Vertebrates lying below them in the scale, their origin in fact, is a much-debated question, with many attempted solutions. To enter into this large question in detail would involve a great deal of useless statement of arguments founded upon misleading or upon quite inaccurate "facts." It will perhaps be sufficient if we reflect here the current view most in vogue at the present, _i.e._ that which would refer the Mammalia to reptiles belonging to the extinct Permian and Triassic group of the Theromorpha (also called Anomodontia). These have been explored lately to a very large extent, and chiefly by Professor Seeley.[45] The very fact that a genus _Tritylodon_, only known by the forepart of the skull, has been called Mammalian and Anomodont by various authors, shows at least the difficulty of differentiating the two groups when the material for study is imperfect. As a matter of fact these Theromorpha are without doubt reptiles; they show, for example, a lower jaw formed out of several distinct pieces, of which the articular articulates with a fixed quadrate on the skull. They possess the characteristic reptilian bones, the "transverse," the pre- and post-frontals, and there are various other points of structure which leave no room for doubt as to their truly reptilian nature. There are, however, numerous indications of an evolution in the mammalian direction in all parts of the skeleton, to the more important of which some reference will be made here. It may be as well to clear the {91} ground by mentioning the fact that among the Theromorpha four distinct types of reptiles are included, which are considered to form four orders, _i.e._ the Pareiasauri, the Theriodontia, the Anomodontia (Dicynodontia), and the Placodontia. The first of these divisions includes what seem to be basal forms. These reptiles show numerous points of likeness to the Amphibian Labyrinthodonts.[46] On the other hand the third division, that of the Dicynodontia, are highly-specialised Theromorpha, from which no further evolution would appear to have been possible. Thus the dentition was either completely lost, or reduced to tusks as in _Dicynodon_. We need not therefore concern ourselves in the present volume with these Anomodonts. It is with the Theriodonts that our business lies. The very name, be it observed, is aptly chosen on the hypothesis to be explained here; but it is not only in the teeth that these reptiles show likenesses to the Theria or Mammals, but in almost every feature of their organisation. Unlike other reptiles, the Theromorpha in general were lifted comparatively high above the ground on legs of fair length and of mammalian relationship in the position of the segments of the limbs. The typical reptile grovels upon the earth with legs sprawling out, as indeed the very name suggests. One bar to the Theriodonts being on the direct line of mammalian ancestry has been urged as a preliminary difficulty, and that is their large size. The earliest undoubted mammals were small creatures, comparable to a Rat or a Mouse in size; whereas a good-sized Bear or a Wolf is a better standard of size for some of the best-known genera of Theriodonts. It has, however, been quite permissibly suggested that living in company with these large Theriodonts were less obtrusive genera, from which the mammals might have sprung. It is so familiar a fact that a given group of animals generally contains giants, dwarfs, and members of intermediate size, that this suggestion may almost be accepted as a fact. It need at least present no difficulties to us in our comparisons. The most salient "mammalian" feature of the Theriodonts is the heterodonty of the teeth, the pattern of the "molars," and the limited number which constitute the series. The fact, too, that they are limited to the dentary bones below and to the {92} maxillae and the premaxillae above, is a _sine qua non_ for mammalian comparison. In the more basal Theromorpha the teeth are not so limited in position. Finally, to complete the remarkable mammalian resemblance of the teeth of these reptiles, it must be mentioned that in _Tritylodon_ and _Diademodon_ the roots of the molars, as we may fairly term them, though not actually divided after the mammalian fashion, were deeply marked by a groove, which suggests an incipient division or a fusion of two distinct roots. Some of these facts of structure may now be considered in further detail. As to the incisors and canines, it is sufficient to say that the numbers of the former, and the shape of the latter, are in perfect consonance with a derivation of the Mammalia from this group. The molar series can be divided into premolars and molars, at least in so far as regards their shape; for the anterior teeth are often smaller and less complicated than those which follow, as is often the case with the two series in mammals. The molar series also consist of teeth in close apposition to each other and separated from the canines by a diastema, which is a character of mammalian teeth. The fact that in the reptile _Cynognathus_ and the mammal _Myrmecobius_ there are nine of these molar teeth in each half of each jaw is perhaps not a point upon which it is desirable to dwell with too much weight; but the general fact that the molars are further reduced in some genera of Theriodontia than in that which has been mentioned, is clearly a matter of significance when the ancestry of the mammals is under consideration. The most interesting fact about the molar series in the Theriodontia is that we meet with the two types of molars that occur in the mammals. _Cynognathus_ and other genera have molars which consist of a main cusp, and of one cusp before and one after the main cusp; in fact these teeth are triconodont as in certain early mammals, a state of affairs which is believed by the "trituberculists" (see p. 56) to have preceded the tritubercular tooth. There are also "multitubercular" teeth, especially well developed in _Tritylodon_, where they exactly resemble those of certain Multituberculata, and whose structure originally led to the placing of _Tritylodon_ among the mammals of that group. If there is any question about the mammalian nature of this fossil, there remain several other Theriodontia in which the multituberculism is well marked. It is so in _Trirhackodon_ {93} and in _Diademodon_ for instance. This incidentally lends some support to the idea that the Mammalia have been evolved from two sources, a way of looking at the origin of the group that will coincide with the views of some authors like the late Dr. Mivart, and will at the same time reconcile the trituberculists and the multituberculists. For we should then assume that the Eutheria and Triconodontia had originated from some such form as _Cynognathus_; and the Multituberculata and the existing Monotremes from some form like _Diademodon_. It is not of great use to point out that _Diademodon_ is really of the trituberculate pattern, because in its molars, though multituberculate, the trituberculate main cones can be recognised; for that state of affairs could just as well have been brought about by a reduction from the multituberculate type. The skull of these Theriodonts shows some well-marked approximations to the mammalian type. There is in the first place a commencing consolidation and reduction of the individual bones, which is so distinguishing a feature of the mammalian skull as opposed to the skull of lower vertebrates. In _Cynognathus_ the postorbital is fused with the jugal, and the supratemporal with the squamosal, forming apparently one bone. In the lower jaw the splenial is often reduced to the thinness of paper, thus indicating a commencing disappearance. In many Theromorpha the squamosal shares largely in the formation of the articular facet for the lower jaw, obviously an important mammalian characteristic; this is brought about by the reduction of the quadrate, which latter bone, moreover, acquires in certain particulars the appearance of the mammalian malleus, with which it is, according to many, homologous. But this subject has been already dealt with on page 26. A very pronounced likeness to the mammalian skull is that there are two occipital condyles. That this has been brought about by the further development of a tripartite condyle such as occurs in tortoises, and that by the suppression of the basi-occipital part, does not affect the resemblance to the mammalian skull; in fact it explains the origin of two condyles from the typical reptilian single condyle, and disposes of the necessity for believing, with Huxley and others, the Amphibia to be on the main line of mammalian evolution on account of their two condyles. The general aspect of the skull in _Cynognathus_ has been {94} compared to that "of _Thylacinus_ or _Dissacus_." No one can examine the actual sketches of the skull of that Theriodont without endorsing that opinion. As a curious detailed point of likeness to certain Mammalia may be mentioned "a small descending process of the malar bone, which may be a diminutive representative of the descending element of the malar seen in _Elotherium_, _Nototherium_, _Diprotodon_, _Macropus_, certain Edentata, such as _Glyptodon_, _Megatherium_, _Mylodon_, _Bradypus_, but unparalleled so far as I am aware in fossil reptiles." (Osborn.) The zoologist cannot help being impressed with the significance of small details of similarity, which do not seem to be due in any way to surrounding conditions of life, and thus referable to mere convergence, like the fish-like form of Whales and Seals. The rest of the skeleton of the Theriodontia is by no means so well known as the skull and teeth. But from what is known, other mammalian characters can be pointed out. Perhaps the most striking mammalian feature is to be found in the scapula of _Cynognathus_. It is in this creature somewhat narrow and elongated; but it has a well-marked spine, ending in a hooked acromion. Now it is to be noted in support, so far, of the diphyletic origin of mammals, that in the Monotreme, as in Whales indeed, the spine forms the anterior border of the scapula, and is coincident with it, there being thus no prescapula at all in the Monotreme, and only a trace of it in certain Whales.[47] Whether the multituberculate _Tritylodon_ or _Diademodon_ had a scapula after the Monotreme pattern is not known; but it is clear that the scapula of the triconodont _Cynognathus_ is quite after the pattern of the Eutherian scapula. Furthermore, Professor Seeley is of opinion that the coracoid was relatively small, and indeed smaller than the same bone in Edentates, and _a fortiori_ than in Monotremes. Another fact of structure which points also, possibly, in the direction of a diphyletic origin for the Mammalia, is the double-headed ribs of _Cynognathus_. As is well known, the ribs of the Monotremata have only the central head, the capitulum. As a general mark of affinity with mammals the reduction of the intercentra in _Cynognathus_ may be noted, and also the existence of a small though perfectly obvious obturator-foramen, separating the pubis from the ischium. There are further details {95} which tend in the same direction. And we shall probably not go far wrong in the present state of our knowledge if we assign the origin of the mammals to some type which would be included in the order Theriodontia or at least in the sub-class Theromorpha. * * * * * {96} CHAPTER IV THE DAWN OF MAMMALIAN LIFE The animals that we considered in the last chapter, though showing certain unmistakable likenesses to the mammals, are nevertheless unquestionably not mammals but reptiles. In the Triassic strata, however, we first meet with the remains of undoubted mammals. The Mammalia first appeared upon the earth in a tentative and hesitating way: they had not cast off many of the characters of their supposed reptilian forefathers; they shrank from observation and destruction by their small size, and apparently, so far at any rate as their teeth afford a clue, by an omnivorous diet. The world abounded at that period in large and carnivorous reptiles, which may indeed have been the principal enemies with which the first mammals had to cope. These early mammals lingered on to so late a period as the Eocene; but the majority of the genera were Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. Certain of the primitive mammalian forms have been referred to the Marsupials, and their resemblances to the Monotremata have also been pointed out. The current view of the present time, however, is that they form a special order, which may possibly have embraced the ancestors of both Marsupials and Monotremes; for it is reasonable to explain in this way the combination of characters of these two orders which they present. For this group the name Allotheria has been proposed by Marsh, and Multituberculata by Cope; the latter term is the less suitable, in that the Monotremata (_Ornithorhynchus_) are also "multituberculate." The group is known in a very imperfect fashion. The remains are but few and fragmentary; and for the most part we have only a few teeth to speculate upon. This is natural enough, for the harder teeth might easily be supposed to {97} have resisted the decay which would more readily affect the softer bones. Where there are bones it is frequently the lower jaw alone which has been preserved for us--a bone which has also been preserved in the case of some of the contemporary Marsupials. It has been pointed out (from the observation of dead dogs floating in canals) that the lower jaw is occasionally detached from the carcase. It is the most readily separable part which contains a skeleton. It may be, therefore, that the remains of these early mammals, floating down some river to the sea, may have lost their jaws while in the river, or at furthest in the shallow waters of the sea, the rest of the carcase floating out to a greater distance, and being finally entombed in the stomach of some carnivorous fish, or in the mud at the bottom of a deep ocean, which has never since seen the light. The characters of this group are really more those of the Monotremata than of the Marsupials. The undoubted likeness which their molar teeth show to the temporary teeth of the Platypus have already been commented upon. Like the Monotremes the Allotheria appear to have possessed a large and independent coracoid; the evidence for this rests upon the discovery of the lower end of a scapula of _Camptomus_, a Cretaceous genus from North America upon which there is a distinct facet for the articulation of what can have been nothing else than a coracoid. On the other hand they differ from the Monotremata by the presence of incisor teeth which were Rodent-like in form, and not very different from those of certain Marsupials. This point of difference cannot be regarded as of very first-rate importance; no one would relegate the Sloth and the Armadillo to different orders on account of their tooth differences, which are about on a par with those to which we have just referred. It seems indeed likely that it will be ultimately necessary to rub out the boundary line which now divides the Allotheria and the Monotremata. The Plagiaulacidae are unquestionably mammals, and they are placed by most naturalists in this at present uncertain group of Multituberculata, which will be retained here in deference to the distinguished authorities who have instituted the group, though there are but few characters by which it can be defined. This family though appearing in the Trias, extends down in time to the Eocene. The type-genus, that which has given its name to {98} the family, is _Plagiaulax_. As it is not Triassic, the consideration of its characters will be deferred until later. _Microlestes_ is a Rhaetic genus, known from rocks in Germany and England; but it is entirely based upon molar teeth. _M. antiquus_ has a two-rooted molar of an elongated form with a row of tubercles on either side of a median groove, which traverses the long axis of the tooth. To some extent the teeth of the ancient form resemble those of _Ornithorhynchus_. _Microlestes_ has been sometimes spoken of as a Marsupial, but Mr. Tomes[48] has found that it does not show one very universal character of the Marsupial teeth: it has not those continuations of the dentinal tubes which traverse the enamel in all Marsupials that have been examined with the sole exception of the Wombat. The rarity of the remains of mammals in these earliest rocks of the Secondary epoch has been accounted for in another way from that which has been suggested above. It may be that the group Mammalia was not evolved in Europe at all, and that the stray remains which have been found in that continent represent the fragmentary remnants of a few scattered immigrants which heralded the later invasion of more numerous genera during the Jurassic period. THE MAMMALS OF THE JURASSIC PERIOD.--Some of the Allotheria or Multituberculata described in the last section occur in the rocks of this early part of the Secondary epoch. They are doubtful in position, as already stated; some of them indeed, as for instance _Tritylodon_ and _Dromatherium_, are possibly not mammals at all, while the remainder probably belong to a non-existent order of mammals. Along with these dubious creatures are the fragmentary remains of small animals which are not merely mammals, but in all probability definitely Marsupials. It is true that here again we have little beyond lower jaws and teeth to deal with; so that there may be less certainty in referring them to the Marsupials than appears to be the opinion of the majority of Palaeontologists. Professor Osborn in fact considers that the Mesozoic mammals consist of three groups: (1) The Multituberculata, including the Bolodontidae, Stereognathidae, Plagiaulacidae, Polymastodontidae, and possibly the Tritylodontidae (which, however, are regarded by him and by others as more probably reptiles of the {99} Theromorphous group). (2) The Triconodonta, which were Marsupials, though in all probability with a complete succession of teeth and with an allantoic placentation. This group will include the genera _Phascolotherium_ and _Amphilestes_, as well as _Triconodon_ and _Spalacotherium_. Finally we have (3) the Trituberculata (or Insectivora Primitiva) with the genera _Amphitherium_, _Peramus_, _Amblotherium_, _Stylacodon_, and _Dryolestes_. We shall take these three groups in order. The Multituberculata have already been to some extent defined, if such a word can be used to express the summation of the very scanty information at our disposal. Of this group, _Plagiaulax_ is a genus which occurs in the Purbeck beds; it is only known by lower jaws implying an animal of the size of a Rat or rather smaller. The jaws have in front a large incisor which looks Rodent-like, and also like those of the Diprotodont Marsupials; but it is held that these teeth did not grow from persistent pulps, and there is in any case no anterior thickened coating of enamel. Canines are absent; the diastema is followed by four premolars increasing progressively in size and possessing somewhat complicated grinding surfaces. These surfaces are formed by several obliquely-set ridges. The succeeding teeth are termed molars on account of their difference in structure, and there are but two of them on each side. The molars are of a pattern common in the Multituberculata; the centre is hollowed, and the raised rim is beset by tubercles. Other Jurassic genera of Multituberculates are _Bolodon_, _Allodon_, and _Stereognathus_. All of these possess the same multituberculate molars. Of the Triconodonta the type-genus is _Triconodon_. This genus is better known than most Jurassic mammals, since both the upper and the lower dentition have been described. It appears to have possessed the typical Eutherian dentition of forty-four teeth, to which a fourth molar is added in some species. The great difference between the molars and premolars argues a complete tooth-change. The genus is American as well as European. _Spalacotherium_ has more molars, five or six. _Phascolotherium bucklandi_, on the other hand, is a much older type in the form of its teeth. There are, however, not so many of them as in _Amphitherium_; _Phascolotherium_ has but two premolars and five molars, making a total of forty-eight teeth. The teeth are of the triconodont form, the three cusps being in line, and the middle one the largest. {100} _Amphilestes_ has teeth of the same pattern but has more of them, the premolars and molars being respectively four and five. All these animals had the lower jaw inflected. Whether they are all Marsupials or not, it is clear that _Phascolotherium_ and _Amphilestes_ should be united and placed away from _Amphitherium_ on account of the more primitive form of their teeth. We next come to the Trituberculata. Among the most celebrated of these remains are a few jaws discovered in the Stonesfield slates near Oxford, and examined by Buckland, Cuvier, and some of the most eminent naturalists of the beginning of the last century. These jaws have been lately submitted to a careful re-examination by Mr. Goodrich,[49] who has increased our knowledge of the subject by exposing from the rocky matrix in which the jaws lie fresh details of their structure; it is probable therefore that now all that there is to be learnt from these specimens has been recorded. _Amphitherium prevostii_ was a creature about the size of a Rat. Its jaw was first brought to Dean Buckland about the year 1814, and described six years later. Buckland thought the jaw to be that of an Opossum, an opinion in which Cuvier concurred. The jaw, however, is marked by a groove running along its length, and this groove was regarded by de Blainville as evidence of the composition of the jaw out of more than one element, which would naturally lead to its being regarded as the jaw of a reptile.[50] This species and another named after Sir Richard Owen have a dental formula which, like that of the Marsupials, is large as compared with that of the Placental mammals; it runs: I 4, C 1, Pm 5, M 6--_i.e._ 64 teeth altogether. This is a larger number than we find in any existing Marsupial. But as in Marsupials, and in certain Insectivora also, the angle of the jaw is inflected. These teeth are of the tritubercular pattern with a "heel." They are in fact closely like those of the living _Myrmecobius_; but not, it should be remarked, unlike those of certain Insectivora. THE MAMMALS OF THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD.--At one time there was a totally inexplicable gap between the Jurassic and the basal Eocene, a series of strata which occupy an enormous expanse of time in the history of the earth having appeared to {101} be devoid of mammalian remains. This gap, however, has been filled up by the discovery of mammalian remains in the North American Laramic formation, which seems to be clearly of Cretaceous age. Furthermore, it is held by some that the Purbeck beds are more properly to be placed with the Cretaceous, which would then necessitate the consideration under the present heading of some of the types already dealt with; and if, as is suggested in the following section, the lowest so-called Eocene beds are really referable to the Cretaceous, there is no lack of mammalian remains in that period. And, moreover, it was in that case the Cretaceous period which witnessed the evolution of the existing orders of Placental mammals. Otherwise the mammalian remains of the Cretaceous agree with those of the Jurassic. We find remains of the Multituberculata in fragments of Plagiaulacidae and Polymastodontidae. _Ptilodus_ is a genus which has two premolars; and _Meniscoessus_ is another multituberculate from the same Laramic formation. The other detached fragments of mammals are thought by Osborn to represent both Placentals and Marsupials. THE MAMMALS OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD.--Unless the lowest beds of the earliest Tertiary period, the Eocene, such as the Torrejon of North America, should be in reality referred to the Cretaceous, there is no evidence that the modern groups of Mammalia existed before the present epoch of the earth's history. It is probable, however, that the Eutheria as a group were Mesozoic. The fossil jaws that have been considered in the last chapter may quite probably be primitive Eutherians, or even divisible, as believed by Professor Osborn, into Marsupials and Insectivores. In the Tertiary, however, apart from the question as to the nature of the Puerco and Torrejon formations, and as to certain South American strata whose fossil contents have been investigated by Professor Ameghino, we find the first traces of mammals definitely referable to existing orders, or to be distinctly compared with existing orders. Since, however, representatives of types which have obvious relationships to modern types appear in considerable profusion in the very earliest strata of the Eocene, it seems clear that much remains to be discovered in beds earlier than these. Confining ourselves, however, to facts and to comparisons which can be made on more than a few lower jaws and scattered teeth, which is practically all that we {102} possess of earlier mammals, we must arrive at the general conclusion that two of the existing larger groups of the Eutherian, non-Marsupial, mammals were differentiated at quite the beginning of the Eocene, and were represented by forms from which it is possible to derive at least the existing Carnivora, Insectivora, Artiodactyla, and Perissodactyla. These were the Creodonta and the Ungulate Condylarthra. In addition to these we may enumerate as very early types the Lemuroidea, represented by such forms as _Indrodon_ in the New World, and (though later) by _Necrolemur_, etc., in the Old World, and the Edentata, if we are to allow as their ancestors the Ganodonta. The early Eocene strata also contain representatives of at least one order, the Amblypoda, which increased subsequently, but has died out without descendants, unless we are to believe with some that the Elephants are to be derived from these Eocene "pachyderms." In later Eocene times the great majority of the existing orders, and even subdivisions of orders, are to be met with; and there are in addition such totally extinct orders as the Typotheria, Ancylopoda, and Tillodontia. Coupled with this gradual specialisation in the orders of Eutherian mammals, there is naturally a vast increase in the number of generic and family types. This culminates perhaps in the Miocene, from which time there has been a gradual decline in mammalian variety, so that it is justly said that we live now in an epoch which is impoverished of mammals. This gradual decay has persisted until to-day, as is witnessed by the extinction of the Rhytina and the Quagga, and the growing rarity of the White Rhinoceros and the American Bison. The early Eutherian stock consisted of small mammals with small heads and slender, long tails. The limbs were pentadactyle, ensheathed in claws or broader hoofs. The fore-limbs may have been partly prehensile. The teeth were forty-four, completely differentiated into incisors, canines, molars, and premolars; and there appears to have been a complete diphyodontism. The canines were not greatly enlarged, and no diastema separated any of the teeth. The molars were bunodont or of a more cutting pattern, with some five or six tubercles. These animals were, moreover, very small-brained. This early stock is represented by Creodont and Condylarthrous animals, the exact boundaries between which are hardly marked in the {103} very early types. Professor Osborn has argued that from this early Eutherian stock there were two waves of progress, or, as he expresses it, "two great centres of functional radiation."[51] The first was largely ineffective, the second has produced all the Eutherian orders of to-day. These two divisions are termed by him "Mesoplacentalia" and "Cenoplacentalia." The first division embraces the Amblypoda and their descendants the Coryphodonts and Dinocerata, many of the Condylarthra, the bulk of the Creodonts and the Tillodonts. These creatures persisted for a time, but died out in the Miocene. They were mainly distinguished by the smallness of their brain; the great specialisation of structure which they exhibit having left that organ unaffected, and therefore tending in the long run to render them unable to cope with changes in the inorganic and organic world. The successful division of the primitive Eutheria comprises the groups which exist at the present day, and is not connected directly with those small-brained Mesoplacentals; it has apparently originated, however, from the least specialised of their ancestors. Professor Osborn thinks, moreover, that the Lemurs and the Insectivores are persistent descendants of the earlier wave of Eutherian life. It appears in fact as if Nature had created the existing Ungulate, Unguiculate, and other types on a defective plan, and, instead of mending them to suit more modern requirements, had evolved an entirely new set of similarly-organised types from some of the more ancient and plastic forms remaining over. The Marsupials may be the only group of the early wave remaining, and they have been able to hold their own for the geological reason that Australia was early cut off from communication with the rest of the world. That they are disappearing seems to be shown by their gradual diminution as we pass from Australia towards the continent of Asia, through the islands of the Malay Archipelago. Competition has here decimated them, as it may do in the remote future in Australia. It is often said, but with some looseness of statement, that ancient quadrupeds are huger than their modern representatives. This statement is partly true in fact, but largely wrong in implication. For it suggests that--and the suggestion is often expressed in books that are not authoritative--huge animals {104} have left a dwarfish offspring; that there were giants of old, and that there is a puny race to-day. As a matter of fact, the study of the gradual evolution of the early Tertiary Mammalia into their descendants of later times shows very plainly the truth of this interesting generalisation: That the primitive types were all small creatures, and that in those instances where we can trace a pedigree, there was a gradual increase in size up to a point where greater increase led to extinction. We point out later on a number of facts illustrating this matter in detail. It has been ascertained, for instance, that the pedigree of the Horses, the Camels, the Rhinoceroses, and many other groups, commences with small forms and culminates in large ones. It may be urged that such animals as the Tapir are to-day smallish forms, and that related to them in the past were the gigantic Titanotheres; but in this and similar cases it will be found that the extinct giants were not in the direct line of pedigree, but represented side-branches which waxed huge on their own account and then disappeared. * * * * * {105} CHAPTER V THE EXISTING ORDERS OF MAMMALS PROTOTHERIA--MONOTREMATA Apart from those creatures whose fragmentary remains have been considered in the last chapter, and which belong to the earliest of mammaliferous strata, the remains of Mammalia are all referable to existing orders. In the pages which follow we shall therefore deal with the actual representatives of living families side by side with their extinct relatives. The existing orders of Mammalia, together with those of their fossil allies, can be plainly divided into two great subdivisions, or, as we shall term them, sub-classes; the Mammalia as a whole being termed a class of the Vertebrata comparable with the class Reptilia, etc. It has been usual, owing to the initiative of Professor Huxley, to divide the Mammalia into three divisions of primary importance. We shall adduce reasons later for not accepting this mode of division, but that which allows of only two primary divisions. These two divisions are (1) Prototheria and (2) Eutheria. Whether the Multituberculata, Trituberculata, and Triconodonta, considered in the last chapter, are really to be distributed among these two sub-classes is a matter upon which it is possible to form an opinion, but not to dogmatise. The Prototheria stand at the base of the mammalian series, and present many likenesses to the Sauropsida; the Eutheria are the animals which are most fully differentiated as mammals. We shall commence with SUB-CLASS I.--_PROTOTHERIA._ To this group belongs the order Monotremata, and possibly also the so-called Allotheria or Multituberculata. As, however, {106} the latter are only known from very fragmentary remains, which are not sufficient to determine the systematic position of the animals of which they are fragments, I have not thought it worth while to attempt a serious definition of the order Multituberculata. I have introduced a short account of the principal facts which are known concerning the creatures grouped together under this name into the historical sketch of the progress of mammalian life in Chapter IV. As to the Monotremata, there is no question that they are entitled to rank in a group equivalent to that including all other mammals of which we have sufficient knowledge to construct a classificatory scheme. There have been, indeed, naturalists, such as Meckel, who would altogether deny the mammalian rank of these creatures. The Monotremata or Ornithodelphia may be thus defined:-- Mammalia with no teats, but with a temporary pouch in which the young are hatched, or to which they are transferred after hatching, and into which open the ducts of the mammary glands. An anterior abdominal vein, or at least the membrane supporting it, persists throughout the abdominal cavity. Heart with an incomplete and largely fleshy right auriculo-ventricular valve. Brain without a corpus callosum. Shoulder girdle with a large coracoid reaching the sternum; clavicles and an interclavicle present. There are "marsupial" or epipubic bones attached to the pelvis. Vertebrae with no epiphyses for the most part. Ribs with only capitulum and no tuberculum. Mammary glands of the sudoriparous and not the sebaceous type of epidermic gland.[52] Oviparous, with a large-yolked and meroblastic ovum, enclosed within a follicle of two rows of cells. To call these animals Mammalia is of course an abuse of the meaning of that word in one sense, but it is not in another; since the pouch of these Monotremes is, as has been explained elsewhere (p. 16), the real equivalent of a teat, and not of the pouch of the Marsupials. The most salient characteristic of this group of mammals in the estimation of their position in the vertebrate series is not so much the fact that they are oviparous as that the eggs are large-yolked, and develop therefore, so far as regards their early stages, after the fashion of the egg of a reptile. The laying {107} of eggs, or at least ovoviviparity, would follow from the structure of the egg, since the abundance of yolk would do away with the necessity for a placenta. That the eggs had this Saurian characteristic was first definitely made known by Professor Poulton[53] for _Ornithorhynchus_, and his results were confirmed later for _Echidna_.[54] The structure of the eggs has, however, already been dealt with on p. 72. The fact that these animals lay eggs appears to have been known for a very long time, though rediscovered so lately as 1884 by Mr. Caldwell.[55] In connexion with the structure of the ova, the ovaries themselves and the oviducts are built upon the Sauropsidan plan. In the male the testes retain the primitive abdominal position. The fact that the urinary and genital products escape by means of their ducts into a chamber which also receives the end of the alimentary tract is not a distinctive feature of this group, inasmuch as it is seen in the Marsupials, and also in certain low Eutheria, such as the Beaver and other Rodents, and a few Insectivores. As to external features, the Monotremata show certain archaic characters. The unspecialised arrangement of the mammary glands has already been described. These animals are plantigrade, if the term may be used also to describe the aquatic _Ornithorhynchus_. The ears are absolutely destitute of a conch. The remarkable spur upon the hind-legs furnished with a gland, which is more marked in the male, and indeed disappears in the female of _Ornithorhynchus_, is a structure which argues the specialised condition of these two modern representatives of what must have been a large order in the past. {108} [Illustration] FIG. 51.--Ventral view of skull of _Echidna aculeata_, and right half of mandible, _ang_, Angle of mandible; _aud.oss_, auditory ossicles; _cond_, condyle of mandible; _cor_, coronoid process; _max_, maxilla; _oc.cond_, occipital condyle; _pal_, palatine; _p.max_, premaxilla; _pt_, pterygoid; _sq_, squamosal; _ty_, tympanic ring. (After Parker and Haswell.) The skeleton shows numerous ancient characteristics. In the skull there is no demarcation of the orbit from the temporal fossa, a feature widely found in archaic mammals. The tympanic remains as a slender ring, there being no auditory bulla formed either from this or from any other bone. The malleus and incus are large, and thus reminiscent of the quadrate and articular bone of reptiles. In the lower jaw the absence of a marked coronoid process, and the absence of a firm ossification at the meeting of the two rami, may be a primitive state of affairs. It must be remembered, however, that the Cetacea show the same characters, though it is possible that they too are developed from a low mammalian stock. In the vertebral column we find the typical mammalian seven cervicals; but those characteristically mammalian structures the epiphyses are totally absent in _Echidna_, and only to be seen in the tail-region in _Ornithorhynchus_. In having only the capitular head to the ribs, these mammals are evidently far removed from all other mammals, and are even more reptilian than the Theromorphous reptiles. The large clavicles and the interclavicle (Fig. 52, {109} p. 109) are characteristic of the group, and the latter bone is peculiar to the Monotremata among mammals. So, too, is the large coracoid. In the scapula there is a spine which coincides with the anterior border of that bone. The arrangement of the muscles in this region proves conclusively that this projection is the homologue of the spine and the acromion of other mammals. Here, again, we have a point of likeness to the Cetacea.[56] In the pelvis the acetabulum is perforate (in _Echidna_), as in Sauropsida. [Illustration] FIG. 52.--Side view of right half of the shoulder girdle of a young Echidna (_Echidna aculeata_). × 1. _a_, Acromion; _c_, coracoid; _cb_, coracoid border; _cl_, clavicle; _css_, coraco-scapular suture; _ec_, epicoracoid; _gb_, glenoid border; _gc_, glenoid cavity; _ic_, interclavicle; _pf_, postscapular fossa; _ps_, presternum; _s_, spine; _ss_, suprascapular epiphysis; _ssf_, subscapular fossa. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) Considering the numerous very archaic features which the general structure of this group displays, it is surprising to find how typically mammalian they are in certain other peculiarities. The mammalian diaphragm, one of the distinguishing features of the class, is perfectly normal in the Monotremata. The alimentary canal shows no great divergences from the normal structure. The stomach is almost globular, with a projecting pyloric region in _Ornithorhynchus_; the intestine is divided into a "small" and "large" intestine by a slender caecum. The liver has the subdivisions that this organ usually shows in the Mammalia. However, the presence of the ventral mesentery and of the abdominal vein in _Echidna_ and _Ornithorhynchus_ has already been mentioned as a distinctive character. The peculiar and apparently partly primitive valve of the right ventricle has been described above (see p. 66). The brain is in most respects mammalian in its characters, but naturally shows some important differences. Dr. Elliot Smith, who has most recently studied this question,[57] is of opinion that the size of the cerebral hemispheres is not at all reptilian; indeed, it "greatly exceeds that of {110} many other mammals." In _Echidna_, too, but not in _Ornithorhynchus_, the hemispheres are well convoluted, though the arrangement of these convolutions cannot be brought into line with what is known concerning the convolutions upon the hemispheres of other mammals. It had been stated that in these animals, at least in _Echidna_, there were only two optic lobes, as in lower vertebrates, instead of the mammalian four. The late Sir W. H. Flower set this matter at rest,[58] and showed that _Echidna_ was in this respect typically mammalian. The absence of the corpus callosum is one of the principal features separating the Monotremes from other mammals. The Monotremata are represented to-day by two types, _Ornithorhynchus_ and _Echidna_, which are no doubt worthy of being placed in separate families. Fossil remains of the group (apart from the problematical Multituberculata) are only known from Pleistocene times in Australia, and consist of the bones of a large species of _Echidna_, and some fragments of _Ornithorhynchus_, indicating a smaller animal than the living Platypus. [Illustration] FIG. 53.--Brain of _Echidna aculeata_, dorsal view. (Nat. size.) (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) FAM. 1. ECHIDNIDAE.--This family contains two genera, of which _Echidna_ is the older and much the better known. The skin is abundantly covered with spines, with which are mingled hairs. The snout is tapering, the tail rudimentary, and the fingers and toes five in number. The spur and gland upon the calcaneum are smaller than in _Ornithorhynchus_. The claws are very strong, serving to tear open the ants' nests, upon the inhabitants of which the Echidna feeds, licking them up with a long extensile tongue like that of _Myrmecophaga_. In relation to this habit the salivary glands are enormously developed, and indeed the animal has been confounded with _Myrmecophaga_,[59] as the vernacular name "Australian Anteater" exemplifies. {111} In the skull the Echidna differs from _Ornithorhynchus_ in the greater extension backwards of the palatines, and the larger size of the pterygoids. The extent and relations of these bones to each other is not at all unlike that which obtains in many Whales. The premaxillae show traces of the same divergence followed by convergence of their ends that is seen in the Platypus. There are only sixteen pairs of ribs, and either three or four lumbar vertebrae. _Echidna_ has no trace of teeth, and there are no horny pads which take their place; the mouth is as edentulous as in the true American Anteaters. The brain (Fig. 53) is marked by sulci, contrary to what we find in _Ornithorhynchus_. The genus has been divided into three species, but it is doubtful whether more than one can be allowed, which ranges from Australia through the Papuan region. While there is but one species of true _Echidna_, a New Guinea species must clearly be referred to a distinct genus _Proechidna_.[60] This animal is to be distinguished by the fact that there are usually but three toes on each foot. But there are copious rudiments of the other phalanges, upon which claws are sometimes developed. The beak is curved downwards, and the back is rather arched; the whole animal has the most singular likeness to an Elephant! The ribs are increased by one pair, and there are four lumbar vertebrae. The one species is named _P. bruijnii_. The Hon. W. Rothschild[61] distinguishes a form _P. nigroaculeata_, which is allowed by Mr. Lydekker. [Illustration] FIG. 54.--Australian Anteater. _Echidna aculeata._ × 1/6. {112} The Echidna feeds like anteaters, by thrusting its tongue into an ant-hill, and waiting until it is covered with indignant and marauding ants, which are then swallowed. But this animal also devours worms and insects, which are extracted from their hiding-places by the tongue. It is mainly nocturnal, and prefers the seclusion of the densest scrubs of the bush, or rocky spots where it is free from intrusion. Dr. Semon did not find that the spur of this animal was used at all in self-defence; but he thinks that possibly the weapon may be used, in the breeding season only, in the combats of the males for the females, when perhaps, as has been shown to be the case in _Ornithorhynchus_, the gland attached to it produces a poisonous secretion. The egg, as it appears, is transferred to the pouch by the mouth of the mother; the shell is broken by the emerging young one, which has an egg-breaking tubercle on its snout for this purpose; the mother removes the shell. When the young has attained a certain size, the mother removes it from the pouch, but takes it in from time to time to suckle it. When on her nightly rambles the young one is left in a burrow dug for the purpose. Dr. Semon was able, from his own observations, to substantiate this act of intelligence on the part of the Echidna. It is well known that the temperature of the Monotremes is less than that of higher mammals; in addition to this fact Dr. Semon found that the range of variation of temperature in the Echidna was as much as 13 degrees or more. It is thus intermediate between the "poikilothermal" reptiles and the "homoeothermal" mammals. FAM. 2. ORNITHORHYNCHIDAE.--There is no need to attempt to define this family, since it contains but one genus _Ornithorhynchus_, with but one species, _O. anatinus_. The general aspect of the animal is well known. It is covered with dense fur of a blackish brown colour; the limbs are short and five-toed, the toes being webbed. The tail is longish and broad, being flattened from above downwards. The webbing on the anterior toes considerably outdistances the tips of the claws, as in the Seals. But this is not the case with the hind-feet. The "beak," which is broad and flat, and does actually suggest that of a duck, is not covered with horn, as is often stated, but with a fine, soft, sensitive, naked skin, which abounds in sense-organs of a tactile nature. As to characters derived from the skeleton, _Ornithorhynchus_ has {113} seventeen pairs of ribs and only two lumbar vertebrae. The skull is expanded in front, and the bill is supported by two, at first diverging, and then converging, premaxillae. Between them is the famous "dumb-bell shaped bone," which is believed to be the representative of the reptilian prevomer. The pterygoids are smaller than in _Echidna_, and the hard palate does not extend so far back as in that genus. The brain of this genus is smooth. [Illustration] FIG. 55.--Duck-billed Platypus. _Ornithorhynchus anatinus._ × 1/6. The discovery of the real teeth of _Ornithorhynchus_ only dates from the year 1888, when they were found by Professor Poulton[62] in an embryo. Later Mr. Thomas found[63] that the teeth persist for a considerable portion of the animal's life, and are only shed, like milk teeth, "after being worn down by friction with food and sand." We have already (p. 98) called attention to the general similarity of these teeth to those of certain of the earliest Mammalia and of mammal-like reptiles. The teeth are all molars, and they are either eight or ten in number. They are replaced by the horny plates of the adult animal; but the mode of replacement is curious. The plates are developed from the epithelium of the mouth, but round and under the true teeth; the epithelium of the mouth grows gradually under the calcified teeth, a method of growth which has possibly something to do with the shedding of the latter. The hollows and {114} grooves in the plates are the remains of the original alveoli of the teeth. [Illustration] FIG. 56.--Skeleton of male _Ornithorhynchus_. Ventral view. The right fore-limb has been separated and turned round so as to bring into view the dorsal surface of the manus. The lower jaw is removed. _acc.tars_, Accessory tarsal bone supporting the spur; _ant.pal.for_, anterior palatine foramen; _ast_, astragalus; _atl_, atlas; _ax_, axis; _bs.oc_, basi-occipital; _bs.sph_, basi-sphenoid; _calc_, calcaneum; _cbd_, cuboid; _cerv.rb_, cervical rib; _clac_, clavicle; _cond.for_, foramen above inner condyle of humerus; _cor_, coracoid; _cun_, cuneiform of carpus; _dent_, horny dental plate; _ect.cun_, ecto-cuneiform; _ent.cun_, ento-cuneiform; _ep.co_, epicoracoid; _epist_, episternum; _ep.pb_, epipubis; _fb_, fibula; _fem_, femur; _for.mag_, foramen magnum; _glen_, glenoid cavity of shoulder-joint; _glen_, glenoid cavity for mandible; _hum_, humerus; _in.cond_, inner condyle of humerus; _inf.orb.for_, points to position of infra-orbital foramen; _infr.proc_, inferior processes of caudal vertebrae; _int.rbs_, intermediate ribs; _isch_, ischium; _mag_, magnum of carpus; _max_, maxilla; _max.for_, maxillary foramen; _metat.I_, first metatarsal; _metat.V_, fifth metatarsal; _nas.cart_, nasal cartilage; _obt_, obturator foramen; _ol_, olecranon; _out.cond_, outer condyle of humerus; _pal_, palatine; _pat_, patella; _post.pal.for_, posterior palatine foramen; _pr.max_, premaxilla; _pr.st_, presternum; _pter_, pterygoid; _pub_, pubis; _rad_, radius; _scap_, scapula; _scaph_, scaphoid of tarsus; _scaph.lun_, scapho-lunar; _ses_, sesamoid bones of wrist and ankle; _sp_, tarsal horny spur; _sq_, squamosal; _tib_, tibia; _trd_, trapezoid; _trm_, trapezium; _tym.c_, tympanic cavity; _uln_, ulna; _unc_, unciform; _vom_, vomer; _x_, dumb-bell shaped bone; _zyg_, zygomatic arch; _I-V_, digits of manus; _V_, foramen for fifth nerve. (From Parker's _Zoology_.) {115} The Duck-billed Platypus is, as every one knows, an aquatic animal. It is not found all over Australia, but is limited to the southern and eastern parts of that continent, and to Tasmania. The animal excavates a burrow for itself in the bank of the slow streams which it frequents. The burrow has one opening below the water and one above; and it is of some length, twenty to fifty feet. The Platypus feeds upon animal food, chiefly "grubs, worms, snails, and, most of all, mussels." These it stows away when captured into its capacious cheek-pouches. The food is then chewed and swallowed above the surface as the animal drifts slowly along. Dr. Semon, from whose work, _In the Australian Bush_, this account of the animal's habits is quoted, thinks that in the nature of the food of the creature the explanation of the loss of the teeth is to be found. He is of opinion that for cracking the hard shells of the mollusc _Corbicula nepeanensis_, upon which _Ornithorhynchus_ mainly feeds, the horny plates are preferable to brittle teeth. _Ornithorhynchus_ is apparently not eaten by the natives by reason of its ancient and fish-like smell. Besides, it is hard to catch on account of its diving capacities, which are aided by an acute sense of sight and of hearing. When the Duck-bill was first brought to this country it was believed to be a deliberate fraud, analogous to the mermaids produced by neatly stitching together the forepart of a monkey and the tail of a salmon. * * * * * {116} CHAPTER VI INTRODUCTION TO THE SUB-CLASS EUTHERIA SUB-CLASS II.--_EUTHERIA_ DEFINITION.--Mammalia with teats. Mammary glands of sebaceous type. Heart with entirely membranous and complete right auriculo-ventricular valve. Brain generally with a corpus callosum. Coracoid much reduced and not reaching sternum. No interclavicle. Vertebrae with epiphyses. Ribs double-headed. Viviparous, with a small ovum. In this group are included not only the Eutheria in the sense of Huxley, but also his Metatheria. Though the Metatheria, or Marsupials as we shall term them, undoubtedly form a most distinct order of mammals, perhaps even a trifle more distinct than most others, their differences from the remaining tribes are not by any means so great as those which separate _Ornithorhynchus_ and _Echidna_ from all other mammals. In his well-known memoir upon the arrangement of the Mammalia,[64] Professor Huxley enumerated eleven characters as distinguishing the Metatheria either from the Prototheria or from the Eutheria. Of these only three were characters in which they approach the lower mammals. According to his showing, therefore, the preponderance of marsupial features are Eutherian. The three characters of Prototherian type are (1) the presence of epipubes; (2) the small corpus callosum; (3) the absence of an allantoic placenta. The last of these can be dismissed, in consequence of the recent discovery of an allantoic placenta in _Perameles_. The first character is apparently a valid distinction between the Marsupials {117} and their mammalian relatives higher in the series; but it is not a character that should have been made use of by Huxley, since he believed in the existence of a corresponding element in the Dog. As to the corpus callosum (Fig. 50, p. 77) being small, that seems to be not more than a slight difference of degree.[65] A number of other characters of secondary importance were added by Huxley to the weight of evidence which led him to form a group Metatheria for the Marsupials. Some of these, however, are now known to be not evidence in that direction. For instance he observed that no Marsupial had more than a single successional tooth. It seems at the present moment to be fairly clear that Marsupials have a milk dentition like other Eutherians, but that only one of these teeth, the fourth premolar, comes to functional maturity. That it is really one of a complete milk series is evidenced by the fact that this tooth is differentiated contemporaneously with another series formerly held to belong to the so-called prelacteal dentition.[66] There still remains, of course, the actual fact that the milk dentition is not for the most part functional, but its significance breaks down with these fresh discoveries. Of this Professor Osborn has remarked: "The discovery of the complete double series seems to have removed the last straw from the theory of the marsupial ancestry of the Placentals." But Huxley did not lay much stress upon this matter of the teeth, since he observed that similar suppressions of the milk dentition were to be found in many other mammals admittedly Eutherian. [Illustration] FIG. 57.--Brain of _Echidna aculeata_; sagittal section. _ant.com_, Anterior commissure; _cbl_, cerebellum; _c.mam_, corpus mammillare; _col.forn_, column of the fornix; _c.qu_, corpora quadrigemina; _gang.hab_, ganglion habenulare; _hip.com_, hippocampal commissure; _med_, medulla oblongata; _mid.com_, middle commissure; _olf_, olfactory lobe; _opt_, optic chiasma; _tub.olf_, tuberculum olfactorium; _vent. 3_, third ventricle. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) Huxley regarded the peculiarities in the reproductive organs {118} of the Marsupials as "singularly specialised characters," in no way intermediate in character. This view applies also to the pouch, which, as already stated, distinguishes the adults of that group. But the impossibility of using this last character as one of any importance has been shown by the discovery of rudiments of it in embryos of undoubtedly Eutherian mammals (see p. 18). [Illustration] FIG. 58.--Sagittal section of brain of Rock Wallaby (_Petrogale penicillata_). _ant.com_, Anterior commissure; _cbl_, cerebellum; _c.mam_, corpus mammillare; _c.qu_, corpora quadrigemina; _crur_, crura cerebri; _epi_, epiphysis, with the posterior commissure immediately behind it; _f.mon_, position of foramen of Monro; _hip.com_, hippocampal commissure, consisting here of two layers continuous behind at the spleneium, somewhat divergent in front where the septum lucidum extends between them; _hypo_, hypophysis; _med_, medulla oblongata; _mid.com_, middle commissure; _olf_, olfactory lobe; _opt_, optic chiasma; _vent. 3_, third ventricle. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) Less stress is laid now upon the existence of four molars in the Marsupials as dividing them from the higher mammals than was formerly the case. The total dentition of the group is on the whole composed of more numerous individual teeth than in the typical Eutheria; but we have exceptions like the Whales, the Armadillo _Priodontes_, and the Manatee; or better, because free from the suspicion of secondary multiplication, _Otocyon_ and occasionally (according to Mr. Thomas) _Centetes_. In the last two there are at least sometimes four molars. On the other hand, a few archaic characters of some importance crop up here and there among the Marsupials, which are sometimes held to point to a primitive ancestry. It has been remarked that in Marsupials it is the fourth toe which is dominant in size, whereas in Ungulates it is the third. An attempt has been made to explain this on the view (reasonable enough in itself) of a tree-living ancestry for the group. A greater development of the fourth toe is, however, by no means a necessary character of arboreal creatures; the Primates themselves are an exception. Nor is this prevalence universal among the Marsupials; {119} in _Myrmecobius_ (alone) is the third toe the longest; and no great difference can be detected between the third and fourth toes in the case of the genera _Phascologale_, _Didelphys_, and some others. Professor Leche compares the predominance of the fourth toe with the hyperphalangeal condition in the fourth toe of the embryo Crocodile, and considers it an archaic feature, not surpassed by the ancient characteristics of the Monotremata. Again it has been pointed out that in _Phascologale_ and _Perameles_, the epistropheus (axis vertebra) has a separate rib as in _Ornithorhynchus_. In the third place, the likeness of the teeth of _Myrmecobius_ to those of _Ornithorhynchus_ is an argument in the same direction, which is furthermore supported by the great age (Mesozoic) of the Metatherian group, if we are right in regarding those extinct creatures as Marsupials. We may now mention certain facts which are not so generally used. The partly primitive structure of the right auriculo-ventricular valve in the Monotremata has no counterpart in any Marsupial which has been dissected; but there are traces in the latter of the characteristic "ventral mesentery" of _Ornithorhynchus_ and _Echidna_.[67] Mr. Caldwell's interesting observation upon the segmenting egg of the Marsupial, the incompleteness of the first segmentation furrow (reminding us of the meroblastic ovum of the Monotreme), may possibly not turn out to be so exclusively Marsupial a feature as has been thought. The balance of evidence thus points to the nearer relationship of the Marsupials to the Eutherian mammals; and their great specialisation combined with certain evidences of degeneration (disappearance in part of the milk dentition), and their age, point to the fact that they are, at any rate, the descendants of an early form of Eutherian. But they must have separated from the Eutherian stock after it had acquired a definite diphyodonty and the allantoic placenta, the two principal features of the Eutherian as opposed to the Prototherian mammals. Nevertheless it seems probable that the Marsupial tribe is derived from some of the earliest Eutherians. And on this view may be explained the retention of Prototherian characters. The remaining Eutheria are obviously all to be referred to one great division with the possible exception of the Whales, whose affinities form one of the principal difficulties to the student {120} of this group. A short résumé of what is at present thought of the systematic position of this anomalous order is appropriate here. Albrecht went so far as to regard the Cetacea as the nearest group of animals to the hypothetical Promammalia.[68] But discounting his arguments by the removal of such of them as relate to structure plainly altered by the singular mode of life of these creatures, there is really a great deal to be said in favour of his view. The chief facts which argue a primitive position among mammals for the Cetacea are perhaps: (1) the slight union of the rami of the lower jaw; (2) the occasionally rather marked traces of the double constitution of the sternum; (3) the long and simple lungs; (4) the retention of the testes within the body-cavity; (5) the occasional presence (in _Balaenoptera_) of a separate supra-angular bone. These points, however, are but few, and are not of such great weight as those which ought to be present to establish a claim to separate treatment for the Cetacea as opposed to the Eutheria. If this group of mammals can be tacked on anywhere, it appears to us that the nearest relatives are not, as is sometimes put forward, the Ungulata or the Carnivora, but the Edentata. There are quite a number of rather striking features in which a likeness is shown between these apparently diverse orders of mammals. The chief ones are these: (1) the existence of traces of a hard exoskeleton, of which vestiges remain in the Porpoise; (2) the double articulation of the rib of the Balaenopterids to the sternum, with which compare the conditions obtaining in the Great Anteater; (3) the concrescence of some of the cervical vertebrae; (4) the share which the pterygoids may take in the formation of the hard palate; (5) the fact that in the Porpoise, at any rate, as in many Edentates, the vena cava, instead of increasing in size as it approaches the liver, diminishes. Another group which is perfectly isolated is that of the Sirenia. The alliance advocated by some with the Cetacea, and quite recently renewed by Professor Haeckel, is contradicted by so many important features that it seems necessary to abandon it. The recent discovery of a fossil Sirenian jaw by Dr. Lydekker with teeth highly suggestive of those of Artiodactyla, may prove a clue. A third group which is so isolated as to have been placed in a {121} primary division, proposed to be called Paratheria, is that of the Edentates. Probably the group so called should really be divided into the Edentata and the Effodientia, the latter containing the Old World forms. Whether or not it be ultimately shown that the Ganodonta are ancestral Edentates (_sensu strictiori_), the connexion of the group with others is not at present plain. The same is the case with the extensive order of Rodents. It is true that the extinct order of the Tillodontia shows certain Rodent-like characters on the one hand, and likenesses to Ungulates on the other. Certain likenesses shown by such apparently diverse animals as the Rabbit and the Elephant used to be insisted upon by Professor Huxley. For the present, however, the Rodents must remain as an isolated group with only very dubious affinities to others. The remaining groups of existing mammals are easier to connect. At first the differences between a Cat and a Horse seem to be quite as wide as those which separate any two of the higher Eutherian orders. But it seems to become clearer and clearer, as palaeontological investigation proceeds, that the bulk of the Ungulate and the Carnivorous, Insectivorous, and perhaps Lemuroid stocks converge into the early Eocene Creodonta. From the Lemuroid branch the higher Primates can be derived. The only "Ungulates" which cannot be fitted in with some reasonable probability is the group of the Proboscidea. But of the early forms of this division we have at present no knowledge. * * * * * {122} CHAPTER VII EUTHERIA--MARSUPIALIA ORDER I. MARSUPIALIA[69] The Marsupials may be thus defined:--Terrestrial, arboreal, or burrowing (rarely aquatic) mammals, with furry integuments; palate generally somewhat imperfectly ossified; jugal bone reaching as far as the glenoid cavity; angle of lower jaw nearly always inflected. The clavicle is developed. Arising from the pubes are well developed and ossified epipubic bones. Fourth toe usually the most pronounced. Teeth often exceed the typical Eutherian number of forty-four; molars generally four on each side of each jaw. As a rule but one tooth of the milk set is functional, which is (according to many) the fourth premolar. Teats lying within a pouch, in which the young are placed. Young born in an imperfect condition, and showing certain larval characters. There is a shallow cloaca. The testes are extra-abdominal, but hang in front of the penis. In the brain the cerebellum is completely exposed; the hemispheres are furrowed, but the corpus callosum is rudimentary. An allantoic placenta is rarely present. Structurally the Marsupials are somewhat intermediate between the Prototheria and the more typical Eutheria, with a greater resemblance to the latter. [Illustration] FIG. 59.--Rock Wallaby (_Petrogale xanthopus_), with young in pouch. × 1/7. (After Vogt and Specht.) The name Marsupial indicates what is perhaps the most salient character of this order. The pouch in which the young are carried is almost universally present. It is less developed {123} on the whole in the Polyprotodont forms, such as the Thylacine, Dasyures, etc., but is found in so many of them that the two divisions of the Marsupials, the Diprotodonts and the Polyprotodonts, cannot be raised to distinct orders on this and other grounds. The marsupial pouch of the Marsupials must not, as has been already pointed out, be confounded with the pouch of the Monotreme mammals. Distinct teats are found in the marsupium of the Marsupials, while there are none in the mammary pouch of the Monotreme, the pouch itself indeed representing an undifferentiated teat, of which the walls have not closed up. The pouch opens forward in the Kangaroos, and backwards in the Phalangers and in the Polyprotodonts. Its walls are supported by a pair of bones diverging from each other in a [70]-shaped manner; these are cartilaginous and vestigial in the Thylacine. They {124} are the precise equivalents of similar bones in the Monotremata. It has been held, but apparently erroneously, that these bones are mere ossifications in the tendons of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen, or of the pyramidalis of the same region; and vestiges have been asserted to exist in the Dog. Such bonelets are undoubtedly present in the Dog; but it seems clear from their development in Marsupials, as structures actually continuous with the median unossified portion of the symphysis pubis, that the "marsupial bones" belong to that part of the skeleton, and that they correspond with the epipubis of certain amphibians and reptiles. The pouch, it may be remarked, exists in a rudimentary form in the males of many Marsupials. [Illustration] FIG. 60.--Ventral surface of innominate bone of Kangaroo (_Macropus major_). × 1/3. _a_, Acetabulum; _ab_, acetabular border of ilium; _is_, iliac surface; _m_, "marsupial" bone; _pb_, pubic border; _pt_, pectineal tubercle; _s_, symphysis; _si_, supra-iliac border; _ss_, sacral surface; _thf_, thyroid foramen; _ti_, tuberosity of ischium. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) [Illustration] FIG. 61.--Mammary foetus of Kangaroo attached to the teat. (Nat. size.) (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) The most salient feature in the life-history of the Marsupials is the imperfect condition in which the young are born. The egg is no longer laid, as in the Monotremes; but curiously enough the ovum, which has the small size of that of the Eutheria, divides incompletely at the first division (as Mr. Caldwell has shown), and this developmental feature may perhaps be looked upon as a reminiscence of a former large-yolked condition. The young when born are small and nude; the newly born young of a large Kangaroo is perhaps as large as the little finger. The young are transferred by the lips of the mother to the pouch, where they are placed upon a teat. It is an interesting fact that they are not merely imperfect foetuses, but that they are actual larvae. They possess in fact at any rate one larval organ in the shape of {125} a special sucking mouth. This sucking mouth is an extra-uterine production, and is of course an adaptation to the particular needs of the young, just as are other larval organs, such as the chin-suckers of the tadpole, or the regular ciliated bands of the larvae of various marine invertebrate organisms. There are a number of other features which distinguish the Marsupials from other mammals. The cloaca of the Marsupials is somewhat reduced, but is still recognisable. Its margins in _Tarsipes_ are even raised into a wall, which projects from the body. The tooth series of the Marsupials was once held to consist of one dentition only, with the exception of the last premolar, which has a forerunner. The interpretation of the teeth of Marsupials are various. Perhaps most authorities regard the teeth as being of the milk dentition, with the exception of course of the single tooth that has an obvious forerunner. But there are some who hold that the teeth are of the permanent dentition. In any case it is proved that a set of rudimentary teeth are developed before those which persist. Those who believe in the persisting milk dentition describe these as prelacteal. Another matter of importance about the teeth of this order of mammals is that their numbers are sometimes in excess of the typical Eutherian 44. This, however, holds good of the Polyprotodonts only. It was for a long time held that the Marsupials differed from all other mammals in having no allantoic placenta. But quite recently this supposed difference has been proved to be not universal by the discovery in _Perameles_ of a true allantoic placenta. The Marsupials have been sometimes called the Didelphia. This is on account of the fact that the uterus and the vagina are double. Very frequently the two uteri fuse above, and from the point of junction an unpaired descending passage is formed (see Fig. 48 on p. 74). A character of the brain of Marsupials has been the subject of some controversy. Sir Richard Owen stated many years ago that they were to be distinguished from the higher mammals by the absence of the corpus callosum. Later still it was urged that a true corpus callosum, though a small one, was present; while, finally, Professor Symington[71] seems to have shown that {126} the original statement of Owen was correct, at least in part. It is at most feebly developed (see Fig. 58, p. 118). As to skeletal characters, the Marsupial skull has on the whole a tendency towards a permanent separation of bones usually firmly ankylosed. Thus the orbitosphenoids remain distinct from the presphenoid. The palate is largely fenestrated, a return as it were--says Professor Parker--to the Schizognathous palate of the bird. The mandible is inflected; this familiar character of the Marsupials goes back to the earliest representatives of the order in Mesozoic times (see p. 96); but it is not absolutely universal, being absent from the much weakened skull of _Tarsipes_. On the other hand, the inflection is nearly as great in certain Insectivores, in _Otocyon_, etc. The malar always extends back to form part of the glenoid cavity. The shoulder girdle has lost the large coracoid of Monotremes; this bone has the vestigial character that it possesses in other Eutheria. The clavicle is present except in the Peramelidae. A third trochanter upon the femur seems to be never present. [Illustration] FIG. 62.--Skull of Rock Wallaby (_Petrogale penicillata_). (Ventral view.) _ali_, Alisphenoid; _bas.oc_, basi-occipital; _bas.sph_, basi-sphenoid; _ex.oc_, ex-occipital; _ju_, jugal; _max_, maxilla; _pal_, palatine; _par.oc_, paroccipital; _p.max_, premaxilla; _pr.sph_, presphenoid; _pt_, pterygoid; _sq_, squamosal; _ty_, tympanic. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) The Marsupials cannot be regarded as an intermediate stage in the origin of the Eutheria for a number of reasons. In the first place, the nature of their teeth shows them to be degenerate animals; one set, whether we regard it as the milk or permanent dentition, has become vestigial. The recent discovery of a true allantoic placenta in _Perameles_ removes one reason for regarding {127} the Marsupials as primitive creatures. It implies on the whole that the Marsupials have sprung from a stock with an allantoic placenta. The alternative is to assume the independent development of an allantoic placenta in both groups of the Mammalia; unless indeed the genus _Perameles_ is to be held to be the most primitive race of Marsupials living, a hypothesis which does not appear on the face of it likely. So long as it was believed that the mammary pouch of the Monotremes was the equivalent of the marsupium of the Marsupials, the persistence of this structure seemed to be a bond of union between the groups. But it is now known that the marsupium is a special organ confined to the Marsupials, an argument which is rather in favour of their being a lateral development of the mammalian stem. It is to be remarked also that the marsupium is feeblest in the Polyprotodonts, which may perhaps be looked upon as the most primitive of the Marsupials, owing to their more numerous teeth and other points to be referred to immediately. Not only are the Marsupials interesting from the point of view of their structure; their present and past distribution is of equal interest. During the Mesozoic epoch they occurred in Europe and North America; but not, so far as negative evidence means anything, in Australia, which is now their headquarters. In Europe Marsupials lingered on into the Tertiary period, when they finally became extinct. In America, of course, the group has persisted to the present day. Now it is important to notice that the two main subdivisions of the Marsupials, the Polyprotodontia and the Diprotodontia, exist to-day in both Australia and South America. These two divisions, it should be explained, differ principally in that one has numerous, the other rarely more than two,[72] incisors in the lower jaw. It is perhaps the more widely distributed opinion that the Polyprotodontia are the more archaic group; this opinion rests upon one or two facts in addition to the absence of specialisation in the incisor teeth. Among the Polyprotodontia the total number of teeth is greater--a clearly primitive character; secondly, the general form of the body of these animals, with four subequal limbs and carnivorous or omnivorous diet, contrasts with the purely vegetarian and much specialised Kangaroos at any rate. Finally--and sufficient stress {128} has perhaps not been laid upon this matter--the brain among the Polyprotodonts is less convoluted than among the genera of the other division. This statement is of course made with due regard to parallelism in size (see p. 77). It is well known that the complexity of a brain bears a distinct relation to the size of its possessor within the group. Now the most ancient Marsupials are decidedly more Polyprotodont-like. No European form from the earlier periods is distinctly to be referred to the Diprotodonts. But both divisions now exist in America and Australia. We must assume, therefore, one of three hypotheses. Either the differentiation into the two great divisions occurred in Jurassic or Cretaceous times before the migration of the order southwards; or the Diprotodont type is only a type, and not a natural group, _i.e._ it has been separately evolved in America and Australia; or, finally, there was formerly a land-connexion in the Antarctic hemisphere, along which the Diprotodonts of Australia wandered into South America. The middle hypothesis has this to commend it, that syndactylism occurs in both divisions, and that in some Diprotodonts the pouch opens backwards as it does in the Polyprotodonts. So great are the resemblances that but little difference is really left--of great importance that is to say. Hence it is not difficult to imagine the reduction of the incisors having taken place twice. In favour of the first hypothesis there are no positive facts. Finally, in favour of the last, which is so strongly supported by the facts of distribution derived from the study of other groups of animals,[73] there is at least this striking fact or rather series of facts: that some of the South American fossil Polyprotodonts have a "strictly Dasyurine relationship."[74] If there has not been a direct migration, then the Dasyurine type has been twice evolved, an improbability that few will attempt to explain away. In any case we shall adopt here the usual division of the Marsupials into Diprotodontia and Polyprotodontia. SUB-ORDER 1. DIPROTODONTIA. This group includes the herbivorous Marsupials. The incisors are as a rule three above, but one only in the Wombats. Below {129} is one strong pair, with occasionally one or two rudimentary incisors. The upper canines, if present, are not large. The molars are tuberculate or ridged. All Marsupials (except the Wombats) to some extent, and the Macropods especially, are characterised by the prolongation of the tubes of the dentine into the clear enamel. The significance of this fact is, however, lessened by the fact that the same penetration of the enamel by dentinal tubes occurs in the Jerboa, the Hyrax, and some Shrews. The feet have two syndactylous toes,[75] less marked in the Wombats than in the Kangaroos and Phalangers. [Illustration] FIG. 63.--Skull of Wombat (_Phascolomys wombat_). (Lateral view.) _ang_, Angular process; _cond_, condyle of mandible; _ext.aud_, opening of bony auditory meatus; _ex.oc_, exoccipital; _ju_, jugal; _lcr_, lachrymal; _max_, maxilla; _nas_, nasal; _p.max_, premaxilla; _sq_, squamosal; _ty_, tympanic. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) This order is mainly Australian at the present day, using the term of course in the "regional" sense (see p. 84); the only exception indeed to this statement is the occurrence of the genus _Caenolestes_ in South America. But it is now known that Diprotodont Marsupials formerly existed in the same part of the world. [Illustration] FIG. 64.--Bones of right foot of Kangaroo (_Macropus bennetti_). _a_, Astragalus; _c_, calcaneum; _cb_, cuboid; _e_^3, ento-cuneiform; _n_, navicular; _II-V_, second to fifth toes. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) {130} [Illustration] FIG. 65.--Skeleton of Wallaby (_Macropus ualabatus_). The scapula is raised somewhat higher than in nature. The end of the tail is omitted. The head of the femur has been separated from the acetabulum. _acet_, Acetabulum; _acr_, acromion process; _ast_, astragalus; _cal_, calcaneum; _cbd_, cuboid; _chev_, chevron-bones; _cl_, clavicle; _cun_, cuneiform of carpus; _epi_, epipubis; _fb_, fibula; _fem_, femur; _hd_, head of femur; _hu_, humerus; _il_, ilium; _isch_, ischium; _obt_, obturator-foramen; _orb_, orbit; _pis_, pisiform; _pub_, pubis; _rad_, radius; _rb_^1, first rib; _rb_^{13}, last rib; _sc_, scapula; _st_, sternum; _tb_, tibia; _troch_, great trochanter of femur; _uln_, ulna; _unc_, unciform; _IV_, fourth toe. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) FAM. 1. MACROPODIDAE.--This family contains the Kangaroos, Wallabies, Rat-Kangaroos, and Tree-Kangaroos. With the exception of _Dendrolagus_ the family is terrestrial, and its numerous species progress by leaps effected by the long hind-limbs, which are decidedly, often greatly, longer than the fore-limbs. In the hind-limb the fourth toe is very long and strong; the fifth moderately so; the second and third are slender and united by skin. The tail is always long, but differs in its characters from {131} genus to genus. The stomach is much sacculated. The dental formula is I 3/1 C (1 or 0)/0 P 2/2 M 4/4. The atlas is often open below, forming thus an incomplete ring. Though the number of the incisor teeth in the adult Diprotodonts is never more than three on each side in each jaw, more numerous rudiments are present. Mr. M. Woodward[76] has lately investigated the subject with interesting results. He finds that many species present decided traces of two additional incisors, raising the total to that which characterises the Polyprotodontia; but in two cases, viz. _Macropus giganteus_ and _Petrogale penicillata_, a sixth is present, the total number being thus in excess of that found in any other Marsupial. This, as the author himself admits, proves too much. No mammal is known which in the adult condition has so many incisors; nor do the fossil Mammalia help us to get over the difficulty; even among reptiles it is not usual for so many teeth to occur upon the premaxillaries. It is a curious fact that the two long lower incisors can be used after the fashion of a pair of scissors, or rather a pair of shears. Their inner edges are sharpened, and they are capable of some motion towards and away from each other; by their means grass is cropped. The stomach of _Macropus_ (and of other allied genera) is peculiar by reason of its long and sacculated character; the oesophagus enters it very near the cardiac end, which is bifid. Messrs. Schäfer and Williams[77] have shown that the squamous, non-glandular epithelium of the oesophagus extends over the greater part of the stomach, only the pyloric extremity and one of the two cardiac caeca being lined with columnar epithelium. The Macropodidae are clearly divisible into three sub-families, which are distinguished by marked anatomical characters. In the sub-family MACROPODINAE (including the genera _Macropus_, _Petrogale_, _Lagorchestes_, _Dorcopsis_, _Dendrolagus_, _Onychogale_, and _Lagostrophus_) there is no hallux, and the tail is hairy. The oesophagus enters the stomach near the cardiac end. The caecum when short has no longitudinal bands; the liver has a Spigelian lobe. The second sub-family, POTOROINAE or HYPSIPRYMNINAE (including the genera _Potorous_, _Aepyprymnus_, _Bettongia_, and {132} _Caloprymnus_), consists of smaller animals than the Macropodinae, which, however, resemble them in having no hallux, but a hairy tail. The oesophagus enters the stomach near the pyloric end of that organ. The caecum, though short, has lateral longitudinal bands. The liver has no special Spigelian lobe. The canines are always present, being rarely so in Macropodinae, and are usually well developed. The third sub-family, that of the HYPSIPRYMNODONTIDAE, is doubtfully referable to the family; it consists of but one genus _Hypsiprymnodon_, which is in many points more like a Phalanger than a Kangaroo. It has an opposable hallux and a non-hairy, but scaly, tail. It has canines in the upper jaw. [Illustration] FIG. 66.--Red Kangaroo. _Macropus rufus._ × 1/18. SUB-FAM. 1. MACROPODINAE.--The genus _Macropus_ includes not only the Kangaroos but also the Wallabies, which are really indistinguishable, though they have sometimes been placed in a separate genus _Halmaturus_. The genus thus enlarged contains twenty-three species. It may be thus characterised: the ears are long, the rhinarium is usually naked, but in _M. giganteus_ and others a band of hairs descends to the upper lip; a naked band extends from the ankle to the pads on the digits, which is interrupted in _M. rufus_ by a band of hairs just in front of the digits. The mammae are four. The tail is not bushy, {133} but is crested in _M. irma_. They are for the most part found on the Australian continent, but some species are found in the islands to the north which belong to the Australian region. Thus _M. brunii_, which is of interest as the first Kangaroo seen by a European, is a native of the Aru islands. A specimen of this animal, which was then living in the garden of the Dutch governor of Batavia, was described by Bruyn in the year 1711. _M. rufus_, the largest member of the group, is remarkable for the red secretion which adorns the neck of the male. It is caused by particles which have the appearance and colour of carmine. _M. giganteus_ is not, as its specific name might imply, the "giant" of the race; its dimensions are given as 5 feet, while _M. rufus_ is said to attain a length of 5 feet 5 inches, exclusive (in both cases) of the tail. The account which Sir Joseph Banks gives[78] in his diary of the Kangaroo is interesting, since he was one of the first naturalists to see that creature. In July 1770 it was reported to him that an "animal as large as a greyhound, of a mouse colour, and very swift" had been seen by his people. A little later he was surprised to observe that the animal "went only upon two legs, making vast bounds just as the jerboa does." The second lieutenant killed one of these Kangaroos, of which Sir Joseph Banks wrote that "to compare it to any European animal would be impossible, as it has not the least resemblance to any one I have seen. Its fore-limbs are extremely short and of no use to it in walking; its hind, again, as disproportionately long; with these it hops seven or eight feet at a time, in the same manner as the jerboa, to which animal indeed it bears much resemblance, except in size, this being in weight 38 lbs., and the jerboa no larger than a common rat." The beast was killed and eaten, and proved excellent meat. Sir Joseph Banks' observations upon the leaping of the Kangaroo are of interest, because it is often asserted that the tail is largely made use of as a third foot or as a support. Mr. Aflalo declares in the most positive way that after repeatedly examining the tracks upon soft sand immediately after the animal had passed, not the very faintest trace of the impression of the tail could be discovered. The leaps of a big Kangaroo seem to be somewhat greater than is recorded {134} by Banks. It is said that 15 or even 20 feet are covered at a bound, and in bound after bound. But in walking slowly it can be readily seen from an inspection of Kangaroos at the Zoological Society's Gardens that the animal does rest upon its tail, which with the hind-legs forms a tripod. _Petrogale_ with six species comes next to _Macropus_, and is indeed only to be differentiated from it by the thickly-haired and more slender tail, which is not used, as it is sometimes in the Kangaroos, as an extra hind-limb. The Rock-Kangaroos live among rocks, which they climb, and from which they leap; and the tail acts rather as a balancing pole. The most elaborate account of the anatomy of _Petrogale_ known to me is by Mr. Parsons.[79] The dentition as given by Mr. Thomas is I 3/1 C 0/0 Pm 2/2 M 4/4--that of _Macropus_ without the occasionally occurring canine of the upper jaw. The osteological characters which separate it from _Macropus_ are quite insignificant. Mr. Parsons mentions a wormian bone, "os epilepticum," at the junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures. It was found to occur in two out of five skulls examined, and appears not to occur in other Kangaroos. The palatine foramina of _Petrogale_ are so large that the posterior part of the bone is only a narrow thickened ridge. The small intestine of _P. xanthopus_ is 102 inches long, the large intestine 44 inches. The caecum has a length of 6 inches, and is not sacculated, differing in this from the caecum of _Macropus major_. The best known species are _P. xanthopus_ and _P. penicillata_. The genus is confined to Australia itself, and does not enter Tasmania. _Onychogale_ includes the so-called "Nail-tailed Wallabies," which have a thorn at the end of the tail, reminding one of the Lion and the Leopard, whose tails have a similar armature. The muffle is hairy. Three species are allowed by Mr. Thomas. _Lagorchestes_ has, like the last genus, the rhinarium, _i.e._ that part of the nose immediately surrounding the nostrils, hairy instead of smooth as in the Kangaroos proper. It is distinguished from _Onychogale_ by the absence of the terminal callosity to the tail, which is rather short. The name Hare-Kangaroo is given to the members of this genus (three species) on account of their exceeding fleetness. This genus is limited to Australia itself. _L. conspicillatus_ is said to present "a remarkable {135} resemblance to the English hare," and _L. leporoides_ was so called by Gould on account of general appearance as well as face. _Dorcopsis_ has shorter hind-legs than _Macropus_, and a naked muffle. The ears are small. The structure of _D. luctuosa_ has been studied by Garrod,[80] who pointed out the existence of four enlarged hair follicles on the neck near the mandibular symphysis. These are, however, represented in the next genus _Dendrolagus_, and occur also in _Petrogale_. The limbs are not so disproportionate as in _Macropus_, and the tail is naked at the tip. _Dorcopsis_ and the next genus to be described, _Dendrolagus_, differ from _Macropus_ and its immediate allies, _Petrogale_ and _Lagorchestes_, in a number of anatomical points. In the first place, the premolars are twice the size of those of _Macropus_, and they have a characteristic pattern not observable in the Kangaroos. This consists of a median ridge (the whole tooth being rather prismatic in shape), with lateral ridges at right angles to it. The upper canines are developed, but are minute. The stomach is not quite like that of _Macropus_, though built upon a similar plan. The blind cardiac extremity is a single, not a double cul-de-sac; in this it is like that of _Petrogale_. The distribution of the squamous, white, oesophageal epithelium is very much like that of _Dendrolagus_. In both genera the orifice of the oesophagus into the stomach is guarded by two strong longitudinal folds, which run for some distance towards the pylorus. In _Dendrolagus_, at any rate, this tract is bordered on each side by glandular patches. In _Dendrolagus_, moreover, the squamous epithelium does not extend into the cardiac cul-de-sac. This latter is separated from the rest of the stomach by two slightly diverging folds, which are faintly represented in _Petrogale_ and in _Halmaturus_. In the last two genera the folds surrounding the oesophageal orifice are but slightly represented; better in _Halmaturus_ than in _Petrogale_. But there are not the patches of glands already referred to. The small intestine of _Dorcopsis_ is 97 inches in length, the large being 32, _i.e._ proportionately long, as in Marsupials generally. The small caecum (2½ inches) is not sacculated. The spleen is Macropodine, being [81]-shaped or [82]-shaped. The differences between _Dorcopsis_ and the evidently closely allied _Dendrolagus_ will be further considered under the description of {136} the latter. _Dorcopsis_ is confined to New Guinea, and contains three species, viz. _D. muelleri_, _D. luctuosa_, and _D. macleani_. _D. muelleri_ has a striking resemblance to _Macropus brunii_, with which it has been confounded. Though intermediate between _Macropus_ and _Dendrolagus_, these Kangaroos are not arboreal. The genus _Dendrolagus_ is remarkable for its un-kangaroo-like habit of living in trees. In accordance with this change of habit is a relative shortening of the hind-limbs, a feature which begins to be observable in _Dorcopsis_. "The general build," writes Mr. Thomas, "is of the ordinary mammalian proportions, not macropodiform at all." The muffle is not naked for the greater part, though the shortness of the hairs gives that effect. As in _Dorcopsis_, but not as in _Macropus_, the bulla tympani is not swollen. There are altogether five species, the fifth, _D. bennetti_, having been lately described from specimens living in the Zoological Society's Gardens. [Illustration] FIG. 67.--Tree-Kangaroo. _Dendrolagus bennetti._ × 1/12. The anatomy of this genus has been described by Owen for _D. inustus_,[83] and by myself for _D. bennetti_. The stomach, which {137} has a single, not bifid, cul-de-sac, is sacculated by two principal bands and other subsidiary ones. Its internal structure has already been to some extent described. The spleen of _D. bennetti_ is remarkable for the fact that it is not [84]-shaped, whereas _D. inustus_ agrees with other Macropodines in the form of this organ. The small intestine of _D. bennetti_ is 95 inches long, the large 38. The caecum appears to differ in the two species; it is smaller in _D. bennetti_, where it is only 2 inches in length. The most remarkable feature of the liver is the large size of the left lateral lobe and the bilobed condition of the Spigelian lobe; this at least was the case with _D. bennetti_. A recently-described species[85] has been attentively studied in its native haunts by Dr. Lumholtz.[86] It lives in the highest parts of the mountainous scrubs of Queensland, where it moves quickly on the ground as well as among the trees. It is hunted with Dingos by the "blacks," and is eaten by them.[87] _Lagostrophus_ is a generic name that has been proposed by Mr. Thomas for a small Wallaby 18 inches in length, which is distinguished by the fact that the long claws of the hind-limbs are entirely hidden by long and bristly hairs; the muffle is naked; there is no canine. The bullae are swollen. There is but one species of the genus, _L. fasciatus_, a native of West Australia. SUB-FAM. 2. POTOROINAE.--_Aepyprymnus_ and the other genera placed in this sub-family are known by the vernacular name of Rat-Kangaroos, or sometimes Kangaroo-Rats. The latter term has been called "incorrect," though it is just as good as the former, both of them in fact being inaccurate as implying some likeness to or relation with a Rat. The present genus has a partially hairy rhinarium; the auditory bullae are not swollen. It contains but one species, _Ae. rufescens_, a native of Eastern Australia, which is distinguished by its very long hind-feet. _Bettongia_ has long hind-feet as in _Aepyprymnus_, but the rhinarium is entirely naked instead of being partially hairy, while the ears are much shorter. The genus, which contains four species, is remarkable as being the only ground-living mammal with a prehensile tail, which it uses to carry grass, etc. {138} _B. lesueuri_ burrows in the ground, often to so great a depth as 10 feet. The genus occurs in Tasmania as well as in Australia. _Caloprymnus_, with one species, is a genus instituted by Mr. Thomas in his Catalogue of Marsupials for a form (_C. campestris_) which combines in a remarkable way the characters of _Aepyprymnus_, _Bettongia_, and _Potorous_. The external characters and the general shape of the skull are as in _Bettongia_, while the molars have the structure of those of _Aepyprymnus_. The last premolar is as in _Potorous_. Of the genus _Potorous_ there are three species, which are Tasmanian as well as Australian. Unlike the other Rat-Kangaroos, the hind-feet are comparatively short, and the animal is therefore less addicted to jumping than its relatives. The rhinarium is naked, and the ears are of fair length. SUB-FAM. 3. HYPSIPRYMNODONTINAE.--The Musk-Kangaroo, _Hypsiprymnodon_, is the last genus of the present family, and the only genus of this sub-family. It is intermediate between the Macropodidae and the Phalangeridae, the annectant character being mainly the hind-feet, which though they have the same long fourth digit as the Kangaroos, have it more feebly developed, and possess also an opposable hallux, which is one of the salient features in the structure of the Phalangeridae. The tail is naked and scaly; the rhinarium is entirely naked. The ears are large and not furry. The single species, _H. moschatus_, appears to feed upon insects as well as vegetables. "Its habits are chiefly diurnal, and its actions when not disturbed by no means ungraceful. It progresses in much the same manner as the Kangaroo-Rats (_Potorous_), to which it is closely allied, but procures its food by turning over the débris in the scrubs in search of insects, worms, and tuberous roots, frequently eating the palm berries, which it holds in its fore-paws after the manner of the Phalangers, sitting up on its haunches, or sometimes digging like the bandicoots." This is Mr. Ramsay's description of the animal, which he was the first to discover.[88] FAM. 2. PHALANGERIDAE.--The genus _Hypsiprymnodon_ bridges over the not very wide gap which separates the Kangaroos from the Phalangers. The Phalangers are Marsupials with five fingers and toes; the second and third toes are bound together by a {139} common integument as in the Macropodidae. The hallux is opposable and nailless. The tail is nearly always long and prehensile. The pouch is well developed; the stomach not sacculated; a caecum is present (except in _Tarsipes_). These are really the principal distinctions between the two families. In addition, it may be mentioned that the lower incisors have not a scissor-like action as in the Kangaroos. The Phalangers may be divided into four sub-families. The first of these, that of the PHALANGERINAE, contains the genera _Phalanger_ (including _Cuscus_), _Acrobates_, _Distaechurus_, _Dromicia_, _Gymnobelideus_, _Petaurus_, _Petauroides_, _Dactylopsila_, _Pseudochirus_, and _Trichosurus_. These genera agree in the following generalities:--Tail well developed, often very long; three incisors above, and at least two premolars both above and below; caecum long and simple; stomach without a cardiac gland; liver not very complicated by secondary furrows, with a distinct caudate lobe; the vaginal median culs-de-sac often coalesced; lungs with an azygos lobe. [Illustration] FIG. 68.--Bones of leg and foot of Phalanger. _ast_, Astragalus; _calc_, calcaneum; _cub_, cuboid; _ect.cun_, ecto-cuneiform; _ent.cun_, ento-cuneiform; _fb_, fibula; _mes.cun_, meso-cuneiform; _nav_, navicular; _tib_, tibia; _I-V_, first to fifth toes. (After Owen.) The second sub-family, PHASCOLARCTINAE (with the Koala only), is thus characterised:--Tail rudimentary; cheek-pouches present; superior incisors three, but only one premolar above and below; {140} caecum extraordinarily long; stomach with a cardiac gland; liver complicated by additional furrows, without a free caudate lobe; no azygos lobe to lungs; vaginal culs-de-sac free. The third sub-family, PHASCOLOMYINAE, contrasts with the others as follows:--Tail rudimentary; cheek-pouches present, but rudimentary; one incisor on each side above, but no additional premolars; all the teeth rootless; caecum not peculiar in shape; stomach with a cardiac gland; liver complicated by secondary furrows, without a free caudate lobe; lung with an azygos lobe; vaginal culs-de-sac free. The last sub-family, TARSIPEDINAE, is thus defined:--Tail long; tongue extensile; only one premolar; molars reduced; caecum absent. [Illustration] FIG. 69.--Vulpine Phalanger. _Trichosurus vulpecula._ × 1/6. SUB-FAM. 1. PHALANGERINAE.--The genus _Phalanger_ embraces five species, sometimes called by the generic name of _Cuscus_. They are largish animals with short ears; only the end of the tail is naked. Of these animals only one species is found in Australia itself, the rest inhabiting the islands lying to the north. The Spotted Cuscus, _Ph. maculatus_, is in spite of its vegetarian diet, and perhaps on account of its spots, spoken of as the "Tiger Cat." Mr. Aflalo remarks of it that though provided with a prehensile tail, it is little better as a climber than the tailless Koala. _Trichosurus_, including the "True Phalangers," includes largish species, which can be distinguished from the last genus by a chest-gland similar to that which occurs in _Myrmecobius_ and some other Marsupials of the present group. There are but two species, which are purely Australian. The "Brush-tailed Opossum," _T. vulpecula_ (perhaps better known as _Phalangista_ {141} _vulpina_), like its American pseudo-namesake (a true Opossum, genus _Didelphys_), "plays 'possum" on occasions. The dental formula is I 3/2 C 1/0 Pm 2/3 M 4/4. The ears are shortish. The Ring-tailed Phalangers, _Pseudochirus_, are more widely distributed than the last two genera; they range from Tasmania in the south to New Guinea in the north. They are not, however, ring-tailed, though the tip of the tail is generally white. As in the last genera, which have prehensile tails, the end of this appendage is naked. The mammae are four. The tooth formula is I 3/2 C 1/0 Pm 3/3 M 4/4. There are some ten species of the genus. The Striped Phalanger, _Dactylopsila trivirgata_, is an animal about a foot long, whose identity can be ascertained by its striped, black and white skin. It is an arboreal creature that lives apparently both on leaves and grubs like so many arboreal creatures of quite different groups--Squirrels, for instance, and New-World Monkeys. The tooth formula is I 3/3 C 1/6 Pm 3/2 M 4/4. _Gymnobelideus leadbeateri_ is a small creature with a body 6 inches in length. It is restricted to the colony of Victoria. The general look is that of _Petaurus_; the ears are naked. _Dromicia_ is a genus of Phalangers which although devoid of a parachute, such as is possessed by certain genera that will be considered immediately, is able to leap with great agility from branch to branch. The ears are large and thin and almost naked; the tooth formula is I 3/2 C 1/0 Pm 3/3 M 4/4. They are minute creatures, the longest measuring, with the tail, but 10 inches. Dormouse-Phalanger is a name sometimes given to them. There are four species, ranging from Tasmania to New Guinea. The name Dormouse as applied to the genus seems to be owing to the way in which they hold a nut in the paws when feeding. _D. nana_ is 4 inches long, with a tail of nearly the same length. It is thick at the base. _Distaechurus_ is the last genus of non-flying Phalangers. Its name refers to the arrangement of the hairs on the tail, which are disposed on either side in a row like the vane of a feather. The tooth formula is I 3/2 C 1/0 Pm 3/2 M 3/3, very nearly as in _Acrobates_. The ears are as in that genus. _Petaurus_ is the first genus of the Flying Phalangers, all of which are provided with a parachute-like expansion of the skin between the fore- and hind-limbs; the ears are large and naked; and the tooth formula is I 3/2 C 1/0 Pm 3/3 M 4/4. There are three {142} species of the genus, which extend through pretty well the entire Australian region. The term "flying" as applied to these and the other "flying" genera is of course an exaggeration. The animals cannot fly upwards; they can only descend in a skimming fashion, the folds of skin breaking their fall. _P. breviceps_ is perhaps the best-known species. The body is 8, the tail 9 inches long. _Petauroides_ seems to be chiefly distinguished from _Petaurus_ by the fact that, as in its ally _Dactylopsila_, the tail is partly naked terminally. In _Petaurus_ and _Gymnobelideus_ the tail is bushy to the very end, including its extreme tip below. A third genus of Flying Phalangers is the minute _Acrobates_, which has a distichous tail like that of _Distaechurus_. It is not more than 6 inches in length including the tail. As to these Flying Phalangers it is exceedingly instructive to observe that the same method of "flight" has been apparently evolved three times; for the three genera are each of them specially related to a separate type of non-flying Phalanger. The same observation can be made about the Flying Squirrels, _Anomalurus_ and _Sciuropterus_. The dental formula is I 3/2 C 1/0 Pm 3/3 M 3/3. The ears are thinly clad with hair. There are four teats. SUB-FAM. 2. PHASCOLARCTINAE.--The Koala, or Native Bear, _Phascolarctos cinereus_, is the only representative of its sub-family. It is, like the Wombat, aberrant in the lack of an obvious tail. The absence of this appendage is curious in an arboreal creature whose near allies have a long and prehensile one. The structure of the Koala was investigated by the late Mr. W. A. Forbes.[89] There are some unexpected points of likeness to the Wombat: thus they agree in the absence of the tail, in the structure of the stomach, and in the great subdivision of the lobes of the liver. The brain, however, is smooth, and the caecum is exceedingly large and complicated in structure, that of the Wombat being short. That both animals have cheek-pouches is perhaps due to similar habits of temporarily storing masses of food. This animal has only eleven pairs of ribs. The tail has only seven or eight vertebra, and these have no chevron-bones. A peculiarity of the skull is seen in the great size of the alisphenoid bulla, which is comparable in size and appearance with that of the Pig. As in the Kangaroos, the atlas is incomplete below. {143} The tooth formula of the genus is I 3/1 C 1/0 Pm 1/1 M 4/(4 or 5). The additional lower molar seems to be exceptional, and has been found in one specimen only. In the alimentary tract the most remarkable structure is the large intestine, which is very capacious for the first 28 inches or so of its course. This section of the colon is lined with rugae precisely like those which are found in the caecum. These folds, which at first are some twelve in number, fuse lower down, and by the time that the colon approaches the external orifice are reduced to five. Similar folds, as already stated, occur in the caecum, but do not extend as far as its blind end. The caecum is proportionately and actually larger than in any other Marsupial. The gall-bladder is unusually elongated. [Illustration] FIG. 70.--Koala. _Phascolarctos cinereus._ × 1/9. The Koala is mainly crepuscular or nocturnal in its habits. It feeds so exclusively upon the leaves of the gum-tree (_Eucalyptus_) that it is impossible to keep the creature long in captivity in lands where that particular kind of food is not available. The female, though she seems to bear but a single young one, which is carried on the back after the fashion of some Opossums, has two nipples. The animal's slow habits seem to require a nocturnal and retired life. It is about as lethargic as the Sloth, and it is said to further resemble that animal in clinging firmly to a branch even after it is shot. {144} [Illustration] FIG. 71.--Wombat. _Phascolomys wombat._ × 1/12. SUB-FAM. 3. PHASCOLOMYINAE.--_Phascolomys_, the Wombat, is the only genus of this sub-family. This animal has the appearance of a heavily-built Marmot, like which it has a mere stump for a tail, and a pair of strong chisel-shaped and Rodent-like incisors, which, however, differ from those of Rodents in having a complete coating of cement. All the teeth of the animal are rootless, and there are no canines. The incisors have enamel on the front and lateral faces only. The dental formula is I 1/1 C 0/0 Pm 1/1 M 4/4. The affinities with other Diprotodont Marsupials are shown by the commencing syndactyly of the second and third toes. The rhinarium is naked or hairy. There is a rudimentary cheek-pouch, as in _Phascolarctos_. The Wombat has, like the Koala, and also the Beaver--which does away with some of the value of the comparison--a peculiar gland-patch in the stomach, a raised area of collected glands. In no other Marsupial is such a structure found, "whilst in the two forms under consideration its identity is almost precise. That such a unique structure should have been independently developed in two forms unrelated to each other, appears to me to be in the highest degree improbable." This is Mr. Forbes' opinion. It might be strengthened by adding the observation that, as there are other points of likeness between the Wombat and the Koala, it seems more unlikely that a structure so nearly identical should have been twice {145} developed in two not very distant forms. As in the Kangaroos, the atlas is open below. _Ph. ursinus_ has 15 ribs; the other species the normal (for Marsupials) 13. Other points of likeness will be mentioned under the description of the Koala. These animals mainly feed upon roots; they live in companies in burrows. There are three species--_Ph. ursinus_, _Ph. latifrons_, and _Ph. mitchelli_. _Ph. ursinus_ is Tasmanian in range, the other two species South Australian. [Illustration] FIG. 72.--Skull of Wombat. _Phascolomys wombat._ (Lateral view.) _ang_, Angular process; _cond_, condyle of mandible; _ex.oc_, exoccipital; _ext.aud_, opening of bony auditory meatus; _ju_, jugal; _lcr_, lachrymal; _max_, maxilla; _nas_, nasal; _p.max_, premaxilla; _sq_, squamosal; _ty_, tympanic. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) SUB-FAM. 4. TARSIPEDINAE.--The genus _Tarsipes_ ought perhaps to be removed from the present family. There is but a single species, which is a small creature of 7 inches in total length, of which the tail measures 4 inches. The teeth are much dwindled, the formula being I 2/1 C 1/0 Pm 1/0 M 3/3 = 22. The lower incisors are procumbent. The lower jaw, moreover, has not the characteristic Marsupial inflection. The intestinal canal is without the caecum present in the remaining Phalangeridae. It is a curious fact that this aberrant little Phalanger should come from Western Australia, like the even more aberrant _Myrmecobius_. Like the latter also, _Tarsipes_ has a long exsertile tongue, with which, however, it extracts honey from flowers. Probably it also catches minute insects in the corollas of the flowers. It has been proved, in fact, that in captivity at any rate the animal is insectivorous; for it has been known to eat moths. FAM. 3. EPANORTHIDAE.--The extinct Epanorthidae of {146} Patagonia are represented to-day by a small Marsupial which has been rediscovered within the last two or three years. This little animal, formerly called _Hyracodon_ (a pre-occupied name), is now termed _Caenolestes_, and is a native of Colombia and Ecuador. There are two species, and of these _C. obscurus_ is called by the inhabitants "Raton runcho," which means opossum-rat. It lives apparently upon bird's eggs and small birds, though it belongs to the Diprotodont division of the Marsupials. _Caenolestes_, however, although diprotodont, has not the syndactylous character of the digits of the feet already referred to in the Kangaroos and their allies. The pouch is small and rudimentary. The dentition is I 4/3 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 4/4 = 46, and the teeth are said by Mr. Thomas to be much like those of the Australian _Dromicia_.[90] In the skull a peculiarity which does not bear upon its affinities to other Marsupials, but is still interesting, is mentioned by Mr. Thomas. The nasals are not sufficiently prolonged to meet the upper edge of the maxillae, and so a vacuity is left, as in the skulls of many Ruminants (_e.g._ the Sable Antelope). The palate is very imperfect; the foramina, which render it so, reach as far forward as the last premolar. The lower jaw has quite the appearance of that of a _Macropus_ or _Phalanger_, with long and forwardly projecting incisors. EXTINCT DIPROTODONTS.--The great _Diprotodon_ is a creature with a skull a yard long, which must have been of the size of a large Rhinoceros. Though closely allied to _Macropus_, it seems that this great beast did not hop after the fashion of a Kangaroo, its limbs being of a more equal size than in the Kangaroo. Recently some further remains of _Diprotodon_ have been discovered in a lake known as Lake Mulligan, where they had apparently been bogged. Professor Stirling has contributed an account of these remains, which fills up a considerable gap in our knowledge. He has been able to state the structure of the fore- and hind-limbs. Both limbs are pentadactyle, the fingers of the fore-limb being approximately equal in length and general development. In the hind-limb the hallux is small, and consists of the metatarsal only. This bone is fixed in the position of "extreme abduction," and is suggestive of an arboreal limb. Digits two and three may have {147} been syndactylous, and the authors of the account[91] of these bones think that the fourth toe may have shared in this syndactyly. The metatarsal of the fifth digit is enormously expanded at its edge, and seems to have furnished a strong support to the creature; this is also seen in the metacarpal of the fore-limb. Probably, therefore, _Diprotodon_ was quadrupedal in its mode of progression, with the emphasis laid upon the little finger and the little toe instead of, as in ourselves, the first toe. The hind-foot of the _Diprotodon_ could not be more unlike that of a Kangaroo than it actually is. [Illustration] [Illustration] FIG. 73.--_Diprotodon australis._ (After Owen.) FIG. 74.--_Thylacoleo carnifex._ Side view of skull. (After Flower.) Another giant among these Marsupials was the genus _Thylacoleo_, whose name was given to it by Sir Richard Owen on the view that it was a Marsupial Tiger. Sir W. Flower has, however, controverted this opinion, and the genus is in fact, in spite of its large size, closely allied to the Phalangers and {148} Cuscuses.[92] The dental formula is I 3/1 C 1/0 Pm 3/1 M 1/2; the last premolar is a great blade-shaped tooth like that of _Potorous_. _Nototherium_ was a creature smaller than _Diprotodon_, but still of large size; it is believed to have been a burrowing creature, and to connect the Wombats with _Diprotodon_. More certainly allied to the existing Wombat was _Phascolonus_, a Wombat as big as a Tapir. [Illustration] FIG. 75.--_Nototherium mitchelli._ Side view of skull. × 1/6. (After Owen.) Of extinct American Diprotodonts the Epanorthidae, already referred to in connexion with the living _Caenolestes_, were the most prominent forms. The genus _Epanorthus_ occurs in the Santa Cruz formation of Patagonia, which is believed to be Miocene. The incisors are three in the upper jaw; and the single incisor of each ramus of the lower jaw is a great chisel-shaped, cutting instrument. _Abderites_ is also typically Diprotodont by reason of the large projecting incisors of the lower jaw. It has a large cutting tooth in the lower jaw, which appears to be the last premolar, and is thus comparable to the great cutting tooth of the lower jaw and of the upper jaw of the extinct Phalanger, _Thylacoleo_. {149} It may also be comparable to the great premolar of such Multituberculata as _Ptilodus_ and _Plagiaulax_. It is, moreover, marked with vertical grooves. An interesting form, which is unfortunately but little known, is the Australian and Pleistocene genus _Triclis_, with one species, _T. oscillans_. In having a minute canine tooth in the lower jaw it agrees with some Phalangeridae, and being otherwise closely allied to _Hypsiprymnodon_, it unites the Macropodidae with the Phalangeridae. SUB-ORDER 2. POLYPROTODONTIA. In this mainly carnivorous or insectivorous division of the Marsupials the incisors are four or five on each side of the upper jaw, and one or two fewer in the lower jaw. Figs. 76 and 77 illustrate the Polyprotodont and Diprotodont dentitions. The canines are those of flesh-eaters and so are the molars, being as a rule sharply cuspidate. As a rule, which has an exception in the Peramelidae, there is no syndactylism of toes in the hind-foot. This sub-order is at the present day Australian and American in its range. [Illustration] FIG. 76.--Front view of the skull of Tasmanian Devil (_Sarcophilus ursinus_), showing Polyprotodont and carnivorous dentition. (After Flower.) FAM. 1. DASYURIDAE.--This family consists of Marsupials which are generally pentadactylous, but with occasionally the hallux missing. The tail is long but not prehensile. The pouch is present or absent. The teeth vary in the different genera, but {150} the upper incisors are never less than three, and may be as many as five in the upper jaw and six in the lower. The canines are trenchant. There is no caecum. [Illustration] FIG. 77.--Front view of skull of Koala (_Phascolarctos cinereus_), illustrating Diprotodont and herbivorous dentition. (From Flower.) [Illustration] FIG. 78.--Longitudinal section of the skull of the Thylacine (_Thylacinus cynocephalus_). × ½. _a_, Angular process of mandible; _AS_, alisphenoid; _BO_, basioccipital; _BS_, basisphenoid; _cd_, condyle of mandible; _ET_, ethmoturbinal; _Ex.O_, exoccipital; _Fr_, frontal; _ME_, ossified portion of mesethmoid; _MT_, maxilloturbinal; _Mx_, maxilla; _Na_, nasal; _OS_, orbitosphenoid; _Pa_, parietal; _Per_, periotic; _Pl_, palatine; _PMx_, premaxilla; _PS_, presphenoid; _Pt_, pterygoid; _SO_, supraoccipital; _Sq_, squamosal; _Vo_, vomer. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The genus _Thylacinus_ contains but a single species, which is now limited to Tasmania, and is generally known as the Tasmanian Wolf. It has the build of an ordinary Wolf, and is of about the same size. The hinder part of the body is marked with a series of black transverse bands. The hallux is entirely wanting; the pouch opens backwards. The marsupial bones are minute and unossified. The dental formula is I 4/3 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 4/4 = 46. There are four mammae. This animal, now confined to Tasmania, {151} is getting rarer on account of its sheep-killing propensities, and the consequent war of extermination declared upon it by the colonists. It will, however, feed upon other animals; and it is related that the first specimen ever captured had in its stomach the remains of an Echidna! Mr. Thomas thinks that the persistence of this and of some of the other larger carnivorous Marsupials in Tasmania after their extinction in Australia is not unconnected with the advent of the Dingo. But it is stated that the Thylacine is quite capable of keeping even a pack of dogs at bay. [Illustration] FIG. 79.--Tasmanian Devil. _Sarcophilus ursinus._ × 1/10. The genus _Sarcophilus_ has been frequently confounded with the next, but it is kept apart by Mr. Thomas, who follows Cuvier in this. An alternative generic name is _Diabolus_, which, like the first name, refers to the habits and character of the single species which this genus contains. The genus is more like _Thylacinus_ than is _Dasyurus_. The hallux is wanting, and the teeth, though fewer in number (42), resemble those of the Thylacine more closely than do those of the Dasyure. The species is called _S. ursinus_, the popular name being Tasmanian Devil. It is black with a variable number of white patches on the body. It is of about the size of a Badger, and is, like the Thylacine, a nocturnal animal. The Tasmanian Devil is said to be one of the most ferocious of animals, and to express its ferocity by a "yelling growl." {152} [Illustration] FIG. 80.--Skull of _Dasyurus_. (Lateral view.) _al.sph_, Alisphenoid; _ang_, angular process of mandible; _fr_, frontal; _ju_, jugal; _lcr_, lachrymal; _max_, maxilla; _nas_, nasal; _oc.cond_, occipital condyle; _par_, parietal; _par.oc_, paroccipital process; _p.max_, premaxilla; _s.oc_, supraoccipital; _sq_, squamosal; _sq_', zygomatic process of squamosal. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) [Illustration] FIG. 81.--Dasyure. _Dasyurus viverrinus_. × 1/5. (After Vogt and Specht.) The next genus of this family, _Dasyurus_, comprises five species, which range over the whole of the Papuan and Australian sub-regions. The general form is Viverrine, and the hallux is sometimes present though small. The dental formula is as in the last genus, but the teeth "are more insectivorous in their character." There are six or eight mammae. The members of this genus are grey or brown, and spotted with white; they are all arboreal, and feed largely upon birds and their eggs. Mr. Thomas has pointed out that in two species, _D. viverrinus_ and _D. geoffroyi_, the striae upon the foot-pads are absent, and that therefore these at least are probably not so purely arboreal as the rest. The animals are not diurnal, and during the day hide themselves in the hollow trunks of trees. They are spoken of as "Native Cats," but have the general habits of Martens. _D. maculatus_ is common in Tasmania, but is rare in Australia, thus "approaching the condition now exhibited by the Thylacine and {153} Tasmanian Devil, namely, complete extermination in Australia, where both once lived." _D. hallucatus_ shows an approach to _Phascologale_ in its five-toed hind-feet and slender build. _Phascologale_ is a genus which, like the last, is usually arboreal (although not _P. virginiae_ of North Queensland), but is of much smaller size, the species not exceeding the dimensions of a rat. They have no spots, but there is sometimes a stripe down the back. There are thirteen species, which have the same range as the last genus. The hallux is present though small, but the pouch is "practically obsolete," though there is a small fold of skin behind the teats. The rhinarium is naked; the tail is long, "bushy, crested, or nearly naked." The mammae are four to ten in number. The dental formula is as in _Dasyurus_, and the teeth are not very different in form; sometimes the last premolar is wanting. "The members of this genus," remarks Mr. Thomas, "evidently take the place in the Australian region filled in the Oriental by the Tupaiae, and in the Neotropical by the smaller Opossums." The genus _Sminthopsis_ comprises not more than four species, even smaller than the last. The largest species, _S. virginiae_, is only 125 mm. in length. The hallux is present, and there is a well-developed pouch. There are forty-six teeth, as in the Dasyures. The feet are narrow with granulated or hairy soles, whereas in _Phascologale_ they are broad with smooth soles. The mammae are eight or ten. The genus ranges through Australia and Tasmania. The genus _Antechinomys_ has but a single species, which is a native of Queensland and New South Wales. The build is Jerboa-like, and the animal is, as might be inferred, terrestrial. The ears are very long, and the limbs elongated; the hallux is absent; the teeth are exactly as in _Sminthopsis_. _Antechinomys_ has thirteen dorsal and seven lumbar vertebrae; three sacrals and twenty-five caudals, the latter number being in excess of that of its allies. The stomach is nearly globular, with approximated orifices; the intestine measured 6.8 inches, a little more than twice the length of the animal itself. _A. lanigera_ is a native of East Central Australia, and appears to be entirely terrestrial in habit, and to progress by a series of leaps--at any rate when going at full speed. Professor Spencer, who found examples of this rare species, gives {154} an interesting description of its habits. _Antechinomys_ has much the look of the Australian Rat, _Hapalotis mitchelli_; and as the two animals lead a similar kind of life, the resemblance is not unexpected. Professor Spencer wonders why these creatures are saltatory in habit. The country which they inhabit is arid, but with patches of grass and shrubs. For a big kangaroo the advantage of the power of leaping over such obstacles may be obvious, but not for the small and slender _Antechinomys_. The chief foes of this rare Marsupial appear to be predatory birds; and Professor Spencer thinks that the saltatory mode of progression may be more baffling to such pursuers than even a rapid run. The genus _Dasyuroides_ has been lately instituted by Professor Spencer for a Marsupial from Central Australia somewhat intermediate between _Sminthopsis_ and _Phascologale_. As there is but one species, the generic will be considered with the specific characters. _D. byrnei_ is an animal of about the size of the Common Rat. The hallux is absent. The tail is fairly thick, but not "incrassated." There are six mammae, and the pouch is but slightly developed, with two low lateral folds. The dentition is I 4/3 C 1/1 Pm 3/2 M 4/4. This Marsupial is nocturnal, and burrowing in habit. Its food consists of insects.[93] _Myrmecobius_ is so different from the last-described genera (DASYURINAE) that it is usually separated from them as a sub-family MYRMECOBIINAE. The animal is of a bright rufous colour, banded posteriorly with white. There is no hallux, though the metatarsal belonging to that digit is present. There are four mammae.[94] On the chest is a naked patch of some extent, upon which open the ducts of a complex gland, which has been described and figured by myself.[95] There is no pouch, but a tract of skin shows indications of a pouch-like structure. The teeth are extraordinarily numerous, fifty to fifty-four; the formula being I 4/3(4) C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 5/6. Their resemblance to those of certain Jurassic Marsupials is dealt with on p. 100.[96] In this matter lies of {155} course the chief interest of the genus, which may be "an unmodified survivor from Mesozoic times, and therefore from a time long before the Didelphyidae, Peramelidae, and Dasyuridae were differentiated one from the other." Another ancient feature (found in Jurassic mammals) is a mylo-hyoid groove upon the lower jaw, which, however, is not always present, and its existence has therefore been denied. The single species, _M. fasciatus_, is partly arboreal and partly terrestrial in habit, and feeds upon ants. It is a Western and Southern Australian form. [Illustration] FIG. 82.--Banded Australian Anteater. _Myrmecobius fasciatus._ × 1/5. FAM. 2. DIDELPHYIDAE.--All the members of this family are pentadactylous. The teeth are fifty in number, arranged thus: I 5/4 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 4/4. The caecum is small; the pouch is generally absent; the tail generally long and prehensile. [Illustration] FIG. 83.--Virginian Opossum. _Didelphys virginiana._ × 1/5. (After Vogt and Specht.) The genus _Didelphys_ contains most of the forms belonging to this family, including as it does some twenty-three species. The Opossums are mainly arboreal animals, insectivorous in their food; but the larger species eat reptiles, birds, and their eggs. Several of the small species carry their young, when able to leave the teats, on {156} their back, the tails of the young being wrapped round that of the mother. It is not only the pouched species which carry their young in something of this fashion. Azara's Opossum, an animal as big as a cat, is said to carry its eleven young ones (themselves as large as rats) on the back, though their foothold does not appear to be strengthened by intertwining the tails. Even with this huge family on her back, the mother can climb trees with considerable alacrity. The mammae are seven to twenty-five in number. The genus has been lately split up into a number of genera, _Marmosa_, _Dromiciops_, _Peramys_, etc. [Illustration] FIG. 84.--Thick tailed Opossum. _Didelphys crassicaudata._ × 1/5. _Chironectes_ is hardly different from _Didelphys_. It has webbed hind-feet, and is aquatic in habit. The one species of the genus is known as the Yapock, and is a Central and South American form. It is of about the size of a large rat, and appears to be an expert diver after the fish upon which it lives. FAM. 3. PERAMELIDAE.--The Bandicoots, although clearly belonging to the Polyprotodont Marsupials, yet agree with the Diprotodonts in the fact that the second and third toes of the feet are bound up in a common integument, which is not the case with the Diprotodont _Caenolestes_. The hind-feet are longer than the front; of the former limb, two or three of the fingers alone are long and functional; the others are rudimentary or absent. Tail long, hairy, and non-prehensile. Dentition I 5/3 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 4/4 = 48, or sometimes, owing to the absence of a pair of upper incisors, 46. There is a caecum. {157} [Illustration] FIG. 85.--Bones of manus. A, of _Choeropus castanotis_. × 2. B, of Bandicoot (_Perameles_). × 1½. _c_, Cuneiform; _l_, lunar; _m_, magnum; _R_, radius; _s_, scaphoid; _td_, trapezoid; _tm_, trapezium; _u_, unciform; _U_, ulna; _I-V_, digits. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) [Illustration] FIG. 86.--Rabbit Bandicoot. _Peragale lagotis._ × 1/5. The genus _Peragale_, the Rabbit-Bandicoots, consists of two species entirely Australian in range. The enormous ears (whence "Rabbit" Bandicoot) distinguish this genus from _Perameles_. The pouch opens backwards, and there are eight mammae. _P. lagotis_, the only species about whose ways of life anything is {158} known, burrows in the soil, whence it extracts grubs; it is also a grass-feeder, and it is said that its likeness to a Rabbit in appearance is strengthened by its similarity in flavour! _Perameles_ is a genus consisting of twelve species, which are found in Tasmania, Australia, and New Guinea. Like the last genus, from which it does not widely differ in other points, _Perameles_ consists of species which combine insectivorous and vegetarian habits. One species is said to become in captivity an expert in catching mice. The pouch opens backwards, and there are six or eight mammae. [Illustration] FIG. 87.--Pig-footed Bandicoot. _Choeropus castanotis._ × 1/3. The last genus of this family is _Choeropus_, containing but one species, _Ch. castanotis_. It is confined to the Australian continent. It is to be distinguished from the last two by the fact that there are only two functional digits, the second and third, in the fore-limb; the fourth is rudimentary; the other two are absent. It burrows, and is omnivorous like its allies. The two metacarpals that are developed are very long and closely apposed; they have hence a remarkably pig-like aspect, and justify its name. The pouch opens backwards, and there are eight mammae. FAM. 4. NOTORYCTIDAE.--This family contains but a single genus and species, the recently-discovered _Notoryctes typhlops_.[97] {159} We may regard as family-characters the pentadactyle limbs, the existence of three pairs of incisors in the lower and four in the upper jaw; and the tritubercular nature of the upper molars. _Notoryctes typhlops_, the "Marsupial Mole" as it has been termed, was originally discovered by Professor Stirling in Central South Australia. It is a burrowing creature, clothed in a silky fur of a pale golden red, without external ears. It has been compared in appearance with _Chrysochloris_, the Cape Golden Mole, and the eminent palaeontologist, Professor Cope, has even insisted upon a real genetic affinity. Edentate affinities have also been suggested. But _Notoryctes_ has a small pouch opening backwards as in other Polyprotodonts,[98] and as it also possesses marsupial bones it must undoubtedly be referred to the Marsupialia. The animal shows many curious adaptations to its underground mode of life. Certain of the vertebrae in the neck and in the lumbar region are firmly welded together, giving of course a strength of push, and suggesting the Armadillos; the claws of the third and fourth front-toes are greatly enlarged, and must be efficient digging organs. The track of the animal is like that of a railway in mountainous country; it burrows for a short distance, emerges, and then descending beneath the surface re-emerges. The red colour of the fur is said to be in harmony with the arid soil in which it lives. The native name of the creature is "Urquamata." It feeds upon ants and other insects. [Illustration] FIG. 88.--Australian Marsupial Mole. _Notoryctes typhlops._ × ¼. EXTINCT POLYPROTODONTS.--Of extinct Polyprotodonts (apart from those Mesozoic forms which are considered on p. 100) extinct species of _Thylacinus_ and _Dasyurus_ are known from {160} Australia. The most interesting fact in connexion with the Tertiary Polyprotodonts is the existence in South America of such genera as _Prothylacinus_ and _Amphiproviverra_, which are not merely Polyprotodonts but definitely Dasyures, and not referable to the Didelphyidae. These forms have been included in an order, SPARASSODONTA. But it is not by any means certain whether these forms are rightly placed in the neighbourhood of the carnivorous Marsupials; it is possible that they ought to be relegated to the Creodonta or to their allies. Their structure is in fact somewhat intermediate between those two groups. The teeth seem to be carnivorous and Marsupial-like in form; but as already mentioned, in connexion with the general structure of teeth, more than a single premolar is replaced. These animals in fact, in so far as regards their teeth, are midway between the Marsupials and the typical Eutheria. The angle of the lower jaw is inflected, but the palate is not marked by deficient ossification. At least this is not the case with all the members of the group. Whether the small _Microbiotherium_, which is made the type of a family, is rightly referred here is not certain. This animal had palatine vacuities as well as an inflected angle to the lower jaw. * * * * * {161} CHAPTER VIII EDENTATA--GANODONTA ORDER II. EDENTATA Terrestrial, partly subterranean, or arboreal creatures of quite small to gigantic size (some extinct genera), with frequently a covering of scales or bony scutes. Limbs clawed. Teeth either totally absent or, if present, imperfect in structure, being without enamel, and not forming a complete series; incisors and canines being as a rule absent. Teats axillary, pectoral, or inguinal.[99] Retia mirabilia very common in the extremities. To this group the name of Bruta was given by Linnaeus, but then it included not only the families which we now place in the modern order Edentata, but also the Elephant and the genus _Trichechus_. Mr. Thomas has proposed to change the name into Paratheria, which name is suggestive of what he and some others think concerning the systematic position of the group, _i.e._ that it is not to be placed in the Eutherian group of mammals at all, but represents a separate twig which has arisen with the Eutheria from a low mammalian stock. This view can hardly be accepted if the Ganodonta--which will be treated of presently--be really ancestral Edentates, for they are not in any way a Prototherian mammalian group, so far as their remains enable us to judge. The Edentata contain the Sloths, Ant-bears, Armadillos, _Manis_ and _Orycteropus_, among living forms. The great Ground-Sloths, _Megatherium_, etc., and Armadillos, _Glyptodon_, etc., represent the extinct forms. The name that has been applied to this group is inappropriate {162} inasmuch as many Edentates have teeth. It is, however, by a number of small tooth-characters that the order can be defined. Thus if teeth are present they are simple in structure, without enamel in the adult condition, though a rudimentary enamel-organ has been discovered in an Armadillo. The teeth, moreover, are not found in the anterior part of the mouth, and they grow from persistent pulps; neither is there much differentiation among them. It is not possible, however, to speak of the Edentates as quite homodont, since in _Orycteropus_ there are large cheek-teeth; but there is at any rate not a marked heterodonty in that or in any other Edentate. It used to be said that the Edentates were monophyodont. But the Armadillo _Tatusia_ was subsequently found to possess a second suppressed dentition, and after this discovery Mr. Thomas proved that _Orycteropus_ is also diphyodont. Since then other Armadillos have been shown to be diphyodont; and the whole group therefore, so far as concerns those members that have teeth, may in all probability be regarded as typically mammalian in this respect. These characters are slender enough, but there seem to be no others by means of which the members of this order can be satisfactorily linked together. The fact is, that we have here a polymorphic order which contains in all probability representatives of at least two separate orders. We have at present a very few, and these perhaps highly modified, descendants of a large and diverse group of mammals. For convenience' sake they will be all treated of under the head of Edentata. Although for the probable reasons already stated it is a hard matter to frame such a definition as will include all existing Edentates, it is easy enough to define two groups in this heterogeneous order; to define one group we should say, rather, and then to regard the leavings as forming another not so easily definable a group. The perfectly-definable group is that which includes the American Anteaters, the Armadillos, and the Sloths. In all these creatures, which may certainly be regarded as representing on their own account as many family types, there are a number of important and highly-characteristic anatomical features which they share in common. So exceedingly different are these three types in general appearance and (correlated with that) in way of life that these common characters acquire increased importance. {163} [Illustration] FIG. 89.--Great Anteater (_Myrmecophaga jubata_). A, Side view of twelfth and thirteenth thoracic vertebrae. B, Posterior surface of second lumbar vertebra. C, Anterior surface of third lumbar vertebra, × 2/3. _az_, Anterior zygapophysis; _az_^1, _az_^2, _az_^3, additional anterior, articular facets; _cc_, facet for capitulum of rib; _m_, metapophysis; _pz_, posterior zygapophysis; _pz_^1, _pz_^2, _pz_^3, additional posterior articular facets; _t_, transverse process; _tc_, facet for articulation of tubercle of rib. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The first of these characters is the series of additional zygapophyses on the posterior dorsal and lumbar vertebrae; these are very clear in the Anteaters and Armadillos; less clear, but still obviously represented, in the Sloths. In the second place, they all possess a clavicle, rudimentary, it is true, in the Great Ant-bear, but still present. Thirdly, the testes are abdominal throughout life, a character which they share with such lowly-organised animals as the Monotremata and the Whales. Finally, and this is by no means a matter to be overlooked, not only are all the existing members of this group American in range, but there is no evidence to prove that they have ever existed elsewhere. No European or Old-World {164} representatives have as yet been discovered which can be referred to the Anteater, Armadillo, or Sloth type with certainty.[100] Of these American forms, which will be treated of first, the Armadillos are further apart from either Sloths or Anteaters than the last two are from each other. The name XENARTHRA has been suggested for the American Edentates with "abnormal" vertebral articulations; the corresponding NOMARTHRA includes the Old-World forms. [Illustration] FIG. 90.--Right scapula and clavicle of Two-toed Sloth (_Choloepus hoffmanni_). × 1-2/3. _a_, Acromion; _af_, prescapular fossa; _c_, coracoid; _cl_, clavicle; _csf_, coraco-scapular foramen; _gc_, glenoid cavity; _pf_, postscapular fossa. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) Between the Sloths and Anteaters the extinct _Megatherium_ and some of its allies are to a certain extent intermediate. But it may be pointed out in the first place that there are certain important resemblances between the living forms. In both, retia mirabilia are developed in the tail (in spite of its reduction in the Sloths) and in the limbs. But, as is well known, retia are also found in other mammals far removed in the series from these under consideration. The reproductive organs generally are very similar, and they have both a dome-shaped and deciduate placenta. The latter character they share with the Armadillos and with the Aard Vark; _Manis_ having a non-deciduate placenta which is, like that of the Carnivora, zonary in form. The Edentates, at any rate the American forms, have a double vena cava posterior and no azygos vein. This condition is also met with among Whales. Osteologically the Sloths and Anteaters are united by the fact that the coracoid becomes fused with the coracoid border of the scapula, thus forming a foramen; the importance of this character is, however, discounted by its occurrence in three genera of Cebidae. The above facts embody the views of Sir William Flower.[101] {165} A subsequent study of the brain and of the muscles of these animals has led to results not entirely in harmony with these views. Dr. Elliot Smith is of opinion,[102] after an exhaustive study of the Edentate brain, that in this region of the body the present group shows very decided points of likeness to the Carnivora; that is, so far as concerns the Anteaters. On the other hand, _Orycteropus_ is as distinctly comparable with a primitive Ungulate type, such as is exemplified by _Moschus_. "If the brain of _Orycteropus_," he remarks, "were given to an anatomist acquainted with all the other variations of the mammalian type of brain, there is probably only one feature which would lead him to hesitate in describing it as an exceedingly simple Ungulate brain. That one feature is the high degree of macrosmatism.[103] _Manis_, on the other hand, does not come especially near to _Orycteropus_. The brain of _Manis_ conforms to a simple type of architecture, which agrees in many points with both those of _Orycteropus_ and the American Edentates; there is not sufficient evidence to show which type it really favours." Elliot Smith would, in fact, agree with Max Weber that it is better, if a division is to be made, to divide the group into three orders:--the Xenarthra (Sloths, Anteaters, and Armadillos), Tubulidentata (_Orycteropus_), and Squamata (_Manis_), instead of into Xenarthra and Nomarthra. Messrs. Windle and Parsons[104] are disposed to see in muscular similarities reasons for uniting _Manis_ with the American Edentates, though they confess to being unable to place _Orycteropus_; in this animal, they say, "we are more struck by the generalised mammalian arrangement of its muscles than by any special Edentate characters. There are, however, two muscles in _Orycteropus_ which show peculiarities not found elsewhere than in the Edentates";--the triceps, which has more than one scapular head, and the tibialis posticus, which is double. They conclude that _Orycteropus_ "presents some feeble claims to be taken into the order." We shall here adopt the following divisions. {166} SUB-ORDER 1. XENARTHRA. FAM. 1. MYRMECOPHAGIDAE.--The family Myrmecophagidae contains three genera, all South American in range. These genera, _Myrmecophaga_, _Tamandua_, and _Cycloturus_, agree greatly in their outward form. They are all without teeth, and have long snouts and long protrusible tongues. The fur is thick, and they have powerful claws wherewith to break down the strong ant-hills upon whose inhabitants they feed. _Tamandua_ and _Cycloturus_ are arboreal, _Myrmecophaga_ is terrestrial in habit. The claws of the arboreal forms are useful to destroy the bark, and thus bring to light insects which lurk in such situations. [Illustration] FIG. 91.--Great Anteater. _Myrmecophaga jubata._ × 1/10. The genus _Myrmecophaga_ contains but one species, the Great Anteater, _Myrmecophaga jubata_. It is a large and handsome animal, with long, shaggy, greyish-black hair and a broad white stripe across the shoulder. The coloration is similar in the two sexes. Including the long and bushy tail it reaches a length of over 7 feet. It is on account of its long tongue and greatly developed salivary glands that this and the allied genera were originally placed with _Manis_. It is the submaxillary glands which are so enormous; they extend back over the chest, and open by three distinct ducts, of which two unite just before the external orifice. {167} Along their course these ducts are provided with a sphincter muscle, which squeezes the secretion towards the external orifice into the mouth-cavity. The stomach is somewhat gizzard-like. The intestine has no caecum.[105] The Anteater's great claws are not only serviceable in tearing up the ground to get at its food; armed with them he does not fear, as Mr. Waterton remarked, "the fatal pressure of the serpent's fold or the teeth of the famished jaguar." An Anteater, too, is more than a match for a big dog, and will rip open its belly with the claws while the dog is vainly trying to make an impression with its teeth upon the shaggy hair. _Tamandua_ is a smaller animal than _Myrmecophaga_, and, as has been stated, is arboreal; associated with this habit is a prehensile tail. Like the last genus, _Tamandua_ has a rudimentary clavicle, this bone being well developed in the little _Cycloturus_. [Illustration] FIG. 92.--Skull of Anteater (_Myrmecophaga_). Lateral view, _al.sph_, Alisphenoid; _cond_, condyle of mandible; _cor_, coronoid process of mandible; _ex.oc_, exoccipital; _ext.aud_, external auditory meatus; _fr_, frontal; _ju_, jugal; _lcr_, lachrymal; _max_, maxilla; _nas_, nasal; _occ.cond_, occipital condyle; _pal_, palatine; _par_, parietal; _p.max_, premaxilla; _s.oc_, supraoccipital; _sq_, squamosal; _ty_, tympanic. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_). The skull of the Anteater[106] is very long and low; the fore-part is tubular, and there appear to be no traces of teeth. The premaxilla is very small; the zygomatic arch is imperfect, and does not reach the squamosal behind. A curious feature of this genus, which it shares with some Dolphins and other Whales, is that the pterygoid bones develop palatine plates which meet each other in the middle line, and thus shift the opening of the {168} posterior nares backwards. This is also, of course, a character of various lower vertebrates. Another Whale-like character in the skull is the weak character of the mandible, which does not give off a marked coronoid process. But then in neither group is there much mastication. The tympanic, periotic and squamosal are ankylosed together. A peculiarity of the cervical vertebrae is that (as in the Camels) the vertebrarterial canal of several of the vertebrae perforates the pedicle obliquely. There are fifteen or sixteen dorsal and three or two lumbar vertebrae. The additional zygapophyses upon the former have been already referred to. The mode of articulation of the ribs is highly singular. [Illustration] FIG. 93.--Skull of Anteater (_Myrmecophaga_). Ventral view. Letters as in Fig. 92. In addition, _b.oc_, basioccipital; _glen_, glenoid surface for mandible; _pter_, pterygoid. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) [Illustration] FIG. 94.--Side view of three mesosternal segments of a young Anteater (_Tamandua_), showing the mode of articulation of the sternal rib (_sr_). _mst_, The upper or inner surface of the mesosternal segment; _sy_, the synovial articulation between the segments. (From Flower's _Osteology_, after Parker.) Each segment of the sternum (of which there are eight) is separated from the next by a synovial membrane: and it has on either side two facets for articulation with the ribs. The way in {169} which these latter bones are connected with the sternum is curiously like their mode of connexion with the spinal column at their other end. With this may be possibly compared the double articulation of the single rib (which articulates with the sternum) in the Rorquals. In _Cycloturus_ this mode of articulation does not occur. The manus of _Myrmecophaga_ is five-fingered. Of these the third digit (as in Perissodactyles) is the most prominent; it is at least double the width of the second or third finger; the pollex is very slender. In the little _Cycloturus_ this is carried to a greater extent: the third digit is relatively enormous; the first and the fourth have become quite rudimentary; while the fifth is only just recognisable as a minute ossification. [Illustration] FIG. 95.--A, Manus of Great Anteater (_Myrmecophaga jubata_). × 1/3. B, Manus of Little Anteater (_Cycloturus didactylus_). × 2. _c_, Cuneiform; _l_, lunar; _m_, magnum; _p_, pisiform; _s_, scaphoid; _td_, trapezoid; _tm_, trapezium; _u_, unciform; _I-V_, digits. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The chevron-bones in the tail surround a well-developed rete mirabile, a rete being found in precisely the same position in the Eastern _Manis_. _Tamandua_ has also retia, which are also found in the Spider-monkeys. _Cycloturus_ is by far the smallest of the Anteaters. It has {170} only two toes on the fore-feet. It is to be distinguished, anatomically, from its larger relatives by the complete clavicle, and by the fact that the pterygoids do not meet in the middle line of the skull. The ribs, too, are unusually wide, as in the Whale _Neobalaena_, and form a bony encasement for the body. It has two small caeca. Of fossil Anteaters but little is known. The most interesting form is _Scotaeops_, interesting because it has two small back teeth, which are totally lost in its living allies. The huge Patagonian extinct bird _Phororhacos_, first known by a lower jaw, was at one time regarded as a member of this group on account of the form and edentulous character of the jaw. [Illustration] FIG. 96.--Unau, or Two-toed Sloth. _Choloepus didactylus._ × 1/5. (After Vogt and Specht.) {171} [Illustration] FIG. 97.--Skull of Three-toed Sloth. _Bradypus tridactylus._ Lateral view. _fr_, Frontal; _ju_, jugal; _lcr_, lachrymal; _max_, maxilla; _nas_, nasal; _par_, parietal; _s.oc_, supra-occipital; _ty_, tympanic. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) FAM. 2. BRADYPODIDAE.--The Sloths, genera _Bradypus_ and _Choloepus_, come, as already stated, very near to the Anteaters, in spite of their striking difference in appearance. The Sloths are purely arboreal creatures, with strong recurved claws, which serve as hooks to keep them suspended from the lower side of a branch. The three-toed sloth, _Bradypus_ (or "Ai"), has the exceptional number of nine cervical vertebrae; the two-toed sloth, _Choloepus hoffmanni_ (or "Unau"), has the equally exceptional number of six. The hair is long and shaggy, and gets an adventitious green colour from the presence of minute algae.[107] This gives to the animal the appearance of a lichen-covered bough, a resemblance which is increased in one species by an oval mark upon the back, which suggests forcibly a broken end of such a branch. The likeness of a Sloth to its surroundings is pointed out by Dr. Siemann,[108] who observed that a species occurring in Nicaragua "has almost exactly the same greyish-green colour as _Tillandsia usneoides_, the so-called 'Vegetable Horsehair' common in the district.... If it could be shown that it frequented trees covered with that plant ... there would be a curious case of mimicry between the sloth's hair and the _Tillandsia_, and a good reason why so few of these Sloths are seen." The stomach in the Sloths is complicated in structure, with several chambers; one of these gives off a long crescent-shaped caecum. The skull of the Sloths agrees in a number of particulars with that of the Anteaters. {172} [Illustration] FIG. 98.--Skeleton of Three-toed Sloth. _Bradypus tridactylus._ (After de Blainville.) The zygoma is incomplete, though the part connected with the frontal has a strong downward process like that found in _Diprotodon_ and some other mammals. There is, moreover, a process from the squamosal, though it does not reach the anterior part and thus {173} complete the arcade. The premaxillaries are very small, and are usually lost in dried skulls. Coupled with these points of likeness are some differences. The lower jaw, for instance, has a well-marked coronoid process. The pterygoids do not meet in the middle line. The teeth are five or four in each half of each jaw. There is no trace of a second set. A peculiarity of the Sloths is the enormous number of dorsal vertebrae. There are twenty-three of these in _Choloepus hoffmanni_, but only fifteen to seventeen in the Three-toed Sloth, _Bradypus_. As in other American Edentates, the acromion joins the coracoid. This connexion occurs in both the Two-toed and the Three-toed species. The limbs of these creatures are very long, a concomitant of an arboreal life. The femur has no third trochanter. The genus _Bradypus_, which by reason of the fact that it has not lost the third toe on the manus seems to be more primitive than _Choloepus_, shows another structural feature which does not bear out this conclusion. The trapezoid and the os magnum of the carpus are united, while in _Choloepus_ they are perfectly distinct bones. The intestine has no caecum. There are several species of Sloths. Eminently perfect though the organisation of the Sloth in relation to its particular surroundings appears to us, Buffon selected the animal as the very type of imperfection in nature. "One more defect," he wrote, "they could not have existed." FAM. 3. DASYPODIDAE.--The family Dasypodidae or Armadillos contains a considerable number of genera. _Tatusia_, _Tolypeutes_, _Dasypus_, _Xenurus_, _Priodon_,[109] and _Chlamydophorus_. They have all a more or less rigid covering of bony plates imbedded in the skin, which are not in the least comparable with the scales of the Manis. Save the Whales, in one or two genera of which traces of a dermal armature exist, the Armadillos are unique among existing mammals in this particular. The term "Edentate" is especially inapplicable to the Armadillos; the genus _Priodon_ may have more than forty teeth in each jaw; a total of ninety was found in one specimen examined by Professor Kükenthal. In the tendency of the teeth to multiply, we have another example of a state of affairs which characterises so many Whales. Generally, however, seven to nine is the number of teeth in each {174} half jaw, of which one is often implanted in the premaxilla. The Armadillos show their alliance with the other American Edentates in the points enumerated above. Their teeth specially ally them to the Sloths, while the salivary and digestive organs generally are on the Anteater plan, but present a less extreme development. There are, however, caeca, paired as in birds, in the genera _Dasypus_ and _Chlamydophorus_. The others have none. But there is a dilatation at the commencement of the large intestine, which is not very different from the slightly-developed caeca of _Dasypus_. There are certain peculiarities in the skeleton, which distinguish this family. [Illustration] FIG. 99.--Skull of Armadillo. _Dasypus sexcinctus._ × 2/3. _ex.oc_, Exoccipital; _fr_, frontal; _max_, maxilla; _nas_, nasal; _par_, parietal; _peri_, periotic; _p.max_, premaxilla; _s.oc_, supraoccipital; _sq_, squamosal; _ty_, tympanic. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) {175} [Illustration] [Illustration] FIG. 100.--Bones of the right manus of the Hairy Armadillo. _Dasypus villosus._ × 2/3. _c_, Cuneiform; _l_, lunar; _m_, magnum; _p_, pisiform; _R_, radius; _s_, scaphoid; _td_, trapezoid; _tm_, trapezium; _u_, unciform; _U_, ulna; _I-V_, digits. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) FIG. 101.--Bones of the manus of the Great Armadillo. _Priodon giganteus._ × 1/3. _a_, An accessory carpal ossicle in front of the pisiform, which is not seen in the figure. Other letters as in Fig. 100. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The skull in the Armadillos presents a number of likenesses to the other American Edentates.[110] The premaxillaries are small, but are larger in _Dasypus_ than in _Tatusia_. On the other hand the lachrymals are larger in the latter. The zygomatic arch is complete, but there is no downward process as in the Sloths. In _Tatusia_ (but not in _Dasypus_) the "short thick pterygoids add somewhat to the hard palate." This is clearly a beginning or a remnant of the quite crocodilian character of the palate of _Myrmecophaga_. In the cervical vertebrae we see the Whale-like character of fusion between individual vertebrae; and also, as in the Whales, the degree to which this fusion is carried out varies; two to four may be thus united. The additional articular facets upon the dorsal vertebrae have been already commented upon as a point of important likeness to other American Edentates. The dorsal vertebrae are commonly eleven in number, the lumbar being three. But in _Priodon_ the numbers are twelve and two respectively. There are traces to be observed of the double-headed attachment of the ribs to the sternum. The shoulder girdle of the Armadillos is somewhat diverse in form in different genera; the acromion is always large, and is remarkable in _Priodon_ for the fact that the humerus also articulates with it, its extremity being recurved, and forming a socket for this purpose. As in some other Edentates there is a second spine on the scapula behind the first. The clavicle is strong. There is some variation in the form of the manus. It is five-fingered in _Dasypus_; in _Tolypeutes_ the first digit has vanished; on the other hand, in _Priodon_, the fifth has become rudimentary {176} and the third enormously enlarged. This latter fact recalls the arrangement characteristic of _Myrmecophaga_. The pelvis is greatly attached by the ischium to the vertebral column. The femur has a third trochanter. The various forms of Armadillos are largely distinguished by the number of movable thin bands of scutes lying between the large anterior and posterior shields. Thus we have _Dasypus sexcinctus_, _Tolypeutes tricinctus_, etc. [Illustration] FIG. 102.--Pelvis and sacrum of Armadillo. _Dasypus sexcinctus._ _ac_, Acetabulum; _il_, ilium; _isch_, ischium; _obt.for_, obturator-foramen; _pect.tub_, pectineal tubercle; _pub_, pubis. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) The little Pichi-chago (or, more correctly, Pichy-ciego), _Chlamydophorus_, which only grows to about 5 inches in length, has no movable bands at all. It is covered with a uniform series of plates, which, moreover, are not discontinuous at the neck. It differs, too, from the prevailing Armadillo-type by the absence of conspicuous external ears. In the anterior part of the body the armature consists of little more than the horny plates, which in other Armadillos overlie the bony dermal plates. In the hinder region the bony plates are strong. In this animal, therefore, we have the dermal armature reduced to a minimum; but it must be noticed that, like the extinct Glyptodons, the armature is continuous and nowhere ringed. The genus _Tolypeutes_, of which the best-known species is _T. tricinctus_, the Apar (there are two other species in the genus), can roll itself up into a ball like the Pill-Millipede (_Glomeris_), and, protected by its armour, roll away from its enemies like the Arthropod under similar circumstances. This mode of protection, be it observed, is also adopted by the Pangolin and by the {177} Hedgehog. The genus has only three movable bands. The tail is short, and is covered with large tubercles. This genus is very markedly digitigrade when running. [Illustration] FIG. 103.--Three-banded Armadillo or Apar. _Tolypeutes tricinctus._ × ¼. [Illustration] FIG. 104.--Peludo Armadillo. _Dasypus sexcinctus._ × ¼. (After Vogt and Specht.) The Peludo, _Dasypus sexcinctus_, is, like other Armadillos, an omnivorous creature, and appears to be particularly fond of carrion. It will burrow up to a decaying carcase like the ground-beetles. {178} Mr. W. H. Hudson has described the way in which this Armadillo will kill a snake by holding it down and literally sawing the reptile in half by help of the sharp and serrated edges of the carapace. _Dasypus_ has a very short tail, which is shielded by distinct rings near the base. _Tatusia novemcincta_ is a species with nine movable bands. The genus has four teats; the ears are near together. There are no caeca and no azygos lobe to the lung. A species apparently belonging to this genus, but described under the generic names of _Cryptophractus_ and _Praopus_, is remarkable for the thick covering of hair, not entirely wanting but usually thin in other Armadillos. In this particular species the coat of hair is so thick as to conceal the underlying plates of the carapace. The individual hairs are stiff, and one inch and a half in length.[111] The genus _Xenurus_ contains several species, the best known of which is inaptly named _X. unicinctus_. As a matter of fact the characteristic feature of the genus is the existence of twelve or thirteen movable plates between the two ends of the body. _X. unicinctus_ has twelve dorsal and three lumbar vertebrae. This Armadillo, known by the vernacular name of the Cabassou, has one of the most modified hands that are found in the family. The first two digits are slender and elongated; but are quite normal in the number of their phalanges. In the remaining three digits the metacarpal is short and broad, while the proximal phalanx is either suppressed altogether or fused with the metacarpal, the middle phalanx is present but short, while the third phalanx is very large indeed. As in _Dasypus_, but not as in _Tatusia_, which is in so many other respects divergent from these genera, the lungs have an azygos lobe. As a small point of difference, tending to show an alliance between the genera _Xenurus_ and _Dasypus_ and their difference from _Tatusia_, is the deeply-imbedded gall-bladder; this sac is not nearly so deeply plunged into the hepatic tissue in _Tatusia_. _Xenurus_ has no caecal dilatations. The brain "is intermediate in its form and surface markings between _Dasypus_ and _Tolypeutes_." The small intestine is nearly eighteen times the length of the large. But these intestinal measurements are not of much avail in this group as marks of affinity, since in three species of _Dasypus_ Garrod gives the following widely-divergent lengths:--_D. villosus_, 11.5 feet and 1.25; _D. minutus_ {179} 5.1, with a large intestine of no less than 7 feet; _D. vellerosus_ 4.3 and .66. _Priodon_ is the giant of its race. This Armadillo may reach a length of 3 feet to the base of the tail. The tail is some 20 inches long. The large number of teeth has been already noticed. There are twelve or thirteen bands. Other points in the structure of this genus have already been mentioned, and need not be recapitulated. This Armadillo feeds upon termites and carrion. _Scleropleura_ is unfortunately but imperfectly known. The single species, named by Milne-Edwards[112] _S. bruneti_, is apparently a very rare inhabitant of Brazil. It is known by a single skin, which was tanned by the hunter who obtained it. Thus the hair, if any, has dropped out. The plates in the skin are deficient along the back and even upon the top of the head, and are barely represented upon the tail posteriorly. The ears are small and distant from each other. The tail is longish, about one-third of the length of the body. The total length of the creature including the tail is rather more than a foot and a half. The hunter who obtained it regarded it as a hybrid between an Armadillo and an Anteater. EXTINCT XENARTHRA.--There are a good many extinct forms of Armadillo, apart of course from the Glyptodons. _Peltephilus_ is referred to later (p. 186). _Dasypus_ was represented by a large form, 6 feet long, with a skull of one foot in length. The genus _Eutatus_ was also large. The carapace was formed of thirty-three distinct bands, of which the last twelve are soldered together, but not fused into a shield as in _Dasypus_, etc. An extinct group of American Edentates, termed the GRAVIGRADA,[113] are somewhat intermediate between the Sloths and the Anteaters. A number of the genera are well known from complete skeletons. One of the typical forms of this group is _Mylodon_, which, together with its immediate allies, is often placed in a separate family, MYLODONTIDAE. _Mylodon_ itself was a large creature, as big as a Rhinoceros. It was covered externally by armour in the skin, which did not form a massive armature as in the Glyptodonts, but was in the {180} form of scattered plates, small and not fused together. The general aspect of the skull is decidedly Sloth-like. As in that animal, the malar bone is bifid posteriorly, and between the bifurcation is embraced the process of the squamosal. This latter is thus more developed than in the Sloth, but there is no actual union between it and the malar. The premaxilla is small. The lower jaw has both coronoid and ascending processes, and is massive. There are five teeth on each side above, and four on each side below, as in the Sloths. There are the normal seven cervical vertebrae and sixteen dorsals. The limbs are not long and slender,but short and strong, the animal having been terrestrial. The fore-feet were five-toed, of which the three inner toes had claws. The hind-feet were only four-toed, and the two inner only were clawed. [Illustration] FIG. 105.--_Mylodon robustus._ (Restoration, after Owen.) _Scelidotherium_ is a genus which is a trifle smaller than the last. It has only four properly-developed toes in the fore-foot, the thumb being rudimentary; of these, the first two bear claws. The hind-feet are also four-toed. Like _Mylodon_, _Scelidotherium_ is a Pleistocene genus. _Glossotherium_ has a skull very much like the last two genera; but it is remarkable for the fact that the nostrils instead of being unprotected with bone anteriorly are there closed by a plate of bone formed by the well-developed premaxillae, the nostrils appearing at the sides, and giving the skull a curious likeness to that of a Chelonian. From a series of recent and most important observations it appears to be clear that this genus has survived into quite modern times.[114] {181} The well-known naturalist of La Plata, Señor Moreno, engaged in studies connected with the political boundary line between Chili and the Argentine, had occasion to visit Consuelo Cove on Last Hope Inlet in Patagonia. Hanging from a tree he noticed a piece of dried skin, which at once struck him as looking more like the remains of a Mylodon than of any living animal. The inhabitants regarded this piece of skin as a great curiosity, but were of opinion that it was the hide of a cow encrusted with pebbles! This fragment from a bygone age was originally described by Professor Ameghino, who had apparently seen some of the bonelets imbedded in it, as _Neomylodon listai_, "a living representative of the ancient Gravigrade Edentates of Argentina." That this piece of skin is of quite recent date seems to be proved by a number of considerations. In the first place it is covered by long hair of a light yellowish-brown colour; it does not seem likely that hair would preserve its character for geological epochs. The nearest corresponding case is that of the remains of Moas in New Zealand, whose feathers, dried skin, and tendons are known. Now the Moa was unquestionably contemporaneous with man, as abundant surviving legends prove, and indeed it cannot have been long extinct. Still, hair is a resisting structure, and in a dry cave, with no possibility of irruptions of floods, might retain its characters for long periods. The evidence, however, of more recent date is stronger than this. The skin shows patches of reddish colour, suggestive of course of blood-stains. A small piece of the outside of the skin at the cut edge, which presented the appearance of freshly or comparatively freshly dried fluid, was submitted to a chemical examination and shown to be serum! Dr. Lönnberg examined chemically a bit of the skin itself and found in it, after boiling, glue, "which proves that the collagen and gelatinous substances are perfectly preserved." After this it seems impossible to suppose that the skin can be of any very great age; for bacteria would have finished their work upon the serum and gelatine long ago. Combined with the fresh appearance of the skin is the very fresh appearance of the skull. In fact it is impossible to believe that the animal was not alive quite a few years since, relatively speaking. It is admitted that this animal was contemporaneous with man. There are actually legends of a creature which may have been this _Glossotherium_. "Ancient chroniclers inform us that the indigenous inhabitants recorded the existence of a {182} strange, huge, ugly monster, which had its abode in the Cordillera to the south of latitude 37. The Tehuelches and the Gennakens have mentioned similar animals to me, of whose existence their ancestors had transmitted the remembrance; and in the neighbourhood of Rio Negro, the aged Cacique Sinchel, in 1875, pointed out to me a cave, the supposed lair of one of these monsters, called 'Ellengassen'; but I must add that none of the many Indians with whom I have conversed in Patagonia have ever referred to the actual existence of animals to which we can attribute the skin in question." A rude painting in a cavern, in red ochre, seems to Dr. Moreno (whose words we have just quoted) to be somewhat suggestive of a _Glyptodon_. There are some reasons for believing that this quadruped was kept by man as a domestic creature. In the cave are two walls of rough pieces of stone which seem to have dropped down owing to the wearing away of the roof; they also seem to have been loosely piled together to form two walls, within which enclosure an imperfect skull of the animal was found. This skull shows clearly that the so-called "_Neomylodon_" must be referred to _Glossotherium_ or _Grypotherium_, as it is sometimes termed. This skull is perforated on the roof in such a way as could only have been effected (in the opinion of experts) by a weapon in the hand of a man. A hole in the skin has been even compared to a bullet-wound. But this it is perhaps unnecessary to discuss. The skin of _Glossotherium_ is, like that of other extinct "Ground-sloths" (_e.g. Mylodon_), filled with small and irregular ossicles. But in _Mylodon_, the sculptured appearance of the dermal ossicles appears to indicate that they reached the surface of the body and were covered by epidermis alone, which is not the case with the animal now under consideration. The microscopic characters of the ossicles, too, show differences in the two. _Glossotherium_ being "precisely intermediate between _Mylodon_ and the existing Armadillo (_Dasypus_)." Now _Glossotherium_ and _Mylodon_ are regarded as forms which lie between the existing Anteaters and the Sloths of the same part of the world. We have already pointed out the facts of structure which lead to this conclusion. It might therefore be reasonably surmised that the hair of _Glossotherium_ would be also intermediate, or at least like that of one of the two genera _Myrmecophaga_ and _Bradypus_. But microscopical investigation has {183} negatived this supposition. It has shown that the Armadillos are in this matter the nearest relatives of _Glossotherium_. This result is important as tending further to confirm the close interrelationship of all the American Edentates as contrasted with the Old-World forms--a matter which has already been emphasised. It is suggested, however, that the absence of under fur, which is so well developed in the Sloth, and the difference shown in transverse sections from the hair of _Myrmecophaga_, may be explained by difference in habitat. _Glossotherium_ lived under conditions similar to those under which the Armadillos live to-day. Thus the outer covering of the body became alike in the two cases, the same needs supervening in both genera. _Lestodon_ is another allied genus, which seems to possess canines. At any rate, in front of the four molars, and separated from them by a diastema, is a smallish, somewhat canine-like tooth, in both jaws. _Megalonyx_ and its allies are sometimes placed in a distinct family, MEGALONYCHIDAE. _Megalonyx_ itself had a skull very like that of _Bradypus_, being shorter and not so elongated as in the Mylodontidae. There is a strong tusk anteriorly, which is separated by a considerable space from the three molars lying behind it. Both pairs of limbs seem to have possessed five toes. This is a North American genus. It differs from the bulk of the American Edentates in having a complete jugal arch. _Megatherium_ is the type of yet a third family, MEGATHERIIDAE, of the Gravigrade Edentates. This creature is familiar from the many restorations which have been built up, and from its huge bulk, little short of that of an elephant. The skull, which is small for the size of the creature, has a complete jugal arch, from the middle of which depends a downward process as in other allied forms. The teeth grow to an extraordinary depth, and there are five of them in the upper and four in the lower jaw--on each side of course. The fore-limbs of the _Megatherium_ are very much more slender than the enormously bulky hind-limbs, upon which and the equally massive tail the animal seems to have supported itself while tearing down branches of trees, upon whose leaves it fed. In the scapula the acromion joins the coracoid as in _Bradypus_; the clavicle is large. The fore-limb is four-toed, and the hind-limb three-toed. The latter has but one clawed digit (the third, _i.e._ the inner). {184} On the manus, the three inner digits have powerful claws. This animal, too, was Pleistocene in time. The Megatheriidae had, however, small as well as gigantic forms. The genus _Zamicrus_ had a skull no bigger than that of a Sloth, while _Nothrotherium_ was also a comparatively small creature; the teeth of the latter genus are reduced to 4/3. The extinct group of the GLYPTODONTIDAE comprises large creatures with a dense covering of bony scutes which are arranged in a tesselated fashion, and thus form an immobile armature of immense strength. In correspondence with this massive carapace the dorsal vertebrae have fused together, and the lumbar vertebrae form a series ankylosed to each other and to the following sacrals. These creatures are all South American. [Illustration] FIG. 106.--_Glyptodon clavipes._ × 1/12. (After Owen.) _Glyptodon_, the genus which gives its name to the family, is known from numerous remains in South America, and also from so far north as Texas and Mexico. It grew to be as long as 16 or 17 feet. In the skull there is an exceedingly long downward process of the zygomatic arch, as in Sloths, the arch itself being complete. The process extends so far down as to reach a point about on a level with the middle of the lower jaw. The nasals are short or rudimentary. As in _Myrmecophaga_, the pterygoids enter into the formation of the bony palate. The lower jaw has a spout-shaped extremity, and, behind, it rises into an enormous vertical branch as high as the front part of the jaw is long. There are eight teeth in each half of each jaw. As in {185} some Armadillos, the cervical vertebrae are at least partly fused. The atlas is free, but the rest, or at any rate five of them, are united. The last cervical is sometimes fused with the succeeding dorsals; the latter are twelve in number, and are fused together so far as concerns their centra and neural processes. The succeeding region of the vertebral column includes seven to nine lumbars, which are fused with the eight sacrals; in this region the neural processes are high, and there is thus produced a strong and lofty ridge along the back, which forms a powerful support for the carapace. The fore-limbs are shorter than the hind-limbs, which latter are attached to an unusually massive pelvis. The claws of the limbs are blunt and almost hoof-like. The heavy carapace consists of sculptured, five or six-sided plates, which have no particular arrangement in the middle, but towards the margins show indications of an arrangement in transverse rows. The moderately long tail is also encircled by bony skin-plates which are thorny above, or at least provided each with a blunt upstanding process. It appears that outside this bony system of scutes were horny epidermic scales, corresponding exactly with the tesserae which they cover. There are apparently a good many species of _Glyptodon_. In the allied genus _Panochthus_ the tail is rather longer, and the bony rings which surround it, instead of being all movable as in _Glyptodon_, are at first so, but later, _i.e._ towards the end of the tail, become welded into a single and massive piece. Both feet are here four-toed, while in _Glyptodon_ the hind-feet are five-toed and the fore-feet four-toed. _Daedicurus_ shows a further specialisation, in that the feet have three and four digits respectively. The orbit too shows a specialisation in being separated from the temporal fossa. The descending process of the zygomatic arch is not so extraordinarily exaggerated as it is in _Glyptodon_. It has the same terminal tube of osseous scutes upon the tail. This creature seems to have reached a length of about twelve feet. _Propalaeohoplophorus_ is, unlike the great Armadillos that we have hitherto dealt with, a small animal, not exceeding 2 feet or so in length of carapace. A small alveolus on each side of the premaxillae seems to suggest the former presence of an incisor tooth; and it seems that the animal possesses both true molars and premolars; for the first four of the eight teeth are much {186} simpler in structure than those which follow. The dorsal vertebrae again are not fused together; the hind-limbs are five-toed. All the plates of the carapace are arranged in definite transverse rows; it has been observed, too, that some of the anterior scutes overlap like those of the Armadillos, to which this animal possesses further likenesses in the exclusion of the maxillae from the border of the nostril (a Glyptodont character), and the comparative feebleness of the scutes. A primitive genus also appears to be _Peltephilus_, which is perhaps rather an Armadillo than a _Glyptodon_. However, it comes somewhat between the two, like _Propalaeohoplophorus_, with which it may therefore be treated. A most singular feature of this genus has been mentioned on p. 27 in connexion with the skull in the Mammalia generally. That is the fact that a portion of the squamosal surrounding the articular facet for the lower jaw is separated by a suture from the rest of that bone, and is therefore obviously suggestive of the quadrate in the lower Vertebrates. As in certain Armadillos and Glyptodons, etc., the pterygoids appear in this genus to have taken a share in the formation of the hard palate. The plates of the carapace were movable, as is shown by the fact that they sometimes slightly overlap. In view of the possible origin of the Edentates from lowly-organised Mammalia, it is noteworthy that the humerus has been especially compared to that of the Monotreme. _Peltephilus_ differs from other Armadillos in having teeth in the front of the jaws. The total number of teeth is twenty-eight, _i.e._ seven in each half of each jaw. SUB-ORDER 2. NOMARTHRA. As already explained, the Old-World Edentates differ from the New-World forms in having normal dorsal vertebrae, that is to say, without additional zygapophyses. That negative feature, however, though combined with the positive fact that both the Old-World forms feed upon ants, is hardly sufficient to outweigh the many structural differences which distinguish the Orycteropodidae from the Manidae; which will be placed therefore in different groups. To that containing the Aard Vark, the name TUBULIDENTATA may be applied. {187} This group contains but one family, the ORYCTEROPODIDAE, of which there is but a single genus. The Aard Vark (earth-pig), genus _Orycteropus_, is characterised by its heavy build, the body being covered by rather coarse and not very abundant hair; the snout is long and pig-like, with round nostrils at its end; the ears are long, erect, and pointed; the tail is very thick at first, so that it has been aptly described as "a tapering of the body to a point." The fore-limbs are four-toed, the hind five-toed. [Illustration] FIG. 107.--Aard Vark, or Cape Anteater. _Orycteropus capensis._ × 1/16. In the skull there is a complete though slender zygoma; the premaxillaries, though small, are not so rudimentary as in the American Edentates. The annular tympanic is not ankylosed to the surrounding bones, a character found in other low mammals. Contrary to what is found in _Manis_, _Orycteropus_ has a huge lachrymal. There are thirteen dorsal and seven lumbar vertebrae. The clavicle is well developed. _Orycteropus_ is peculiar among Edentates in that the ischia do not unite with the vertebral column. The femur has a third trochanter. As mentioned on p. 162, the Aard Vark is diphyodont like normal mammals. The permanent teeth consist of five molars and premolars on each side of each jaw; the first two of these are premolars, and are simpler in their form than the succeeding two teeth, which are partly divided by a median furrow into two halves. These teeth are also peculiar in that they consist entirely of vaso-dentine. They have been compared in minute structure to those of the Ray _Myliobates_. According to Mr. Oldfield {188} Thomas[115] there are seven milk teeth on each side of the upper jaw (limited to the maxillae, and thus not incisors). An eighth tooth was discovered on one side of one of the specimens examined by Thomas. In the lower jaw there are only four milk teeth on each side. It is interesting to note that the histological structure of these milk teeth agrees with that of the permanent teeth. There are two species of this genus found in Africa: the southern, _O. capensis_, is more hairy than the northern, _O. aethiopicus_. _O. gaudryi_ is a Pliocene species from the Island of Samos and from Persia, described by Dr. Forsyth Major and Dr. Andrews.[116] It closely resembles the existing _O. aethiopicus_. [Illustration] FIG. 108.--Section of lower jaw with the teeth of _Orycteropus_. × 2. (After Owen.) Of the Scaly Anteaters, Group SQUAMATA or MANIDAE, there is really but one genus, though _Phatagin_, _Pholidotus_, _Smutsia_, and _Pangolin_ have been used to distinguish various forms. The genus _Manis_ is African and Oriental in range. Dr. Jentink, who has lately revised the species, allows seven.[117] The external form of these animals is fairly well known, the remarkable scales distinguishing the Pangolins from other animals. Between the scales lie hairs, which seem to be absent in the adults of the African species, though present in the young, thus affording a convenient method of distinguishing the Ethiopian from the Oriental forms. The scales have been compared to agglutinated hairs. That they are not "merely mimetic of the Lizards' scales" is held by Weber,[118] who compares them directly with those {189} structures, as he does the scales of other mammals, such as those upon the tail of _Anomalurus_, etc. This, however, is not a universal opinion. It is true that these scales occur chiefly in the lower forms of mammals such as those under consideration, Marsupials, Rodents, and Insectivores; but the fact that the hairs are developed before the scales shows, or seems to show, that the former are the older structures, and to lead to the inference that the scales of mammals are new structures. The scattered hairs of the Pangolin have no sebaceous glands excepting on the snout. This, again, looks as if they were degenerate structures, and emphasises the non-archaic character of the scales. These animals have no trace of teeth except possibly some slight epithelial thickenings which have been interpreted as a last remnant; the tongue is suited for the capture of ants, and is therefore much like that of the not nearly-related American Anteaters. The stomach is of simple form; it is characterised by a large gland, which suggests that of the Koala (see p. 144); the intestine has no caecum. Retia mirabilia occur on the limb arteries. The placenta is non-deciduate and diffuse; it is specially compared by Weber with that of the Horse. Considering the many adaptive resemblances between this genus and the American Anteaters, especially in the mouth cavity, it is remarkable that in _Manis_ the pterygoids are not joined as they are in _Myrmecophaga_. In spite of statements to the contrary, it appears that there is sometimes a distinct lachrymal. A remarkable feature in the skeleton of _Manis_ is the singular sternum. The xiphoid cartilage is extraordinarily elongated into thin strips, which reach the pelvis and return. This state of affairs is to be found in the African species only. This structure is not comparable, as it has been said to be, with abdominal ribs such as those of the reptile _Hatteria_. These animals are mainly anteaters. The Japanese have a curious legend as to the method adopted for the capture of ants, which is related by Dr. Jentink in his monograph of the genus. The Manis "erects his scales and feigns to be dead; the ants creep between the erected scales, after which the anteater again closes its scales and enters the water; he now again erects the scales, the ants are set floating, and are then swallowed by the anteaters"! The same story is related by Mr. Stanley Flower on the authority of the Malays. Though it seems clear that the likenesses which _Manis_ shows {190} to the Anteaters of the New World are chiefly adaptive and have nothing to do with real affinity, being merely an expression of a similar mode of life, it is curious to note that here and there we do find certain resemblances which do not seem to be susceptible of the latter explanation. The jugal bone, absent in _Manis_, is small in _Myrmecophaga_; the clavicle is absent and again small or rudimentary in the Anteaters; it is large in other Edentates. The third trochanter is absent, as in _Myrmecophaga_ (and the Sloths). There are many scales on the body; in _Myrmecophaga_ there are traces of these structures on the tail, as also in _Tamandua_. In the features mentioned, the Myrmecophagidae differ from either or from both of the two other American families (_i.e._ Dasypodidae, Bradypodidae) and agree with _Manis_. The facts are not a little remarkable. [Illustration] FIG. 109.--Manis. _Manis gigantea._ × 1/12. ORDER III. GANODONTA.[119] Allied to the Edentata, and apparently representing the ancestral forms from which they, at any rate the Xenarthra were derived, is the order of the Ganodonta. Of this order a number of genera are now known, which can be ranged in a series which more and more approaches the Edentata as we pass from the older to the newer forms. This interesting and transitional series will be made manifest by a description of the characters of the various genera taken in their proper {191} chronological order. The following genera are included by Wortman in his family STYLINODONTIDAE. The earliest type of the Ganodonta is the genus _Hemiganus_, with but one species, _H. otariidens_. This animal lived during the deposition of the lowest Eocene strata, the Puerco beds of North America. It was about as big as a fair-sized Dog, and had powerful jaws. There were at least two pairs of incisors in the upper jaw, together with powerful canines and the full premolar and molar formula. In the lower jaw the canines were also strong, but the incisors are not certainly known to be more than two pairs. The enamel upon the posterior surface of the canine is thin, and in the case of the incisors the enamel seems to be limited to the anterior face. The lower molars are quadritubercular. It is believed from the presence of a suture on the upper surface of the premaxillary that the snout of the creature was tubular. The cervical vertebrae, only known by their centra, are like those of the Armadillos (and for the matter of that of the Whales) in the great transverse as opposed to the antero-posterior diameter. The feet are especially compared with those of the Ground Sloths. The single ungual phalanx is marked by a large subungual process, which is pierced by a considerable foramen. The tibia again is to be compared with that of the Armadillos. In the Upper Puerco (Torrejon) beds the remains of _Psittacotherium_ are found. This genus, when first discovered, was referred to the Tillodontia by some and to the Ungulates, the latter being a refuge for indeterminate Eocene mammals, just as the "Multituberculata" is for similarly-placed Secondary mammals. It is now known to be clearly a member of the order Ganodonta. Wortman thinks that there is but one species, _P. multifragum_. It seems to have had a general aspect much like that of _Hemiganus_--that is judging from the skull--and was not very greatly different in size. The facial portion of the skull is short, and the zygoma is deep. The infra-orbital canal is double, a feature which crops up in the Sloth, and has been mentioned in the later form of Ground Sloth, _Megalonyx_ (but it must be remembered that the same characteristic is not unknown in Rodents). The dentition is reduced as compared with that of _Hemiganus_, that is to say, as far as concerns the molars and the incisors. There is but a single pair of incisors in each jaw; the canines are strong; the premolar and molar series seem to have been complete in the lower jaw, {192} but reduced by one premolar at least in the upper jaw. It is very important to notice that the incisors have enamel only on their anterior faces, and that the same is the case with the canines, the slender layer present behind the tooth in _Hemiganus_ having vanished in this later form. The tooth pattern of the molars is like that of _Hemiganus_. The fore-limb is decidedly Edentate-like; but it is the foot which presents the strongest likenesses to that order. "If an anatomist," remarks Dr. Wortman, "had no other part of the skeleton than that of the foot to guide his judgment, and he should fail to detect a most striking similarity between it and that of the Edentata, especially the Ground Sloths, he would not only lay himself open to the criticism of being lacking in the ordinary powers of observation and comparison, but would be suspected of placing the matter upon a basis other than that established by such a method." It is not certain how many toes upon the fore-limbs were possessed by _Psittacotherium_, but the close resemblance to _Mylodon_ is indeed striking, the third digit being in both forms the most pronounced. Some vertebrae of this Ganodont have been discovered which do not show the complex articular arrangements of later American Edentates. The sacrum, on the other hand, is very like that of the Sloth, and there is a foreshadowing of the attachment of the ilia to the sacrum by co-ossification which is met with in later Edentates. A still later type is the genus _Calamodon_, which has been shown to occur in Europe as well as in America. _C. simplex_ was a larger beast than either of the genera that have already been treated of, thus affording another example of the increase in size of later as compared with earlier members of the same group, so pronounced among the Ungulata. The lower jaw has the same massive structure that characterises that bone in _Hemiganus_ and _Psittacotherium_. There is but one incisor, but the premolar and molar series are complete. The canine is Rodent-like in appearance, being imbedded throughout the greater part of the lower jaw; it evidently grew from a persistent pulp. It is enamelled upon the anterior face only. The premolar and molar teeth are in this genus commencing to lose their enamel, which is distributed in the form of vertical bands, leaving interspaces which are not covered by enamel. These teeth, moreover, are decidedly hypselodont, more decidedly so than in _Psittacotherium_; they are, when unworn, quadricuspidate, with accessory cusps; when more worn, the teeth {193} are double-ridged, and that transversely to the long axis of the jaw; finally, the much-worn teeth have flattish crowns more or less surrounded by a ring of enamel. A still later form, coming from the Lower and Middle Eocene strata, is the genus _Stylinodon_. _S. cylindrifer_, which is the more archaic of the two described species, is only known from a single molar, fragments of a canine, and "some inconsiderable pieces of the skull." The molar is interesting on account of the fact that the enamel is still further reduced; it is represented only by narrow vertical strips, which are much narrower than those of older forms of Ganodonts. It is also hypselodont, and has a persistent pulp. So, too, the canine which had a thick anterior facing of enamel. The later species, _S. mirus_, is more fully known. The teeth seem to have been much the same as in the last-described species; the premolars and molars were seven in all in the lower jaw, and the canine was imbedded in the bone for a long distance, as in _Calamodon_. The cervical vertebrae have short centra as in _Hemiganus_. The clavicles were well developed. The humerus possessed an entepicondylar foramen, and its head displays the pyriform pattern so characteristic of later Edentates. The foot is clearly like that of _Psittacotherium_. In reviewing the series, therefore, we see a gradual diminution of the incisors, a gradual loss of enamel on the teeth generally, and the production of hypselodont teeth growing from persistent pulps; all of which are features of the later Edentates. The progression is so gradual that the forms enumerated and described seem to have been part of a continuous series culminating in the Ground Sloths of later times. The other points of similarity will be gathered from the facts given in the foregoing pages. There is another family belonging to the Ganodonta whose position with regard to the Edentata is not so clear. This is the family CONORYCTIDAE, of which two genera are known. The earliest of these, from the Lower Puerco, is _Onychodectes_. In _O. tissonensis_ the skull is long and narrow, thus contrasting with that of the last family. The facial part is also long. The lower jaw is much more slender. The molar formula was complete, but there is some doubt as to the incisors. The molars are tritubercular. The other known genus is _Conoryctes_. Its skull has a shorter {194} facial portion, and is thus more like that of Stylinodontidae than that of _Onychodectes_. The dental formula is known, and is complete save for the loss of one incisor above and below, and one premolar above. The relationship of these Ganodonts to any later forms is uncertain; but their skeletal structure is as yet by no means fully known. * * * * * {195} CHAPTER IX UNGULATA--CONDYLARTHRA--AMBLYPODA--ANCYLOPODA--TYPOTHERIA--TOXODONTIA-- PROBOSCIDEA--HYRACOIDEA ORDER IV. UNGULATA The existing members of this order can be readily grouped into the Hyracoidea, Proboscidea, Perissodactyla, and Artiodactyla, each of which divisions has quite the value of an order, and all of which are sharply marked off from each other. But as the discovery of so many fossil forms has to a great extent rendered these demarcations less sharp, it is better to regard all these groups as not more than sub-orders of a larger "Order" Ungulata. Even when this conclusion has been necessarily arrived at from a consideration of the more ancient groups of Ungulate animals, the definition of such an order remains a difficult matter for the systematist. For the earliest of these forms, more particularly the Ancylopoda, the Amblypoda, and the Condylarthra, whose peculiarities will be dealt with at length subsequently, are not by any means easily differentiated from the primitive Carnivorous mammals of that date, the Creodonta; these latter, moreover, fade into the Marsupials through the so-called Sparassodonta of Professor Ameghino. To confine ourselves to the Ungulates, we may perhaps define them as terrestrial animals with hoofs rather than claws or nails, and chiefly, if not entirely, vegetarian in habit. The teeth are bunodont or lophodont, the tendency to the production of the latter type being always marked. The walk, although plantigrade in the older types, becomes more and more digitigrade, except in such survivals from antiquity as _Hyrax_. There is, too, as we pass from the ancient types to the modern, a gradual perfection of the limbs as running {196} and not climbing or grasping organs; the number of toes becomes reduced, and culminates twice (in the horse and in the Litopterna) in one toe on each foot; at the same time the ulna becomes rudimentary and fuses with the radius, and the fibula in the hind-limb undergoes a like reduction. The clavicle is absent even in some of the oldest types; its presence in _Typotherium_[120] is highly remarkable. The tail too, an organ which is long in some of the early forms, gets short in their modern derivatives. [Illustration] FIG. 110.--An early Ungulate. _Phenacodus primaevus._ × 1/12. (After Osborn.) [Illustration] FIG. 111.--Series of metacarpals and metatarsals of Camelidae, to show secular and progressive increase in size. From left to right the species are _Protylopus petersoni_, _Poebrotherium labiatum_, _Gomphotherium sternbergi_, _Procamelus occidentalis_. F, Fore-foot; H, hind-foot; III, IV, third and fourth metapodials. (After Wortman.) Coupled with the increasing perfection of the foot as an organ used merely for the support of the body, certain interesting changes have taken place in the arrangement with regard to each other of the several bonelets of the wrist and ankle. It has been held by Cope and others that the truly primitive disposition of these bones was that presented to us by certain early types, such as _Meniscotherium_ or the existing elephant or _Hyrax_. In these animals there is (see Fig. 112) a serial {197} arrangement of these bones, the distal bones only, or very nearly only, articulating with the corresponding bones in the upper series. In the modern types (cf. Fig. 113) there is, on the other hand, an interlocking, so that the bones of the distal series articulate with two of those of the proximal series. By this is produced, as it would appear, a much firmer foot, less liable to "give" under pressure, and thus more fitted for an animal that runs. It is the same principle as that adopted in the laying of bricks. The actual stress and strain of impact has been held responsible for those changes. An equally ingenious and possibly truer explanation of the undoubted facts has lately been advanced by Mr. W. D. {198} Matthew.[121] He has pointed out that in some ancient Ungulates the carpus is not serial but interlocking, even in forms which belong to the earliest Eocene groups, such as the genus _Protolambda_ among the Amblypoda. Now in the fore-foot of _Meniscotherium_ and the living _Hyrax_ there is a separate centrale which is wanting in the greater number of Ungulates. The absorption, that is the practical dropping out of this bone, would restore to an interlocking carpus the serial arrangement; while on the other hand, by the fusion of this bone with the scaphoid, the interlocking disposition would be maintained. [Illustration] FIG. 112.--Bones of the manus A, of the Indian Elephant, _Elephas indicus_. × 1/8. B, of the Cape Hyrax, _Hyrax capensis_. × 1. _c_, Cuneiform; _cc_, centrale; _l_, lunar; _m_, magnum; _p_, pisiform; _R_, radius; _td_, trapezoid; _tm_, trapezium; _s_, scaphoid; _u_, unciform; _U_, ulna. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) [Illustration] FIG. 113.--Bones of the manus A, of Rhinoceros, _Rhinoceros sumatrensis_. × 1/5. B, of Pig, _Sus scrofa_. × 1/3. Letters as in Fig. 112. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The gradual perfecting of the fore- and hind-limbs as running organs has been put down to the advent of the grasses, and the formation of large plains covered with this herbage. The same reason would also be in harmony with the equally gradual change in the shape of the molar teeth, from a tubercular form calculated for a mixed or even a carnivorous diet, to the flatter crushing surfaces exhibited by the lophodont teeth of later Ungulates. Strong {199} canines would in the same way cease to be useful, and even become encumbrances to such grazing creatures; and their disappearance is one of the salient features in the history of the Ungulata, that is of the modern representatives of the order. The extraordinary hypertrophy of these teeth in such a line as that of the Amblypoda, which has left no descendants, was one of the reasons perhaps for the decay of those great pachyderms of mid-Tertiary times; their excessive armature became an encumbrance, since it was not accompanied by improvements in other necessary directions. Some of the features of the Tertiary Ungulates have, however, been dealt with in our general sketch of the mammalian life during that epoch, and need not be again referred to here. Of existing Ungulates there are no clear indications of the descent of the Elephants or of the Hyracoidea. Their structure proclaims these two divisions to be of ancient descent, and not to be modern twigs of the Ungulate stem. As to the Perissodactyla and the Artiodactyla we cannot bring them together nearer than in quite early Tertiary times. The order Condylarthra seems to be the starting-point of both these sub-divisions. _Euprotogonia_ has been considered to be an ancestor of the Perissodactyle branch, and _Protogonodon_ or _Protoselene_ of the Artiodactyla. If this be true, {200} the likenesses which _Titanotherium_ shows to the Artiodactyla must be either purely superficial and secondary, or a cropping out of ancient characters which had been dormant for many generations. HORNS.--The Ungulata are the only order of mammals which possess horns; as they are on the whole a more defenceless group than the Carnivora, it may be that the horns are a counterpoise to the teeth and claws of the latter; need for defence and for armature in the combats with their own kind for the favours of the does has led to a different kind of protective and aggressive mechanism. Horns as weapons are, however, particularly effective in this group wherever they exist. A Ruminant is most frequently a large and heavy animal without the agility and litheness of the Carnivore. It is precisely to this sort of animal, where weight is an important consideration, that horns are the most suitable weapons. This is further shown by the fact that although the general term horn is used to describe the weapons of the Ungulate mammals, there is more than one kind of structure included under this general term; it is indeed probable that the extreme terms in the series of horns have been independently acquired by their possessors. There is but little in common between the horns of a Giraffe and of a Rhinoceros. In the Rhinoceros we have one or two horns, in the latter case one placed behind the other, which are purely epidermic growths; they may indeed be regarded as matted masses of hair, borne, it is true, upon a boss of bone, which however is not a separate structure. The Giraffe supplies us with the simplest term in that series of horns which are partly epidermal and partly bony. The paired horns of this animal have often been contrasted with those of the Deer, for example; but there is no fundamental difference between them. In the Giraffe a pair of bony outgrowths, originally separate from the skull which bears them, but ultimately ankylosed to it, are covered by a layer of entirely unmodified skin. A distinction of undoubtedly practical importance is usually drawn between the Hollow-horned Ruminants, _i.e._ Oxen, Goats and Antelopes, and the Deer tribe. There is nevertheless no fundamental distinction. In the Antelopes there is a core of bone, the "os cornu" as it has been termed, which is covered by a horny layer, the horn proper, variously modified in shape and size according to the genus or species. In the Deer there is the {201} same os cornu, which may however be branched, but which is in the same way covered by a layer of modified integument; this is known as the "velvet"; it only lasts for a certain period, and is then torn off by the exertions of the animal itself, leaving behind the bony core, which is popularly termed the horn. It will be clear that here is only a difference of comparative unimportance; the same essential features are present in both groups of animals, but the modification of the epidermis has progressed along different lines. Both can be referred back to the primitive conditions seen in the paired horns of the Giraffe. Even the difference, such as it is, is bridged over by the Antelope _Antilocapra_, where the os cornu is bifid and the horn is periodically shed, as is the velvet of the stag; but in the stag the bony part of the horn is also shed, a state of affairs which has no parallel in the Hollow-horned Ruminants. The great _Sivatherium_ may conceivably be an annectant form between the two types of compound horns, _i.e._ those of the Antelope and those of the Deer. This creature had two pairs of horns, of which, naturally, only the bony cores remain; the hinder pair of these were branched. But although so far they resemble the Deer's horns rather than the Antelope's, Dr. Murie has thought that they were covered by a horny sheath and not by soft skin as in the Deer. In any case these horns were apparently never shed, which is a point of likeness with the Antelope and of difference from the Deer. Apart therefore from the nature of the covering of the bony cores, there are good grounds for looking upon them as intermediate between those of the Deer and those of the Antelopes. The horns of the Ruminants are frequently a secondary sexual character; this is especially the case with the Deer. The Reindeer is, however, an exception, both the stags and the does having horns. That they are associated with the reproductive function is shown by their being shed after the period of rut, the destruction of the velvet at that period, and also by the effect upon the horns which any injury to the reproductive glands produces. Some useful facts upon this latter head have been amassed by Dr. G. H. Fowler,[122] who noticed in a series of stags, horns showing various degrees of degeneration in the antlers produced by varying degrees and periods of gelding. From the facts {202} here collected it is clear that a direct effect is produced. If we are to regard horns as secondary sexual appendages which have been subsequently handed on to the female by heredity, we should expect to meet with examples of animals now horned in both sexes, of which the earlier representatives had the horns confined to one sex. This is most interestingly shown by the extinct and Miocene Giraffe, _Samotherium_, of which the male alone had a pair of short horns, while the skull of the female was entirely hornless; the modern _Giraffa_, as is well known, has horns in both sexes. It is interesting to note that the existing Perissodactyles and Artiodactyles are to be distinguished by their unpaired or paired horns. But while there are no Artiodactyles with unpaired horns (save occasional sports) the Perissodactyles have more than once tried, so to speak, paired horns, which ultimately proved fatal to them. The Rhinoceros _Diceratherium_ apparently inherited and improved upon the small paired horns of _Aceratherium_, but it has left no descendant. The paired horned Titanotheria offer another instance of the same apparent incompatibility between the Perissodactyle structure and the persistence of paired horns. SUB-ORDER 1. CONDYLARTHRA. This group is characterised by the following assemblage of characters. Extinct, often plantigrade Ungulates, with five-toed limbs. Bones of carpus and tarsus not always interlocking, but sometimes lying above each other in corresponding positions. The humerus has an entepicondylar foramen. Dental formula quite complete; the molars brachyodont and bunodont. The premolars are simpler than the molars. The canines are small. As with other early types, the zygapophyses are flat and do not interlock. The astragalus is like that of the Creodonta. This group was American and European in range, the remains of its rather numerous genera being of Eocene time. The best-known genus is _Phenacodus_, of which some account will be given before discussing the, in many cases, more fragmentary remains of other allied forms. The genus _Phenacodus_ was first described so long ago as 1872, from a few scattered teeth. Since then several nearly complete skeletons have been obtained, and we are in full possession of {203} the details of its osteology. It was not a large creature (see Fig. 110, p. 196), about 6 feet in length, with a small head. The feet were more or less plantigrade, and five-toed. The last phalanges of the toes show that they carried hoofs and not claws; yet the fore-feet look a little as if they could be used as grasping organs. The third digit of both hind- and fore-feet exceeds the others, and thus a Perissodactyle-like foot characterised this Eocene creature. The tail is exceedingly long, and must have reached the ground as the animal walked. This is of course by no means an Ungulate character. Still, in the totality of its organisation the animal was decidedly Ungulate, though Professor Cope spoke of _Phenacodus_ as not merely an ancestral Ungulate but as the parent form of Insectivores, Carnivores, Lemurs, Monkeys, and Man himself! The scapula indeed is from its breadth and oval contour rather like that of a Carnivore. The clavicles as in other Ungulates are absent. The femur is Perissodactyle rather than Artiodactyle in the presence of a third trochanter. The creature had fifteen pairs of ribs and five or six lumbar vertebrae. The two bones of the leg which lie below the femur are perfectly distinct and separate. A cast of the brain-case shows that the cerebral hemispheres were smooth and small, the cerebellum of course completely uncovered and nearly as large as the cerebrum. The olfactory lobes were also large. The complete skeleton of _Phenacodus_ has lately been excavated more fully from the enveloping matrix by Professor Osborn,[123] and mounted in what is regarded as the natural position of the beast. It appears that though five-toed it went upon the three middle toes only, and furthermore that of these the middle one was the more prevailing, so that _Phenacodus_ was distinctly "Perissodactyle," at least in habit. Moreover its "long hind-quarters, the long powerful tail ... are reminiscent of Creodont ancestry." The genus was European and American in range. _Meniscotherium_ ( = _Hyracops_[124]) comprises several forms of about the size of a fox; they are both European and American in range. The teeth are more distinctly Ungulate in form than those of _Phenacodus_, with a [125]-shaped outer wall. The skull is described as possessing "indifferent, primitive characters," permitting a comparison with those of Opossums, Insectivores, and {204} Creodonta. It has, as in _Phenacodus_, no orbital ring. The humerus resembles that of a Carnivore rather than that of an Ungulate. The carpus and tarsus are serial. The fibula articulates with both the calcaneum and the astragalus, which is not the case with _Phenacodus_. It is suggested that these animals are ancestral forms of the Chalicotheres. In the brain the hemispheres do not cover the cerebellum. More primitive apparently than _Phenacodus_ was the less-known genus _Euprotogonia_, or _Protogonia_[126] as it has been called. The best-known species is _E. puercensis_, so called from its occurrence in the Puerco beds of the American Eocene. It was a slender, long-limbed creature, smaller than _Phenacodus_, with a long and heavy tail as in that animal. Like _Phenacodus_ it was semiplantigrade, and shows more likenesses to the Creodonta. The skull is only known by a part of the lower jaw with teeth, and by the teeth of the upper jaw. The vertebrae are not entirely preserved, but enough remain to show that the animal had a tail of 16 or 17 inches, which is a considerable length when compared to its height, about a foot at the rump. In the fore-limb the most noteworthy point is that the ulna has a convex posterior border as in the Creodonts, the same border in _Phenacodus_ being concave. The humerus is slender, with less-marked tuberosities. The fifth digit seems to have been less reduced. The phalanges seem to have borne horny sheaths somewhat intermediate between hoofs and claws. The pelvis is described as being, as is also that of _Phenacodus_, rather like that of the Creodonta. The right hind-limb is known in all its details. It appears that the bones are not serial but interlocking; this, however, on the views with regard to the relations of these two forms of tarsus mentioned on p. 198, does not militate against regarding _Euprotogonia_ as the ancestor of the genus _Phenacodus_. The third toe is the pre-eminent one, the animal thus being Perissodactyle. The lateral digits are larger than in _Phenacodus_, and the metatarsals and the phalanges are slightly curved, which is again a Creodont character as compared to the perfectly straight corresponding bones of _Phenacodus_. It seems evident that this animal is to be looked upon as a more ancient type than _Phenacodus_, even if not as its actual ancestor. Another group of the Condylarthra contains the genus _Pertipychus_ and some others. _Periptychus_ has the full dentition {205} of forty-four teeth, the molars being of course bunodont, with the three chief tubercles most developed. The bones of the tarsus interlock and are not serial, as they are in many other members of the Condylarthra. The astragalus has a shorter neck than in _Meniscotherium_, for example. It has in this a likeness to the same bone in the Amblypoda, to the primitive members of which, such as _Pantolambda_, this animal bears much resemblance. "Astragali and many skeletal bones of _Periptychus rhabdodon_ and _Pantolambda bathmodon_ are almost indistinguishable," observes Mr. Matthew. The fore-feet of this genus are unknown, but it would seem that it was plantigrade from the evidence of the hind-feet. There are several species of the genus. Possibly, but not at all certainly, the Mioclaenidae, with the genera _Mioclaenus_ and _Protoselene_, are to be referred to this same order of primitive Ungulates. It is only necessary to mention them here, because they show very clearly the primitive form of dentition of these early Eocene mammals. The teeth are quite complete and unbroken by a diastema. The canines are but little pronounced. The molars are not strictly tritubercular, but have a prevailing trituberculy. The nature of the feet is not known. Since the genus _Protoselene_, as its name denotes, shows an indication of a commencing selenodonty, it has been suggested that this group is the stock whence the Artiodactyles have been derived. In any case, whether the particular comparisons that have been made as to the relationship of various forms of Condylarthra are valid or not, it seems to be plain that this group represents the earliest Ungulate stock, but little differentiated from the contemporaneous Creodonts. SUB-ORDER 2. AMBLYPODA. This group of extinct mammals has the following principal characteristics:-- They are large, semiplantigrade Ungulates, of heavy build and apparently elephantine gait. The dentition is for the most part complete as in other ancient groups, and the canines are in the later forms big tusks. The back teeth are brachyodont and ridged (lophodont). Both radius and ulna in the fore-limb, and tibia and fibula in the hind-limb, are well developed. The bones {206} in the carpus are alternating in position. The toes are five in both feet, and are very short. There is a hint of commencing "perissodactylism" in the fore-feet at any rate. The brain is small and the hemispheres smooth. The Amblypoda, or Amblydactyla, are so called on account of their short and stumpy feet and toes. They were held by Professor Cope to be on the direct line of ancestry of both Perissodactyles and Artiodactyles, a view which is on the whole not accepted at present. [Illustration] FIG. 114.--Skull of _Protolambda bathmodon_. × ¾. _e.a.m_, External auditory meatus; _m_, mastoid; _m.f_, mastoid foramen. (After Osborn.) As is the case with other groups, the Amblypoda commenced existence as a sub-order with relatively small forms such as _Pantolambda_, the most ancient type known, which is in many respects a transition between the later forms and other groups of mammals such as the Creodonta.[127] The race culminated and ended in the giant _Dinoceras_ and _Coryphodon_, and spread into the Old World. In spite of their smooth and diminutive brain, these mammals were able to hold their own and to multiply into many species and genera; in this they were perhaps aided by their formidable tusks and by the horns which many of them possessed. The teeth seem to imply an omnivorous diet, which was quite possibly an additional advantage in the struggle for existence. It does not seem to be necessary to divide off the Dinoceratidae into a sub-order equivalent to the Coryphodontidae as was done {207} by Professor Marsh; the numerous points in common possessed by the members of both families forbid their separation more widely than as families. The earliest types of Amblypoda belong to the genus _Pantolambda_, of which the species _P. bathmodon_ was about four feet in length. As restored it seems to have had proportionately short fore- and hind-limbs, and it had a long tail. It was apparently plantigrade, and would have had not a little likeness to a carnivorous type. The skull has no air cavities, such as are developed in the later types from the Lower Eocene, e.g. _Coryphodon_; _Pantolambda_ is from the basal Eocene. The frontal bones show no trace of the horns that are developed in subsequent forms; the nasals are comparatively long; the zygomatic arch is slender. The molar teeth are in the primitive form of trituberculy, and the premolars, as is so often the case with primitive animals, are unlike the molars in form, being less markedly selenodont. As to the vertebral column, the dorsal vertebrae appear to have had short spines, which argues, as it does also in the case of the larger and heavier _Coryphodon_, a feebleness in the development of ligaments and muscles supporting and moving the head. The scapula seems to have the same peculiar leaf-like form that it has in the later _Coryphodon_.[128] This primitive type shows an entepicondylar foramen in the humerus. It is interesting to observe that the posterior border of the ulna is convex, as in the Creodonts, and in the early Condylarthrous form _Euprotogonia_. In the subsequently-developed Amblypoda, as in the later Condylarthra, that bone acquires a concave outer border. In the carpus the os centrale is distinct. In the femur the third trochanter is well formed; it gradually dies out in later Amblypoda. The fibula articulates with the calcaneum. This species, according to Osborn, "typifies the hypothetical Protungulate, being more primitive than either _Euprotogonia_ or _Phenacodus_."[129] [Illustration] FIG. 115.--Skeleton of _Coryphodon radians_. × 1/10. (After Osborn.) The genus _Coryphodon_ is known by a large number of species, of which the first was discovered in this country, and was represented merely by a jaw with some teeth. This was named by Sir R. Owen _C. eocaenus_, and was dredged up from the bottom of the sea off the Essex coast. A second specimen consisted of a single {209} canine tooth only, and was brought up from a depth of 160 feet during the making of a well at Camberwell. More abundant remains have since been found in North America. This genus had a large head, and in some specimens traces of the "horn cores," so marked in the related _Dinoceras_, are to be noticed. The skull is broad behind and narrowed in front; the roofing bones show the cellular spaces so characteristic of the Elephant. The jugal bone, however, is not, as it is in the Elephant, placed in the middle of the somewhat massive zygomatic arch. As in some other primitive Ungulates (e.g. _Phenacodus_) there are twenty dorso-lumbar vertebrae, of which fifteen bore ribs. The scapula seems to have possessed a peculiar leaf-like form, swelling in the middle and ending almost in a point above. It has a well-marked spine, and the acromion projects much. The fore- as well as the hind-feet are in a state of transition between plantigradism and digitigradism. It was at one time held that the animal was digitigrade as to the fore-feet and plantigrade as to the hind-feet. Though, as has been pointed out, it is a fact that the hind-feet are often on a different plane of evolution from the fore-feet, it seems that this amount of difference does not characterise any Ungulate, not excepting the genus now under consideration. The toes are very spreading. The pelvic girdle is of great strength and broadness. The femur, as in the Perissodactyles, has a well-developed third trochanter; but whereas in this particular the hind-limb is Perissodactyle, it is Artiodactyle in the fact that the tibia and the fibula articulate with the astragalus and calcaneum. The ridged teeth have given the name to the genus. A curious feature in the structure of the genus are the slender spines of the dorsal vertebrae, which contrast with the enormous ones of some other Ungulates--more curious in this genus, which is of heavy build, than in the lighter _Pantolambda_. The back of the animal is short, and the limbs are very spreading, so that the gait was doubtless shuffling. The large head, and short and heavy limbs and limb girdles added probably to its cumbrous walk or trot. The canines are great tusks, and spread out on both sides of the mouth.[130] The late Professor Cope, in 1874, described the probable appearance of the _Coryphodon_ in the following words:--"The general appearance of the Coryphodons, as determined by the skeleton {210} probably resembled the bears more than any living animals, with the important exception that in their feet they were much like the elephant. To the general proportions of the bears must be added the tail of medium length. Whether they were covered with hair or not is of course uncertain. Of their nearest living allies, the elephants, some were hairy and others naked.... The movements of the Coryphodons doubtless resembled those of the elephant in its shuffling and ambling gait, and may have been even more awkward from the inflexibility of the ankle." The most recent members of this sub-order come from the Middle Eocene beds, and are chiefly referable to the genus _Dinoceras_, with which _Tinoceras_ and _Uintatherium_ are at least very nearly related, if not identical. These creatures were of great size, larger than the earlier types which have been considered. They show a certain superficial resemblance to the Titanotheriidae, on account of the massive horn cores upon the skull. These horn cores are large upon the maxillae and the parietals, and are paired; on the nasals are smaller horns. The bones of the skull have air cavities. The incisors of the upper jaw are absent; the canines are enormous tusks, and the lower jaws are flanged downwards near the symphysis where these tusks border them. Contrary to what is found in the older types, where the position of the condyle of the lower jaw is normal, this prominence faces backwards in the Dinocerata. The same shortness of the spines of the dorsal vertebrae prevails in this group as in the other Amblypoda, though it is perhaps hardly so marked. The scapula has not the peculiar acuminate form that exists in _Coryphodon_, but is triangular and broad above. The limbs are elephantine, in that the angle between the humerus and the femur respectively, and the bones which follow, is not marked. The hind-limbs are especially straight. The tail is short as compared with that of the primitive Amblypoda. The Dinocerata are purely digitigrade. The entepicondylar foramen has, as in the Coryphodonts, disappeared. The os centrale of the carpus has become fused, and no longer exists as a separate bone. The fibula no longer articulates with the calcaneum, but both that bone and the ulna are well developed. The genus _Astrapotherium_ is placed among the Amblypoda by some authorities.[131] {211} SUB-ORDER 3. ANCYLOPODA. The history of the discovery of the members of this order is very instructive as illustrating the dangers of laying too much classificatory importance upon detached fragments of animals. So long ago as 1825 terminal phalanges of a new creature were found in the Miocene of Eppelsheim, and sent to Cuvier. Cuvier named them "Pangolin gigantesque," deeming them, on account of their general form and cleft terminations, to pertain to the Edentata. In the same bed some seven years later were found certain teeth clearly of an Ungulate character, to which the generic name of _Chalicotherium_ was applied. It was subsequently discovered that the teeth and the claws belonged to the same animal, and, later, further remains turned up which disclosed a creature having the anomalous composition of an Ungulate with decisively Ungulate teeth, but with the feet to a large extent like those of an unguiculate animal. The same confusion of characters occurs also, it will be remembered, in the distinctly Artiodactyle _Agriochoerus_ (see p. 331). Indeed the feet of the latter when first discovered were erroneously, as it now appears, referred to the present order of Ungulates under the name of _Artionyx_. It is probable that the genus _Moropus_ of North America is a member of this group, and that it is probably congeneric with a somewhat different type of Ancylopod known as _Macrotherium_. It is also clear that _Anisodon_, _Schizotherium_, and _Ancylotherium_, if not congeneric with either of the two recognised genera, are at least very close to them. _Chalicotherium_ has a skull which recalls that of some of the earlier Ungulates; it has, however, no incisors at all, and no canines in the upper jaw; this feature has led to the belief that the animal is related to the Edentata, and that it is in fact a link between them and the Ungulata. The molars, like those of the Perissodactyla, are of the buno-selenodont type. It also agrees with that group (to which it has been approximated by several writers) in the. tridactyl manus and pes, and in the characters of the tarsus. But although tridactyl, the axis of the limb passes through the fourth digit. _Chalicotherium_ is not mesaxonic, as are the Perissodactyles. Moreover, it has no third {212} trochanter, and the unguiculate claws have already been referred to. As to the latter, which are short, it is not the end phalanx but the first which is retracted; thus _Chalicotherium_ differs markedly from both Carnivorous and Edentate types; for in the former it is the last phalanx which is retracted, while in the Edentates the same phalanx is flexed downwards. The limbs of _Chalicotherium_ are nearly of the same size, and the animal seems to have been stout and quadrupedal.[132] _Macrotherium_, like the last genus, seems to have been common to both New and Old Worlds. It is to be distinguished by a number of characters. It is supposed to have been "semi-arboreal and fossorial"; the fore-limbs are much longer than the hind, the relative proportions of the radius and tibia being 70 to 29. The ulna was distinct from the radius, whereas in _Chalicotherium_ the two are coalesced, or nearly so. Young specimens appear to possess a full set of incisors; whether this is the case or not with _Chalicotherium_ is not known.[133] _Homalodontotherium_ is sometimes placed in the group. SUB-ORDER 4. TYPOTHERIA. It is a little difficult to be confident that the Typotheria are rightly referred to the Ungulata, since they contradict two important Ungulate rules. They have clavicles, which are elsewhere missing, and the thumb looks as if it were opposable.[134] An Ungulate is essentially a running animal, and has no need of a grasping finger. Still Typotheria are placed by most within the Ungulate series, though their undoubted likenesses to other groups, especially to the Rodentia, are admitted, and indeed emphasised. Cope places them definitely with the Toxodonts. The Typotheria are an extinct group of smallish beasts, confined, like the Toxodontia, to South America, a region which during the Tertiary period, and into the Pleistocene, abounded with strange and varied types of Ungulate animals. The earlier forms of Typotheria may be exemplified by some {213} account of the genus _Protypotherium_. This animal was of about the size of a _Hyrax_, which indeed it resembles in several points of structure. The teeth have the primitive number of forty-four, and they are close set, leaving no diastema; the molars are rootless and grow persistently; they are simple and Rodent-like in surface pattern. The shape of the lower jaw is like that of _Hyrax_, being rounded in outline posteriorly; there is no projecting angle as in the Rodents, and this remark applies to the Typotheria in general. The aspect of the Rodent lower jaw is characteristically different from that of _Hyrax_ and the forms under consideration. Some other characters of these early forms of Typotheria can be gathered from an inspection of other genera. In _Icochilus_ both hand and foot were five-toed, and, as in ancient Ungulates generally, the bones of the wrist and of the ankle are serially and not alternately arranged. Moreover, an os centrale is present in the carpus. Both thumb and big toe were opposable. The skull has a remarkably Rodent-like appearance, but the palate is not so narrowed as in these animals. In the more recent forms of Typotheria the dentition has become reduced. The canines are lost, and as the incisors are reduced also, to one on each side of the upper, and two on each side of the lower jaw, the likeness to a Rodent skull is increased. There is also evidence of a modification from the more primitive forms in the loss of one premolar or even more, in the alternating bones of the carpus, in the disappearance of the centrale, and in the loss of a toe upon the hind-foot. In these more recent forms the fibula articulates with the astragalus instead of with the calcaneum. Typotheria of these more recent forms may be illustrated by the typical genus _Typotherium_. It has the reduced dental formula I 1/2 C 0/0 Pm 2/1 M 3/3; the molars are simple in pattern, and much like those of _Toxodon_. The upper incisors are powerful and curved, but are surrounded by a layer of enamel, which is not limited to the anterior face, as it practically is in Rodents. The sacrum is composed of a large number of vertebrae--some seven--a state of affairs which recalls the Edentata. The shoulder blade is not Ungulate in form. It has a strong spine, with an acromion and a well-developed metacromion. The terminal phalanges are enlarged and hoof-like. In the genus _Pachyrucos_ there are three premolars, otherwise {214} the formula is the same as in _Typotherium_. The animal seems to have had nails rather than hoofs. The thumb was opposable. The fibula is fused below with the tibia, whereas in the last genus these two bones are quite separate from each other. SUB-ORDER 5. TOXODONTIA The group Toxodontia,[135] like so many others, is exceedingly hard to define. Nor are its limits any easier to mark out than many others of the groups of Ungulates. It will be best perhaps to give an account of _Toxodon_, and of a few types which seem to lie near it in the system, and then to indicate how far they resemble or depart in structure from other Ungulates. _Toxodon_ itself is known from complete skeletons. It lived in Argentina during the "Pampean" period, which seems to be of the Pleistocene age. A large number of species, however, have been described, some of which seem to go farther back in time, and to have existed during the Miocene period further south in Patagonia. The size of this creature was about that of a large Rhinoceros; it has a bulky body and a large head, which was borne low down, on account of the bending downwards of the anterior vertebrae; in this aspect the figures of the skeletons recall _Glyptodon_ and similar Edentates. The beast was discovered by Darwin, and originally described by Owen. "During his (Mr. Darwin's) sojourn in Banda Oriental," writes the Rev. H. Hutchinson, "having heard of some 'giants' bones' at a farmhouse on the Sarandis, a small stream entering the Rio Negro, he rode there, and purchased for the sum of eighteenpence the skull which has been described by Sir R. Owen. The people at the farm-house told Mr. Darwin that the remains were exposed by a flood having washed down part of a bank of earth. When found, the head was quite perfect, but the boys knocked the teeth out with stones, and then set up the head as a mark to throw at." The whole of the Pampean area is a valley of dry bones, and the remains of _Toxodon_ are abundant there. The skull of _Toxodon_ is not unlike that of a horse in general aspect; but the orbit is not separated from the temporal fossa. The premaxillae are furnished above with a slight protuberance directed towards {215} the free end of the nasals, which may be related to the presence of a short proboscis. The zygomatic arch is strong and broad: the mandibles are provided with a long symphysis. The dental formula is I 2/3 C (0-1)/1 Pm 4/(3-4) M 3/3. The teeth are prismatic and hypselodont, growing from persistent pulps. The molar teeth are slightly arched in form, whence the name of _Toxodon_, "bow teeth." The strong chisel-shaped incisors suggest the Rodents and _Hyrax_. The cheek teeth, moreover, are by no means unlike those of Rodents in their pattern. They are at any rate not at all like those of existing Ungulates. The small size of the canine and of the first premolar produces a diastema in the tooth series. The sacrum consists of five vertebrae, and the ischium does not articulate with it. The shoulder blade has a strong spine, but only a rudimentary acromion; nor is the coracoid well developed. The radius crosses the ulna, as in the Elephant; the whole fore-limb is shorter than the hind-limb, which must have exaggerated the hang-dog expression of the creature when alive. The elements of the carpus interlock in the modern fashion. Those of the tarsus, however, are primitive in lying below each other without alternation. The carpus has a centrale. The fibula articulates with the calcaneum. The femur has no third trochanter. There are three toes to all the limbs. It is clear that this assemblage of characters will not allow the placing of _Toxodon_ in any living Ungulate order. If the middle toes appear by their slight pre-eminence to approach the Perissodactyle form, the peculiar surface contour of the molar teeth, letting alone the absence of a third trochanter on the femur, will not permit this classification. Allied to _Toxodon_ is the genus _Nesodon_. It was so named from an "island lobe" on the inner side of the upper molars. This creature, smaller than _Toxodon_, also differs from it in the fact that the dentition is complete, and in the pattern of the molars, which is rather more complex. There is still the slight projection upon the premaxillary bones, but the nostril is directed more forwards than in _Toxodon_. The zygoma, too, is massive. The second pair of incisors in the upper jaw and the outer (third) pair in the lower jaw form biggish tusks in the adult. These and the molar teeth are, however, finally rooted, and do not grow, as in _Toxodon_, from persistent pulps. The genus is from the older Tertiary of Patagonia. Five or six species have been described. Some are as large as a Rhinoceros, others as small as a Sheep. {216} There is no doubt about the close alliance of the two genera just referred to. It is more doubtful whether _Homalodontotherium_ and its allies should be placed, as they often are, in the neighbourhood of the Toxodonts. _Homalodontotherium_ owes its name to its even row of teeth without a diastema. It was a creature of equally large size with _Toxodon_, and also came from the Tertiary strata of Patagonia. The teeth are the typical forty-four, and the molars like those of a Rhinoceros; they are, however, brachyodont and not hypselodont as in _Toxodon_. This genus, however, shows an important difference from the Rhinocerotidae and from the other Toxodontia in the fact that it was five-toed, and that the bones of the carpus and tarsus are set in relation to each other in the linear serial fashion. Undoubtedly a near relative of _Homalodontotherium_ is _Astrapotherium_. This creature was of equal bulk, and was also Patagonian in range. The teeth are reduced in number, but the animal was provided, like a Wild Boar, with great tusks, which were, however, formed by the incisors. This animal is very imperfectly known; it is the form of the molars and the large size of the incisors which have led to its association with the Toxodontia. As to the resemblance of the teeth of this genus and of _Homalodontotherium_ to those of _Rhinoceros_, it is difficult to regard it as evidence of near affinity. The likeness is probably to be looked upon as a case of parallelism in development. Exactly the same explanation is possibly to be given to the likeness which the teeth of _Toxodon_ and _Nesodon_ show to Rodents, or even to Edentates. As to their affinities Zittel observes:-- "The entirety of their osteological characters argues for the Toxodon a separate position in the neighbourhood of the Perissodactyla, Proboscidea, Typotheria, and Hyracoidea. The relations to the Rodentia rest mainly upon the converging development of the teeth, not upon true relationship." SUB-ORDER 6. PROBOSCIDEA. Large vegetable-feeding animals, usually scantily covered with hair, and with the nostrils and upper lip drawn out into a long proboscis. Digits five on both limbs. Femur and humerus not bent upon lower leg and fore-arm in a position of rest. Skull {217} with abundant air cavities in the roofing and other bones. The incisors are developed into long tusks, which exist in the upper jaw alone, in the lower jaw alone, or in both jaws. There are no canines. The molars are lophodont. The clavicle is absent. The femur has no third trochanter. The bones of the carpus are serially arranged and do not interlock. The stomach is simple. The brain has much convoluted cerebral hemispheres, but the cerebellum is completely uncovered by them. The intestine is provided with a wide caecum. The testes are abdominal. The teats are pectoral in position. The placenta is non-deciduate and zonary. There are two venae cavae superiores. The position of the limbs in the Elephant tribe is unique among living animals: their straightness that is to say, and the absence or very slight development of angulation at the joints of the limb bones. This same feature has been observed in the extinct Dinocerata and in the Titanotheria. It must not, however, be assumed from the resemblance to these ancient forms that there is much affinity between them and the Proboscidea, or that the latter have retained an ancient feature of organisation. The oldest Ungulates for the most part, and the Creodonts to which they are undoubtedly related, have much bent limbs. It must be considered, therefore, that the arrangement obtaining in the Elephants is purely secondary. Professor Osborn has put forward the reasonable view[136] that the vertical limbs of all these colossal creatures are due to "an adaptation designed to transmit the increasing weight" of these animals. The huge bulk of the body is better borne by vertical pillars than by an angulated limb. Other points, however, such as the exposure of the cerebellum, the two venae cavae, the five digits, and the absence of a third trochanter, argue a low position for the Proboscidea in the Eutherian group. The group can be readily divided into two families, the Elephantidae and the Dinotheriidae. We will commence with the former. The Elephants proper, ELEPHANTIDAE, differ from the Dinotheriidae in, and are characterised by, a number of anatomical features. They possess long tusks (incisors) either in both jaws, or, if only in one jaw, in the upper. The molar teeth are very large--so large that only a few of them are simultaneously in use. There are but three definable genera of Elephantidae, of which {218} _Elephas_ alone survives. This genus also includes many extinct forms, both American and European, as well as Asiatic and African. The entirely extinct genera are _Stegodon_ and _Mastodon_. The group is clearly one dwindling towards extermination. From the Middle Miocene downwards these great "pachyderms" have existed; and from the Miocene up to Pleistocene times they were almost world-wide in range and numerous in species. The genus _Elephas_ comprises usually large, but occasionally (the pygmy Elephant of Malta) quite small forms. The external features of the genus differ slightly in different species, and will therefore be described in relation to those species which we shall notice here. The vertebral formula is C 7, D 19-20, L 3-5, Sa 4-5, Ca 24-30, or even more. The bodies of the vertebrae are remarkable for their shortness and for the very flattened articular surfaces. [Illustration] FIG. 116.--A section of the cranium of a full-grown African Elephant, taken to the left of the middle line, and including the vomer (_Vo_) and the mesethmoid (_ME_); _an_, anterior, and _pn_, posterior narial aperture. × 1/12. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The skull is large and massive. Its large and heavy character is, as has been stated in the definition of the sub-order, due to the immense development of air cavities in the diploe; the diameter of the wall of the skull is actually greater than that of the cranial cavity. These cavities are not obvious in the young animal. They are most conspicuous in the roofing bones of the skull, but are seen elsewhere, and thicken the basis cranii, {219} the maxillae, and so forth. This state of affairs, together with the presence of the huge tusks, has, as it were, pushed back the nasal orifices to near the top of the skull in a very Whale-like fashion. As in the Cetacea, the nasal bones are limited in size, and the premaxillae send up processes to join the frontals and the nasals. There is a straight and somewhat slender zygomatic arch, but the orbit is not separated from the temporal fossa. The malar bone is small, and, as in Rodents, forms the middle part of the zygoma. This is not the case with most Ungulata. The symphysis of the mandibles forms a spout-like rim. The scapula has a narrow prescapular, but a very wide postscapular region. The spine has a strong process projecting backwards from near its middle; this is a point of likeness to certain Rodents. No Elephant has a clavicle. The most remarkable feature about the fore-limb is the separation and crossing of the radius and ulna. The arms of these animals are permanently fixed in the position of pronation. The foot is short, and the bones of the carpus are serially arranged. There are, however, traces of a commencing interlocking of these bones in many forms. The hind-feet are somewhat smaller than the fore-feet, and the tibia and fibula are both developed. As to the teeth, this genus is to be distinguished from allied forms by the presence of tusks in the upper jaw only. These tusks have no bands of enamel such as characterise those of _Mastodon_. They are incisors. There is, however, a trace of the former enamelling in the shape of a patch at the tip, which soon wears away. The molar teeth of _Elephas_ are so large that the jaws cannot accommodate more than at the most two and a part of a third at a time. These are gradually replaced by others to the number of three, the replacement of teeth suggesting that of the Manatee. Each molar is deeply ridged, the interstices between the ridges being filled up with cement. As the tooth wears away, therefore, the surface continues to be flat. Each ridge consists of a core of dentine surrounded by a coat of enamel. The number of these ridges varies greatly from species to species. The Indian Elephant is one of those which have the greatest number of plates in a single tooth, as many as twenty-seven.[137] Of the six molars which {220} eventually appear, the first three are considered to correspond to premolars. But successional teeth are rare in the genus; that is to say as far as concerns the molars, for the tusks have their milk forerunners. As to the molars it is apparently only _E. planifrons_ which certainly shows a milk dentition. In _Mastodon_ and older types a milk dentition is commoner. The viscera of the Elephant have been examined by many zoologists. The latest paper, dealing chiefly with the African species, but containing facts about its Indian congener also, is quoted below.[138] The Elephant is remarkable in possessing, in addition to the three usual pairs of salivary glands present in mammals, a fourth, situated in the molar region, and opening on to the cheek by many pores. This gland is especially well developed in Rodents. There is a gland which may be mentioned in this connexion, though it opens externally between the eye and ear, known as the temporal gland; its use does not seem clear. The thoracic cavity of the Elephant, as may be inferred from the large number of ribs, is very large as compared with the abdominal. The stomach is simple in form, and the epithelium of the oesophagus does not extend into it as is the case with the Horse and Rhinoceros. A gland or a collection of smaller glands occurs in the stomach, and recalls the "cardiac gland" of the Wombat and the Beaver, also that of the Giraffe. The large intestine is long, rather more than half the length of the small intestine. The caecum is well developed in these animals. The liver has a very simple form, being but slightly lobulated. It is actually only bilobed, but it is important to notice that this division does not correspond to the two halves of the liver. As shown by the attachment of the suspensory ligament, one half consists of the left lateral lobe alone, the other half embracing the remaining primary lobes. The simplicity of the liver looks like an archaic character. No Elephant has a gall-bladder. The lungs again are simple in form through their slight lobulation. Each half in fact is without subdivisions, and is of a triangular form. In this the Elephants resemble the Whales, as in the simple liver. In both cases probably the likeness is due to the permanence of primitive features of organisation. The brain[139] of the Elephant {221} has hemispheres which are extremely well convoluted; but they leave the cerebellum entirely uncovered. This suggests a brain which is a great specialisation of a low type. The brain has been particularly compared with that of the Carnivora, with which group the Elephants agree in the characters of the placenta. It is, however, always a matter of the very greatest difficulty to compare the brains of mammals belonging to different orders. There are but two living species of Elephant, of both of which we shall now proceed to give some account. Only a few of the rather numerous fossil forms can be touched upon here. The African Elephant, _E. africanus_, has been sometimes referred to a distinct genus or sub-genus, _Loxodon_, by reason of the lozenge-shaped areas on the worn grinding-teeth. It lives, as its name denotes, in Africa. This species has a number of external features which enable it to be distinguished from the Oriental Elephant. The head slopes back more, and has not the two rounded bosses which give so wise a countenance to the Indian species. The ears are very much larger. The tip of the trunk has a slight triangular projection on both the lower and the upper part of the circumference of the aperture. There are four nails on the fore-feet and three on the hind. As in the Indian form, the toes are all bound together, and do not appear for any part as free digits. A thick pad of fat, etc., makes the animal when alive look as if plantigrade, whereas it is, as a matter of fact, digitigrade. In internal features the most prominent difference from _E. indicus_ is in the molar teeth, which are ridged by much fewer ridges. The outside number for a single tooth in the present species is 10 or 11. In _Elephas indicus_ on the other hand there are as many as 27. The African Elephant, thinks Sir Samuel Baker, reaches a height of about 12 feet, and it will be remembered that the notorious "Jumbo" was found to be 11 feet high at the shoulder. The tusks are found in both sexes, as in the Indian beast, but are relatively larger in the female in the species now under consideration. It is also a rather more active creature, and is more savage;[140] however it can be tamed, as is shown by several {222} specimens which have been and are in the possession of the Zoological Society, and other proprietors. It was apparently used in the past. Certain Carthaginian coins are stamped with a figure of the African Elephant; but in Africa no attempts are now made to utilise this creature except for food and ivory. [Illustration] FIG. 117.--African Elephant. _Elephas africanus._ × 1/56. (After Sir Samuel Baker.) The meaning of an Elephant as an emblem. upon a coin appears to be eternity, and there is no question but that the {223} Elephant is a long-lived animal. It is said that it hardly reaches proper maturity before forty, and that 150 years is not beyond probability in the way of longevity. Even longer periods have been assigned to it. The tusks of the Elephant are by no means necessarily sexual adornments, used for fighting purposes only. The African Elephant is a most "industrious digger," and grubs up innumerable roots as food. It appears to be a fact that during these operations the right tusk is mainly used, and in consequence that tusk is shorter as well as thinner than the other. Two average tusks would weigh respectively 75 and 65 lbs., the latter of course being the weight of the more worn right tusk. These weights, it should be observed, by no means indicate the limits to which finely-developed tusks can attain. The very heaviest tusk known to Sir Samuel Baker[141] weighed 188 lbs. This was sold at an ivory sale in London in the year 1874. The pace of the African Elephant, says the same authority, is at most at the rate of fifteen miles an hour at first, and of course in a furious rush. This pace cannot be kept up for more than two or three hundred yards, after which ten miles an hour is a better approximation to the rate which can be kept up for long distances. The Indian Elephant, _Elephas indicus_ (or _Euelephas indicus_, if the genus _Loxodon_ is to be accepted), is better known and has been longer known than the African. It occurs in India and Ceylon, and in some of the Malayan islands, the Elephants of which latter parts of the world have been regarded as a distinct form, an apparently unnecessary procedure. [Illustration] FIG. 118.--Indian Elephant. _Elephas indicus._ × 1/54. (After Sir Samuel Baker.) This species does not stand so high at the shoulder as the African; its back is more rounded in the middle. The trunk has but one pointed tip; there are five nails on the fore- and four on the hind-feet. As this species comes from India and the East, it has been longer as well as better known than the African form. Thus many of the stories and legends that have congregated round Elephants apply really to this form. As is well known, the Indian Elephant is much used as a beast of burden, and for other purposes where its huge strength renders it invaluable. But its great drawback as a servant of man is its great independability. On the one hand we have furious, vicious, and generally unreliable {224} Elephants, and on the other perfectly docile creatures, who obey the slightest hint from their driver. Huge though the Elephant is, it is frequently a timid beast. Sir Samuel Baker relates how one which he was riding fairly bolted at the sight of a Hare. To {225} be bolted with by an Elephant is far from pleasing, though a rather exciting event. It makes for the nearest jungle at once, being, much more than the African species, an inhabitant of forest. And in rushing through the dense undergrowth, the occupiers of the Elephant's back are apt to be swept off or cut to pieces by innumerable thorns. Elephants, no doubt of the Indian species, were used by the Persians in battle, and from fifteen which were captured at the battle of Arbela some notes were drawn up by Aristotle. In stating that the animal reaches an age of 200 years, the naturalist and philosopher was probably not very far out. The mode of Elephant-catching as related by Aristotle is that pursued at the present day. Then, as now, tame Elephants were made use of as decoys. Pliny,[142] who was apt to confound fact and fiction in a somewhat inseparable tangle, had something to say about Elephants, both Indian and African. Serpents, he thought, were their chief enemies, which slew them by coiling round them and thrusting their heads into the trunk, and so stopping respiration. In Europe Elephants were first seen in the year B.C. 280. Pyrrhus used them in his invasion, and copying his example the Romans themselves learnt to use Elephants. The first Elephant seen in England arrived in the year 1257, presented by the King of France to Henry III. It was kept in the Tower (for long afterwards a menagerie), and died at twelve years of age. Much use of the Elephant has been made in symbols. We have spoken of the African Elephant on Carthaginian coins as an emblem of eternity. The Oriental Elephant resting on the back of a tortoise and supporting the world is the same idea; and it is instructive to note that remains have been found in the Siwalik Hills of a tortoise which would have been actually big enough to support the creature, even "Jumbo," who weighed 6½ tons. Another symbol is that of an Elephant upon whose back is a child with arrows; this occurs on a medal of the Emperor Philip. It can perhaps hardly signify the eternity of a strong human feeling! The intelligence of the Elephant has been both exaggerated and minimised. Perhaps the most elaborate attempt to endow the beast with unusual mental perceptions is that of Aelian, who related that an Elephant carefully watching his keeper, wrote after him with his trunk letters upon a board. That the animal does {226} possess a good deal of brains, seems to be shown by the way in which a well-trained animal will obey the slightest sign of the mahout in India. According to Sir Samuel Baker, localities which produce in abundance particular kinds of fruit are remembered, as well as the time at which the fruit will be at its best. Stories of revenge, which are numerous enough, attest, so far as their data are to be accepted as accurate, the power of memory possessed by the Elephant. In spite of their longevity, however, Elephants, unlike Rome, have not been built for eternity. We can only find two living species; but in past times Elephants were very numerous. They commenced, so far as we know, in the Miocene. The existing forms are known in a fossil, or at least sub-fossil state, from diluvial deposits; and it is interesting to note that the African Elephant had formerly a wider range than now. Its bones (described as _E. priscus_) have been met with in Spain and Sicily. One of the best known of completely-extinct Elephants is the Mammoth, _E. primigenius_. This great Elephant in most respects more nearly approached the existing Indian Elephant. The teeth have quite as numerous plates. The tusks were enormous, reaching a maximum length of 15 feet; they were much curved upwards as well as outwards. A large tusk weighs as much as 250 lbs. The Mammoth was of exceedingly wide range. Not only was it found in various parts of Europe, but it was especially abundant in Siberia, as is exemplified by the fact that for the last two hundred years as many or more than 100 pairs of tusks annually have been sold from that region. It also occurred in America together with forms at least not far removed from it, such as _E. columbianus_. Mammoths have been more than once found as entire carcases in the frozen soil of Siberia. The first was discovered in the year 1799, and rescued some years later for the St. Petersburg Museum. This example showed that the Mammoth, unlike existing Elephants, was covered with thick wool mingled with long and more bristly hairs of some 10 inches in length. The softer wool formed a kind of mane beneath the neck, which hung down as far as the knees. Another carcase was discovered later by Lieut. Benkendorf, who did not save it, but was nearly swept along with it into the sea by a flood. These creatures died in the position in which they were found by being bogged when in search of vegetation or water. {227} How primeval man, with his inferior weapons, slew the Mammoth is not easy to understand; but that they were contemporaneous is clearly shown by associated remains, and by the notorious sketch of the Mammoth on a piece of its own ivory, in which curved tusks and a forehead like that of an Indian Elephant are plainly to be seen. Although it was only so recently as the year 1799 that an example of this great creature was actually studied on the spot, and removed to St. Petersburg, the existence of Mammoths and of ivory is a matter of much more ancient knowledge. M. Trouessart relates[143] that fossil ivory was known to the Greeks. Theophrastus spoke of ivory imbedded in the soil, and the tusks were recovered by the Chinese. It is a curious fact that the Chinese described and figured the Mammoth as a kind of gigantic Rat. The likeness between the elephantine molar and that of Rodents has been commented upon; but the existence of its tusks below the level of the ground led the Chinese Natural Historians to consider that the ways of life of the Mammoth were those of the Mole. As to the carcases themselves, the Chinese said that the flesh was cold, but very healthy to eat. This expression can hardly be explained, except upon the view that fresh carcases were known to that people long before they were known to us of the Western world. The value of the Mammoth ivory was known to antiquity; the famous Haroun-al-Raschid gave to King Charlemagne not only a pair of living Elephants, but a "horn of Licorne," which seems undoubtedly to have been a name for the tusks of the Mammoth. For in an account of the sacred treasures of Saint Denis, published in the year 1646, the author states this to be the fact. The causes of the disappearance of the Mammoth are not easy to understand. Some held that it was a naked animal like the existing Elephants, and that the lowering of the temperature in Siberia proved fatal; it is, of course, now certain that it was clothed with dense woolly hair. Along with the bogged corpses of the great pachyderm, numerous trunks of pine-trees have been found, together with associated remains of other animals now extinct in that neighbourhood. Thus it is plain that Siberia was once covered by mighty forests, through which the Mammoth roamed. The decay of these forests, upon whose branches the Elephant fed, as is attested by the remains of pine leaves found {228} in the interstices of its teeth, was the signal for the disappearance of their most colossal inhabitant. The large number of remains of this and of other extinct species of _Elephas_ in this country gave rise to the supposition that they were Elephants brought over by Caesar to aid in the subjugation of these islands. The Rev. J. Coleridge (father of the poet) pointed out that though Caesar in his _Commentaries_ made no mention of any such importation of Elephants, a passage in the _Stratagems_ of Polyaenus expressly mentions that Cassivelaunus was confronted by the Romans with an Elephant clad in a coat of mail, by whose aid the crossing of the Thames was effected. At the time that attention was called to this (1757) it was not popular to hint at the possibility of fossils. So that fact, conveniently historical, served to explain away a difficulty. It is remarkable that the Elephant, common enough of course in Asiatic monuments, actually occurs in English architecture. Mr. Watkins, from whose interesting work (_Natural History of the Ancients_) a good many of the facts detailed here are drawn, tells us that the church of Ottery St. Mary has an Elephant's head sculptured on one of its pillars. The same ornament appears in Gosberton Church, Lincolnshire. Whether this has anything to do with a reminiscence of formerly existing Elephants is a hard question to answer. In this figure of an Elephant the trunk has a spiral representation, and the trunk of an Elephant is believed by some to be intended by the common "so-called Pictish ornamentation" in Scotland; this spiral alone is to be seen constantly. If it is a reduction of an Elephant to its simplest terms, it is highly interesting as an almost undoubted survival of remembrance of Elephants. For at such a period we cannot use the memories of Crusaders or others who may have visited the East to explain the facts. The sculptured Elephants' heads might conceivably be so explained. The name Mammoth, thinks Mr. Watkins, may be derivable from the Arabic word Behemoth. He quotes a writer, who first described the beast in 1694, as using the two words indifferently. The Arabs, moreover, were then as they are now great ivory traders; and in the ninth and the two succeeding centuries explored the confines of Siberia, as they now do the forests of Africa, for ivory. The "Behemoth" of Job "eateth grass as an ox.... He moveth his tail like a cedar" (the Hippopotamus has a much more {229} stumpy appendage). "Behold, he drinketh up a river, and hasteth not" is surely much more suggestive of the copious draughts of an Elephant than the possibly equally copious but not so visible libations of a Hippopotamus. The most ancient of the true Elephants (genus _Elephas_) is _E. meridionalis_. It is of the African type, _i.e._ the plates of the molar teeth are not abundant, and are not so many as in the existing _E. africanus_. It seems to have been one of the largest of Elephants, standing 4 metres high. Its remains are abundant in Europe, and are known also from England. Like this species _E. antiquus_ is also of the African type. It was contemporary with man. Certain dwarf or "pony" races found in caves in Malta, and called _Elephas melitensis_ or _E. falconeri_, are believed to belong to this species. Mr. Leith Adams, who described these[144] remains, placed them in two dwarf species called by the names used above, and found associated with them a larger form, which he referred to _E. antiquus_. The existence of these animals in Malta seems to argue at least its former larger dimensions, and the presence of more abundant fresh water. The remarkable swimming capabilities of the Elephant do not necessarily imply either a former absence of land connexion or, on the other hand, its existence. Nor as a third possibility can it be suggested that the dwarf size argues an island of limited dimensions, when we bear in mind the huge tortoises of the Galapagos and some other islands. It is important to notice that Elephants of the African type (_Loxodon_) were not formerly absent from India. _E. planifrons_ was one of these. The genus _Stegodon_ is so called from the fact that the molar teeth, seen in longitudinal section, present a series of roof-shaped folds, the interstices between which are not, or are, imperfectly filled up with the cement which in _Elephas_ reduces the surface of the teeth to a level plane. This genus is exclusively Asiatic, and is Miocene to Pleistocene in time range. The number of ridges on the molars is small, not more than two. The incisors (tusks) have no enamel; the skeleton generally is like that of _Elephas_, between which and _Mastodon_ the present genus is intermediate. Among the four or five species is _S. ganesa_ (called after the Indian Elephant-headed divinity), with tusks 10 feet long, to be seen at the British Museum of Natural History. {230} The last genus of the family Elephantidae is _Mastodon_, so called from the structure of the molar teeth. These are provided with but few transverse ridges, not more than five, so that their structure is intermediate between those of _Dinotherium_ and those of _Stegodon_. Between the ridges are sometimes isolated, boss-like protuberances (whence the name of _Mastodon_), produced by a subdivision of the ridges. There is either but little or no cement between the ridges. This genus differs from nearly all other Elephantidae by the possession of milk molars, which occasionally persist throughout life, the permanent dentition in those cases being a mixture of milk and permanent teeth, as has been (erroneously) stated of the Hedgehog.[145] The tusks (incisors) are sometimes present in both jaws, and as they have, during youth at any rate, a coating of enamel, the likeness to the chisel-shaped incisors of Rodents is patent. In connexion with the implantation of incisors in the lower jaw, many species have a prolongation of the bones of that part of the skeleton. In the bones, generally, there is not very much difference from _Elephas_, but the forehead is a little less pronounced. The genus existed from the Miocene and became extinct in the Pleistocene. It was nearly world-wide in range, being known from all four continents. Naturally with this very wide range was associated a large number of species. Zittel enumerates no less than thirty-two. This genus is the only one of the Elephantidae which extended its range into South America, where the remains of two species occur. The bones of these great Elephants have attracted attention for some centuries. They were often held to be the bones of giants (as they actually were!), and in one case were ascribed to a deceased monarch, Teutobochus. The American Indians considered that equally gigantic men lived who were able to combat these great Proboscideans. There are legends of the Mastodons as living animals, which is quite probable, considering their geological age. There is a curious parallelism between the legends of two such widely-separated localities as North America and Greece. Buffon relates how among the Indians of Canada there was a belief that the Great Being destroyed both Mastodons and men of equal proportions, with thunderbolts. With this we may perhaps compare the story of the destruction of Typhoeus by Zeus, who {231} also used thunderbolts. One of the giants was not slain, but was compelled to stand and bear up the heavens. Atlas holds thus the position of the Elephant supporting the globe of Indian mythology. [Illustration] FIG. 119.--_Dinotherium giganteum._ Side view of skull, 1/15th natural size. Miocene, Germany. (After Kaup.) The genus _Dinotherium_, sole representative of the family DINOTHERIIDAE, differs in a number of important particulars from the true Elephants. In the Elephants, if there is but a single pair of incisors, these are found in the upper jaw; in _Dinotherium_ there is apparently but a single pair, but these are implanted in the lower jaw, the symphysis of which is much prolonged and greatly bent downwards, so that the tusks emerge at right angles to the long axis of the head, and are even bent backwards. The molar teeth are five in number on each side of each jaw and are bi- or tri-lophodont, not unlike those of the Tapir. There is no cement in the valleys between the ridges of these teeth, and there is a regular succession, the premolars being two and the molars three.[146] All the teeth are in use at the same time, {232} their small size enabling them to be accommodated in the jaw together. The skull of _Dinotherium_ is lower than that of _Elephas_ or _Mastodon_. The bones of the skeleton generally are like those of _Elephas_. Though a suggestion of marsupial bones attached to the pelvis has been discredited, there is no doubt that _Dinotherium_ occupies the most primitive position among the Proboscidea; but at the same time it cannot be regarded as the ancestor of Elephants, as it is so much specialised in various ways. The incisors for one thing forbid this way of looking at the creature. It is an ancient genus found in beds of Miocene age in Europe and Asia. It is not known from America. The creature was larger than any Elephant. Eighteen feet in length has been assigned to it. The enormous weight of the lower jaw and tusks seems to argue that it was at least partially aquatic in habit, and that it may have used these tusks for grubbing up aquatic roots or for mooring itself to the bank. At first there were naturalists who considered it as an ally of the Manatee, and the skull is not unsuggestive of that of the Sirenia. _Pyrotherium_ has been referred to the Proboscidea; but our knowledge of that form is limited to a few teeth from Patagonian rocks of an uncertain age.[147] They are simple bilophodont molars, very like those of _Dinotherium_. A tusk has been found in the neighbourhood of these teeth which may possibly belong to the same animal; but it is uncertain. SUB-ORDER 7. HYRACOIDEA. This group of small mammals contains only one well-marked genus which is usually named _Hyrax_, although _Procavia_ seems to be the accurate term. Popularly these creatures are known as Coneys. They have a singular resemblance to Rodents, the short ears and much reduced tail, besides the squatting attitude adopted, contributing to this merely skin-deep likeness. They agree with other Ungulates in the structure of the molar teeth, which are much like those of _Rhinoceros_; in the absence of a clavicle; in the absence of an acromion; in the reduction of the digits of the limbs to four digits in the manus and three in the pes. On the {233} other hand they differ from most Ungulates in the incisors growing from persistent pulps, a point in which they resemble the Rodentia. The muffle also is split as in those animals. The Hyracoidea are peculiar in the fact that in addition to the caecum at the junction of the small and large intestines, there are a pair of caeca (bird-like in being paired) some way down the large intestine. The dorsal vertebrae are unusually numerous, 22. The adult dentition according to Woodward,[148] who has recently examined the matter, is I 1/2 C (1/0) Pm 4/4 M 3/3, while the milk dentition is I 3/2 C 1/1 Pm 4/4. [Illustration] FIG. 120.--Cape Hyrax. _Hyrax capensis._ × 1/8. The inclusion of the canine of the permanent set of teeth in brackets signifies that it is the milk canine which occasionally persists. It should further be remarked about the teeth that they are both hypselodont and brachyodont, the extremes being connected by intermediate forms. Another peculiarity of the genus is the dorsal gland, which is covered with hair of a different colour to that covering the body generally. This is present in all species. The genus _Hyrax_ (the most recent authority on the subject, Mr. Oldfield Thomas,[149] only allows one genus) is limited in its range to Ethiopian Africa and to Arabia, including Palestine, It does not reach Madagascar. Mr. Thomas allows fourteen species with two or three sub-species. {234} Some of the Coneys live in rocky ground, while others, formerly placed in the genus _Dendrohyrax_, frequent trees, in holes in which they sleep. The Coney of the Scriptures is familiar, who is "exceeding wise," though a "feeble folk." But the further observation that he "cheweth the cud but divided not the hoof," is obviously entirely wrong. As to the wisdom, it is said that this beast is too wary to be taken in traps; while the suggestion of chewing the cud is, according to Canon Tristram, to be interpreted in the light of a habit of working and moving its jaws which the animal has. The traveller Bruce kept one in captivity to see if it did really chew the cud, and found that it did! * * * * * {235} CHAPTER X UNGULATA (_continued_)--PERISSODACTYLA (ODD-TOED UNGULATES)--LITOPTERNA SUB-ORDER 8. PERISSODACTYLA [Illustration] FIG. 121.--Bones of the manus A, of Tapir (_Tapirus indicus_). × 1/5. B, of Rhinoceros (_Rhinoceros sumatrensis_). × 1/5. C, of Horse (_Equus caballus_). × 1/8. _c_, Cuneiform; _l_, lunar; _m_, magnum; _p_, pisiform; _R_, radius; _s_, scaphoid; _td_, trapezoid; _tm_, trapezium; _u_, unciform; _U_, ulna; _II-V_, second to fifth digits; _V_ in B, and _II_ and _IV_ in C, represented by rudimentary metacarpals. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) These Ungulates derive their name, which is that given by the late Sir Richard Owen, from the fact that the middle digit of the hand and foot is pre-eminent. As will be seen from Fig. 121, the axis of {236} the limb passes through the third finger, which is larger than any of the others, and is symmetrical in itself. In this the present group contrasts with the Artiodactyla, where the axis is not "mesaxonic," but where there are two digits, on either side of the axis, which are symmetrical with each other. This arrangement of the limbs is highly characteristic, but appears to be not quite universal. In the Titanotheres, which form a group of the Perissodactyles, the fore-limbs are not quite accurately mesaxonic. Nor on the other hand can all Ungulates which show the Perissodactyle condition be safely included in the present group. The ancient Condylarthra and the Litopterna show precisely the same state of affairs. But other features in their organisation lead to their separation from the Perissodactyles, of which, however, the Condylarthra are probably ancestors. The Litopterna on the other hand, which possess even one-toed members like _Equus_, are believed to represent a case of parallelism in development. The number of functional toes varies from four to one. In the ankle joint the astragalus either does not, or does only to a comparatively slight extent, articulate with the cuboid as well as with the navicular bone. Moreover the fibula when present does not as a rule articulate with the calcaneum. In the opposed group of Artiodactyles the precise reverse of these conditions obtains. It is usually stated as part of the definition of this group that they do not possess horns of the type of those met with in the Cervicornia and Cavicornia. But the strong bony bosses on the skull of many Titanotheres, so curiously reminiscent of those of the not nearly related _Dinoceras_ and _Protoceras_, may well have supported horns of the Ox and Antelope pattern. [Illustration] FIG. 122.--Bones of the manus of Camel (_Camelus bactrianus_). × 1/8. _c_, Cuneiform; _l_, lunar; _m_, magnum; _R_, radius; _s_, scaphoid; _td_, trapezoid; _u_, unciform. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The teeth of the Perissodactyles are lophodont, more rarely bunodont. The selenodont Artiodactyle form of molar is not met with. The dental formula, moreover, is at least near the {237} complete one, the more modern forms as usual being the more deficient in numbers of teeth. The dorso-lumbar vertebrae are as a rule twenty-three; but the extinct Titanotheres are again an exception; for, at least in _Titanotherium_, there are but twenty of these vertebrae--an Artiodactyle character. The femur has a third trochanter. There are so few recent Perissodactyles that an enumeration of the distinguishing characters of the viscera may very probably be useless for purposes of classification. But the living genera at any rate are to be separated from the living Artiodactyles by the invariable simplicity of the stomach coupled with a very large and sacculated caecum. The liver is simple and not much broken up into lobes, and the gall-bladder is always absent. The brain is well convoluted. The teats are in the inguinal region. The placenta in this group is of the diffused kind. [Illustration] FIG. 123.--Anterior aspect of right femur of Rhinoceros (_Rhinoceros indicus_). × ½. _h_, Head; _t_, great trochanter; _t_', third trochanter. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The living Perissodactyles belong to three types only, indeed to three genera only (in the estimation of most), which are the Horses, Tapirs, and Rhinoceroses. But taking into account the extinct forms, they may be divided primarily (according to Professor Osborn) into the four following groups:--(1) Titanotherioidea, including but one family, Titanotheriidae; (2) Hippoidea, including the families Equidae and Palaeotheriidae; (3) Tapiroidea, with two families, Tapiridae and Lophiodontidae; and (4) Rhinocerotoidea with families Hyracodontidae, Amynodontidae, and Rhinocerotidae. It is conceivable, according to the same writer, that the Chalicotheres (here treated of as a separate sub-order, Ancylopoda) should be added to the Perissodactyle series. [Illustration] FIG. 124.--Side view of skull of Horse with the bone removed so as to expose the whole of the teeth. _c_, Canine; _Fr_, frontal; _i_^1, _i_^2, _i_^3, incisors; _L_, lachrymal; _m_^1, _m_^2, _m_^3, molars; _Ma_, malar or jugal; _Mx_, maxilla; _Na_, nasal; _oc_, occipital condyle; _Pa_, parietal; _pm_^1, situation of the vestigial first premolar, which has been lost in the lower, but is present in the upper jaw; _pm_^2, _pm_^3, _pm_^4, remaining premolars; _PMx_, premaxilla; _pp_, paroccipital process; _Sq_, squamosal. (After Flower and Lydekker.) FAM. 1. EQUIDAE.--This family, which includes the living Horse, Zebras, and Asses, as well as a number of extinct genera agreeing with those types in structure, may be defined by the possession of but one functional toe, the two lateral ones being mere splints, or but little more. The molar teeth are hypselodont, and {238} the premolars, with the exception of the first, resemble the molars in their pattern. The orbit is completely surrounded by bone. The incisors are chisel-shaped, with a pit on the free surface. The canines are rudimentary if present. The radius and ulna are fused, as are the tibia and fibula. Although for the sake of uniformity a family, Equidae, is here separated from its allies, it is quite impossible owing to the full state of our knowledge of this group to draw a really hard-and-fast line between this family and the Palaeotheriidae. We shall deal presently with the conjectured pedigree of the Horse, which naturally involves that family, and which presents an unbroken series from four-toed Perissodactyles to the present one-toed Horse, the various bones and teeth becoming modified in the course of the descent "with the regularity of clockwork." We are compelled to draw the line at functional second and third toes; directly these are no longer used the animal is a Horse in the strict sense! This is irrational and regrettable, but necessary for practical purposes, if {239} we are to continue the plan of defining the various families of Mammalia. The genus _Equus_[150] contains not only the Horse, but the Asses and Zebras. The genus is to be distinguished as regards external characters by the following features:--The body is thickly clothed with hair; there is a more or less bushy tail and mane; the colours are apt to be disposed in stripes of black or blackish upon a yellowish brown ground; this is of course best seen in the Zebras, but the wild Asses also have some traces of it, if only in the single cross-bar of the African Wild Ass, and it is even "reversionary" in the domestic Horse at times. There are no horns upon the forehead or elsewhere; the fore-limbs or both pairs have a callous pad upon the inside, which is possibly to be looked upon as an aborted gland, possibly originally of use as secreting some odorous substance calculated to enable strayed members of the herd to regain their companions. The terminal phalanx of each of the (functionally) single digits is enclosed in a large horny hoof. The main internal features of structure which divide this genus of Perissodactyles from the Rhinoceros or the Tapir, or from both, are: the existence of strong incisors, three on each side of each jaw; there are canines, but these are small and do not always persist in the full-grown mare. They are popularly known as "tusks" or "tushes." The first of the four premolars (the "wolf tooth") is small and quite rudimentary; it is often absent. As there are three molars, the present genus has the "typical" number of the Eutherian dentition, _i.e._ forty-four. In the skull the orbit is--as it is not in Tapirs and Rhinoceroses--completely encircled by bone. There is but one functional finger and toe on each hand (Fig. 121 C) and foot; the second and third digits are represented by mere splints, one of which may as an abnormality be enlarged, and reach nearly as far as the well-developed digit. There are even occasionally traces of digit number two. The Horse, _E. caballus_, is to be distinguished from its congeners by the small callosities on the hind-limbs which it possesses in addition to the larger ones on the fore-limbs. The hairy covering of the tail is more abundant, as is also the mane. The head too is proportionately smaller, and the general contour {240} more graceful. Though Zebra markings are not usual upon _E. caballus_, there are plenty of examples of--what we may perhaps in this case term--a "reversion" to a striped state. The celebrated "Lord Morton's mare,"[151] whose portrait hangs in the Royal College of Surgeons, is an interesting case of this. It was as a matter of fact thought to be an example of that rather doubtfully-occurring phenomenon, "telegony." Its history is briefly this. The animal was the offspring of a mare that had previously produced to a male Quagga a hybrid foal. Afterwards a second foal was produced by the same mare to an Arab sire. This foal, the one in question, was striped, and hence was thought to be an example of male prepotency. But instances are known of unquestioned Horses which show the same stripes, such as a Norway pony which had not even _seen_ a Zebra! A last remnant of the naked palm of the hand and sole of the foot is left in the shape of a small bare area, smaller in the Horse than in the Asses, known technically as the "ergot," the term being that of the French veterinarians. As already mentioned, the Horse differs from the Asses and Zebras in the fact that the hind-limbs have callosities on the inner side. They are known as "chestnuts," and their nature has been much disputed. It has been suggested that they are the last rudiment of a vanished toe; but in all probability they are, as already suggested, traces of glandular structures, which are common, upon the limbs in many animals (see above, p. 12). It is a singular fact that there are apparently no wild Horses of this species. The case is curiously analogous to that of the Camel, which also is only known as feral or domesticated. Why the Horse should have become extinct as a wild animal, considering that when it does run wild it can thrive abundantly, is impossible to understand. Sir W. Flower thinks[152] that "the nearest approach to truly wild horses existing at present are the so-called Tarpans, which occur in the Steppe country north of the sea of Azov between the river Dnieper and the Caspian. They are described as being of small size, dun colour, with short mane and rounded obtuse nose." But he adds that there is no evidence to prove whether they are really wild. In favour, however, of their possibly being wild and indigenous European Horses, may be {241} mentioned the fact that their general build and appearance is highly suggestive of the wild Horses sketched by primitive man upon ivory. A really wild Horse, and possibly the ancestor of the European domestic Horse, is _E. przewalskii_ of the sandy deserts of Central Asia. This animal has been believed to be a mule between the Wild Ass and a feral Horse; but if a distinct form, and probability seems to urge that view, it is interesting as breaking down the distinctions between Horses and Asses. The species possesses the four callosities of the Horse, but has a poorer mane and an asinine tail. There is no question that the Horse has been a domestic animal for very many centuries. Hieroglyphics appear to show that the Egyptians had not originally domesticated the Horse; it seems to have been first introduced among them by the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings.[153] Whatever the date may be, it is certain that considerably anterior to the Egyptians the Assyrians and Phoenicians possessed Horses. In Western Europe the date of the introduction of the Horse seems to have been during the bronze epoch. Lord Avebury[154] has pointed out that out of eighteen cases of graves in which the remains of Horse were found, twelve contained metal implements, _i.e._ 66 per cent. This does not of course prove that the Horse was domesticated at that period, but it throws doubt upon the earlier occurrence of the Horse in abundance. The Horse, however, does occur on the Continent associated with the remains of man during the Quaternary period.[155] Messrs. Cuyer and Alix enumerate between fifty and sixty domesticated races of Horse, not counting the supposed wild varieties which have been already referred to. These may be further subdivided; for instance, under the race "pony" we may distinguish the Irish, Scotch, and Shetland varieties, all of which, however, according to Sanson, have originated in Ireland. They are used, remark the authors above quoted, "par les jeunes filles des lords pour leurs promenades." The Arab, the Barb, the Suffolk Punch, etc., are among the numerous races of domestic Horses, into which to enter properly would require another volume, and that of large size. {242} The Asses and Zebras differ from the Horse in the characters mentioned under the description of _Equus caballus_. In addition to these may be pointed out a feature to which attention has been directed by Mr. Tegetmeier.[156] According to him the period of gestation in the Horse is only eleven months; in the others more than twelve. [Illustration] FIG. 125.--Asiatic Wild Ass. _Equus onager._ × 1/20. Opinions as to the number of species of Asses differ. On the most liberal estimate there are three Asiatic and two African species. The best known of the Asiatic Wild Asses is the Onager, _E. onager_. It is of a uniform yellowish, "desert" colour, with a dark stripe along the middle of the back, and is found in Persia, the Punjab, and the country of Cutch. The creature is of great swiftness; it has been stated to be untameable, but Mr. Tegetmeier makes the absolutely opposite statement that the Ass occasionally "becomes so tame as to be troublesome"! The Syrian Wild Ass, _E. hemippus_, hardly, if at all, differs from this. [Illustration] FIG. 126.--Nubian Wild Ass. _Equus africanus._ × 1/20. The Kiang, _E. hemionus_, seems to have more claims to distinctness. In the first place it has a more limited and a {243} different distribution; it is confined to the high tablelands of Thibet at an elevation of 15,000 feet and upwards. In correlation with this habitat it has a thicker and more "furry" coat, which is, moreover, of a darker shade than that of the Onager. This coat is shed in the summer, and replaced by one which is not so dark in hue. It is an interesting fact that the African Wild Asses approach to the zebra type in having at least traces of stripings. There are apparently two species. The best known, the Nubian Ass, _E. africanus_, is probably the parent of the domestic donkey. It has a dorsal longitudinal stripe, and another across the shoulder--in legend the marks of the Saviour. The matter of the name of this Ass seems difficult to decide. It has been called also _E. asinus_ and _E. taeniopus_. It has been observed that this animal has a great aversion to water, and a delight in rolling in the dust--both of which characteristics argue a desert existence. But on the other hand the Kiang will plunge boldly into streams, yet it would seem to be the descendant of a purely desert form. The Ass is a longer-lived {244} animal than the Horse. Mr. Tegetmeier calls attention to a donkey living in 1893 which had been ridden fifty-five years previously. The Horse, on the other hand, lives not much more than twenty-five years. A second species of African Wild Ass, _E. somalicus_,[157] is distinguished by its greyer colour, by the absence of the shoulder stripe, by the very faint development of the dorsal stripe, and by the presence of numerous cross stripes upon the legs. It has, too, smaller ears, and a longer and more flowing mane. Mr. Lort Phillips, an experienced naturalist and traveller, saw a herd of these Wild Asses in Somaliland, which he regarded as being of quite a new species. A living example in the Zoological Society's Gardens led Mr. Sclater to an identical conclusion, which was supported, as he pointed out, by the fact that this Ass has a different range to the African or Nubian Wild Ass. Of the Zebras three species are usually allowed; these are _E. zebra_, the "Mountain" or "Common" Zebra, _E. burchelli_, _E. grevyi_, as well as _E. quagga_. Professor Ewart thinks that the Common Zebra, Burchell's, and the Quagga are not very distinctly marked off from each other. No one, however, has any doubt of the distinctness of _E. grevyi_. This latter differs from the rest in its larger size, in the large head and ears, and in the marked hairiness of the ears. It would seem to be a primitive type of Zebra, if the fact that the occasional reversion of hybrids to a parent form be allowed; for Professor Ewart found a cross-bred Zebra to present several characteristics in the face-marking of this, the finest of the Zebra tribe. Only four specimens of _E. grevyi_ have been exhibited alive in Europe--two in Paris, and two in the Zoological Society's Gardens in London. The latter were presented to Queen Victoria by King Menelek of Abyssinia. The species was named by Professor A. Milne-Edwards in honour of a late President of the French Republic, from an example also sent by King Menelek. The Common Zebra has closer and darker stripes than Burchell's, but not quite so close as in _E. grevyi_. It has also a very characteristic arrangement of stripes on the withers in the form of a gridiron. This latter is wanting in both the other species. In _E. grevyi_, in fact, this part of the back is white. _E. zebra_ has also a dewlap in front. _E. burchelli_ has fewer and broader {245} stripes, and between them lie in many cases shadow-stripes of a faint brown. [Illustration] FIG. 127.--Burchell's Zebra. _Equus burchelli._ × 1/20. All these animals, and the Quagga too, are absolutely confined to Africa. Mr. R Crawshay,[158] in describing what he considered to be a new variety, remarked upon the curiosity of _E. burchelli_. "They remain out in the sun on the plains all day long, not retiring into covert at all. They are then an intolerable nuisance to any one in pursuit of other game; indeed this may be said of them at all times. If once they notice you, they draw in and mob you in their curiosity--only, however, when one takes no interest in them, for when they fancy they are the object of the intruder's attention, no animals are more watchful and cunning in safeguarding themselves. If only their curiosity were manifested in silence it would not so much matter, but it vents itself in snorts and thundering stampedes, which puts every beast within earshot on the _qui vive_." Whether Burchell's Zebra[159] can be further subdivided into species or sub-species appears to be doubtful. Dr. Matschie considers that _Equus boehmi_ may be regarded as a valid form, and in addition to this two sub-species, _E. burchelli granti_ and {246} _E. burchelli selousi_, have been proposed for what are at most local races. But it is at present far from certain whether their distribution favours this subdivision. The Quagga was more striped than is sometimes represented in illustrations. According to Dr. Noack, from whose paper[160] upon the animal I quote here, the transverse stripes reached back as far as the buttocks; they were, however, completely absent from the legs. The animal is, as every one knows, probably completely extinct. In the year 1836 it was still abundant; in 1864 the last specimen ever exhibited was received by the Zoological Society. Mr. W. L. Sclater thinks that it may have survived in the Orange River Colony as late as 1878, but admits that any certainty is difficult, as it was frequently confounded by the Boers with Burchell's Zebra. Its rarity is emphasised by the fact that it is not mentioned in the recent work of that most skilful of hunters, Mr. F. Selous. Gaudry places the Quagga nearest of all living Equidae to the _Hipparion gracile_ of Pikermi. FOSSIL EQUIDAE.--The existing Equidae all belong to the genus _Equus_, though there are some who would (quite unnecessarily) divide off the Zebras as a genus _Hippotigris_. The genus _Equus_ itself goes back in time to the Pliocene, during which epoch there lived in India _E. sivalensis_, the same species according to some with the _E. stenonis_ of Europe. None of these species, Old World or New, are easily to be separated from _E. caballus_. But many names have been given to them. It is of course perfectly conceivable that they may have differed among themselves as much as do the existing Zebras and Asses, the separation of which would be hardly possible did we know their bones only. There are, however, extinct genera, undoubtedly related so closely to _Equus_ as to be placed in the same family, though clearly separable as genera. _Hipparion_ is one of these genera; its remains are known from Europe, Asia, and North Africa, from beds of Miocene and Pliocene times. A large number of different species have been described. It was a beast of about the size of a Zebra. The principal characters are that each foot has three toes, of which, however, the two side ones are smaller than the central toe. There is a marked round fossa on the maxillary bone, a feature shared by the South American _Onohippidium_.[161] The pattern of {247} the molar teeth is, too, a little different from that of _Equus_. _Protohippus_ of the North American Pliocene is also three-toed, but the two additionally-developed toes are smaller than in _Hipparion_. Other forms are dealt with below in connexion with the ancestry of Perissodactyles. It is a curious fact about _Hipparion_, which is not now regarded as on the direct line of equine descent, that the edges of the enamel plates of the molars may show a complicated folding very like that presented by that clearly terminal form of Perissodactyle life, the gigantic _Elasmotherium_. This is indicative of high specialisation, which ended in extinction. ANCESTRY OF THE HORSES.--The LOPHIODONTIDAE and the PALAEOTHERIIDAE are two of the most interesting extinct families of Perissodactyles; for among them we find what would appear to be the ancestral forms of both the existing Tapirs and Horses. The Rhinoceroses also would seem to be derivable from the Palaeotheriidae. The very vagueness of the characters of these creatures, considered from a classificatory point of view, has led to much diversity in their placing. This though gratifying to the evolutionist is tiresome to the writer who wishes to give a methodical account of their various characters. It will be best perhaps not to attempt an accurate placing or to reconcile conflicting opinion, but to give some salient features of osteology which lead to the belief in their relationship to existing groups of Perissodactyles. A book upon the history of mammals would be incomplete without some account of that well-ascertained series of forms which seem to connect these primitive Perissodactyles with the modern Horse. _Equus_, in fact, is not only the "show horse" of the doctrine of evolution, but also the "stalking horse." In the Eocene of both Europe and America are met with a number of forms from which we may start. _Hyracotherium_, regarded on the one hand as the type of a sub-family of the Equidae themselves, and on the other as a member of the family Lophiodontidae, was a small-sized animal, three feet or so in length; it possesses the complete Eutherian dentition with a slight diastema. The orbits are not separated from the temporal fossa; the fore-limbs were four-toed, the hind three-toed, with moderately long metapodia, especially on the hind-feet. The shoulder blade {248} has a well-marked coracoid process. The radius and ulna are separate; so too are the tibia and fibula. _Eohippus_, belonging to the same sub-family, is slightly more primitive; for the hind-feet have a rudiment of digit I. _Orohippus_ is a little nearer to the Horses in that the molar teeth have acquired a little further advance towards the equine type. Instead of the tubercles of the teeth remaining for the most part separate, they have fused into a set of ridges, of which, however, the pattern is less complex than in the modern Horses. In other respects _Orohippus_ is much like _Hyracotherium_. _Pachynolophus_ seems to be but a synonym. The next stage is shown by _Mesohippus_, a Lower Miocene form, usually referred to the neighbourhood of _Palaeotherium_. It has nearly lost one of the toes of the fore-foot, a rudiment only remaining; the metapodials, at any rate of the fore-feet, seem to be slightly increased in length. The orbit is not encircled by bone, but there is a strong process from the frontal, which nearly meets the zygomatic arch. _Anchitherium_, from the Upper Miocene, is not far removed in structure from the last-mentioned form; it is a trifle nearer the existing Horse in several points. The ulna is further reduced and fused with the radius below: the rudiment of digit V is still more rudimentary; the two lateral digits are smaller in proportion to the central one than they are in _Mesohippus_; the fibula is fused below with the tibia. From this form to _Equus_ is a small series of steps, characterised by the still further reduction of all the digits except III, by the still further reduction of the already rudimentary ulna and fibula, and by the increasing depth of the molar teeth, which are of course, in _Equus_, hypselodont. Another interesting conclusion may seem to follow when we consider the geographical range of the ancestral Horses. _Hyracotherium_ and _Pachynolophus_ occurred both in the Old and New World. From them may have arisen the Horses of both hemispheres. After that point there is a division. _Mesohippus_ is American, and we get at _Equus_ in that continent through _Desmatippus_ and _Protohippus_. On the other hand there are no remains known of _Mesohippus_ in Europe; and unless subsequent researches prove the existence of _Mesohippus_, we have to rely upon forms which are placed with _Anchitherium_ and _Hipparion_. It seems that in America the next genus in the direct line of equine descent to _Mesohippus_ is _Miohippus_. It is smaller in {249} size than _Anchitherium_, to be considered immediately. The odontoid process of the axis is just beginning to assume the characteristic spout-like shape of that of the existing Horse and many modern Ungulates. The median digit of both fore- and hind-limbs has become greatly enlarged as compared with the corresponding digit of earlier forms. It is held, however, that _Anchitherium_ is not on the direct line of descent either in America or in Europe, in both of which it occurs. Its teeth are in some respects less Horse-like than in some of the more ancient genera, to which the converse would be expected on the descent theory. Its hoofs are much elongated and flattened, a mark of specialisation and not appropriate to a creature holding an intermediate position in the equine series. Both the American (_A. equinum_) and the European species (_A. aureliense_) are of very large size, larger than its successors, and such "alternations in bulk are unlikely." The genus _Desmatippus_ of Professor Scott[162] fills in the gap between _Miohippus_ and _Protohippus_. The molars and premolars are brachyodont, but there is a thin deposit of cement in the tooth valleys, leading towards the more complete filling of these valleys with cement, which is found in _Protohippus_. This genus of Horses, of which there is at present but one species, _D. crenidens_, was three-toed, and "the lateral digits, so far as can be judged by fragmentary remains, were still fairly developed, and though much more reduced than in _Miohippus_, appear to be somewhat less so than in _Protohippus_." To recapitulate, the following is the probable series of equines in America--_Mesohippus_, _Miohippus_, _Desmatippus_, _Protohippus_. The development of the limbs of the Horse shows a most interesting series, of stages, which correspond in part to the ancestral forms which palaeontology seems to prove to be the line of the descent of our existing Equidae. This matter has recently been elucidated by Professor Ewart, who details the following facts and comparisons:-- In the youngest embryo (about 20 mm. in length) the humerus is somewhat curved, and considerably longer than the radius and carpus taken together. The first-named bone is shorter in the adult, and the proportions of that bone in the young as well as its curvature are suggestive of that ancient {250} Ungulate _Phenacodus_ (see p. 202). In the next stage (an embryo of 25 mm.) the humerus has slightly decreased in proportionate length, and has come to be more like that of _Hipparion_. In both of these embryos it should be noted that the ulna is complete and separate from the radius. In the second of the two it has more distinctly acquired the form which it will possess in the adult. The second metacarpal--one of the splint bones of the adult--is tipped with a small nodule of cartilage, which is clearly the representative of one or more of the phalanges belonging to that digit. FAM. 2. TAPIRIDAE.--The Tapirs may be distinguished from the Horse and from the Rhinoceros tribe by a few characters, which are as follows:-- The dentition is generally the full one of forty-four teeth. The premolars in the more ancient forms are unlike the molars, but like them in more recent forms. The molars of the upper jaw have two crests parallel and united by an outer crest. The fore-feet have four, the hind-feet three toes. The family is fully as ancient as that of the Equidae, but the specialisation of the toes never advances so far. The modern representatives of the order are, so far as the feet are concerned, in the condition of very early representatives of the equine stock. Nor do the teeth of the Tapirs ever reach the complicated pattern of that presented by at least the modern Horses, or indeed of the Palaeotheres. Apart from this it is not an easy matter to distinguish accurately between these several families, including the Lophiodontidae, which, as already mentioned, is placed nearer to the Tapiridae than to the Palaeotheriidae. Indeed the differentiation of these two families, the Tapiridae and the Lophiodontidae, seems to be a matter of the greatest difficulty. The difficulty is well emphasised by the fact that naturalists disagree most profoundly as to the relations of various genera of extinct Tapir-like animals. For Mr. Lydekker the genus _Lophiodon_ includes also the American genera _Isectolophus_ and _Systemodon_, which are placed by Zittel in the sub-family Tapirinae as opposed to Lophiodontinae, which contains _Lophiodon_ and _Helaletes_. The existing Tapirs can be differentiated from the existing Horses with great ease, as the following account of the existing genera will show. {251} [Illustration] FIG. 128.--American Tapir. _Tapirus terrestris._ × 1/10. The genus _Tapirus_ is now met with only in South and Central America, and in the Malay Peninsula and the islands of Java and Sumatra. This animal is in many respects the most ancient of existing forms referable to the Perissodactyle order. It has four toes on the front-feet, though only three on the hind-feet. The number of teeth is 42--nearly the typical Eutherian number. The Tapirs are always moderately-sized animals, entirely covered with hair, and usually of a brownish-black colour. The Malayan Tapir is, however, banded broadly with white--a single band; the young of the Tapir is spotted, and striped with white. The nose and upper lip conjoined are produced into a short trunk, precisely comparable with that of the Elephant. As in the Rhinoceros--and in this both contrast with the other existing Perissodactyle genus _Equus_--the temporal fossa is not separated from the orbit by bone. Of existing Tapirs there are at any rate _T. terrestris_,[163] _T. roulini_ (the "Tapir Pinchaque" of Cuvier), _T. dowi_ and _T. bairdi_ in America (the last two being sometimes separated into a distinct genus, _Elasmognathus_, on account of the prolongation of the ossified mesethmoid), and _T. indicus_ in the East. The tapir, probably _T. terrestris_, is described by Buffon as "a dull and gloomy animal." It is certainly mainly nocturnal in habit. The name _terrestris_ was given by Linnaeus, who placed it in the same genus as {252} _Hippopotamus amphibius_; hence the epithet applied to the Tapir. But as a matter of fact it loves marshy neighbourhoods, and is in a way amphibious. This does not of course apply to the Andesian _T. roulini_, which inhabits the cordillera of Ecuador and Colombia. The distribution of existing Tapirs is, as is so often the case, restricted when compared with that of their extinct congeners and allies. In Europe the remains of the genus _Tapirus_ are abundant from Pliocene strata, and its remains are there known from as far back as the Miocene. The genus is thus one of the very oldest forms of Mammalia at present inhabiting the earth. [Illustration] FIG. 129.--Malayan Tapir. _Tapirus indicus_, young. × 1/10. (From _Nature_.) The Malayan Tapir is to be distinguished from the American (_T. terrestris_--the other species have not been dissected) by the greater development of the valvulae conniventes in the intestine, the absence of a moderator band in the heart, and the less elongated caecum, which is sacculated by only three bands, there being four in _T. terrestris_.[164] The animal frequents the most retired spots among the hill woods, by which habit it seems {253} largely to escape the Tiger, its most formidable foe in those regions of the world. Its quickness of senses enables it also to slip away with rapidity. It can proceed at a great pace when disturbed, and can readily push its way through obstacles. The young animal, like that of the American species, is dark brown with yellowish spots. It is stated by Mr. H. N. Ridley that the young animal lies during the hot part of the day under bushes, in which situation "its coat is so exactly like a patch of ground flecked with sunlight that it is quite invisible." It is interesting to note that here, as with some other animals, it is the young that are especially protected by such mechanisms. Moreover, some of the spots are round and some are more elongated, so that the resemblance to spots of sunlight which come in a direct and in a slanting direction is greatly increased. Even the colours of the adult are not so conspicuous when it is in its native haunts as might be supposed. The breaking up of the ground colour into tracts of two different colours prevent it from striking the eye so plainly as if it were of one colour throughout. "When lying down during the day it exactly resembles a grey boulder, and as it often lives near the rocky streams of the hill jungles, it is really nearly as invisible then as it was when it was speckled."[165] FAM. 3. RHINOCEROTIDAE.--This family is to be distinguished from the preceding by a number of characters, which though not universal are general. In the first place, there are commonly horns, or a horn, consisting of what appears to be an agglomeration of hair-like structures fixed upon a roughened patch of bone on the surface of the nasals. The incisors are diminished or defective, and the upper canines are often wanting. The molars and premolars are alike. The fore-feet are four- or three-toed, but are functionally tridactyle; the hind-feet are three-toed. The skeleton in this family is massive, and the limbs relatively short. The skull, as in the Tapirs, has a confluent orbit and temporal fossa. The upper lip is generally more or less prehensile; the body is as a rule--to which the Pleistocene Hairy Rhinoceros is of course an exception--rather sparsely covered with hair. In this feature the Rhinocerotidae contrast both with the Tapiridae and the Equidae. The family in reality contains but one existing genus, though three have been instituted, viz. {254} _Rhinoceros_, _Ceratorhinus_, and _Atelodus_. As there are so few existing species the subdivision of animals which agree in so many and such highly-characteristic features seems to be an unnecessary procedure. The existing Rhinoceroses are but a fragment of the total number of known forms from past epochs. The family is very markedly on the wane. The genus _Rhinoceros_ is characterised by its heavy build and thick, almost smooth, skin--smooth, that is to say, so far as concerns the slight development of hair--which is often thrown into folds. There is one or there are two horns on the fore-part of the head, which are, as has already been pointed out, structures _sui generis_, and not exactly comparable with the horns of other living Ungulates. There are three nearly equal toes on both fore- and hind-limbs. The canine teeth of existing species have disappeared; the incisors are, or are not, present; the molars and premolars are three and four in each half of each jaw. The visceral anatomy of the Rhinoceros has been much investigated so far as concerns the Asiatic forms. A curious feature, which serves to discriminate some of the Asiatic species from others, is to be seen in the small intestine. In _Rh. indicus_[166] this gut is furnished with numerous long cylindrical narrow outgrowths "like tags of worsted"; in the allied _Rh. sondaicus_ these tags are present, but are flatter and broader; while in the two-horned _Rh. sumatrensis_ there are no tags at all, but only smooth valve-like folds. Another mark by which these species can be distinguished depends upon the variation in the presence or absence of certain glands imbedded in the integument of the foot--the so-called "hoof glands." These occur in _Rh. indicus_ and _Rh. sondaicus_, but are absent in _Rh. sumatrensis_. Sir W. Flower[167] studied some years since the skull features which serve to differentiate the existing forms. In _Rh. sumatrensis_ the two long downward processes of the squamosal bone, termed respectively post-glenoid and post-tympanic, do not unite below the auditory meatus. In this the species in question agrees with the African forms but not with the one-horned Asiatic species, where the two processes completely fuse. Again, another character, though perhaps less important, {255} is the sloping backwards instead of forward of the occipital crest in all two-horned species, whether African or Asiatic. The Asiatic Rhinoceroses have, what the African animals have not, functional incisor teeth throughout life. It has been proposed on these and other grounds to separate generically the African and Asiatic forms. [Illustration] FIG. 130.--Indian Rhinoceros. _Rhinoceros indicus._ × 1/40. The Asiatic Rhinoceroses include three well-differentiated species, in all of which the skin is much thrown into folds. _Rh. indicus_ is the largest form. It is one horned, and has enormous folds of skin at the neck and hanging over the limbs. So like artificial armour is this thick plating, that Albrecht Dürer may be excused for having given the beast the appearance of being actually mail-plated in a sketch which he made of a specimen sent over to the King of Portugal in 1513. This particular beast, one of if not the first sent over to Europe, proved so intractable in disposition that the king sent it as a present to the Pope. But "in an access of fury it sunk the vessel on its passage"! The horn of this and of other species was held until almost our times to have medicinal and other more curious values. So recently as 1763 it was gravely asserted that a cup made of its horn would fall to pieces if poison were poured into it. "When wine is poured therein," wrote Dr. Brookes in the year referred to, "it will rise, ferment, and seem to boil; but when {256} mixed with poison it cleaves in two, which experiment has been seen by thousands of people." John Evelyn also wrote of a well in Italy which was kept sweet by a Rhinoceros' horn. This species seems to be long-lived, even in captivity; a specimen now to be seen in the Zoological Society's Gardens has been there since the year 1864. _Rhinoceros sondaicus_, the Rhinoceros of the Sunderbunds, has a much wider range than the last species or Indian Rhinoceros. This is unknown out of India itself, and is there limited to a small region; the Sondaic form is found in Bengal and in the Malayan Islands. It is a smaller species, and the armour has a tesselated appearance. The female generally, if not always, is hornless. [Illustration] FIG. 131.--Sumatran Rhinoceros. _Rhinoceros sumatrensis._ × 1/15. (From _Nature_.) The Sumatran species, _Rhinoceros sumatrensis_, is to be distinguished from the last two by its two horns. It is also covered {257} by a much thicker coat of hairs, which are sometimes blacker and sometimes redder. On account of its two horns it has been proposed to separate it from the other Oriental species into a distinct genus, _Ceratorhinus_. The animal has much the same range as the last species, but extends to Borneo. A variety of this species with hairy ears, from Assam, has been separated as a distinct form, under the name of _Rh. lasiotis_, by Mr. Sclater. The animal upon which that species was founded was until quite recently living in the Zoological Society's Gardens. [Illustration] FIG. 132.--Hairy-eared Rhinoceros. _Rhinoceros lasiotis._ × 1/30. There are only two certainly-known species of Rhinoceros in Africa. These are the White Rhinoceros (_Rh. simus_) and the Black Rhinoceros (_Rh. bicornis_). The origin of the names is not easy to understand, since the "white" animal is, if anything, darker in colour than the Black Rhinoceros. It is stated, however, that in past years the specimens of _Rh. simus_ found in the south-west of Cape Colony were "paler and whiter in colour than those in the north-east." At present there are no grounds for distinguishing the species by their colour characters. But they are plainly distinguishable on other grounds. _Rhinoceros simus_ has a square upper lip, and in relation to this crops the herbage upon the ground. _Rh. bicornis_ has a prehensile upper lip projecting beyond the lower, and in a corresponding fashion feeds principally upon the branches of shrubs, It has been pointed out by Mr. {258} Coryndon[168] that the calf of _Rh. simus_ "always runs in front of the cow, while the calf of _Rh. bicornis_ invariably follows its mother." Both animals of course have two horns, and upon the varying proportions of the horns a large number of "species" have been made in the past. It is stated that the longest horn of the "White Rhinoceros" known measures 56½ inches; while that of _R. bicornis_ is shorter, 40 inches being apparently the maximum. But the animal is smaller. [Illustration] FIG. 133.--Head of _Rhinoceros bicornis_. The possible third African species of _Rhinoceros_[169] has been provisionally named after Mr. Holmwood, and is based upon two horns 41 and 42 inches long, which may be abnormal horns of _Rh. bicornis_; but they are thinner and have a smaller pedicel. EXTINCT RHINOCEROTIDAE.--The existing Rhinoceroses are thus confined to Africa, to certain parts of the continent of Asia, and to some of the large islands lying to the south of that continent. But formerly the genus, and allied genera, had a wider range. As far back as the Miocene we meet with remains of Rhinoceroses closely allied to existing forms. The more ancient forms have, as is natural, more ancient characters. Thus in _Rh. schleiermacheri_ of the Miocene, canines appear to have been present. The Miocene _Aceratherium_, primitive in the absence of horns as its {259} name denotes,[170] had also canines and, in one species, six incisors in the lower jaw. This _Aceratherium_ had, moreover, four toes in the fore-feet. In the Miocene and later the Rhinoceros existed in Europe and America. There was even a purely northern form, the _Rh. tichorhinus_, which possessed a woolly covering and had the same range as the Mammoth. This Rhinoceros was two-horned. The post-Pliocene and European _Elasmotherium_ was a colossal rhinocerotine creature. This great beast had two horns and a body 15 feet long. Its limbs are not known, and as the teeth are different from those of Rhinoceroses in general, it may not have belonged to this group at all, though Osborn is inclined to derive it from _Aceratherium_, admitting at the same time that the evidence is "decidedly slender." The teeth in fact are like those of a Horse in being hypselodont and prismatic in form. As to the two horns, they were apparently not exactly like those of typical Rhinoceroses; there was an enormous horn posteriorly, supported on a huge boss of bone, and in front of this a roughened spot suggests a smaller or at least a much more slender horn. It is important to notice that fossil Rhinoceroses belonging to the restricted genus _Rhinoceros_ were in Europe invariably two-horned; it is only in India, where they still exist, that one-horned forms are met with in a fossil state. [Illustration] FIG. 134.--Skeleton of _Hyracodon nebrascensis_. × 1/12 (After Scott.) The Rhinoceroses of America were mostly hornless. _Diceratherium_ is an exception; but in many cases it had two parallel not successive horns, and these were, to judge from the slight prominences, but feeble in development, and perhaps hardly exactly comparable with the formidable weapons of the Old-World forms. _Aceratherium tridactylum_, with indications of paired horns, may be ancestral to _Diceratherium_. The American forms have weak and slender nasals in correspondence with the absence of horns; the sagittal crest is retained in contradistinction to the great flattened surface of the skull in the horned Rhinoceroses. _Aceratherium_ of both divisions of the globe probably represents the ancestral group of the horned and the hornless forms. This being the case it is highly interesting to note a distinct convergence in the quite {260} separate American genera towards the European horned genera. A genus sometimes united with _Aceratherium_, but still differing from it in some points, is _Aphelops_ (_Teleoceras_).[171] This animal is more nearly approximated to "the modern standard" of Rhinoceroses than is its possible ancestor _Aceratherium_. The skeleton in general is more robust, even surpassing that of modern forms, and approaching the _Hippopotamus_. There is a reduction in the upper incisors, which are limited to two pairs, and the lower molars {262} are reduced to five. The lower incisors are only two. The sagittal crest is less marked; the fifth digit is reduced to a tiny nodule representing the metacarpus. It had a small nasal horn. There are numerous other details of likeness to modern Rhinoceroses in this creature, which has only community of descent with them from the older hornless forms, such as _Aceratherium_ and _Caenopus_. In the genus _Peraceras_ the upper incisors are as completely gone as in the living African Rhinoceroses. [Illustration] FIG. 135.--Skeleton of _Aphelops (Teleoceras) fossiger_. × 1/15. (After Osborn.) The most ancient rhinocerotine types[172] are the Hyracodonts and the Amynodonts. They both date from the Eocene, and became extinct in the succeeding Oligocene. _Hyracodon_[173] (Fig. 134) was "an agile, light-chested, and rather long-necked" type, resembling a Horse in build. There were no horns present, but the hoofs were more like those of the Horses than of the existing Rhinoceroses. These animals were apparently plain dwellers and defenceless, which is held to account for their compact hoofs and outward similarity to a Horse. The genus is Oligocene. The dental formula is I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/3 M 3/3. It is surmised by Professor Scott that the number of dorso-lumbar vertebrae was twenty-three or twenty-four. The radius and ulna are complete and separate bones, but the latter is somewhat reduced. There are four metacarpal bones, of which, however, the fifth is much reduced. The animal is only three-fingered. The tibia and the fibula are distinct, and show no tendencies towards fusion; but the fibula is much reduced. There are only three metatarsals and three toes. Had this line, which is to be regarded as a side branch of the Rhinoceros stem, not died out, it would probably have resulted, thinks Professor Scott, in monodactyle--very Horse-like types. It is later than the next genus to be described, _Hyrachyus_, of which it is possibly a descendant. An intermediate type, _Triplopus_, appears to bind together _Hyracodon_ and _Hyrachyus_. In _Hyrachyus agrarius_ the skull is long and narrow, the facial region being markedly longer than in existing Rhinoceroses. The mastoid portion of the periotic bone is widely exposed upon the outer face of the skull, which is, as has been said, not the case with the existing genus _Rhinoceros_. The dentition is the complete Eutherian dentition of forty-four teeth. The upper {263} molar teeth are strikingly like those of the genus _Rhinoceros_. The fore-feet are pentadactyle, but functionally tetradactyle; the hind-feet tridactyle. The ulna is less reduced than in _Hyracodon_, and the dorso-lumbar vertebrae are twenty-five. [Illustration] FIG. 136.--Skeleton of _Metamynodon planifrons_. × 1/22. (After Osborn and Wortman.) The Amynodonts were short, heavy types, probably marsh-haunting in habit, and possibly with a proboscis like that of the Tapir. The orbit is higher than it is in the purely terrestrial {264} Hyracodonts, and it is suggested that when swimming it was raised above the surface as with the Hippopotamus. "This feature," observes Professor Osborn, "with the long curved tusks, undoubtedly used in uprooting, suggests the resemblance between the habits of these animals and those of the hippopotami." There were no horns in the Amynodonts. The face is shorter than in the Hyracodonts, and the mastoid is covered as in recent Rhinoceroses. The canines are very strongly developed into tusks, but the incisors show signs of disappearance. We know of the genera _Amynodon_, _Metamynodon_, and _Cadurcotherium_. All except the last, which is European, are American in range. FAM. 4. TITANOTHERIIDAE.--These Oligocene Ungulates, often attaining to large dimensions, are nearly peculiar, so far as is at present known, to the North American Continent, and are at least most abundant in it.[174] Many generic names, such as _Titanotherium_, _Brontotherium_, _Brontops_, _Titanops_, and _Menodus_, have been given to them; but a recent study of the entire material accessible for description or already described has led Professor Osborn to the opinion that there was but a single genus, to which the name _Titanotherium_ must be applied. Of this genus there are some thirty well-characterised species, of which the gradual evolution can be traced from the lowest strata of the White River beds where their remains occur. An entire skeleton of _T. robustum_ enables us to understand the osteology of these forms and to compare them with other Perissodactyles. This animal was more than 13 feet long, standing some 7 feet 7 inches in height. It seems to have presented during life the aspect of a Rhinoceros with perhaps a touch of Elephant. The skull is not unlike that of a Rhinoceros in general dimensions and shape; but there are a pair of apparent horn cores anteriorly, which are smaller in the more ancient forms and acquire a large size, a forward direction with a divergence of the two in the later forms. A glance at the accompanying figures of skulls (Fig. 137) of early and later Titanotheres will exhibit the changes in this particular which the skulls underwent in the lapse of time occupied by the deposition of these Oligocene beds. The nasals are short in the later, longer in the more early species, such as _T. heloceras_ and _T. coloradense_. The zygomatic arch projects much, and is "shelf-like" in the later forms, the skull thus getting an immense breadth, which, {266} together with the long and divergent horn cores, must have given to the living animal a most bizarre appearance. It is an interesting fact that this animal, though a Perissodactyle, agrees with the Artiodactyla in the nineteen dorso-lumbar vertebrae, of which seventeen bear ribs. [Illustration] FIG. 137.--Three figures showing the cranial evolution of _Titanotherium_. Upper figure, _T. trigonoceras_; middle figure, _T. elatum_; lower figure, _T. platyceras_. (After Osborn.) The genus further agrees with the Artiodactyles in the structure of the carpus. The toes of the fore-limb are four, those of the hind-limb three; but while the hind-limb is undoubtedly Perissodactyle in the arrangement of its component parts, the fore-limb shows a hint of an Artiodactyle mode of structure. This limb is paraxonic, the axis of the limb passing between the two middle digits. It may be that this genus represents more nearly than any other Perissodactyle or Artiodactyle the primitive stem from which both have diverged, though, of course, it is not old enough to be very near to the actual ancestor. The molar dentition is the typical one; the incisors seem to vary as to their presence or absence, and, if present, in their numbers. In comparing the older with the more recent forms it is noteworthy that there has been an increase of size exactly as there has been during the evolution of the Camels and some other groups of Ungulates. As already mentioned, the size of the horn cores also increases until it culminates in the extraordinary species, _T. platyceras_ and _T. ramosum_, in which these are half as long as the skull, flattened in form, and connected at their bases by a "web" of bone. Arrived at this amount of specialisation the genus _Titanotherium_ apparently exhausted its capacities for modification and ceased to be. The many generic names may be explained by sexual differences on the one hand and an incomplete knowledge of connecting links on the other.[175] _Palaeosyops_ is somewhat like a Tapir in build, the skull especially resembling that of the Tapir. As in _Titanotherium_ the molar teeth, instead of having an outer wall formed by fused cusps, have a [176]-shaped outer wall on one side and two or one cusps on the opposite side. It is, moreover, an Eocene form, and in correspondence with its greater age is more primitive in some points of structure, for example, in the absence of horns and in the full dental formula. The fore-limbs are four-toed, the hind {267} three-toed. It was intermediate between a Tapir and a Rhinoceros in size. It has been shown, too, from casts of the interior of the skull, that the cerebral hemispheres are much less convoluted than were those of _Titanotherium_. Related to _Palaeosyops_ is another primitive Titanothere, the genus _Telmatotherium_. This is also Eocene, from the Uinta Basin, the uppermost of Eocene strata. The skull of these creatures was rather elongated, and not unlike that of a Titanothere in general aspect. The dentition was complete and the canines not very large. The horns, which acquire so prodigious a development in the later Titanotheres, are just recognisable in at any rate many species of this genus _Telmatotherium_, the name being thus by no means an apt one. Better was that proposed by Dr. Wortman, of _Manteoceras_ or "prophet horned." The horns are small elevations upon the frontals just at the junction of these with the nasals, and, indeed, lying partly upon the latter bones. In _T. cornutum_ the horns are chiefly borne upon the very long nasals, whose size contrasts with the same bones in the more highly-developed _Titanotherium_. It appears to be quite possible that _Titanotherium_ was evolved from the genus _Telmatotherium_.[177] SUB-ORDER 9. LITOPTERNA. Whether the MACRAUCHENIIDAE should be considered as a separate group of Ungulata is a matter of dispute. Cope placed them in a special order of Ungulates which he called Litopterna. Zittel, on the other hand, regards them as definitely Perissodactyles. One curious point of resemblance to existing Horses is shown--that is the presence of a pit in the incisor teeth. This matter seems to be so important as to need a placing of these forms in the neighbourhood of the Perissodactyles, even of the Equidae; it is so peculiar a character, and apparently so little related to any obvious similarity in way of life, that it seems to mark a special affinity. Not so the fact that in _Macrauchenia_ at any rate the orbit was entirely surrounded by bone as in the Horse. We find that condition so frequently acquired in many groups,--a development from an earlier condition where the cavity for the lodgment of the eye is in continuity with the temporal {268} fossa, that it cannot be regarded as anything more than a mark of specialisation. It is, in fact, the case that the Macraucheniidae are in many points specialised, while retaining many primitive features of structure. The chief primitive features are: the non-alternating positions of the wrist- and ankle-bones; these, of course, interlock in the Perissodactyles of to-day and in many extinct families. Then the absence of a diastema in the tooth series, coupled with the presence in _Macrauchenia_ of a complete dentition. The small brain may be referred to the same category. _Macrauchenia_ must have been a strange-looking animal. It walked upon three toes on each limb; the skull was Horse-like in general form, but the nostrils are removed to a point about as far back as in the Whales or nearly so, the nasal bones being correspondingly reduced. This it is thought argues a proboscis. The humerus is particularly compared by Burmeister[178] to that of a Horse. The radius and ulna though both well developed are fused. The neck is long, and, as in the Camel, the vertebral arteries run inside the neural arches. Since the fore-legs seem to have been rather longer than the hind-legs, though only very slightly, and the neck was long, the animal may have presented some likeness to the Giraffe. It is interesting to note that in the proportions of humerus to ulna this animal is more Lama-like than Horse-like. On the other hand, the proportions of femur to tibia are more Horse-like. The remains of the creature are limited to South America, and to quite superficial deposits. It is evidently a specialised type, and has pursued a course parallel to that of the Horse. Much nearer to the Horse however, but apparently by convergence only, is the genus _Thoatherium_, usually placed in a separate family, the PROTOROTHERIIDAE. In this creature, which has many archaic characters, the toes are reduced to one in each foot. In an allied form, _Protorotherium_, we have the two lateral toes diminishing just as in _Anchitherium_. * * * * * {269} CHAPTER XI UNGULATA (_continued_)--ARTIODACTYLA (EVEN-TOED UNGULATES)--SIRENIA SUB-ORDER 10. ARTIODACTYLA. [Illustration] FIG. 138.--Bones of the Manus--A, of Pig (_Sus scrofa_). × 1/3. B, of Red Deer (_Cervus elaphus_). × ½. C, of Camel (_Camelus bactrianus_). × 1/8. _c_, Cuneiform; _l_, lunar; _m_, magnum; _m_^2, _m_^5, second and fifth metacarpals; _R_, radius; _s_, scaphoid; _td_, trapezoid; _u_, unciform; _U_, ulna; _II-V_, second to fifth fingers. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The Artiodactyle or "Even-toed" Ungulates are to be distinguished from the Perissodactyla, and from other Ungulate groups, by a number of trenchant characters. The most salient {270} of these, and that which has given its name to the group, concerns the arrangement of the digits. Instead of there being but one prevailing digit--the third, in the hand and foot, through which the axis of the foot passes, there are two, numbers three and four, between which the same axis passes, and which are perfectly symmetrical with each other. This type of foot has been termed "paraxonic," as opposed to the "mesaxonic" Perissodactyle foot (see Fig. 121 B, p. 235). It has been attempted to prove that the single prevailing digit of the Horse's foot is a fused pair of digits, and the state of affairs which characterises the Camel, where the two metacarpals or metatarsals are to an almost complete extent united, has been urged in proof; so, too, certain abnormalities, such as those called "solid-hoofed pigs."[179] These latter are simply Pigs in which the two central metacarpals and the terminal hoofs are completely fused with one another. In some of such cases there is not the slightest trace of the union of the separate metacarpals and phalanges. Even the sesamoid bones, attached behind to the toes, are two in number instead of four. And, furthermore, the tendon supplying the bones is single, though showing traces of its double origin. Such Pigs often show the abnormality from generation to generation, and they proved convenient for those whose scruples would not allow them to eat the flesh of a beast "dividing the hoof" and not chewing the cud. More singular still, as showing a pathological approach from another side to the Perissodactyle condition in an Artiodactyle, is a calf, where the foot ended in three equi-sized digits, of which the middle one lay in the longitudinal axis of the limb. From the opposite side cases are known of a Horse with a split hoof and phalanges, thus presenting the most striking likeness to a Camel. There is, furthermore, in certain groups of Artiodactyles (_e.g._ the Tragulidae) a tendency for the two middle metacarpals to unite, quite apart from such "sports" as those illustrated by the cases just set forth. And, as already mentioned, the union of the two middle metacarpals culminates in the Camel, Ox, etc. There is, however, absolutely no trace of such a fusion in the series of Perissodactyle animals known to us; and it would be by fusion rather than dismemberment that, as it would appear on this theory, the modern Ungulate foot has been arrived at. Of course {271} the facts of Ungulate descent are absolutely destructive of any such comparisons. As is the case with the Perissodactyles, the Artiodactyles show a historical series, the primitive five-toed condition being almost preserved in _Oreodon_, up to the most modern modification exemplified by the Ox, Sheep, etc., in which animals there are not even vestiges of the fourth and fifth toes. It has been stated, however, that the foetal Sheep has traces of those rudiments. The so-called cannon bone (the fused third and fourth metapodia) is accompanied in its fusion by an increase in length. At the same time the functional middle metacarpals push aside the rudiments and, forming a broad surface for that purpose, articulate with the magnum and unciform bones to the exclusion of the rudiments. This has been termed an "adaptive reduction." In the "inadaptive reduction" there is the same reduction of the metacarpals, but the rudiments still articulate as in the primitive Artiodactyle foot, _i.e._ Mc II with trapezium, trapezoid, and magnum; Mc III with magnum and unciform; Mc IV and V with unciform. This would appear to give greater solidity and consequently greater strength to the foot. [Illustration] FIG. 139.--Dorsal surface of right tarsus of Red Deer (_Cervus elaphus_). × 1/3. _a_, Astragalus; _c_, calcaneum; _c_^3, cuneiform; _cb_, cuboid; _mIII_, _mIV_, metatarsals; _n_, navicular. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The carpal bones of the Artiodactyla alternate in their articulation; the primitive state of affairs[180] is not retained even in the earliest types. The femur has no third trochanter, so prevalent in the Perissodactyles. In the hind-foot the calcaneum has an articular facet for the fibula, which is not characteristic of the Perissodactyla. In the more modern forms, _e.g._ the Cervidae, the navicular and cuboid become fused into one bone; and there are even further fusions which will be referred to later as characteristic features of different groups. It is interesting to notice that the reduction begins earlier and is clearer in the hind-foot than in the fore. One {272} can see how this may be purely adaptive, the push of the hind-legs in running needing a firmer support. In _Hyomoschus_ this is the case. The hind-limbs are provided with a cannon bone, while the metacarpals of the fore-feet are still free. The number of dorso-lumbar vertebrae is less in the Artiodactyle than in the Perissodactyle Ungulates. Whereas the former have but nineteen, the latter have, as a rule, twenty-three such vertebrae.[181] The number of ribs varies from twelve (_Camelus_, _Hydropotes_) through thirteen (_Cervus_, _Gazella_) to fourteen in _Dicotyles_, _Giraffa_, etc. The curious form of teeth known as "selenodont" is characteristic of the Artiodactyla, though only found well developed in the modern forms, and of those only in the Pecora. The more primitive forms had "bunodont" teeth with typically four tubercles (if we except the tritubercular and but little-known _Pantolestes_); and the intermediate "buno-selenodont" type characterises such groups as the Anthracotheriidae. While the stomach of the Perissodactyles is always a simple sac, it is complicated, or shows signs of complication, in the Artiodactyles. That of the Hippopotamus is divided into two chambers; there are three in _Tragulus_, and four in the typical Ruminants such as _Cervus_, _Ovis_, etc. Had we to deal only with the still living genera of Artiodactyles, it would be easy to sort them into two groups on the characters of the teeth; for the Pigs and Hippopotamus are provided with tubercular molars; they are bunodont. The Deer, Camels, Oxen, Giraffes, etc., have selenodont molars. Besides, the latter are "Ruminants," and have a more complicated stomach. The existing Chevrotains forbid a more trenchant division, since they are, as will be pointed out in due course, somewhat intermediate in structure; the feet are more Pig-like, and the stomach is not so typically Ruminant. In any case such a division is prevented by certain extinct families which are perhaps ancestral to both. They have teeth which are not quite bunodont and not quite selenodont. These teeth have been termed buno-selenodont or buno-lophodont. The distribution of the living Artiodactyles presents us with some interesting facts. The vast preponderance of species occurs in the Old World--34 in America as against over 250 species {273} in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Neotropical region has no Oxen, or Sheep, or Antelopes. The latter are confined to Africa, Asia, and certain parts of the Palaearctic region; they are vastly more prevalent in Africa, where they take the place of the totally absent Deer. The Pig tribe is almost entirely Oriental and Ethiopian in distribution, only one form, the European Wild Boar, ranging into the Palaearctic region; and the two species of Peccary are found in both North and South America. Broadly speaking, the Ethiopian region is the headquarters of the Artiodactyla. But the great island of Madagascar has but one form of Artiodactyle, a Pig of the genus _Potamochoerus_.[182] GROUP I.--_SUINA._ FAM. 1. HIPPOPOTAMIDAE.--The family Hippopotamidae contains of existing genera only _Hippopotamus_, for the Liberian dwarf Hippopotamus is not now regarded, as it was formerly, as the type of another genus, _Choeropsis_. The reasons for its former separation were the loss of the outer pair of incisors and the different proportions of various parts of the skull. This little Liberian animal has, however, been shown by Sir W. Flower[183] to possess the missing incisors occasionally; and as to the proportions of the skull, it is exceedingly common for small animals to vary from larger relatives in this way. Hence, considering the characteristic features of the Hippopotamus and the fewness of species, it seems unnecessary to divide it up further. We shall therefore only recognise one genus. The Hippopotamus at present is African in range, and confined to that continent. But quite recently it inhabited Madagascar; and further back still in time the existing African species, _H. amphibius_, ranged into Europe; there were also Indian forms, which were contemporary with the Stone-age man. The Common Hippopotamus is a great thick-skinned beast with but few hairs. It has four toes on each foot, a complex stomach, but no caecum. The strong incisors continue growing through life, as do the great canines. The number of incisors is two on each side of each jaw. Some of the extinct species had six in each {274} jaw, and they were distinguished as a genus _Hexaprotodon_, contrasting with _Tetraprotodon_, until intermediate conditions were observed. _Choeropsis_, as already observed, was a still further reduction of the tetraprotodont type. The molars (the formula is Pm 4/4 M 3/3) when worn show a double trefoil pattern. The orbital cavity is encircled by bone. As with many other aquatic mammals the kidneys are lobulated. [Illustration] FIG. 140.--Hippopotamus. _Hippopotamus amphibius._ × 1/40. A very singular fact about the Hippopotamus is the production of a "bloody sweat," a carmine-coloured secretion, containing small crystals and corpuscles, from the skin. This coloured fluid has of course nothing to do with blood.[184] The animal grows to a length of at any rate 14 feet. The limbs and the tail are short. Like other aquatic animals the nostrils are on the surface of the head, and can be closed when the animal is under water. When it reaches the surface of the water after a prolonged immersion, it spouts like a Whale. Sir Samuel Baker says that ten minutes is the longest time that the Hippopotamus can remain below the water. It is frequently a dangerous animal to encounter, as it will capsize boats, and even bite large pieces out of their bottoms; with its huge teeth it {275} can and does attack and destroy human beings. The Hippopotamus not only swims, but can walk along the bottom of a river with great rapidity. It occasionally puts out to sea from the mouths of rivers frequented by it; and it is supposed that in this way Madagascar was populated with Hippopotamuses, whose remains are now found in swamps in that island. [Illustration] FIG. 141.--Wild Boar. _Sus scrofa._ × 1/12. FAM. 2. SUIDAE.--The Pig family, Suidae, differ from the last in their smaller size, in the terminal nostrils and mobile snout, which is not grooved, except faintly as in _Babirusa_. They are generally hairy, but the Babyroussa is an exception, while _Phacochoerus_ is but slightly haired. Though there are four digits, as in the Hippopotamus, only two reach the ground in walking. The stomach, furthermore, is simple, and (except in _Dicotyles_) there is a caecum. The kidneys are smooth, and the liver is more lobate than in _Hippopotamus_. The orbital cavity is confluent with the temporal fossa. The typical genus, _Sus_, is distributed over Europe, Asia, and the islands of the Malay Archipelago, reaching as far as Borneo and Celebes. The dentition[185] is complete. A single species, the so-called _S. sennaariensis_, is from Ethiopian Africa, but it is not certain how far this animal may be an escaped species introduced by man. A very large number of "species" of _Sus_ have been described, but Dr. Forsyth {276} Major is disposed to reduce them to four if not to fewer species. He allows the widely-ranging _S. scrofa_, _S. vittatus_, and the eastern Malayan _S. verrucosus_ and _S. barbatus_. [Illustration] FIG. 142.--Pygmy Hog (from _Nature_). _Sus salvania._ × 1/6. The Pygmy Hog of the Bhotans seems to be not entitled to specific rank, certainly not to generic (in the opinion of some), though it has been termed _Porcula salvania_.[186] The Wild Boar of Europe is _Sus scrofa_. It was formerly quite abundant in this country; not merely are its remains exhumed from fens, caves and peat bogs, but there is ample evidence of its continuance down to a comparatively late historic period. Enactments are on record as to the hunting of these animals; there are places, such as Boarstall, whose names are clearly derived from the name of the animal, presumably once a native of the locality; and various documents all show the presence of the Wild Boar {277} in this country down to so late a period as the end of the sixteenth century. [Illustration] FIG. 143.--Wart Hog. _Phacochoerus aethiopicus._ × 1/6. The African Wart Hog, genus _Phacochoerus_, is usually regarded as the type of a distinct genus of Pigs. This animal, "superlatively ugly" with its huge tusks and great protuberances upon the face, is chiefly to be distinguished from the genus _Sus_ by these characters, and by the complexity of the last molar, which, with the tusks, are sometimes in aged animals the only teeth left. The complete formula is Pm 2/2 M 3/3. There are two species of this genus, _P. aethiopicus_ and _P. africanus_. When enraged the Wart Hog is said to carry its tail directly up, and to present a ludicrous as well as ferocious appearance. [Illustration] FIG. 144.--Head of Wart Hog. The Celebesian Babyroussa, genus _Babirusa_, is an almost hairless hog with enormously upturned tusks in both jaws of the {278} male. In the Wild Boar there is a hint of this, which is carried still further in _Phacochoerus_; but in _Babirusa_ the upper tusks turn upwards before they leave the substance of the jaw, for which reason they appear to arise on its dorsal surface; the lower tusks are nearly as long. It has been found that the young of this Pig are not striped as are those of other Pigs. By means of the curved upper tusks this animal has been said by old writers to suspend itself to branches of trees, just as does by his downwardly-projecting tusks the male Chevrotain! There is but one species, _B. alfurus_. From _Sus_ proper the African and Malagasy _Potamochoerus_, including the Red River Hog, is barely separable generically. Their principal claim to generic distinction lies in the existence of a horny outgrowth arising from a bony apophysis above the canine in the male. These have been compared to the osseous "horn cores" in the extinct Dinocerata. But the Javan _Sus verrucosus_ shows at least the beginning of a similar modification. The popular name of the animal is derived from the fine rufous colour of its pelage, not seen, however, in all the species. Dr. Forsyth Major[187] recognises five species, of which only one is from Madagascar. [Illustration] FIG. 145.--Peccary. _Dicotyles tajaçu._ × 1/6. FAM. 3. DICOTYLIDAE.--The Peccaries are generally placed in a different family from that of the other Pigs. This family, {279} Dicotylidae, contains but one genus, _Dicotyles_, with at most two species. The name of the animal is connected with the dorsal gland; the animal thus appeared to possess two navels. The Peccaries, exclusively confined to the New World, differ from the Old-World Pigs in one or more important characters. They have only three toes on the hind-feet, and the stomach is complicated. Though the Peccaries have but small tusks they hunt in packs and are very dangerous animals to meet with. They owe, too, their safety from many foes to their sociable habits. Being nocturnal animals they are liable to the attacks of the Jaguar, which will speedily overpower and devour a Peccary that has strayed from its herd. FOSSIL SWINE.--The existing genera of the Pig tribe are also known in a fossil condition. _Sus_ itself goes back as far as the Upper Miocene. _Sus erymanthius_, the Erymanthine Boar, is known from beds of that age in Greece, England, and Germany. This genus is not known to have had a wider distribution in the past than it has in the present. _Dicotyles_ occurs in the Pleistocene of both North and South America, the regions which it inhabits at the present day. The genus _Listriodon_, also Miocene, is remarkable for having lophodont instead of bunodont teeth, that is so far as concerns the molars, which resemble those of the Tapir. It was European and Indian in range. A number of genera, more remote from the existing Pigs than those which have just been dealt with, are placed together in a special sub-family, Achaenodontinae. The type genus, _Achaenodon_, had a somewhat short skull for a Pig; and it is in general aspect and in the characters of the canine teeth highly suggestive of that of a Carnivore. The bunodont molars, however, are Suine, as is the form of the lower jaw with a rounded angle. This is an Eocene animal found in Wyoming. _Elotherium_[188] occurs chiefly in the Miocene of both North America and Europe; but _E. uintense_ is Eocene. The orbits are completely encircled by bone in the more modern forms; this is not the case in the last-described genus, with which _E. uintense_ agrees. The skull is also longer and more Pig-like. The zygomatic arch is powerful, with sometimes a large descending process, such as is found in _Diprotodon_, more faintly in Kangaroos, and in Sloths and certain extinct Edentates. The lower jaw has a pair {280} of dependent processes near the symphysis, which suggest processes occupying a corresponding position in _Dinoceras_. The skull and body are heavy, but the two-toed limbs are slender. There is a smaller pair of toes behind these. The dentition is complete, and the canines are not inordinately developed. The brain is very diminutive. Perhaps _E. uintense_ should be separated as a distinct genus, _Protelotherium_.[189] _Hyotherium_ (which is regarded as identical with _Palaeochoerus_) has a sharp sagittal crest; the orbit is nearly but not quite closed. The canines are not strongly developed. The upper canines have double fangs as in _Triconodon_ among extinct mammals, and as in the Hedgehog and other forms among living Mammalia. The premolars have the cutting and serrated edge of those of some other Pigs, a feature which gives them a curious resemblance to the "grinding" teeth of Seals. The molars are tuberculate, and like those of living Pigs. It is European and Indian in range, and Miocene. The genus _Choeropotamus_ has a complete dental formula save for the loss of a premolar in the lower jaw. Though it has lost this tooth, it is from an older stratum than some of those forms which have retained that premolar; it has been found in the Upper Eocene of the Isle of Wight and of the neighbourhood of Paris. The American and Miocene _Chaenohyus_ has lost the corresponding teeth of the upper jaw. _Homacodon_[190] is a genus consisting of several species, which has a bunodont and complete dentition. The molars are sextubercular in the upper jaw. _H. vagans_ was of about the size of a Rabbit, and it appears to have had a curved neck. The limbs had five digits, as is so generally the case with Eocene Ungulates. It is known from the Middle Eocene of Wyoming. GROUP II.--_RUMINANTIA._ The Selenodontia or Ruminantia form the second division of existing Artiodactyles. The characters of the teeth, which give them their name, have already been referred to. They also differ in that there are never more than a single pair of incisors {281} in the upper jaw, and very usually there are none. As a general rule the third and fourth metacarpals and metatarsals become united to form a cannon bone. To this there is but one exception, the African _Hyomoschus_. Moreover, the second and fifth digits are nearly always rudimentary, and may practically disappear altogether. Here again the Tragulidae are an exception. The Ruminantia are so-called on account of the fact that they "ruminate," that is, after the food has been rapidly swallowed, it is forced back up the gullet and more thoroughly masticated. Associated with this is a complex stomach, which is divided into several compartments. This stomach has at least three compartments, as in the Tragulidae; but it has usually four. Its characters are illustrated in Fig. 146. The majority of the Selenodontia possess horns, which are partly formed of solid protuberances of the frontal bones. In the Giraffe they are somewhat different. [Illustration] FIG. 146.--Stomach of Ruminant opened to show the internal structure. _a_, Oesophagus; _b_, rumen; _c_, reticulum; _d_, psalterium; _e_, abomasum; _f_, duodenum. (After Flower and Lydekker.) This group may be divided into--A. TRAGULINA, Chevrotains; B. TYLOPODA, Camels, Lamas; and C. PECORA, Deer, Antelopes, Oxen, Giraffes, Goats, Sheep. A. TRAGULINA. As the Tragulina are undoubtedly the most ancient of the Selenodontia it will be logical to commence with an account of them. {282} FAM. 4. TRAGULIDAE.--This family comprises a number of small Deer-like animals, which are really in many points more related to the Pigs than to the true Deer. They are known as Chevrotains; and the term "Deerlet," introduced by Professor Garrod, is certainly appropriate, since they have the aspect of very small and hornless Deer. If it were not for their Artiodactyle feet one might at a glance confuse these creatures with some Marsupial type. The family is Oriental and West African in range. The two genera (whose individual peculiarities will be considered later) differ from other Artiodactyles in a number of rather important characters. [Illustration] FIG. 147.--Indian Chevrotain. _Tragulus meminna._ × ¼. They are absolutely hornless in both sexes. The canines are present in both jaws, and are especially well developed in the upper jaw. The dental formula is I 0/3 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 3/3. In the skull the tympanic bulla is usually, as in the non-ruminating Artiodactyles, filled with loose bony tissue. The feet (usually) have the four toes of the Suina, and are therefore in a more primitive condition than in Deer and Antelopes. But as the middle metacarpals are fused in _Tragulus_ (though separate in _Hyomoschus_) they are a stage further than are the Pigs, in the direction of the typical Ruminants. The stomach is comparatively simple, thus offering {283} intermediate characters between the Pigs and the Ruminants; there are but three separate compartments. A highly-interesting character is afforded by the placenta. This is in the present family of the diffuse kind, not presenting the separated and tufted cotyledons of the Ruminant placenta. This we may fairly assume is a further proof of the less-specialised characters of this group[191] as compared with the Ruminantia, a view, however, which is not universally accepted. While the molars have the selenodont character of other Pecora, the premolars are more adapted for cutting, with sharp edges. The genus _Tragulus_ consists of several species (e.g. _T. stanleyanus_, _T. napu_, etc.), which have been aptly compared in external appearance to certain Rodents such as the Agoutis. The legs are delicate and slender, hardly "thicker than an ordinary cedar pencil." These creatures have got among the Malays a considerable reputation for astuteness, embodied in the saying, "Cunning as a _kanchil_." The male has tusks, which greatly contributed to the confusion of this creature with the totally different Musk Deer, _Moschus moschiferus_. It is even said to suspend itself by their aid to the branches of trees, and so avoid danger. _Hyomoschus_ (or _Dorcatherium_ as it should properly be called) is West African. Its rich brown colour, with spots and stripes, is much like that of the Chevrotains, but it has shorter limbs. The only species is _D. aquaticum_, which is sometimes called, on account of its frequenting the banks of streams, the Water Chevrotain. Remains of this genus occur in Miocene and Pliocene strata of Europe. The separate metacarpals, comparatively simple stomach, absence of horns, diffuse placenta, and spotted pelage are features which argue the primitive position of these animals among existing Artiodactyles. Besides the two existing genera which have just been treated of, there are a number of extinct genera undoubtedly belonging to the same group. _Gelocus_ (Eocene and Oligocene in range) is a European genus known from France. It differs from the living members of the group by the fact that the second and fifth toes on both hind- and fore-feet are represented, as in certain Deer, {284} by rudiments at the upper and at the lower end only; they are deficient in the middle. The middle large metacarpals, though closely applied, are not fused. The metatarsals, on the other hand, are, or are not fused, according to the species. A later form is the genus _Leptomeryx_ from the Miocene of North America. This genus departs from the typical Traguline structure in more than one point. The tympanic bulla is hollow instead of being filled with cancellated bone; the cuneiform is not fused with the cuboid and navicular, though the latter are with each other; the lateral digits of the hind-feet are rudimentary. The magnum and trapezoid, however, are fused. In the fore-feet the middle metacarpals are separate, and the lateral less perfect metacarpals have toes. The metatarsals are fused. Not definitely referable to the Tragulidae, but coming near to them, are the PROTOCERATIDAE. Of this family there is but one well-known genus, _Protoceras_,[192] from the Miocene of North America. The skull is singularly reminiscent of _Dinoceras_, with which this quite Artiodactyle genus has, of course, nothing to do. It merely exemplifies the phenomenon of "parallelism." In general form it is peculiarly long and low. There are three pairs of bony protuberances: one, the largest, pair are situated on the maxillae rising up just behind the implantation of the canine teeth; the parietals have a second pair; and a third much more diminutive pair of bosses are upon the frontals, near their junction with the nasals. This description refers to the male; the female has only traces of the parietal bosses. These were all possibly tipped or sheathed with horn or roughened skin. The dentition of this genus is precisely that of the Tragulidae, _i.e._ I 0/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M 3/3. The orbit is completely encircled by bone; the auditory bulla is not swollen; the premaxillae are small. The nasal cavity is very large and open, the end of the nasal bones anteriorly being situated at about the middle of the skull; this would seem to indicate at least a flexible and long nose like that of the Saiga Antelope, if not a trunk. The brain was of good size, and quite well convoluted. The limbs are constituted on the Traguline plan; in the fore-limbs the middle metacarpals are quite free from each other, and the more diminutive lateral digits are complete. The {285} metatarsals are free, but with a tendency to fusion; the lateral toes are only represented at the upper extremity. The carpal bones are separated. This animal, which was about the size of a Sheep, though of more delicate proportions, was allied not only to the Tragulidae but to the Giraffidae; it is impossible to refer it definitely to either family. B. TYLOPODA. FAM. 5. CAMELIDAE.--This small group of Selenodonts includes only the Camels and Lamas. The limbs are long and have no traces of the second and fifth toes. The fused metacarpals and metatarsals diverge somewhat at their distal ends. In the upper jaw is a single pair of incisors. The stomach differs from that of the typical Ruminants. The rumen has smooth and not papillose walls, and from it are developed the "water cells," diverticula with narrow mouths provided with a closing sphincter muscle. The psalterium is reduced to a mere vestige, and so the stomach has, as in the Tragulina, but three chambers. This, so far ancient, character in the structure of the Camel tribe is associated with another, also seen in the more primitive Ungulates, viz. the diffuse character of the placenta. A very singular peculiarity of this group is the fact that the blood corpuscles instead of showing the ordinary mammalian round contours are elliptical. [Illustration] FIG. 148.--Bactrian Camel. _Camelus bactrianus._ × 1/30. The genus _Camelus_, confined to the Old World, is made up of two quite distinct species, the Bactrian Camel, _C. bactrianus_, with two humps, and the Dromedary, _C. dromedarius_, with only one. The former species is Asiatic. It is a singular fact that neither of the species is known to occur in a genuinely wild condition. The so-called "wild" Camels appear to be invariably feral. The two species will interbreed; and there is at the Zoological Society's Gardens such a hybrid, which has the general appearance and shaggy brown hair[193] of the Bactrian animal, but the one hump of the Dromedary. It may be that the Bactrian Camels of Lob-nor are really wild; but the desert contains so many remains of cities destroyed by sand-storms that these reputed wild {286} Camels may be the descendants of animals belonging to the inhabitants of those cities. A strayed herd of Camels has established itself in a feral state in Spain. Otherwise the genus does not occur in Europe. The Camels are also represented in the New World. The genus _Lama_ (_Auchenia_ of many authors) belongs to this family. These Camels differ from their allies in the Old World by their smaller size, by the absence of the characteristic hump, and by the dropping of one premolar, the dental formula being otherwise similar. A variety of names, Lama, Alpaca, Huanaco, Vicuña, have been applied to these animals; but it appears that the names are in excess of the number of the species. Mr. Thomas, who has lately inquired into the matter, will only allow two, the Huanaco, _Lama huanacos_, of which there are two domestic races, the Llama and the Alpaca, and the Vicuña, _Lama vicugna_. They are both South American in range. Not only is there a herd of escaped Camels in Spain, but the Spaniards attempted to introduce and acclimatise the useful Lama. The first Lama ever seen in Europe was brought in the year 1558 to {287} the town of Middelburg in Holland; it was purchased and presented to the Emperor of Germany. Gesner gives a curious figure of it, representing the animal as a comparatively colossal beast submitting itself to the guidance of a dwarfish man. The habit of "spitting" of the Lama is well known. Augustin de Zarate and Buffon speak of the Lama as having no protection save this habit, which is more than a mere ejection of saliva: the contents of the stomach are forcibly shot at the object of its annoyance. It can also kick and bite. In the intestines (as in those of some other mammals) are found Bezoar stones, or Bezards as they are variously spelt. These were once valued in medicine, and even so lately as 1847 were, according to Gay, the historian of Chili, in vogue; these concretions, comparable to the ambergris of the Whales, were supposed to be an antidote to poison. [Illustration] FIG. 149.--Lama. _Lama huanacos._ × 1/12. EXTINCT CAMELS.--The earliest cameloid type is the genus _Protylopus_,[194] of which we are acquainted with an imperfect skull {288} and the greater part of a radius and ulna belonging to one individual, and most portions of the hind-limbs in other specimens. The one species, _P. petersoni_, was about the size of a "jack rabbit," and is late Eocene (Uinta formation) and American in range. The teeth of this mammal are the typical forty-four, and the canines are not pronounced, being incisiform in shape. In the skull the nasals overhang, as in the genus _Poebrotherium_. The orbit is not closed by bone. There is in this ancient Camel a trace of the supra-orbital notch so characteristic of the Camel tribe. "The vertebrae resemble those of the modern Lamas closely in their general proportions." The lumbars have the usually Cameloid formula of 7. This genus has but two functional toes on the hind-feet, the second and fifth being reduced to vestiges. It is interesting to note that the radius and ulna appear to remain distinct, except in very old animals, in which they come to be co-ossified in the middle only, thus foreshadowing their complete union in the next genus, _Poebrotherium_. The present genus, moreover, as well as _Poebrotherium_, was distinctly unguligrade; it has not acquired the characteristic phalangigrade mode of progression of the modern types of Camels. [Illustration] FIG. 150.--Skull of _Poebrotherium wilsoni_. _i_^1, _i_^2, _i_^3, Incisors 1-3. × ½. (After Wortman.) The American and Oligocene _Poebrotherium_ has been recently and exhaustively studied by Professor Scott.[195] It was considerably smaller than a Lama. Its neck was long as compared with other Artiodactyles, but still shorter than that of the Lama. It was a lightly-built, graceful creature, with apparently some external likeness to a Lama. It is an important fact to notice that at this {289} period, and for a long time after, there were no types referable to the Camelidae in the Old World. Though a Camel in many features of its organisation, _Poebrotherium_ was "generalised" in many ways. Thus the metacarpals and metatarsals were not fused to form a cannon bone, and the two lateral digits were represented by splint rudiments of metacarpals and metatarsals. The dentition was complete. The skull though distinctly Tylopodan, also shows more generalised characters. Thus the orbit is not quite, though nearly, completed by bone. In the Camel it is quite closed. The nasal bones are much longer, reaching nearly to the end of the snout. The odontoid process of the axis vertebra is not spout-like as in existing forms, but cylindrical, though slightly flattened upon the upper surface. The scapula is described as being more like that of the Lama than of the Camel, though variations occur which approximate to the Camel. The brain, judging of course from casts, has those sulci "which are common to the whole series of Ungulates, and closely resemble those of a foetal Sheep." [Illustration] FIG. 151.--Anterior surface of axis of Red Deer, × 2/3. _o_, Odontoid process; _pz_, posterior zygapophysis; _sn_, foramen for second spinal nerve. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) Later in historical sequence than _Poebrotherium_, and structurally intermediate between it and _Protolabis_, is the Miocene genus _Gomphotherium_. It shows an advance in structure upon _Poebrotherium_, in that the orbit is completely encircled by bone, though the posterior wall is thin; the lower canines instead of being incisiform are curved back as in later Camels, and separated by a wide diastema from the preceding and the succeeding teeth. Later in age than _Poebrotherium_ is _Protolabis_, a _Tylopod_ in which the full number of teeth is still retained; its skull presents no particular changes from the Poebrotherine type; the nasals, however, are somewhat shortened. Later still in point of time is _Procamelus_. In this form we have apparently an ancestral stock, whence both Camels and Lamas were derived. The upper incisors are as in existing forms, but the first and second persist for a somewhat longer time. The skull shows two well-marked types of structure; in _P. occidentalis_ {290} there are more points of likeness to the Lama, in _P. angustidens_ to the Camel. In both, the orbits are completely encircled by bone. The nasals are much shortened. The odontoid process of the axis is still more concave than in _Poebrotherium_, but not spout-like as in existing forms. This fact shows that the spout-like character of the Camels' odontoid process is not a point of affinity to other Artiodactyles--in fact the occurrence of the same form of odontoid process in Perissodactyles is enough proof of this. We must come to the conclusion that the form is adaptive in all cases. If we were not obliged on palaeontological evidence to come to this conclusion, the structure in question is just one which would be fastened upon as evidence of genetic affinity; for it is a resemblance in a small though distinctive point of structure having no obvious relation to utility. The metacarpals and metatarsals have coalesced to form the cannon bones, though a rudiment of one metacarpal seems to remain. The genera referred to appear to be on the direct line of descent of the modern representatives of the family. But there are other forms which are offshoots of the main stem. Such are _Homocamelus_, _Eschatia_, and _Holomeniscus_. The last two are Pliocene and American; the teeth are much reduced. C. PECORA. The Pecora are a group which possess so many characters in common that it is not an easy task further to subdivide them. In all there are but two functional digits on the feet, and the metacarpals and metatarsals of these are fused. There are no upper incisors, and canines in the upper jaw are not universal, and generally small. Horns are confined to this group of the Selenodontia.[196] The premolar teeth are of a simpler form than the molars. The stomach has four chambers, of which two may be regarded as belonging to its cardiac half and two to the pyloric. The former are, in the first place, a large paunch or rumen, followed by a smaller reticulum, so called on account of the network arrangement of the folds of its lining membrane. Connected with the latter, and constituting the first part of the pyloric half of the stomach, is the psalterium or "manyplies," so called on account of the longitudinal folds, like the leaves of a {291} book, into which its lining membrane is raised. Finally there is the abomasum, out of which proceeds the small intestine. Garrod has observed that the chamber of the stomach which varies most among the Pecora is the psalterium. This chamber is specially large in _Bos_, and particularly small in the Antelopes _Nannotragus_ and _Cephalophus_. But its variation relates more especially to the folds of its mucous membrane. These folds are of varying lengths and have a definite arrangement There may be as many as five sets of laminae of regular depths. The most simple psalterium is that of _Cephalophus_, where there are only two sets of laminae of different sizes, a deeper set and a very much shallower set; this form is termed by Garrod "duplicate." Most common is the "quadruplicate" arrangement, with four sets of laminae of differing depths. In all Pecora the liver is but little divided by fissures. FAM. 6. CERVIDAE.--The Deer tribe is a very extensive one, and, with the exception of Africa and Australia, world-wide in distribution.[197] The Deer are absolutely distinguished from all other Ruminant animals by the existence of antlers, which are invariably present in the male sex, save in the aberrant genera _Moschus_ and _Hydropotes_; in the Reindeer alone are antlers present in both sexes. The general characters of these appendages have been dealt with on a former page (p. 200), where they are compared to, or rather contrasted with, the horns of the Bovidae. These antlers, so characteristic of the Cervidae, are very variously developed among the members of the family. Thus in _Elaphodus_ the antlers are very small and entirely unbranched. In the Muntjacs, _Cervulus_, the antlers are hardly larger, but they have a small anterior branch arising from near the pedicel, the "brow tine." In _Cariacus antisiensis_ only one branch, the brow tine, is present, but it is nearly as long as the main stem of the antler, the "beam." In _Capreolus capraea_ the beam bears two tines; in _Cervus sika_ three; in _C. duvauceli_ two of the three tines present bear secondary branches. There are other complications (some of which are illustrated in Figs. 152-157) of the simple antler which culminate in the complex antlers with their expanded "palms" of the Elk and the Fallow Deer. {292} Another highly-interesting fact concerning these same antlers is their gradual increase in complexity of tines and palm from the Miocene _Cervus matheroni_ to the great Irish Elk of post-Tertiary times. Beyond the antlers there seems to be no character of universal applicability which distinguishes the Cervidae from the nearly-related Antelopes. There are, however, a number of structural features which are _nearly_ universally characteristic. Excepting _Moschus_ (which Professor Garrod would not allow to be a "Deer"), no Cervine has a gall-bladder[198] to its liver. All Bovidae (including Antelopes) have, with the exception of _Cephalophus_. A small but constant character of the Deer is the existence of two orifices to the lachrymal duct. The genus _Tragelaphus_ alone among Antelopes shows this character. So far as is known the placenta of the Deer has but few cotyledons, that of the Bovidae many. But not many types are known. The navicular, cuboid and ectocuneiform are often united. This is never the case in the Bovidae. The first and second phalanges of the lateral (imperfectly developed) digits are always present except in the Muntjacs; they are never found in Bovidae. The Deer always present a light brown to a darker brown coloration. _Elaphodus michianus_ is almost black. There is commonly white on the under parts and beneath the short tail. Some Deer, such as the Fallow Deer, are spotted; and the young of others that are uniformly coloured when adult are spotted. In some cases a winter coat, darker than the summer coat, is developed. Altogether some sixty species of Deer are known, of which the preponderance are Old-World forms. The Deer of the Old World are distributed among the genera[199] _Cervus_ (all Europe and Asia); _Cervulus_, the Muntjacs (India, Burmah, China, etc.); _Hydropotes_ (Eastern China); _Capreolus_ (Europe and Central Asia); _Elaphodus_ (Eastern China); there is one American _Cervus_, the Wapiti. The American genera are _Cariacus_ and _Pudua_. The Elk (_Alces_) and the Reindeer (_Rangifer_) are circumpolar. The principal structural modification which occurs within {293} the family Cervidae concerns the rudimentary fifth and second toes. In _Capreolus_, _Hydropotes_, _Moschus_, _Alces_, _Rangifer_, and _Pudua_ there are considerable remains of the lower parts of metacarpals II. and V.; in the other genera smaller traces of the upper ends of the same bones. The two most abnormal genera are _Moschus_ and _Hydropotes_, more particularly the former, which neither Sir V. Brooke nor Professor Garrod allow to be members of the family at all. _Moschus_ is usually placed in a special sub-family by itself, Moschinae, the remaining Deer being referred to another sub-family, Cervinae. SUB-FAM. 1. CERVINAE.--The genus _Cervus_ comprises rather over twenty existing species, which, except the Wapiti (_C. canadensis_), are exclusively Old World in distribution. The principal features of variation in the genus, in accordance with which it has been divided up into sub-genera, are (1) palmated (Fallow Deer, _Dama_) or non-palmated antlers; (2) adults spotted with white at all ages and seasons (_Axis_), or in summer only (_Pseudaxis_), or not at all; (3) spotted or unspotted young; (4) existence or absence of rudimentary canines in the upper jaw. Among the members of this genus, _Cervus (Elaphurus) davidianus_ is interesting as having been first observed by the missionary Père David in a park belonging to the Emperor of China near Pekin. Its horns are remarkable for dividing early into two branches of equal length, of which the anterior again branches into two. Specimens of this Deer were ultimately obtained for the Zoological Society's Gardens. The species of _Cervus_ are fairly distributed between the Palaearctic and the Indian regions. The Palaearctic species, such as Lühdorff's Deer (Fig. 152), are mainly Asiatic. _Cervus elaphus_ and _Cervus dama_ alone are European and British. The former of course is the Red Deer, the latter the Fallow Deer. The Red Deer is reddish-brown in summer and greyish-brown in winter, with the white patch on the rump so common in the Deer tribe. The Red Deer is genuinely wild in Scotland, in certain parts of Devonshire and Westmoreland, and in the New Forest. At the beginning of the last century, according to Gilbert White, there were 500 head of deer in Wolmer Forest, which were inspected by Queen Anne. The antlers may have as many as forty-eight points; and a stag with more than the three anterior tines is termed a "Royal Hart." The Fallow Deer has {294} palmated antlers, and is usually spotted. It seems to be an introduced species, common report pointing to the Romans as the introducers. It would be more correct to say "re-introduced," for fossil remains of this Deer have been met with. [Illustration] FIG. 152.--Lühdorff's Deer. _Cervus luehdorffi._ × 1/15. (From _Nature_.) _Elaphodus_[200] contains probably two species, _E. cephalophus_ of Milne-Edwards and _E michianus_ of Swinhoe, both from China. The antlers are small and unbranched; the canines in the male are massive; it differs from _Cervulus_, to which it is closely allied, principally in the absence of frontal glands. The second {295} species has a dark iron-grey pelage, and the late Mr. Consul Swinhoe described it as very Goat-like in aspect. _Capreolus._--The Roe Deer has fairly complex antlers. It is a small Deer and has spotted young. The common Roe Deer, _C. capraea_, is a native of this country. It is the smallest of our Deer, and its antlers only have three tines in stags of the third year. It is a singular fact about this Deer that though the pairing season is in July and August, the young are not born until the following May or June, a period which does not represent that of gestation. The germ remains dormant for some time before developing. [Illustration] FIG. 153.--Mule Deer. _Cariacus macrotis._ × 1/15. (From _Nature_.) The Muntjacs, _Cervulus_, form a distinct generic type confined to the Indian and the South-Eastern Palaearctic region. They are small Deer with spotted young, and short one-branched antlers placed upon pedicels as long as themselves. The canines are strongly developed in the males. There are about half-a-dozen species. _Cariacus_ is exclusively American in range, and contains about twenty species. There are or are not upper canines. The young {296} are spotted. The antlers are occasionally very simple; in _C. rufus_ and a few allies (placed in a special sub-genus _Coassus_) they are simple spikes without branches. In this genus, and in the nearly allied and also New-World _Pudua_, the vomer is prolonged backwards and divides the posterior nares into two. The bulk of the species are South American. [Illustration] FIG. 154.--Chilian Deer. _Cariacus chilensis._ × 1/12. (From _Nature_.) _Pudua_, just mentioned, comes from the Chilian Andes. It is a small Deer without canines and with minute antlers. Other generic names have been proposed for various species of American deer. _Hydropotes inermis_ is a small perfectly hornless Deer, living on the islands of the Yang-tse-kiang. The male has tusks; the young are spotted. Though, like other deer, _Hydropotes_ has no gall-bladder, both Mr. Garrod[201] and Mr. Forbes[202] found the {297} rudiments of one in the shape of a white ligamentous cord. Mr. Forbes has especially dwelt upon the likeness of the brain to that of _Capreolus_. The female has four teats, and produces three to six young at a time. [Illustration] FIG. 155.--Water Deer. _Hydropotes inermis._ × 1/10. (From _Nature_.) _Alces machlis_, the Elk or Moose, is a circumpolar species with palmated antlers and is of large size. The young are unspotted. This animal is the largest of the Deer tribe. The aspect of this creature is by no means that of a Deer, the long, thick, and rather prehensile upper lip not by any means suggesting the family to which it belongs; the legs, too, are ungainly through their unusual length. The Moose has a curious method of protecting himself from Wolves. Instead of moving about during heavy snowstorms, and being thus on the heavy ground an easy prey for these agile enemies, the animal forms what is known as a "Moose yard." An area of ground is kept well {298} trampled down, and the animal contents itself with browsing upon the adjacent stems. The well-trampled ground gives an easy footing, and by his powerful horns the great stag is able to keep his enemies at bay. [Illustration] FIG. 156.--Moose. _Alces machlis._ × 1/20. _Rangifer tarandus_, the Reindeer, is unique among Deer by reason of the fact that both sexes wear antlers. These antlers are palmated. The brow tine and the next or bez tine are also palmated and are directed forwards and a little downwards. The young are unspotted. The pelage alters in winter. Like the Moose, the Reindeer is circumpolar. As is well known, during the Pleistocene period the Reindeer extended its range as far as the South of France. Even in the historic period it is said to have been hunted in Caithness. Reindeer, like so many other particularly Arctic animals, have regular migrations. In Spitzbergen, for instance, the animal migrates in the summer to the inland region of the island, and in {299} the autumn back again to the sea coast to browse upon the seaweed. These migrating herds have been stated to be led by a large female. [Illustration] FIG. 157.--Reindeer. _Rangifer tarandus._ × 1/15. SUB-FAM. 2. MOSCHINAE.--_Moschus moschiferus_[203] is a native of the Asiatic Highlands. It is 3 feet or so high, perfectly hornless, and with very large canines in the male. It is noteworthy that in _Hydropotes_, where the canines are also very large, horns are absent. These are examples, perhaps, of correlation. The musk sac (whence the name) is present on the abdomen of the male only. There is no crumen or suborbital gland, which is so generally (though by no means universally) present in Cervidae. But the male has, in addition to the musk glands, glands near the tail and on the outside of the thigh. Unlike other Deer, the lachrymal bone of _Moschus_ bears but one orifice. The feet, so far as concerns the preservation of the outer rudimentary {300} metacarpals, are of the more ancient type represented in _Alces_, _Hydropotes_, etc. A gall-bladder is present. The young, as in so many Cervidae are spotted; but the adult is of a greyish-brown colour. [Illustration] FIG. 158.--Musk Deer. _Moschus moschiferus._ × 1/6. (From _Nature_.) There is no doubt that _Moschus_ is more nearly related to the Cervidae than to any other Ruminants. It is regarded by Sir W. Flower as "an undeveloped deer--an animal which in most points (absence of horns, smooth brain, retention of gall-bladder, etc.) has ceased to progress with the rest of the group, while in some few (musk gland, mobile feet) it has taken a special line of advance of its own." The musk itself, which gives its name to the creature, is found in a gland on the belly, about the size of a hen's egg. The whole gland is cut out and sold in this condition. Such quantities of musk deer have been and are killed for this purpose that the rarity of the animal is increasing. In the seventeenth {301} century it was so common that the traveller Tavernier purchased 7673 musk "pods" in one journey, or, according to Buffon, 1663. The tusks, which recall those of _Hydropotes_, to which _Moschus_ is not nearly allied, and of _Tragulus_, with which it has of course still less connexion, are said to be used for the digging up of roots. Its feet, in relation to its mountain-ranging habits, are very mobile. EXTINCT SPECIES OF DEER.--It has been already mentioned that the most primitive kinds of Deer had no horns at all, resembling in this the modern _Moschus_ and _Hydropotes_, and that with lapse of time went hand in hand an increasing complexity of antler; the facts of palaeontology harmonising in the most striking manner with the facts of individual development from year to year. The oldest forms seem to be more nearly akin to the living Muntjacs, and their remains occur in the lowest Miocene beds of both Europe and America. At present the group is confined to the warmer parts of Asia and some of the islands belonging to that continent. One of the oldest types is _Amphitragulus_. This genus, which consists of several species, inhabited Europe, and differed from living Muntjacs in being totally hornless in both sexes; the skull had no lachrymal fossa or deficient lateral ossification. Nearly allied is _Dremotherium_ of similar age and range. The Middle Miocene has furnished the remains of the genus _Dicroceras_. This is the earliest Deer in which horns have been found. The horns are, as the name of the genus implies, bifid, and have, like those of the living Muntjac, a very long pedicel. This is also a European genus like the last. From this period we come across true Deer, which commence in the Upper Miocene and have branched horns. Moreover they belong, at least for the most part, to the existing genera. One of the most remarkable forms is _Cervus sedgwicki_ (sometimes placed in a separate genus, _Polycladus_) from the Forest Bed of Norfolk and from the Upper Pliocene of the Val d'Arno. This creature was remarkable for its multitudinously-branched antlers. These end in no less than twelve points. No Deer exists or has existed in which the horns are so completely branched. They are like those of a Red Deer exaggerated. [Illustration] FIG. 159.--Giraffe. _Giraffa camelopardalis._ × 1/40. FAM. 7. GIRAFFIDAE.--Undoubtedly the type of a distinct family, Giraffidae, is the genus _Giraffa_. It is characterised by {302} the long neck, which, nevertheless, consists of only the normal seven vertebrae, and by the "horns" which differ from those of all other Ruminants; they are small bony prominences of the frontal bones, which become fused with the skull, and which are covered with unmodified skin. They are not shed. Between them is a median prominence. This cranial armature is present in the female as well as in the male, and is well developed even in the {303} new-born young. The orbits are completely encircled by bone, and there is no lachrymal fossa, so common in Deer and Antelopes. There are no canines above; but these are present in the lower jaw. The rudimentary digits of other Ruminants have disappeared in this genus. There are fourteen pairs of ribs as in many other Artiodactyla. The liver of the Giraffe[204] is, as in many, but not all, Ruminants, devoid of a gall-bladder; neither has it a caudate or a Spigelian lobe. The caecum is actually largish (2½ feet in length), but is relatively very small, as the small and the large intestines measure 196 and 75 feet in length respectively. The Giraffe has a well-marked "ileo-caecal" gland, found in many Ruminants; its appearance in _Giraffa_ is especially compared by Garrod with its appearance in _Alces_. Considered by itself, _Giraffa_ forms a very isolated type of Ruminant. But after we have dealt with certain facts concerning extinct forms clearly allied to _Giraffa_, the isolation of the family will be found to be less marked. The Giraffe ("one who walks swiftly," the word means in Arabic) is, as every one knows, limited in its range to the African continent. It is not, however, so familiar a fact that there are two quite distinct species of Giraffe, one a northern form from Somaliland, and the other South African. The distinctness of these two, _G. camelopardalis_ and _G. australis_, has been lately worked out in some detail by Mr. de Winton.[205] The principal point of difference between them consists in the large size of the median horn in the Cape species, which is represented by the merest excrescence in the other species. The Giraffe of West Africa is held to differ from the northern and southern species, coming nearer to the former. It appears in the first place to be a larger animal, and slight differences in the skull have been pointed out. This series of peculiarities may be expressed, for those who do not object to trinomial nomenclature, by calling this novel western form _Giraffa camelopardalis peralta_. The existence of the three horns covered with unaltered skin is the main characteristic of this Ungulate. But the Giraffe also differs from other Artiodactyles by its enormously long neck, which enables it to browse upon trees inaccessible to the common herd {304} of Ruminants. The neck is often supposed to have some relation to this method of feeding. But a more ingenious explanation of its inordinate length is that it serves as a watch-tower. The long grass of the districts inhabited by the animal swarms with Lions and Leopards, which must be foes. The long neck allows of a wide look out being kept, and it is noteworthy that the Ostrich, living under similar conditions, is also renowned for its length of neck. It is the spots upon the Giraffe which have given it its name of Cameleopard; these spots present in the southern form a series of chocolate-coloured areas, sharply marked off by white spaces. Of these spots it is asserted that they serve as a means of concealing their possessor. Sir Samuel Baker[206] wrote of it in the following words: "The red-barked mimosa, which is its favourite food, seldom grows higher than 14 or 15 feet. Many woods are almost entirely composed of these trees, upon the flat heads of which the giraffe can feed when looking downwards. I have frequently been mistaken when remarking some particular dead tree-stem at a distance that appeared like a decayed relic of the forest, until upon nearer approach I have been struck by the peculiar inclination of the trunk; suddenly it has started into movement and disappeared." The Giraffe, remarked Pliny, "is as quiet as a sheep." The Roman public, to whom the first Giraffe ever brought into Europe was exhibited, expected from its name "to find in it a combination of the size of the camel and the ferocity of a panther." As a matter of fact, Giraffes in captivity are not always sheep-like in temper. They will kick with viciousness and vigour, and will even initiate an attack upon their keeper. At the same time they are singularly nervous creatures, and have been known to die from a shock. In moving, the Giraffe uses the fore- and hind-limb of each side simultaneously; this gives to its gait a peculiar rocking motion, the singularity of which is heightened by the curving movements of the long neck, which even describes now and then a figure of eight in the air. _Giraffa camelopardalis_ and the species (?) already referred to are the only existing Giraffes (of the genus _Giraffa_), and they are not found out of Africa. Sir Harry Johnston has lately given a brief account of a larger and more brilliantly coloured species from Uganda {305} which will probably prove to belong to a distinct genus. It has five horns, the additional pair being placed above the ears. Sir Harry Johnston has quite recently made known another genus of Giraffidae living in the Semliki forest, Belgian Congo district. The skin and two skulls, as well as the bones of the feet, are known from specimens sent by Sir Harry Johnston to the Natural History Museum, and briefly described to the Zoological Society by Professor Ray Lankester.[207] This creature, of which the native name is "Okapi," is proposed to be called _Ocapia johnstoni_. The first actual specimens which reached this country were two bandoliers made from the skin of the flanks, which were striped black and white, and were not unnaturally held to be portions of the skin of a new species of Zebra. The animal is of about the size of a Sable Antelope, and the back and sides are of a rich brown colour; it is only the fore- and hind-limbs which are striped, the striping being longitudinal, _i.e._ parallel with the long axis of the body. The head is Giraffe-like, but there are no external horns; wisps of curled hairs seem to represent the vestiges of the horns of other Giraffes. The tail is rather short, and the neck is rather thick and short. The skull is clearly Giraffine. The basicranial axis is straight, and the fontanelle in the lachrymal region is very large. Upon the frontal bones near their parietal border is a large boss on either side, which presumably represents the horn core or "os cornu." On the mandible the great length of the diastema between the incisors and premolars is a Giraffine characteristic. The Okapi lives in pairs in the deepest recesses of the forest. We are acquainted with a few extinct forms, belonging to _Giraffa_, which are extra-African in range. _G. sivalensis_ is from the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills in India, _G. attica_ from Greece. These remains, however, do not include the top of the skull, so that it is doubtful whether their horns were as in _G. camelopardalis_. A closely-allied genus is the extinct _Samotherium_. This flourished in Miocene times, and its remains have been found in the Greek island of Samos. The neck and limbs are shorter than in the Giraffe, and the horns, longer than in _Giraffa_, are placed just above the orbit upon the frontal bones alone, instead of upon the boundary line of frontals and parietals as in _Giraffa_. In several ways, therefore, the existing Giraffe is a more modified or {306} specialised animal than its forerunner of the Miocene. In the latter, the male alone carried horns, and in neither sex does the unpaired median bony excrescence appear. The remains of this genus (probably even the same species, _S. boissieri_) also occur in Persia. _Helladotherium_ (there is but one species, _H. duvernoyi_) has its four limbs of nearly the same length; the skull of the only known example is hornless; the neck is shorter than in _Giraffa_. It is known from the Miocene deposits of Pikermi in Greece. _Palaeotragus_ is a genus which is not referred to the Giraffidae by all systematists. Its very name, given to it by the eminent French palaeontologist M. Gaudry, indicates his opinion as to its Antelopine affinities. The chief and indeed (according to Forsyth Major[208]) the only reason for placing this Ruminant with the Antelopes is the large size of the horns. They undoubtedly suggest the horn cores of Antelopes. But they are placed wider apart than in those animals. It is thought that the hornless _Camelopardalis parva_ is the female of this species, which is from Pikermi. Rather more different from _Giraffa_ is the extinct genus _Sivatherium_, from the Siwalik deposits of India. Here again there has been some discussion as to its affinities. Some place it in the neighbourhood of _Antilocapra_, but most palaeontologists now regard it as a Giraffe. The main peculiarity of this large beast was the existence of two pairs of horn cores; the larger are upon the parietal bones, and are of a palmated form, with a few short tines, which are highly suggestive of those of the Elk (_Alces_). The shorter anterior pair are upon the frontal bones. The neck is short, the limbs of equal length, and there are no additional toes upon the limbs. _Sivatherium_ was almost as large as an Elephant, and in restorations it is depicted as having a fleshy dilated nose like the Saiga Antelope; this view is based upon the position and size of the nasal bones. Hornless skulls have been identified as the female of _Sivatherium_. _Vishnutherium_, _Hydraspotherium_, and _Bramatherium_ are allied genera. FAM. 8. ANTILOCAPRIDAE.--This family contains but one genus and species, the N. American "Pronghorn," _Antilocapra americana_. This animal deserves a family to itself on account of the singular structure of the horns, which are intermediate in character {307} between those of the Deer and those of the Antelopes. They are unquestionably "hollow-horned" Ruminants, in that there is an osseous horn core, upon which lies the actual horn. This, however, is softer than in Bovidae, and is semicorneous. It is, indeed, more like the velvet of the stag's horn. Moreover the horn is branched, and there are sometimes even three prongs. Furthermore, it is now certainly known that the Pronghorn sheds its horns not merely occasionally, but with definite annual periodicity. It so far resembles the Deer. But it must be borne in mind that in the Deer the horn shedding is a twofold process. There is first of all the stripping off of the velvet, and secondly the shedding of a portion of the horn core down to the burr. What happens in the Prongbuck is the shedding of the true horn only ( = the shedding of the velvet), _not_ of the horn core. It appears, however, that occasionally (once in their lifetime?) certain undoubted Antelopes may cast their horns.[209] Another external character of this animal is the total absence of "false hoofs," the last vestiges of the second and fifth digits. The Pronghorn is a gregarious creature running in bands of six up to hundreds. FAM. 9. BOVIDAE.--This family, more extensive than that of the Cervidae, contains not only the Oxen, Sheep, and Goats, but also the Antelopes, save only _Antilocapra_, which must be placed in a family by itself. The only two points which distinguish all Bovidae from all Cervidae[210] are the nature of the horns already described, and the polycotyledonary condition of the placenta. Moreover the horns are usually present in both sexes, though there are exceptions, such as the Sheep and Goats, and various genera of Antelopes (_Tragelaphus_, _Tetraceros_, etc.). There are never the first two phalanges belonging to the rudimentary digits II., V., as there are in all Deer excepting _Cervulus_. There is as a rule but one orifice to the lachrymal duct. There are never persistent upper canine teeth in either sex. It is exceedingly difficult to separate the Antelopes from the Sheep, Oxen, and Goats. Their inclusion along with these creatures in one family, Bovidae, shows that no differences of an important character exist. The term Antelope is rather of popular than {308} of zoological significance. As a rule there are horns in both sexes; but this rule is not without exceptions, of which one is the genus _Strepsiceros_, the Koodoo. Many other Bovidae are horned in the males only, e.g. _Saiga_, _Tragelaphus_. The Antelopes further differ from the true Oxen in their more graceful build, and in the fact that the horns, if they curve at all, generally curve backwards towards the neck. In the Oxen, on the other hand, the build is stouter, and the horns usually curve outwards. The same remarks apply to the Sheep. Such an Antelope, however, as the Eland (_Orias_) is very Ox-like in habit. Another feature which may be remarked upon, though not of absolute differential value, is that while the Antelopes are as a rule smooth and sleek in their skins, the Oxen tend to be rough and shaggy. The Zebu, however, in this, in its hump, and in general aspect, is far from being unlike an Eland. But then the Zebu is a domestic race, and we do not know what the wild stock was like. It is perhaps with the Goats that the Antelopes have the nearest affinities, and it is difficult to place such a form as _Nemorrhaedus_, and indeed some others. In the Antelopes as a rule the middle lower incisors are larger than the lateral ones; in the Sheep and Goats they are alike in size. The parietal bones, too, in the Antelopes are moderately large and are much shortened in the remaining Cavicornia, especially in the Oxen. As the Antelopes are the oldest, so far as we know, of all bovine animals, one would expect to find them combining the characters of the rest. But they do this so effectually that a disentanglement is really impossible. They date from the Miocene. Antelopes are now limited to Europe, Asia, and Africa; they have always had the same range, though more abundant in former times in Europe. They preponderate now in tropical Africa, and abound in genera and species. Messrs. Sclater and Thomas[211] allow altogether thirty-five genera, of which twenty-four are exclusively Ethiopian in range. In the following summary of the group Messrs. Sclater and Thomas's work is followed. They commence with a section or sub-family of which the type is the Hartebeest. _Bubalis_, or _Alcelaphus_ as it is sometimes called, is an African genus, ranging however into Arabia. These Antelopes are characterised by the long skull and the doubly-curved horns. There are eight species of the genus, of which _B. caama_ is the {309} best known; this is the animal known as the Hartebeest. The Bontebok and Blessbok belong to a closely-allied genus, _Damaliscus_, distinguished mainly by the fact that the bony base of the horn cores is not extended upwards, and therefore the parietal bones are visible when the skull is viewed from in front, which is not the case in _Bubalis_. [Illustration] FIG. 160.--Brindled Gnu. _Connochaetes taurinus._ × 1/20. The Gnus, _Connochaetes_, are familiar owing to their curious aspect. The hairy face, and rump and tail like those of a pony are highly characteristic. The horns are bovine in appearance, standing outwards and then curving upwards.[212] There are three species of Gnu, all from South Africa. They are _C. gnu_, _C. taurinus_, and _C. albogulatus_. Of the Cephalophine section there are two genera:-- _Cephalophus_ is an African genus. These animals are known as Duikerboks; they are small, and have short non-curved horns in the male sex only. Their general aspect is not unlike that of certain Deer with simple horns, such as _Cervulus_. Messrs. Sclater and Thomas allow thirty-eight species. The {310} smallest species do not exceed the dimensions of a Hare. None are really large. _Tetraceros_ is an Indian genus characterised, as its name denotes, by the fact that it possesses four horns. It is the posterior pair which correspond to the single pair of _Cephalophus_. The anterior pair, which are much smaller and are sometimes absent, are a new pair. The female of this Antelope is hornless. Sheep are occasionally four-horned, and there is indeed a breed of such in Kashmir. A four-horned Chamois was described by the late Mr. Alston. The Klipspringer, _Oreotragus saltator_, is the first type of a third section; as its name denotes, it is an Antelope with Goat-like habits, being found particularly among rocks. The horns are short and straight. This, the only species of the genus, is African in range, of which its Dutch name gives evidence. A specimen in the Zoological Society's Gardens (as has been pointed out to me by Mr. Mercer) had the habit of depositing the secretion of the tear gland upon a mass of concrete in its enclosure, the secretion thus exuded forming a pointed heap of hardish matter. It may be that the object of this is to guide its fellows to its whereabouts. _Ourebia_ is a less-known genus, larger in size, but with horns of the same character, though longer. The Grysbok and the Steinbok, genus _Raphiceros_, have similar horns. This as well as the last two genera have horns in the male only. One of the smallest of Antelopes belongs to an allied genus; this is _Neotragus pygmaeus_. It is known as the Royal Antelope, a name apparently derived from Bosman's statement that the negroes called it "the king of the harts." Its horns are very small. The height of the animal is only 10 inches. Horns are present in the male alone. The last three genera are African. The Cervicaprine series, which is also African, includes the Waterbucks and Reedbucks, so called on account of their water-loving propensities. As in the last series, from which they are separated by Sclater and Thomas, but with which they are united by Flower, there are horns in the male only. These horns, though not twisted, are long. The typical genus is _Cobus_, of which there are eleven species. The Waterbuck, _C. ellipsiprymnus_, and the Sing-sing, _C. unctuosus_, are perhaps the best-known species; the former is {311} blackish grey, the latter browner in colour. In _C. maria_ and one or two other species the horns are more curved backwards and again forwards than in some of the others, where their form is sublyrate. The Reedbucks, _Cervicapra_, are closely allied to _Cobus_; they are, however, of smaller size. Here, as in that genus, the females are hornless, and the horns of the males are of medium size. Five species are referred to the genus. They are all of a brownish fawn colour. A genus _Pelea_, with but one species, _P. capreolus_, has been separated on account of the fact that the horns are nearly straight and that there is no naked patch of skin beneath the ears. This animal has received its name on account of its resemblance to the Roebuck. The Antilopine section includes a number of genera. The genus _Antilope_ is Indian in range. It includes but one species, _A. cervicapra_. This Antelope is of medium size, with a brown pelage getting blacker with years; it is thus known as the Black-buck. The female, which is hornless, is lighter brown. The horns are long, spirally twisted, and closely ringed. _Aepyceros_, with two species, is African. The Palla (_Ae. melampus_) is a large Antelope, with longish lyrate horns in the male, which are half-ringed. The Saiga Antelope, genus _Saiga_, is one of the most remarkable types of Antelope in its outward appearance. Its nose is very large and inflated, the two nostrils being quite widely separated, a depression indeed lying between them dorsally. The horns are lyrate in the male, absent in the female. The "ovine expression" of this bovine animal is more pronounced in the female. Corresponding with the clumsy nose are very short nostrils, the commencement of the narial aperture being therefore very far back. It is almost suggestive of _Macrauchenia_ in this respect. The fleece is also Sheep-like. The genus occurred in this country during the Pleistocene. It is now an inhabitant of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. The only species is _S. tartarica_. The Chiru, _Pantholops_, is allied to the Saiga. The horns of the male are long and nearly straight; they are ringed in front. The muzzle is swollen in the male; the nostrils are large, and provided with extensive sacs internally. The colour of this animal, which is exclusively Thibetan in range, is a pale fawn. The hair, in accord with its habitat, is very woolly. No living specimens have ever been brought to Europe. This creature has accumulated much {312} legend. Its blood is believed by the Mongols to possess virtues, and by means of the rings on the horns fortunes are told. Naturally the animal is on these grounds hard to stalk and shoot. [Illustration] FIG. 161.--Loder's Gazelle. _Gazella loderi._ × 1/10. The Gazelles, genus _Gazella_, are fairly numerous in species, which are both Palaearctic and Ethiopian. There are altogether twenty-five of them. The genus as a whole is characterised by the small or moderate size, the sandy coloration with white belly, the presence of dark and light stripes on the face and on the flanks. These streaks, however, are not always present, and their presence or absence serves to differentiate some of the species. The horns are usually present in both sexes. The horns are of fair length, ringed, and of lyrate form. The Springbok is separated from the rest of the Gazelles, to which genus it is clearly most nearly related, as a genus _Antidorcas_. This genus differs from _Gazella_ by having only two lower premolars as in _Saiga_. Otherwise it resembles the Gazelles; there is but a single species, _A. euchore_, which is African. {313} _Ammodorcas_ is closely allied to the Gazelles, but differs from them in having an elongated neck and also a long tail. _A. clarkei_, the only species, is limited to Somaliland. _Lithocranius_, not unlike the last, has a still longer neck, which makes it almost Giraffe-like; its tail, however, is short. The scientific name is derived from the "solid stony character of the cranium." In running, this Gazelle carries the head forward in a straight line with the body. It is African. _Dorcotragus_ with one species, _D. megalotis_, is a pigmy Gazelle restricted to Somaliland. Its likeness, on account of size and in some other superficial features, to the Klipspringer, led to its original confusion with that genus (_Oreotragus_). [Illustration] FIG. 162.--Sable Antelope. _Hippotragus niger._ × 1/20. The horns of the specimen figured have not nearly reached their full dimensions. A sub-family Hippotraginae, or Hippotragine section, includes a number of Antelopes which agree in the possession of four mammae, and of molars more like those of the true Oxen, of {314} horns of some length, present in both sexes, and of a longish tail. They are all African in range. The type genus _Hippotragus_ has its horns placed above the orbits; they are not twisted, but curved backwards. There are three species in the genus. Of these the best known is _H. niger_, the beautiful Sable Antelope. Its general colour is a rich, dark, glossy brown with white stripes on the face, and with a white belly. The other species are the Roan Antelope, _H. equinus_, and the Blaaubok, _H. leucophaeus_, of which the last specimen was probably killed in 1799.[213] [Illustration] FIG. 163.--Beatrix Antelope. _Oryx beatrix._ × 1/16. (From _Nature_.) The genus _Oryx_ (chiefly African, but also Arabian and Syrian) also contains a number of species, which are fairly familiar through the fact that several of them are always on view in the Zoological Society's Gardens. The genus differs from _Hippotragus_ in that the horns, present in both sexes, are placed behind the orbits, and slant backwards in a line with the face. They are annulated. The Leucoryx (_O. leucoryx_) is of a pale colour, but {315} this is not so marked as in _O. beatrix_, which is largely white with, however, brown legs. The Gemsbok is a handsome creature with greyish tawny colour, much darker on the legs, and with a Gazelle-like, dark, side stripe. It has received its vernacular name on account of its supposed likeness to the Chamois ("Gemse"), just as the Rehbok was so-called from its supposed likeness to the Roe Deer, and the Eland to the Elk. The Beisa (_O. beisa_) is of a similar tawny colour to the last, and also with darker stripes. The Addax (_Addax_) of North Africa, Arabia and Syria, has but one species (_A. nasomaculatus_). The horns are spirally twisted. [Illustration] FIG. 164.--Speke's Antelope. _Tragelaphus spekii_ ([female]). × 1/16. The Tragelaphine section includes the Kudus, Elands, Nilgais, and Harnessed Antelopes. They are all long-horned (when the horns are present in both sexes), the horns being twisted; the nose is naked with a slight median groove, and all are Ethiopian or Oriental in range. The genus _Tragelaphus_ includes the Harnessed Antelopes, so called on account of the direction of the stripes suggesting harness. The females are hornless, and the colours of the two sexes are different. The hoofs are long and the toes rather unusually separable, which state of affairs is in accord with the {316} swampy country affected by many. _T. gratus_ and _T. spekei_ are larger forms; the Boschbok, _T. sylvaticus_, is smaller. The Kudus, genus _Strepsiceros_, have more markedly twisted horns, which are absent in the female. The body is vertically striped with white. The largest species is _S. kudu_; a smaller form, _S. imberbis_, is from Somaliland. [Illustration] FIG. 165.--Eland. _Orias canna._ × 1/25. The last genus of this section or sub-family is the African Eland, genus _Oreas_[214] (which it appears should be spelt _Orias_). The Elands are perhaps more Ox-like in appearance than the other members of this group, and in both sexes have horns, in which the spiral twisting is more close. _Orias canna_ is the name of the common Eland. _O. livingstonii_ has been applied to an East African variety, which has thin and faint lateral stripes like the other members of the group to which it belongs. The genus _Boselaphus_ includes only _B. tragocamelus_, the Nilgai, which is purely Indian in range. The female is hornless, and the horns of the male are smooth and not long. {317} The members of the Bovine section or Oxen are to be distinguished from other hollow-horned Ruminants by their stouter build and by the fact that the horns stand out from the sides of the skull and are simply curved, not twisted; and smooth, not annulate like those of other Ruminants. The muffle is naked, broad, and moist. The Oxen are widely distributed; but are entirely absent from the Australian region and from South America and Madagascar. The true Oxen are perhaps best considered to form but a single genus, _Bos_. They have, however, been divided into a number of genera. Even the supposed aberrant _Anoa depressicornis_ of Celebes hardly differs sufficiently to warrant its separation. In favour of this view, too, is the extraordinary ease with which different "genera" will cross with each other and produce fertile offspring. The following is the pedigree of an animal lately living in the Zoological Society's Gardens. The female offspring of a male Zebu and a female Gayal was mated with a male Bison. The female calf was again mated with a Bison and produced a calf, also a female, which contained therefore the three species, _Bos indicus_, _Bibos frontalis_, and _Bison americanus_. It is clearly unwise in view of this fact to insist too much upon generic distinctions in any of those types.[215] Of this genus the Oriental Gaur (_Bos gaurus_), the Gayal (_B. frontalis_), and the Banteng (_B. sondaicus_) form a well-marked section, characterised by their dark coloration and by the somewhat flattened horns. The Gaur, _Bos gaurus_, has a more concave forehead than its allies; the horns are less curved than those of the Banteng, and less so than the horns of the Gayal (_Bos frontalis_). It inhabits the Indian Peninsula; and extends through Burmah to the extremity of the Malay Peninsula. The Malay name of this animal is Sakiutan, which simply means wild cattle. It chiefly frequents wooded hills and is an excellent mountain climber. _Bos frontalis_, the Indian Gayal, has a white caudal disc like the last species, but the forehead is flat and the horns curve but little. It is chiefly known as a tame animal, and its occurrence in the wild state has been doubted. It has furthermore been suggested that it is merely a tame race of the Gaur altered {318} slightly through domestication. It is, however, said not to cross in a state of nature with the Gaur.[216] [Illustration] FIG. 166.--Gayal. _Bos frontalis._ × 1/20. The Banteng, _B. sondaicus_, is distributed through Chittagong, Tenasserim, and the Malay Peninsula to Java and Borneo. There are apparently two races of this animal. The species differs from the others by the fact that the horns are smaller and more curved; there is a white caudal disc; the forehead is narrower and the skull longer than in the others. The American Bison and the European Aurochs form another section; they are indeed extremely alike, specific differences being hardly recognisable. The Bison of America, formerly present in such numbers that the prairies were black with countless herds, has now diminished to about a thousand head. One of the largest of existing Bovidae is the Aurochs, Wisent, or European Bison, _Bos bonasus_ (or _Bison europaeus_). It is exceedingly like its American relative. Formerly the animal was much more widely spread than it is now, extending its range from Europe into North America. It is now limited to certain districts on the Urals, in the Caucasus, and a herd of them are kept up through the fostering care of the Emperor of Russia in the forest of Bielovege in Lithuania. The term "Aurochs" should not really be applied to this species but to the Wild Cattle, _Bos taurus_. It is, however, so generally used for the Wisent (which is the German name) that it {319} is not necessary to change it. The Sclavonic name is Zubr or Suber. It is a great beast, standing 6 feet or so in height at the shoulder. It ranged further over Europe well within the historic period. In the days of Charlemagne it was spread over Germany and was a beast of the chase. In the year 1848 the Emperor of Russia presented a pair of these Oxen to the Zoological Society of London. At the time of their presentation an interesting communication was made to the Society by M. Dolmatoff, on the method of the capture of these two examples. The creature is not easy to capture and is alarming to confront. "The eyes," says an old writer, "are red and fiery; the looks are furious and commanding." It has of course the shaggy mane and hump of the American animal. The herd in Lithuania was said to be 1900 in the year 1856. Mr. E. N. Buxton,[217] who has lately visited the forest, quotes M. Neverli to the effect that at present the numbers are not more than 700. [Illustration] FIG. 167.--Bison. _Bison americanus._ × 1/25. Allied to this animal, and apparently still nearer to the American Bison, is the extinct _B. priscus_ of Europe. The Pleistocene Bisons of North America, _B. antiquus_ and _B. latifrons_, are not remote from the living forms. Finally, the Miocene _B. sivalensis_ from India, and the Pliocene _B. ferox_ and _B. alleni_ of North America, take back this group to as remote a period as any other genus of Oxen. {320} [Illustration] FIG. 168.--Yak. _Bos grunniens._ × 1/15. [Illustration] FIG. 169.--British Wild Ox. _Bos taurus._ From Vaynol Park, Bangor. × 1/20. The Yak, _Bos grunniens_, is a long-haired peculiar type, confined to the Thibetan plateau. _B._ (_Anoa_) _depressicornis_ of Celebes is characterised by its straight horns; allied to it is _B. mindorensis_ (Philippine Islands), supposed, however, to be a hybrid between {321} it and some other species. Africa has at least two Buffaloes. We may finally mention the Wild Ox of Europe, _B. primigenius_, the supposed progenitor of our domestic cattle, believed to be still surviving in the herds at Chillingham, Chartley, and elsewhere. This animal is sometimes called the Aurochs. The Romans spoke of it as the Urus, and it appears to have formerly attained to more gigantic proportions than at present. It is the small size of the present race that is the chief objection to tracing them back to the large Oxen existing near London in 1174, and found sub-fossil in the Cambridgeshire fens. [Illustration] FIG. 170.--Punjab Wild Sheep. _Ovis vignei._ × 1/10. Of the true sheep, genus _Ovis_, there are a considerable number of species. The Sheep are to be distinguished from the Goats by their rather stouter build and by the absence of the beard in the male. The horns are developed in both sexes, and are usually twisted and often of large size. The Sheep are almost entirely Palaearctic and Nearctic. They only just get into the Oriental region. One of the finest species is the great Pamir Sheep, _O. poli_, whose length reaches 6 feet {322} 7 inches, and height 3 feet 10 inches. The horns of this fine Sheep may measure more than five feet round the curves. The Rocky Mountain Bighorn (_O. montana_) is a Sheep ranging along the Rockies as far south as New Mexico, and also to the far north; they are not confined to the chain of mountains mentioned, but occur also on the mountains of British Columbia down to those of California. The horns are not quite as large as those of the last species, but measurements give a length (along the curve) of 32 to 40 inches. [Illustration] FIG. 171.--Himalayan Burrhel Sheep. _Ovis burrhel._ × 1/12. (From _Nature_.) [Illustration] FIG. 172.--Blanford's Sheep. _Ovis blanfordi._ × 1/10. (From _Nature_.) Just as the Goats are often limited to islands and small stretches of country, so are the Sheep. Thus Cyprus has a species, _O. ophion_, peculiar to itself. This, which is known as the Cyprus Mouflon, is limited to a range of mountains, the Troodos, in that island. In 1878 it was believed that the animal was nearly exterminated, a flock of twenty-five members alone surviving. They have, however, since increased. Confined {324} to the Thibetan plateau are _O. hodgsoni_ and _O. nahura_. Corsica has the Mouflon, _O. musimon_; and the Barbary Sheep or Arui, _O. tragelaphus_, is found only in Northern Africa. _Ovis burrhel_ and _O. blanfordi_ are Indian forms. [Illustration] FIG. 173.--Barbary Sheep. _Ovis tragelaphus._ × 1/10. [Illustration] FIG. 174.--Thar. _Capra jemlaica._ × 1/10. (From _Nature_.) _Ovis nahura_ is chiefly responsible for the impossibility of strictly separating the Sheep and Goats. It has no suborbital glands or lachrymal fossae, which are as a rule present in the Sheep and absent from the Goats. On the other hand interdigital glands are present, which is the case with Sheep. Its habits, too, are a blending of those of the Sheep and the Goat. It lives largely on undulating ground like Sheep, and frequently lies down during the day on its feeding ground. On the other hand it is, like the Goats, a splendid climber. The Goats, genus _Capra_, differ from the Sheep in their slighter build and in the fact that the horns are not spirally curved, but arched over the back. There is also the characteristic beard, {325} and the male is odorous. The true Goats are almost exclusively Palaearctic in range. They show the limited distribution of the Sheep, a distribution which follows from their mountain-loving habits. [Illustration] FIG. 175.--Sinaitic Ibex. _Capra sinaitica._ × 1/10. Thus we have the Spanish Ibex (_C. pyrenaica_), limited to the Pyrenees and other mountain ranges of the peninsula; _C. ibex_, the Steinbok of the Alps and the Tyrol; the Markhoor, _C. falconeri_, of certain mountain ranges of Afghanistan; the Caucasian, Sinaitic, and Cretan Ibexes, and the Thar. _Capra aegagrus_, the Persian Wild Goat, ranges from the Caucasus to Sind. It is this animal which produces the true "bezoar stone." The substance in question is a secretion apparently found in the stomach. It is still, according to Mr. Blanford, regarded as an antidote to poison in Persia. Buffon called this Goat the "Pasan," which is evidently a corruption of the word bezoar. When the substance was in repute as a medicine of the "alexipharmic" kind, the supply naturally came up to the demand. Thus the bezoar stones of the Lama in South America gained repute, and there were "Oriental bezoar, cow {326} bezoar, hog bezoar, and monkey bezoar"! As concretions of one kind or another are not uncommon objects in the alimentary tract of mammals it was easy enough to obtain a fair amount of some substance which was sure to sell well. It is said that a stone weighing four ounces was once sold in this country (or at any rate in Europe) for £200. "There can be no doubt," observes Mr. Blanford, "that _C. aegagrus_ is one of the species, and probably the principal, from which tame goats are derived." [Illustration] FIG. 176.--Japanese Goat Antelope. _Nemorrhaedus crispus._ × 1/12. (From _Nature_.) The Chamois (_Rupricapra_) and the Goral (_Nemorrhaedus_) are best described as Goat-like Antelopes; but, as already said, it is difficult to split up the Bovidae satisfactorily. The Rocky Mountain Goat, _Haploceros montanus_, is a large Goat-like creature, {327} which has the peculiarity of having the shortest cannon bones of any Ruminant. Its name denotes its range. [Illustration] FIG. 177.--Goral. _Nemorrhaedus goral._ × 1/12. (From _Nature_.) The Musk Ox, _Ovibos moschatus_, has been thought to be on the borderland between the Sheep and Oxen, as indeed expressed in its scientific name. It is a purely Arctic creature, now confined to the Nearctic region; but it formerly existed in the Arctic regions of Europe. The anatomy of the "soft parts" of this genus has lately been investigated by Dr. Lönnberg.[218] The animal has no foot glands such as occur in _Ovis_. Its kidneys, however, are non-lobate, and it has orbital glands. The cotyledons of the placenta are unusually large, and the cow has the "primary four" teats. It cannot, in fact, be definitely referred to either the Caprine or the Bovine section of the Cavicornia, and while possibly most allied to _Budorcas_, it may be regarded, at least for the present, as entitled to form a separate sub-family of its own. The muzzle {328} has a slight naked strip above the nostrils, as in the Sheep, but there is no fissure of the upper lip. EXTINCT FAMILIES OF ARTIODACTYLA. The origin of the Artiodactyla is placed by Cope in the family PANTOLESTIDAE,[219] allied to the genus _Protogonodon_ of the Condylarthra. As, however, this family is represented by but a few back teeth and a fragment of the hind-foot, it seems premature to regard it as the necessary starting-point of the Bunodont and Ruminant groups. FAM. ANTHRACOTHERIIDAE.--This well-known and ancient family consists of creatures of for the most part a Pig-like form, with teeth approaching the selenodont shape, and a complete dentition. The carpals, tarsals, metacarpals, and metatarsals are all free. The toes are four (or five) to each foot, with the outermost beginning to be reduced. These of course are all generalised and primitive characters, pointing nowhere in particular, except, of course, to an Artiodactyle stock, on account of the teeth and the two predominating toes. The type genus of the family, _Anthracotherium_, is not, as its name might seem to denote, a relic of the Carboniferous period; its remains were found in lignite, which may also show that it was at least semi-aquatic in habit. Its form, however, must have been Pig-like, so at least one would presume from the elongated skull and shortish legs. There were species as great as a Rhinoceros, and smaller forms. The genus began in the Oligocene and continued down to the Pliocene. It is known from Europe, Asia, and America. The skull is long with a prominent sagittal crest. The facial part is also very long, and the orbits are not closed by a bony ring. The premolars are simple teeth; the molars distinctly bunodont with a tendency in one or two to the selenodont condition. The canines are powerful, as are also the incisors. The scapula has been specially compared with that of the Camel. It has no acromion, which is usually though not always absent in Ungulates. An ally of the present animal, for instance, the Hippopotamus, has the acromion developed. The radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, are all fully developed. {329} _Ancodus_ (or _Hyopotamus_, as it has been called) is also Oligocene in range, and its remains have been found in the same countries as have those of _Anthracotherium_. Both genera are indeed closely allied. _Ancodus_ seems to be a more slightly-built creature. The skull looks weaker, but presents much the same features of organisation. In _A. velaunus_, a species found in French rocks, a metacarpal of digit I. was present in the manus, while _A. brachyrhynchus_ had a completely five-fingered manus. The Miocene genus _Merycopotamus_ (from the lower layers of the Siwalik formation in India) is more distinctly selenodont than the forms already discussed. On this ground it has been placed in a separate sub-family. As, however, in other respects it does not depart from the Anthracotherian type of structure, this proceeding seems to be hardly necessary. There are two species known, of which one, _M. nanus_, is, as its name denotes, a dwarf form. FAM. CAENOTHERIIDAE.--While the last family consisted of animals rather more akin to the Pigs, the present is more Pecorine in its characters. The molars are selenodont; but as in the Tragulidae the premolars are more of the nature of cutting teeth. The dentition, like that of so many of these early Ungulates, is complete, and the canines are not prominent. The feet are four-toed, the lateral toes not reaching the ground. The principal genus is the Eocene and Miocene _Caenotherium_. Of this genus there were a considerable number of species all European in range, and of small size--not more than a foot or so in length. Their small size is suggestive of the Chevrotains. In the skull the orbital cavity is nearly or quite surrounded by bone, and the tympanic bulla is large and inflated. A common feature of Artiodactyles, a failure of the nasals and maxillae to meet at the side of the face, is to be seen in this ancient forerunner of the Pecora. _Plesiomeryx_, also European, and from the same geological horizon, is a very closely allied form. FAM. XIPHODONTIDAE.--This family consists of slender, small Artiodactyles which are, like the Caenotheriidae, related to the Pecora. They are confined in their range to Europe. The type genus _Xiphodon_ has selenodont molars and elongated, slender, cutting premolars. The dentition was complete and the canines not highly developed. Like _Caenotherium_, {330} _Xiphodon_ was a hornless creature, but with only two toes, the two lateral digits being represented by the merest rudiments of metacarpals. The other metacarpals were unusually long. _Amphimeryx_ (also called _Xiphodontotherium_) is much more imperfectly known, but belongs to this family or to that of the Caenotheriidae. _Dichodon_ is another member of the same family. FAM. OREODONTIDAE.--This family, consisting of numerous genera, is limited to the North American continent. Its range in time is from the Eocene to the Lower Pliocene. The family as a whole is to be distinguished by a number of primitive characters. The dentition is complete; the feet are four- or even five-toed; the orbit is sometimes open behind. The canines of the lower jaw are not more pronounced than the incisors. The characteristics of the group will be further developed by a consideration of some of the principal genera which are included in this family. _Oreodon_ is a Miocene form about as large as a Peccary. The skull has a short face with a completely-closed orbital cavity. In front of the orbit is a deep pit, not a mere deficiency of ossification, such as occurs in many Artiodactyles. This is placed on the lachrymal bone, and is in fact a lachrymal fossa, such as occurs in other forms. The odontoid process of the axis vertebra is somewhat cheese-taster shaped, as in recent Artiodactyles. There are fourteen dorsal vertebrae and a very large number of caudals. The radius and the ulna are completely separated, as are the carpals. There are five digits to the fore-limbs. The fibula is complete and independent. The hind-foot is four-toed. Several species of the genus are known. _Merycochoerus_ is an allied Miocene genus. It is more massive in form than the last, but otherwise does not present differences of importance. _Mesoreodon_ is another genus of this family which presents some curious features of organisation. In the skull and teeth there is nothing very noteworthy, but the hyoid is remarkable. This appendage of the skull is by no means always preserved, and when it is, it might be denied that it belonged to any particular skull. In the present case there appears to be no doubt as to the identity of the bones, which resemble the corresponding bones of the Perissodactyla much more than they do those of other Artiodactyles. Associated with the bones an ossified {331} thyroid cartilage of the larynx was found. As the skull was that of a male, this character may be a sexual one. It is quite comparable to the ossification of the same cartilage in the American monkey _Callithrix_. "The function of the bone," observes Professor Scott,[220] "was probably similar to that performed by the enormously-inflated basihyal of the howling monkeys, and must have given to these animals most unusual powers of voice." Another important anatomical fact about _Mesoreodon_ is the apparent existence of a clavicle. It is of course conceivable that the remains of some other animal have got mixed up with that of the individuals upon which the present genus is founded; but failing that, here is a clavicle in an Ungulate. The spine of the scapula possesses a metacromion. This greater development of the spine of the scapula in Artiodactyles than in Perissodactyles is, it is suggested, to be correlated with the earlier loss of the clavicle in the latter group of Ungulates. _Cyclopidius_ (synonymous with _Brachymeryx_) is a kind of pug form of _Oreodon_. The skull is short and broad, and the end of the snout a little turned up. The upper incisors are small and drop out early. On each side of the nasals is a large oval vacuity which is perhaps to be compared to the lateral deficiency to be found in other Artiodactyles. One species of this singular-looking form is appropriately called _C. simus_. Other allied genera are _Merychyus_ and _Leptauchenia_. The former extends as far down as the Lower Pliocene, and is thus one of the newest forms of Oreodontidae. _Agriochoerus_[221] (Fig. 178) is placed in a separate sub-family from the types which have just been considered. It is Miocene in range. It differs from _Oreodon_ and its closer relatives by the fact that the orbit is open behind and not closed. The most remarkable fact about this creature is that the terminal phalanges of the digits (five in the fore- and four in the hind-feet) being pointed, seem to suggest their encasement with claws rather than hoofs. The pollex, though small, seems to have been opposable. As with other Oreodonts, the molars are selenodont. The premaxillae are toothless--at least in adults, for two teeth are present in the {332} young. There are several species. _Agriochoerus_, like _Oreodon_ and primitive Ungulates in general, had a long tail. The genus thus shows a mixture of ancient and specialised characters. [Illustration] FIG. 178.--Skeleton of _Agriochoerus latifrons_. × 1/8. (After Wortman.) The most ancient form of Oreodont is _Protoreodon_. This is Eocene, and became extinct during that period. It had a complete dentition, open orbit, and no lachrymal fossa. The fore-feet were five-toed, the hind four-toed. FAM. ANOPLOTHERIIDAE.--This family is entirely Eocene in point of time, and is unknown outside Europe. The dentition of the group is complete; the molars are seleno-bunodont, like those of the Anthracotheriidae. The bones of the carpus, tarsus, metacarpus and metatarsus are all free; the toes are four to two in number on each foot. The orbit is widely open behind. The tail is long, as in _Xiphodon_, etc. {333} These general characters only just serve to differentiate the family; but they illustrate its archaic character, in which it resembles the Xiphodontidae, and even more the Anthracotheriidae. A survey of some of the genera which have been assigned to the family will bring out other features in the organisation of these very ancient Artiodactyles. _Anoplotherium_ is so called on account of the fact that it is, like all ancient Artiodactyles, without horns or claws. Tusks it might have, but as a matter of fact has not. There are, as in Artiodactyles generally, nineteen dorso-lumbar vertebrae; the long tail has numerous chevrons. The shoulder blade has a well-marked acromion and a distinct coracoid process; it is wide proximally. The bones of the fore-arm and fore-leg are, as is usual in primitive Artiodactyles, separate. In the skull the chief features, in addition to that mentioned in the definition of the family, are the large size of the paroccipital processes; there is no fossa lachrymalis or deficiency in the side of the face. The animal is three-toed, both in the fore- and hind-limbs. The second toe is nearly as large as the Artiodactyle third and fourth. There are tiny rudiments of the two remaining fingers. The hind-foot is also three-toed, and there is a trace of the hallux. The fingers are so widely separated and divergent from each other that it has been suggested that the animal had webbed feet and inhabited marshes, in which it swam by the aid of its long tail. The creature was the size of a Tapir. Closely resembling _Anoplotherium_ are a number of other genera. _Diplobune_ ( = _Hyracodontotherium_) was much like the last, but was a more delicately-formed animal. The fingers and toes (three of each) end in such sharply-pointed phalanges that claws seem to be almost suggested. There are several species of this genus. _Dacrytherium_ differs by the presence of a lachrymal fossa. _Dichobune_ has four-toed extremities, of which the lateral ones are more slender and shorter than the two middle ones. As in other Anoplotheriidae, the anterior premolars are furnished with a sharp cutting edge. ORDER V. SIRENIA. Aquatic Mammalia, with but few scattered hairs; hind-limbs absent; fore-limbs paddle-shaped; tail flattened, and either {334} Whale-like or rhomboidal to circular in form. Nostrils on upper surface of not specially-elongated snout. Clavicles are absent. The scapula has the normal mammalian form, with a well-developed and roughly median spine. The bones of the arm and hand articulate together, as in land animals; the phalanges show at most traces of increase in number above the normal. Pelvis represented by a vestige, more highly developed in some fossil than in recent forms. Stomach complex, consisting of several chambers. Lungs simple and not lobulated. Diaphragm oblique and very muscular. Brain peculiar in form and but slightly convoluted. Testes abdominal. Teats two, and pectoral in position. Placenta non-deciduous and zonary.[222] This limited group consists of purely aquatic forms, which are both marine and fresh-water in their proclivities. They have been placed in the immediate vicinity of the Whales; but it is now believed by most zoologists that the likenesses which they undoubtedly show to the Cetacea are of an adaptive kind and related to their similar mode of life. The group is a readily-definable one. Externally they are marked by their dark coloration, somewhat Whale-like though of clumsier build, and by the total absence of external ears and hind-limbs; the latter are, however, as will be pointed out shortly, marked by certain rudimentary bones. There is a flattened tail, which in the Dugong and _Rhytina_ is precisely like that of a Whale. It is interesting to note that the former genus, whose tail is, judging it at least by the standard of the Whales, more completely modified for the aquatic life, should also show other features which indicate their longer life as marine creatures. For the flippers are more Whale-like in that the fore-arm is completely enclosed within the body, or nearly so, and the nostrils have a more decidedly superior position than in the Manatee. The fore-limbs of this group, as may be inferred from what has just been said, are flipper-like; but, contrary to what we find in Whales, the phalanges do not as a rule show any traces of multiplication, so characteristic a feature of the Cetacean hand, and the individual bones are connected by well-formed joints. Beneath the thick skin, which is sparsely provided with stout hairs in the Dugong, is a layer of blubber. Dr. Murie has called attention to the fact that this layer in the {335} Manatee[223] differs from the blubber of the Whale in that there is no free oil anywhere.[224] The skeleton of the Sirenia is strong and massive, thus contrasting with the loosely-textured bones of the Cetacea. The cervical vertebrae are, as a rule, free, but the second and third are fused in _Manatus_ and the extinct _Halitherium_. It is noteworthy that in _Rhytina_ the cervical vertebrae have the exceedingly thin centra that characterises the neck vertebrae in Whales. The ribs are most of them firmly articulated by two heads. The breastbone is generally reduced, as in Whales; and but few ribs are attached thereto. The vertebrae, moreover, are well locked together by zygapophyses, and not loosely attached as in Whales. The shoulder blade is long and narrow, and not unlike that of the Seals. It is totally unlike the peculiarly-modified scapula of the Whale tribe. But, as in the latter, there are no clavicles. The hind-limbs are only represented by the pelvis; and this is a rudimentary structure, varying, however, in the degree of its degeneration. That of the extinct _Halitherium_ recalls the pelvis of the Rorqual. There is a single triradiate bone with an acetabular cavity for the rudiment of the femur in the centre; it suggests that here the three normal elements of the pelvis have become fused into a single bone. In the Dugong there are two small bones on each side. The Manatees (_Manatus_)[225] are found in the fresh-waters and along the Atlantic coasts of South America and Africa. It appears that there are four species, of which one only is African, the others American. Report asserts the former occurrence of this genus on the shores of St. Helena. The Manatee is provided with only six cervical vertebrae, a fact which distinguishes it from the other existing genera of its group. A remarkable feature which it exhibits is the large number of molar teeth. These apparently go on increasing indefinitely during its life, the suggestion being that they are worn away by the nature of the food--algae with much sand intermixed. As many as twenty molar teeth have been counted in one half of the jaw, and there is no reason to forbid the assumption that they {336} may get still more numerous. This large number of grinding teeth is obviously suggestive of the Whales, with which the Sirenia are believed by some to be allied. It is at least a remarkable coincidence that these two aquatic groups of mammals should both have assumed the same indefinite tooth formula. It is correct to say assumed, since extinct forms of Manatees, such as _Halitherium_ and _Prorastoma_, have not a continuous succession of molars. The brain of the Manatee is, contrary to the usual arrangement among aquatic mammals, smooth, and only marked by one or two fissures. The Manatee[226] is black in colour, its thick skin being wrinkled. The animal is assisted in feeding by a curious mechanism of the upper lip; this is split in two, and the two halves, which are furnished with strong bristles, can play upon each other like the points of a pair of forceps. The flippers are furnished with nails, save in _M. inunguis_, but in the nailed forms it is not every finger which is thus armed. [Illustration] FIG. 179.--Skeleton of Dugong. _Halicore australis._ (After de Blainville.) _Halicore_,[227] the Dugong, is an entirely Oriental and Australian {337} form; there appears to be but a single species, though more than one name has been given to supposed distinct species. As already mentioned, it differs from the Manatee in the possession of a Whale-like tail; the nostrils, too, are more upon the upper surface of the head, and there are no nails upon the flipper. The peculiar cleft lip of the Manatee is not so well developed in the Dugong, but there are traces of it; and in the foetus the likeness to the Manatee in this respect is very striking. It would thus appear that _Halicore_ is a stage in advance upon _Manatus_; that the remarkable mechanism of the lip of the latter has been possessed, but has been lost, by the Dugong. The skull of the Dugong is distinguished by the stout premaxillary bones, which bear a tusk in the male. In the female the tooth is there, but is lodged within the bone. This incisor has a milk forerunner. The back teeth of the Dugong (there are no canines) are few in number (four or five, even six), thus showing a gradual reduction when compared with _Manatus_; and this culminates in the toothless _Rhytina_. It is also interesting to notice that in the massive lower jaw there are traces of an incisor. Were this to be developed into a tusk, the jaw would present a curious resemblance to that of _Dinotherium_. The Dugong, _H. dugong_, has the reputation of being the original of the mermaid legends, since the young is held to the pectorally-situated breast with one flipper. "But it should be remembered," justly observes Dr. Blanford, "that stories of beings half man or woman, half fish, are as common in temperate as in tropical seas, and that some of them are more ancient than any European knowledge of the Dugong." EXTINCT SIRENIANS.--The earliest genus that can be with certainty referred to this order is the Oligocene _Prorastoma_. This genus, though offering no particular skull-characters that assist in the determination of the much-debated affinities of the Sirenia, shows a remarkable condition of the teeth that may afford a clue. The species _P. veronense_, recently described by Mr. Lydekker,[228] is founded upon a fragment of the skull which contains two teeth apparently representing the third and fourth upper milk molars. The interest attaching to these teeth lies in the fact that they clearly exhibit the buno-selenodont condition characteristic of certain early Artiodactyles, e.g. _Merycopotamus_. _Halitherium_ is a later genus, which is known by the nearly {338} complete skeleton. The skull is like that of other Sirenia, with the down-turned premaxillary region. But the nasal bones, lost, or at least rudimentary, in recent forms, are well developed; the likeness of ancient to living forms in this respect being exactly paralleled by the Zeuglodonts, when compared with recent Whales. The vertebral centra exhibit distinct epiphyses, which have disappeared in living Sirenians. The cervical vertebrae are seven, of which the second and third are occasionally fused. There are nineteen pairs of ribs, and there are three lumbar vertebrae. The sternum consists of three separate pieces. There is a rudimentary femur. The recently-extinct Steller's Sea-cow, belonging to the genus _Rhytina_, was a huge beast, seen in the flesh up to nearly the end of the last century. It frequented the shores of Bering's Straits. Its remains occur in the peat on the shores of those seas. It reaches a length of some 20 to 30 feet. The external characters were much like those of other recent Sirenians. The nostrils were above the fore part of the snout, the latter being truncated and obtuse. The tail was of the Cetacean pattern, and thus like that of _Halicore_. The head of this Sirenian was small, and the teeth had entirely vanished save for the apparent existence as transitory structures of two small incisors in the upper jaw. The absence of teeth was compensated by the presence of a horny palate for the trituration of the sea-weeds which constituted the food of Steller's Sea-cow. The fore-limbs seem to have possessed no nails, but were covered at the extremity with short, bristly hairs, no doubt serving the purpose of keeping the animal moored in safety to the slippery beds of Fucus upon which it browsed. There are nineteen pairs of ribs. The vertebrae of the cervical region are the customary seven, and the centra are thin and plate-like as in the Cetacea, the animal being thus short-necked like those marine creatures. * * * * * {339} CHAPTER XII CETACEA--WHALES AND DOLPHINS ORDER VI. CETACEA.[229] Aquatic Mammalia of fish-like form; tail expanded into horizontal flukes; a fatty dorsal "fin" present in most species; anterior limbs converted into fin-like paddles; posterior limbs only represented by skeletal rudiments. Hairy covering reduced to a few isolated hairs in the neighbourhood of the muzzle. Nostrils represented by the single or double blow-hole, nearly always situated far back upon the skull. Bones of loose texture and much impregnated with oil. The skull has a greatly-developed facial portion; supra-occipital bones meeting the frontal by overgrowing, or growing in between the parietals; bones surrounding the organ of hearing loosely attached to the skull, the tympanics of peculiar cowrie-shell form. Coronoid process of mandible absent, or very feebly developed. Teeth, when present, few or numerous, always of simple conical form, with at most traces of additional cusps (_Inia_); if absent their place taken by whalebone. Cervical vertebrae of short antero-posterior diameter, often more or less completely welded together into a single mass. Articulations between dorsal and other vertebrae feeble. Scapula peculiarly flattened; acromion strongly developed as a rule, but arising from a slightly-marked spine; coracoid process generally strongly developed. Phalanges of digits always more numerous than in other mammals. Clavicles absent. Stomach complex, consisting of at least four and often more chambers. Lungs simple and non-lobulated. Diaphragm obliquely set and very {340} muscular. Brain much expanded transversely and well convoluted. Testes abdominal. Teats two, inguinal in position. Placenta diffuse and non-deciduate. The Whales and Dolphins, which constitute this order, form an assemblage which is easily characterised by reason of the fact that their affinities to other groups of Mammalia are so doubtful that they furnish matter rather for speculation than for authoritative statement. Some hold that they resemble in certain points the Ungulata; while others again see in them the culminating term of a series which commences with such a form as the Otter, and of which the Seals and Sea-lions are intermediate stages. A third opinion is that the Whales have arisen from some low mammalian stock, too primitive to be assigned to any existing order of mammals. Palaeontology, as will be seen later, throws no light whatever upon their origin. This matter has already been referred to (see p. 120) in considering the position of the Cetacea. The Whales include the most gigantic of all the orders of vertebrated animals. No creature living or extinct is so large as the Sibbald's Rorqual, which attains to a length of some 85 feet, or perhaps even rather more. On the other hand we have what are by comparison minute forms. Apart from the possibly problematical _Delphinus minutus_, stated to be only 2 feet in length, we have as a minimum 3 or 4 feet. The size of the Cetacea has been subjected to much exaggeration. The first duty of a Whale, observed the late Sir William Flower, is to be large; and Natural Historians, in the recent as well as in the remote past, have not hesitated to put very round numbers upon the dimensions of the larger members of the order. We may perhaps pass over Pliny's "fish called balaena or whirlpool, which is so long and broad as to take up more in length and breadth than two acres of ground," and a number of analogous exaggerations, which gradually dwindled down to the dimensions just stated of the great Rorqual. M. Pouchet has made the ingenious suggestion that the statements of the ancients may have been nearer the truth than observations of to-day would have us believe; he pointed out justly that in former times Whales were not so relentlessly pursued as during the last century; the inference being that they may have lived to a greater age, and attained a more colossal bulk. The more modern exaggerations in the {341} dimensions of the bigger Whales are probably due to the fact that measurements have been taken, not in a straight line from snout to tail, but along the bulging sides of the Cetacean, rendered even more convex than in nature by decomposition, and by pressure due to the immense tonnage of the creature. The Cetacea are the most perfectly aquatic of all mammals; they never leave the waters which they inhabit. It is true that legends have represented them as pasturing upon the shore--Aelian spoke of Dolphins basking in the sun's rays upon the sand; and the "Devil Fish" of California, _Rhachianectes_ (see p. 357) has given rise to improbable stories--but they are apparently only legends. Indeed a stranded Whale cannot live long, for it is unable to breathe, the comparatively feeble breast being crushed by its own weight. In accordance with the purely aquatic habit, we find a modification of the outward form of the body (and as we shall see later of many of the internal organs), which renders the Cetacea externally unlike all other mammals. The form is fish-like, the fore-limbs are paddles, the tail is expanded into two horizontal flukes, which serve to propel the creature through the water. [Illustration] FIG. 180.--Killer. _Orca gladiator._ × 1/40 (After True.) The skin is smooth and shiny, so smooth and so shiny that it has often been compared to coach leather. But nevertheless they are not entirely without that most essential character of the class Mammalia, a coating of hair. The hairy covering is, however, reduced to the very smallest proportions; it is represented {342} by a few hairs only--so few that they can be counted with ease--in the neighbourhood of the muzzle. These hairs are not present in all Whales; they are absent, for example, in the White Whale or Beluga. When present they are not furnished either with sebaceous glands or with muscular fibres, which are such universal concomitants of the hair follicles in the Mammalia generally. This appears to be conclusive evidence that the hairs, few as they are, are still undergoing degeneration. The need for a furry coat is removed by the presence of a thick coating of fat immediately underlying the skin. This is known as the blubber, and is the main incentive to the pursuit of Whales. It must not, however, be assumed without further argument that the hair is absent because its place is taken, as a mechanism for retaining the heat, by the blubber; for the Seal tribe possess both fur and blubber. Another conceivable explanation is quite at variance with such a view of economy. It may be noticed that among Ungulates there is a tendency to lose hair, particularly among more or less aquatic forms. Thus the Hippopotamus is almost naked (as is indeed the Walrus); the Rhinoceros, too, often a frequenter of marshy soil, is almost as denuded as is the Hippopotamus. It is not, however, settled that the Whales have anything to do with the Ungulata; otherwise an additional argument might be used, that is, the secular loss of hair in some members of this group. The Hairy Rhinoceros, _Rh. tichorhinus_, was, as its name denotes, a hairy beast; the Mammoth was equally so. The descendants, or at least the modern representatives of both these creatures, are but scantily clad with hairs. A final reason for the naked character of the skin in existing Cetacea is closely connected with a feature in the organisation of three or four living species which must first be described. Some years ago the late Dr. J. E. Gray of the British Museum described from the sea, off Margate, what he considered to be a new species of Porpoise, characterised by the presence on the dorsal fin of a row of stony tubercles. As a matter of fact it was subsequently shown that the Common Porpoise has the same structures, so that there was no need for a Margate species, _Phocaena tuberculifera_. Moreover, in the Indian _Neomeris_, a close ally of the Porpoise, a more abundant calcified covering of scales exists along the whole back of the animal. These plates, {343} it has been discovered, are larger in the foetus, a fact which naturally points to their being an inheritance from the past, now undergoing retrogressive changes. Such a way of looking upon the facts is confirmed by the finding, many years ago, by the naturalist and physiologist Johannes Müller, of bony plates in connexion with the remains of a Zeuglodont Cetacean. It looks, therefore, very much as if the Eocene ancestors of the modern Cetacea had a skin studded with bony plates, as have the armadillos. This being the case, the disappearance of hair is not surprising. The room would be taken up by the calcified plates, and when the latter disappeared, as they have in the vast majority of existing Whales, the naked skin alone would be left. Whales possess no externally-visible hind-limbs; rudiments of these appendages are present, which will be dealt with under the description of the principal features of the skeleton. But it has been discovered that in the Porpoise, external vestiges of hind-limbs do appear in the foetus, a fact which, be it observed, does away with the old view that the flukes of the Whale are the last term in the series of vanishing hind-limbs, of which the Seals, with their hind-limbs and tail bound up together, offer an intermediate step. The tail is fish-like in form, but the flukes are horizontal instead of vertical as in fishes and _Ichthyosaurus_. This arrangement is no doubt associated with the need for rapid return to the surface waters after a prolonged immersion in search of food. A downward stroke, such as is given by the powerful and large tail flukes, would naturally bring about this result rapidly. The tail, moreover, is under all circumstances the swimming organ. Its motion has been stated to be slightly rotatory, like that of a screw, and it is the case that the two flukes are often alternate in shape like the flanges of a screw; one being convex upwards, the other convex downwards. The fore-limbs are in the form of paddles, but they do not apparently serve as organs of locomotion so much as balancers. When a Whale is killed, it falls over on to one side, the office of the flippers being to maintain the proper position. It is believed, however, from the fact that the embryo often shows a relatively larger pectoral fin than that of the adult--the difference being due to a reduction in the adult of the number of phalanges--that the fin was once an organ of progression. {344} The pectoral fin of Whales exists in two forms. In the Toothed Whales it is shorter and rounder; in the Whalebone Whales longer and narrower. Structural differences accompany these outward dissimilarities. In the first-named group the humerus and the beginning of the radius and ulna are within the body, and do not form a part of the fin. In the Whalebone Whales, on the other hand, the fin contains all the bones of the fore-limb. Another remarkable contrast between the hand in the two groups of Whales is that while the Toothed Whales have five fingers, thus justifying the prevailing opinion that they are the more primitive of the two groups, the Whalebone Whales have only four fingers. Actually the Right Whale, _Balaena_, seems to have five fingers; and, indeed, the fact that it has, is often used to distinguish it from the Humpback, which has undoubtedly only four. But a careful consideration of the state of affairs which prevails in the foetus of _Balaenoptera_ dispels this idea. Between what are apparently the second and third fingers, a rudimentary finger, consisting of four phalanges, appears. This is not produced, as is an additional finger found in the White Whale or Beluga, by a splitting of a finger. Accordingly the four-fingered condition of the Whalebone Whales is produced by the dropping out of a finger in the middle of the series,--a very remarkable fact. When fingers disappear, as, for instance, in the Horse, etc., it is at the two ends of the series that the digits vanish. If this view of Professor Kükenthal's[230] be accepted, it follows that the presumed thumb of the Right Whale is what has been termed the prepollex. The hand of the Whales, like those of some other aquatic creatures, _e.g._ the reptile _Ichthyosaurus_, has a larger number of phalanges than have terrestrial animals. The result of this is, of course, to increase the length of the fin and its utility as a paddle. It is commonly not all the fingers that have developed this great number of accessory phalanges. Rudimentary nails have been found upon the Cetacean hand; but in no case are they functionally developed. In the Manatees we have the disappearance of the nails still imperfectly accomplished. In _M. latirostris_ there are nails; these have vanished, apart from possible traces to be seen with a microscope, in _M. inunguis_. A very characteristic feature of certain Whales are the furrows {345} to be seen on the throat. This is especially the case with the Rorquals, in which group the Humpback Whale, _Megaptera_, is to be included. The whales of these two genera (_Balaenoptera_ and _Megaptera_) have a large number of the throat furrows--as many as sixty have been counted. Some other Whales have a smaller number; thus _Rhachianectes_ has but two on each side, and the Physeteridae have not many more. These furrows are absent in very young embryos. It is thought by Professor Kükenthal that they allow of a wide opening of the mouth. [Illustration] FIG. 181.--Dorsal surface of bones of right anterior limb of Round-headed Dolphin (_Globicephalus melas_). × 1/10. The shaded portions of the digits are cartilaginous. _c_, Cuneiform; _H_, humerus; _l_, lunar; _R_, radius; _s_, scaphoid; _td_, trapezoid or magnum; _U_, ulna; _u_, unciform; _II-V_, digits. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The blow-hole of Whales is, of course, the aperture of the nostrils, which are not so far back in the foetus as in the adult. By the characters of the nostrils the Toothed Whales can be distinguished from the Baleen Whales; in the latter the orifice is double, in the former single. In embryos of Dolphins, however, the two apertures are quite independent. The phenomena of spouting have often been misinterpreted.[231] When the Whale breathes, the expired air rushes out through the nostrils. The water vapour in the breath condenses into drops of water in the cold Arctic regions where the phenomenon has been mainly observed. Hence the idea that water taken in at the mouth is expelled through the blow-hole. As the Whale approaches the surface to breathe, it may be that some of the water of the sea is {346} driven upwards by the forcible expulsion of air from the lungs. But for the most part the water which is spouted is simply condensed breath. Like some, but not all, other aquatic Mammalia the Whales have apparently no external ear. Indeed the opening of the ear is excessively small. In a huge Rorqual it will "admit a quill"; and although "a quill" is rather vague, we may fairly allow any sized quill without proving that the orifice of the auditory passage is anything but exceedingly minute. As a proof, added to so many, that the Whales are the progeny of terrestrial creatures, we have the occasional traces of external ears.[232] [Illustration] FIG. 182.--Left lower jaw of foetus of _Balaenoptera rostrata_. Inner aspect, natural size, showing teeth. (After Julin.) Whalebone Whales never possess permanent teeth as well as the baleen; but in the foetus are more than traces of true teeth, which, however, never arrive at maturity. The whalebone itself is described later (p. 354). That the Whalebone Whales possess teeth while in the foetal condition was discovered so long ago as 1807. It has since been confirmed by many observers. Not only is there one set of teeth developed in the foetal _Balaenoptera_ but two, of which one comes to a greater maturity; the other, in fact, remaining at a very early stage of development. The more complete dentition belongs to the milk series, as is the case with the Toothed Whales. A very interesting conclusion with regard to the derivation of the simple conical teeth of Whales seems to follow from the development of these structures in Balaenoptera. There are in the young foetus fewer teeth than in the more advanced embryo. Now in the younger embryo some of the teeth are furnished with more than one cusp; they are bi- or even tri-conodont. As Sir R. Owen observed, the teeth--some of {347} them--are literally double teeth. This is a suggestion of the more complicated teeth of the Zeuglodonts, and shows so far that the simple conical teeth of existing Whales (cf. however the Platanistidae) are not by any manner of means so primitive as their actual structure would undoubtedly lead one to believe. Further than this, the greater number of teeth in the older embryo coincided with the disappearance of these double teeth, which seem to split up into the simple conical teeth. The Toothed Whales are not furnished with baleen, but with teeth only. These teeth are more or less numerous, their arrangement being of value in the classification of the group; a matter which is dealt with later. In the Narwhal, whose dentition in the adult is reduced to the well-known tusk or tusks (properly developed only in the male), there is a complete foetal dentition. A very curious fact has been elucidated by Professor Kükenthal about the dentition of the Common Porpoise. It appears that in this Cetacean the two teeth corresponding to each other of the two dentitions may fuse into a single tooth, which has in consequence a double crown. It may be that this is the case with the Platanistid _Inia_, and that its diconodont teeth are not, therefore, a reminiscence of the comparatively complicated teeth of the ancient Zeuglodonts. The internal organs of Whales which show the greatest peculiarities as compared with other mammals are the stomach, the lungs, and the diaphragm. Whales always possess a complicated stomach divided into many, but into a variable number of, chambers: there are as few as four in some, as many as fourteen in Ziphioids. On account of its complication the stomach[233] has been compared to that of Ruminants--it has even been alleged that Whales "ruminate"--but the comparison will not hold good. Nor, on the other hand, is there a very close resemblance to the equally-complicated stomach of the Sirenians. The Rorqual has a stomach with as few compartments as any. The only Whale which appears to have fewer is _Balaena mysticetus_, where there are but three. In the Rorqual the oesophagus opens into a more or less globular sac; from the upper end of this, _i.e._ close to the entry of the oesophagus, arises the second chamber, long and narrowish; then follows an extremely short third sac, {348} then a larger fourth, after which comes the dilated commencement of the small intestine. The latter might be regarded as a chamber of the stomach were it not for the fact that the ducts of the liver and the pancreas open into it. This represents one type of the Cetacean stomach, which seems to be found in all Whales except the Ziphioids. In the latter, the oesophagus opens into the first compartment as usual; but the second division of the stomach arises not close to the entrance of the oesophagus, but at the opposite end. It would seem, therefore, as if the first division of the stomach, found in most Whales, were missing in Ziphioids. This way of looking at the matter is confirmed by the fact that in _Hyperoodon_ a remnant of the missing first stomach is found in the shape of a small diverticulum of the oesophagus just before it enters the stomach. The essential difference between the Whale's and the Ruminant's stomach is this: in the latter the stomach is primarily divided into two portions, of which the first is non-digestive and is clothed with oesophageal epithelium. The second, the abomasum, is the digestive region. The first part is again divided into three compartments. In the Whales, on the other hand, it is the digestive part which is again subdivided, while if the first part is divided it is not markedly so as in the Ruminants. The lungs are remarkable for their unlobulated character; in this they agree with the lungs of the Sirenia. The thoracic cavity in which they lie is barrel-shaped, and not, as is usual in terrestrial mammals, boat-shaped, _i.e._ narrower sternally than above. The alteration of the shape of the thoracic cavity is associated with the aquatic life; so at any rate the fact that it is also marked in Seals and even in the Otter seems to show. The Whales are also characterised by the great obliquity of the diaphragm, which is extremely muscular. In this character again we find an agreement with the Sirenia, and also with other aquatic mammals; it is not therefore a character of Whales so much as evidence of an adaptation to the aquatic life. The advantage is, it appears, in the increased capacity of the thoracic cavity, and the consequent greater possibilities of expansion of the lungs, which it must be remembered serve as hydrostatic as well as breathing organs. Some of the internal arteries of Whales break up into retia mirabilia. Their kidneys are lobulated; whether this has {349} anything to do with the aquatic life is not so clear. It also characterises the Sirenia, more or less, and the Otters; but, on the other hand, the terrestrial Bears show the same structure as do also some Ungulates. It must be borne in mind, too, that the kidneys of foetal Man are lobulated. The liver is a compact organ not showing such lobulation as is common, but not universal, among mammals. The bones of Whales have a somewhat loose structure, and are much impregnated with oil. In many features the skeleton of Whales is highly distinctive of the order. [Illustration] FIG. 183.--Skeleton of Porpoise (_Phocoena communis_), _acr_, Acromion process of scapula; _cerv_, united cervical vertebrae; _chev_, chevron bones; _cor_, coracoid process; _hu_, humerus; _hy_, hyoid; _jug_, jugal; _lumb.trans_, lumbar transverse processes; _max_, maxilla; _nas_, nasal; _orb_, orbit; _par_, parietal; _pelv_, vestige of pelvis; _per.ot_, periotic; _pr.max_, premaxilla; _rad_, radius; _rb_^1, first rib; _rb^{12}_, twelfth rib; _sc_, scapula; _s.occ_, supra-occipital; _st_, sternum; _uln_, ulna; _zyg_, prezygapophysis. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) [Illustration] FIG. 184.--Under surface of the cranium of a young Caa'ing Whale (_Globicephalus melas_). × 1/5. _AS_, Alisphenoid; _BO_, basioccipital; _cf_, condylar foramen; _ExO_, exoccipital; _Fr_, supra-orbital process of frontal; _gf_, glenoid fossa of squamosal; _Ma_, body of malar; _Mx_, maxilla; _OS_, orbitosphenoid; _Per_, posterior (mastoid) process of periotic; _Pl_, palatine; _PMx_, premaxilla; _Pt_, pterygoid; _Sq_, squamosal; _tg_, deep groove on squamosal for meatus auditorius externus, leading to tympanic cavity; _Ty_, tympanic; _Vo_, vomer; _ZM_, zygomatic process of malar. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The brain case is small proportionately and rounded. The "face" is therefore long, and in some cases, especially among the fossil forms of Platanistidae, the rostrum is extraordinarily elongated. The asymmetry of the Whale's skull is one of its most remarkable features; this, however, is entirely limited to the Toothed Whales, and among them is more pronounced in some forms than in others. Thus the Platanistidae and many Ziphioids are not nearly so asymmetrical as the {350} Dolphins and, especially, _Physeter_. This asymmetry affects particularly the premaxillae, the maxillae, and the nasals. The base of the skull is symmetrical. The Whale's skull has very long premaxillae which, however, do not, except in the extinct Zeuglodonts, bear any teeth. The nasal bones, whether symmetrical or the reverse, are very small in existing Whales, which arrangement, together with the long and broad maxillary bones, removes the anterior nostrils, the blow-hole, far backwards. The roof of the skull is not at all formed by the parietals externally. These bones form a portion of the side of the cranium, but are replaced or covered by the {351} enormously-developed supra-occipital in the adult. Here again the Zeuglodonts are more typically Mammalian, for in them the parietals have a normal development and situation, rising even into a median crest as in so many quadrupeds. The bones related to the organ of hearing, the tympanis and petrous bones, are very solid and dense in structure. Moreover they are but loosely attached to surrounding bones, and are thus easily and frequently lost. Nearly the only mammals which resemble the Whales in the fact that the pterygoids sometimes meet in the middle line below are the Edentata (Anteater and Armadillo, see p. 167). But in both groups this peculiarity is not universal. [Illustration] FIG. 185.--A section of a skull of a young Caa'ing Whale (_Globicephalus melas_). × 1/5. _a_, Angle; _an_, anterior nares; _AS_, alisphenoid; _bh_, basihyal; _BO_, basioccipital; _BS_, basispnenoid; _cd_, condyle; _cp_, coronoid process; _ExO_, exoccipital; _Fr_, frontal; _id_, inferior dental canal; _IP_, interparietal; _ME_, ossified portion of the mesethmoid; _Mx_, maxilla; _Na_, nasal; _Pa_, parietal; _Per_, periotic; _Pl_, palatine; _PMx_, premaxilla; _pn_, posterior nares; _PS_, presphenoid; _Pt_, pterygoid; _s_, symphysis of mandible; _sh_, stylohyal; _SO_, supra-occipital; _Sq_, squamosal; _th_, thyrohyal; _Vo_, vomer. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The vertebral column is remarkable for the fact that more or fewer of the cervical vertebrae may be fused together into a short and compact mass. This is seen at its maximum in the genera _Balaena_ and _Neobalaena_. The odontoid process of the second {352} vertebra, though hardly at all marked, is nevertheless really present and developed from a bony centre of its own, as in other mammals. The dorsal and lumbar vertebrae are, of course, to be distinguished by the presence of ribs attached to the former; but as there is only a rudimentary pelvis, not attached to the vertebral column, no sacral region can be detected. The caudal vertebrae are to be recognised by the [234]-shaped chevron bones below. [Illustration] FIG. 186.--Section through middle line of united cervical vertebrae of Greenland Right Whale (_Balaena mysticetus_). × 1/9. _a_, Articular surface for occipital condyle; _e_, epiphysis on posterior end of body of seventh cervical vertebra; _sn_, foramen in arch of atlas for first spinal nerve; 1, arch of atlas; 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, conjoined arches of the axis and four following vertebrae; 7, arch of seventh vertebra. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) [Illustration] FIG. 187.--A, Sternum of Greenland Right Whale (_Balaena mysticetus_). × 1/15. B, Sternum of Common Rorqual or Fin Whale (_Balaenoptera musculus_). × 1/10. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The sternum in the Whale tribe is much more modified in the Whalebone Whales than in the Odontocetes. In the latter it is made up of several pieces, as in other mammals, which often, however, become coalesced. In the Mystacoceti this bone is a single piece, to which only one pair of ribs is attached, and its {353} form is characteristic of the genus. It is heart-shaped, more or less, in _Balaena_, and somewhat cross- or [235]-shaped in the genus _Balaenoptera_. In the Odontocetes the ribs have, some of them, the normal attachment by capitulum and tuberculum. In the Mystacocetes the attachment, where it exists, is very loose, and the tuberculum alone is attached to its vertebra. This allows of the freer play of the ribs during respiration. The scapula has a very characteristic form in these animals. The acromion, where it exists, is placed near the anterior margin of the shoulder blade, and overlaps the generally long coracoid process. Clavicles are totally absent. The pelvis is very rudimentary, consisting merely of a single bonelet, to which are attached the rudiments (in some cases) of a femur, and, in _Balaena_ (Fig. 188), of a tibia also. [Illustration] FIG. 188.--Side view of bones of posterior extremity of Greenland Right Whale (_Balaena mysticetus_). × 1/8. _i_, Ischium; _f_, femur; _t_, accessory ossicle representing the tibia. (After Eschricht and Reinhardt) (from Flower's _Osteology_.) Whales are to be divided into three great groups:--(1) the Whalebone Whales or Mystacoceti; (2) the Toothed Whales or Odontoceti; and (3) the entirely-extinct Archaeoceti or Zeuglodonts. SUB-ORDER 1. MYSTACOCETI. This division is thus characterised:--Teeth are never functionally developed; they are present in the young, but replaced in the adult by the baleen or whalebone; the external respiratory aperture is double; the skull is perfectly symmetrical; the rami of the mandible are arched outwards and do not form a true symphysis; the sternum is always composed of a single piece of bone; the ribs articulate only with the transverse processes of the vertebrae. The Mystacoceti are nearly invariably huge creatures, the sole exceptions being the Pygmy Right Whale, _Neobalaena_, and {354} a small Rorqual. But even these are larger than the majority of Toothed Whales. The most characteristic feature by which the Whalebone Whales are to be distinguished from other Whales is that which gives to them their name, the presence of whalebone. Whalebone is a horny product of the epithelium lining the mouth, and is comparable to an exaggeration of the transverse ridges which are found in the mouths of all mammals upon the palate. In non-Cetacean mammals these ridges vary in depth, and are arranged as a rule transversely, but with an oblique inclination. This is precisely how the plates of baleen are disposed in the mouth of a Whale. Each piece of "bone" is triangular in shape, the broader end being that of attachment while it narrows gradually; the inner side of the blades is frayed out into a number of threads which form the straining apparatus. The plates vary in length up to as great an extreme length as 13 feet, which occurs in the Right Whale at times. The colour is black or paler, even white. The number of these plates in the mouth is very great. As many as 370 blades have been counted. They diminish in length towards both ends of the series. Though whalebone has been in use for a long period, whence the whalebone came was formerly one of those things not generally known. [Illustration] FIG. 189.--Section of upper jaw, with baleen plates, of _Balaenoptera_. _a_, Bone of jaw; _b_, gum; _c_, straight edge of baleen plate; _d_, _e_, frayed out surface of baleen plates. (After Owen.) A very prevalent notion was that the whalebone formed the eyelids or perhaps the eyelashes of the creature. Scaliger, commenting upon Aristotle, held that the whale had "lamellae upon the eyebrows, which, when the head is plunged below the surface, were raised by the water; but when the animal raised its head {355} above the waves the lamellae fell and covered the eyes." Whalebone, too, has been often spoken of as "the fin of a whale," "the finnes that stand forth of their mouths." The value of whalebone is still great, in spite of various substitutes which are now used in its place. In the year 1897, for example, the value of this article was £2000 per ton. As a single Whale may produce several tons of this material, it is not surprising to find that the results of a whaling voyage may be very profitable. FAM. 1. BALAENOPTERIDAE.--This genus _Balaenoptera_ includes the Rorquals, which are Whalebone Whales of large size, differing from the Right Whales in three important external characters: the head is comparatively small; there is a dorsal fin; the throat is marked by numerous longitudinal furrows. The bones of the cranium are not so arched as in the Right Whales, and as a consequence the plates of baleen are shorter. The hand is only four-fingered. The cervical vertebrae are for the most part all free. One of the earliest records of a Whale stranded in the Thames was probably of a species of this genus in the year 1658, and is thus described by John Evelyn:--"A large whale was taken betwixt my land butting on the Thames and Greenewich, which drew an infinite concourse to see it, by water, horse, coach, and on foot, from London and all parts.... It was killed with a harping yron, struck in the head, out of which spouted blood and water by two tunnells, and after an horrid grone it ran quite on shore and died. Its length was 58 foot, heighth 16; black skinn'd like coach leather, very small eyes, greate taile, onely two small finns, a picked snout, and a mouth so wide that divers men might have stood upright in it; no teeth, but suck'd slime onely as thro' a grate of that bone which we call whalebone, the throate yet so narrow as would not have admitted the least of fishes ... all of it prodigious, but in nothing more wonderful that an animal of so greate a bulk should be nourished onely by slime thro' those grates." Professor Collett has recently given[236] an elaborate account of the characters and habits of this great Whale (_Balaenoptera musculus_). Though a large beast (44 to 67 feet in length) it is exceeded by other Rorquals; it is of a dark grey blue colour above, white, for the most part, below. The dorsal fin is large and high; the flippers relatively slender and small. The whole throat from the {356} symphysis of the jaws to the middle of the belly is, as in other species, marked by furrows, forty to fifty-eight in number. The hairy covering is reduced (in an adult female) to thirteen hairs on each side of the lower jaw; in a foetus there were also seven hairs on each side of the upper jaw, as well as rather more on the lower jaw--altogether, forty-eight. This Whale appears to feed chiefly upon small Crustacea, especially the Copepod, _Calanus finmarchicus_. The number of baleen plates is about 330 on each side of the jaw. This Whale sometimes swims singly, but usually in schools of even as many as fifty. Rudolphi's Rorqual (_B. borealis_) seems to be a perfectly inoffensive beast; it is said to be able to stay under water for as long a time as twelve hours. A smaller species than the last is _B. rostrata_--at the outside 33 feet in length. Here the hairy covering is reduced[237] to "two small hairs on the integument covering the apex of the lower maxilla." The colour is greyish black above, the underside white. On the other hand, _B. sibbaldii_, the Blue Whale, is the giant of its race, reaching a length of 85 feet. Its colour is a dark bluish grey, with small whitish spots on the breast. The dorsal fin is small and low with straight margins. _B. musculus_, the Finner, is intermediate in size--not more than 70 feet. It seems doubtful whether the "sulphur bottom," _B. australis_, of Antarctica and _B. patachonica_ differ specifically from this.[238] The genus _Megaptera_ is very near _Balaenoptera_, but differs from it mainly in the following external and internal characters. The dorsal fin is not very prominent, and its place is taken by a lowish hump, whence, indeed, the common name of this Whale, "Humpback." The pectoral fin is unusually long, and the creature uses it to beat itself, the surrounding water, and, more playfully, its mates. The general outline of this Cetacean is more clumsy than that of _Balaenoptera_. The most important internal difference is in the form of the scapula, which has at most a slight acromion and coracoid process. These are rather more pronounced, according to Messrs. van Beneden and Gervais,[239] {357} in the southern form of the genus, which is known as _M. lalandii_. The head, it should also be remarked, is studded with large tubercles about the size of an orange, which seem to be hyper-trophied rudiments of the hairs, which should be present in this region of the body. As is the case with other Whales, numerous species have been made out of individuals of _Megaptera_. Captain Scammon, who observed many "gams" or herds of these Whales, remarked[240] that he had extreme difficulty in finding any two individuals precisely alike! The best-known species in any case is the northern _M. longimana_, which occurs on our own coasts. The genus is, like so many Cetaceans, world-wide in range; and it is possible that the difference in the scapula already referred to may justify the separation of a southern _M. lalandii_ (with which in that case, perhaps, _M. capensis_ and _M. novae zelandiae_ will be synonymous). Quite recently M. Gervais has insisted upon a _Megaptera indica_ from the Persian Gulf. _Megaptera_ grows to a length of 50 to 60 feet. Seventy-five feet have been stated, but measurements of Whales have usually to be received with caution. _Rhachianectes_, with but one species, _R. glaucus_,[241] the "Californian Grey Whale," is the last genus of the family Balaenopteridae. This Whale is but imperfectly known anatomically; but quite sufficient has been ascertained to show its great divergence from _Balaenoptera_ or _Megaptera_. The dorsal fin is completely absent, and the throat pleats, so characteristic of the typical Balaenopteridae, are reduced to two. It has, however, the general outline of a Rorqual, with a relatively small head. In osteological characters it tends to unite the two families Balaenopteridae and Balaenidae (if they are really necessary subdivisions). The skull is on the whole Rorqual-like; but its fore-part is narrow as in the Greenland Whale, and the premaxillaries are pinched up in the middle line so as to be visible from the side; this again is a Balaenid character. The cervical vertebrae are free as in Rorquals, and the sternum is quite as in that group. The scapula has more the shape of that of _Balaena_. _Rhachianectes glaucus_ is confined to the Pacific, and has been extensively hunted from the shore. It is not, however, a very valuable Whale, since the baleen is short as in Rorquals, and the {358} beast, moreover, appears to be fierce, a somewhat rare attribute of Whales. It has been spoken of, indeed, as "a cunning, courageous, and vicious" animal. _Rhachianectes_ is essentially a coast Whale, and loves to lie in the surf in quite shallow water waiting for the tide to float it off. This Whale varies much in colour from black to mottled grey and black, and reaches a length of about 40 feet. FAM. 2. BALAENIDAE.--The Right Whales of the genus _Balaena_ are to be distinguished from _Neobalaena_ and from the Rorquals by the following characters:-- The size is large, 50 to 60 feet. There is no dorsal fin. The head is more than or nearly one-fourth of the entire length of the animal. The baleen is very long. The throat is not grooved. The orbital process of the frontal is not wider than the downward process of the maxilla. The cervical vertebrae are all fused. The scapula is rather high. The hind-limb has the rudiment of a tibia. The intestine has no caecum. A vast number of different genera have been founded on detached bones, bits of whalebone, and more or less complete skeletons of Right Whales coming from different parts of the world. In Dr. Gray's catalogues we find the following allowed, viz. _Balaena_, _Eubalaena_, _Hunterius_, _Caperea_, _Macleayius_. The number of "species" distributed among the genera is some thirteen or more, with whose names we shall not trouble the reader. As a matter of fact there are not more than two species which can with certainty be identified and distinguished, both of which are so close that they cannot possibly be placed but in the same genus, _Balaena_. In no group of Whales--in no group of animals probably--has imagination run riot to so terrible an extent in the formation of genera and species as in these Right Whales. This multiplication or rather division of genera has arisen from an old idea that Whales coming from different seas must be of different kinds, a notion now thoroughly exploded. The term "Right Whale" simply means that the Whales of this genus are the right kind of Whale for the whaler to pursue. Their whalebone is longer and more valuable, while the oil is not only more abundant but of a superior quality. The two species demand a separate account. The Greenland Whale, _Balaena mysticetus_, is one of the rare instances of a Whale which has an exceedingly limited range in {359} space. It is absolutely confined to the Arctic Ocean, and reported occurrences on our coasts are due to a confusion with _B. australis_, to be presently described. At the "Devil's Dyke," near Brighton, there is, or was, the skull of a most flagrant Rorqual, which is carefully labelled "Greenland Whale." This Whale grows to a length of 50, 60, rarely 70 feet. It is black in colour, save for a white patch on the under side of the jaw. The head is quite one-third of the body in length. There are a few scattered hairs at the extremity of the jaws. The length of time which this Whale can endure immersion has been variously stated. The utmost limit of endurance is stated by Scammon to be one hour and twenty minutes. The pursuit of this Whale is attended by dangers, not in the least because the animal is itself fierce and ready to attack, but simply on account of the velocity with which, and the great depth to which, it will dive, and also to the huge muscular force which is exerted in its struggles to free itself from the harpoons. It is indeed an extremely timid beast. It has been remarked that "a bird alighting upon its back sometimes sets it off in great agitation and terror." Combined with this timidity of disposition is an intense affection for its young, "which would do honour," observed Scoresby, "to the superior intelligence of human beings." Yet that trader and observer goes on to remark that "the value of the prize ... cannot be sacrificed to feelings of compassion"! The fact that this Whale and its congener, _B. australis_, feed among swarms of minute pelagic creatures, which they engulf in their huge mouths, led the ancients to believe and assert that they fed upon water only. When the Whale feeds it moves along with some velocity, taking in huge mouthfuls of sea water with the contained organisms, which are then strained off by the whalebone and left stranded upon the tongue. Unlike its congener, the southern Right Whale, _B. australis_,[242] is world-wide in distribution, avoiding only the Arctic regions. Where the Greenland Whale is found _B. australis_ does not exist. The principal differences which it shows from _B. mysticetus_ are firstly in the relatively shorter head and shorter and coarser whalebone. In the second place it has more ribs, fifteen pairs as against thirteen; but there is apparently some little confusion in the matter of ribs. An additional rib at the end of the series {360} is apt to get lost, and in the skeleton of so huge and unmanageable a beast there is nothing more unwise than to insist upon, as specific characters, what may be due merely to defective preparation. This Whale has often, and the Greenland Whale also, a rough horny protuberance upon the snout known as the "bonnet." The causation of this is not clear. It has been spoken of as "a rudimentary frontal horn." But this suggestion of an Ungulate affinity can hardly be accepted. It seems to be more like a kind of corn. This Whale was once more abundant on the coasts of Europe than it is to-day; it was much hunted by the Basques in past time. The Whale which frequented the Bay of Biscay was usually called the Biscayan Whale or _B. biscayensis_; but there is probably no specific difference. Among the small towns which fringe the Bay, it is very common to find the Whale incorporated into the armorial bearings. "Over the portal of the first old house in the steep street of Guetaria," writes Sir Clements Markham,[243] "there is a shield of arms consisting of Whales amid waves of the sea. At Motrico the town arms consist of a Whale in the sea harpooned, and with a boat with men holding the line." Plenty of other such examples testify to the prevalence of the whaling industry on these adjoining coasts of Spain and France. It appears that though the fishery began much earlier--even in the ninth century--the first actual document relating to it dates from the year 1150. It is in the shape of privileges granted by Sancho the Wise to the city of San Sebastian. The trade was still very flourishing in the sixteenth century. Rondeletius the naturalist described Bayonne as the centre of the trade, and tells us that the flesh, especially of the tongue, was exposed for sale as food in the markets. M. Fischer,[244] who, as well as Sir Clements Markham, has given an important account of the whaling industry on the Basque shores, quotes an account of the methods pursued in the sixteenth century. It was at Biarritz--or as Ambroise Pare, from whom Fischer quotes, spelt it, Biaris--that the main fisheries were undertaken. The inhabitants set upon a hill a tower from which they could see "the Balaines which pass, and perceiving them coming partly by the loud noise they make, and {361} partly by the water which they throw out by a conduit which they possess in the middle of the forehead." Several boats then set out in pursuit, some of which were reserved for men whose sole duty it was to pick out of the water their comrades who had overbalanced themselves in their excitement. The harpoons bore a mark by which their respective owners could recognise them, and the carcase of the animal was shared in accordance with the numbers and owners of the harpoons found sticking in the dead body of the Whale. At this period the fishery was at its height. But it continued to be an occupation along those shores until the beginning of the eighteenth century, after which it gradually declined. The fishery of Whales began to be carried farther afield than the shore, and for a long time the Basques furnished expert harpooners to whaling vessels proceeding to the Arctic seas. A curious example of the continuance of the fishery until at least 1712 is given by Sir C. Markham. In the parish records of Lequeito for that year, it is noted that a couple were married who possessed between them all the necessary outfit for a whaling cruise. The genus _Neobalaena_ is interesting from more than one point of view. Its size compared with its gigantic relatives is small, some 16 or 17 feet. The genus bears the same kind of proportion to _Balaena_ that _Kogia_ does to _Physeter_ among the Physeteridae. It is one of those Whales which are very restricted in habitat; up to the present it is only known from the Antarctic region in the neighbourhood of New Zealand and South Australia. Structurally it is in a few points intermediate between the Right Whales and the Rorquals. The head is proportionately (as well as, of course, actually) not so large as in _Balaena_. There is a falcate dorsal fin; but the head in outline is not Rorqual-like in spite of its similar proportions. The whalebone is long. The throat is not grooved. _Neobalaena_ has forty-three vertebrae, of which the cervicals are all fused. There are as many as seventeen or eighteen dorsal vertebrae, the largest number in any Cetacean as far as is known. With these are articulated not eighteen but only seventeen ribs. The first dorsal vertebra appears to be without a rib. The ribs are very broad and flat. The body thus gets an appearance of a Sirenian. The lumbar vertebrae are fewer than in any other Cetacean, being only two. The scapula is more like that of the Rorquals than that of the Right Whales; {362} that is to say, it is long and not very high. The skull is most like that of _Balaena_, but the process of the frontal arching over the eye is broader relatively than in _Balaena_, and thus approaches _Balaenoptera_. Nothing is known of the viscera of this Whale. The whalebone is white, and the animal was first described by Dr. Gray from pieces of "bone." It is not always that so fortunate a diagnosis of specific or generic difference has been made from a structure which apparently offers so little aid for discrimination. There is but a single species of the genus which is named _Neobalaena marginata_.[245] SUB-ORDER 2. ODONTOCETI. The _Odontoceti_ have teeth but no whalebone; the blow-hole is single; the skull is not symmetrical; some of the ribs are two-headed. FAM. 1. PHYSETERIDAE.--This family of the Odontocetes may be thus defined:--All or most of the cervical vertebrae are fused together. The costal cartilages are not ossified. In the skull the pterygoids are thick and meet in the middle line; the symphysis of the mandible is long. Teeth, more or fewer, are found in both jaws, but those of the mandible are alone functional (? exc. _Kogia_). The pectoral limb is smallish. The throat is grooved by two or four furrows. This family of Whales is again susceptible of division into the two sub-families--Physeterinae or Sperm Whales and the Ziphiinae or Beaked Whales. Professor P. J. van Beneden was strongly against any subdivision of what is here regarded as a perfectly natural family, embracing the Physeters and the Beaked Whales. There are, however, some reasons for the subdivision. The Ziphiinae have a reduced series of teeth, never exceeding two on each mandible, which contrasts with the fully-toothed mandibles of both _Physeter_ and _Kogia_. The stomach of the Ziphioids is extraordinarily complicated even for a Cetacean. The small head of the latter group, which recalls in a curious way that of Mosasauroid reptiles and some Dinosaurs, is in contrast to the {363} enormous head of the Cachalot and the very fairly-developed skull of the "Pygmy Sperm Whale." Both, however, furnish spermaceti, and in various osteological details come near together. On the whole we incline towards separating the Cachalots from the Ziphioids, and shall therefore commence with the former as being in some respects the more primitive members of the family Physeteridae. SUB-FAM. 1. PHYSETERINAE.--This sub-family may be thus defined:--Teeth in lower jaw numerous. No distinct lachrymal bone. Stomach with only four compartments (? as to _Kogia_). Of this sub-family the best-known genus is _Physeter_, including the Sperm Whale or Cachalot. Of other reputed species we shall speak later. The genus is characterised in the first place by its large size--as much as 82 feet of length have been assigned to _Physeter macrocephalus_; but Sir William Flower thought that 55 or possibly 60 feet might be a better approximation to the greatest length of the Cachalot. The head is enormous, a third of the length of the body, and terminates in a massive and bluntish snout. This is, however, not so abruptly truncated as is often represented in figures. According to Messrs. Pouchet and Chaves,[246] it slopes forward two metres beyond the end of the lower jaw; the mouth is thus ventral and almost shark-like in position, as is the case also with the Pygmy Sperm Whale, to be considered later. In connexion with this peculiar position of the mouth, it has been asserted--Mr. F. T. Bullen figures it[247]--that the Sperm Whale turns over upon its back to bite. The blow-hole is single, and shaped like the sound-hole of a violin; it lies upon one side, and is not median in position. The throat is grooved as in the Ziphioids by two grooves. The dorsal fin is represented by a whole series of lowish humps, decreasing in elevation from before backwards. The pectoral fins are not large relatively speaking. The great square head is not occupied entirely by the skull; the cavity lying above, which is of course traversed by the tube ending in the blow-hole, is filled with the spermaceti, which is fluid fat during the life of the animal. Spermaceti also occurs in other Whales; and that of _Hyperoodon_, whence it has been extracted for commercial purposes, is said to offer no differences of importance from the spermaceti of the {364} Sperm Whale. Spermaceti as a drug appears to have been first mentioned in the pharmacopoeias of the famous medical school of Salerno towards the year 1100. But it was confounded with a totally distinct substance, viz. ambergris. The confusion was also made by the famous alchemist Albertus Magnus, and by the observant Archbishop of Upsala, Olaus Magnus, in his work _De gentibus septentrionalibus_. It was supposed in fact by these writers to be the liberated sperm of the Whale, hence obviously the name. Later on, the substance in question was regarded as the brain of the Cachalot, in fact as late as the middle of the eighteenth century. It was Hunter and Camper who really discovered the true nature of the substance, oil of course, in the cavities of the skull.[248] The huge skull of _Physeter_ "is perhaps the most modified from the ordinary type" of skull in the whole mammalian class. The top of the skull rises into a huge crest lying transversely, and from it slope forward two lateral crests formed from the maxillary bones; in this great basin lies the spermaceti already referred to. The skull, as in Toothed Whales generally, is exceedingly asymmetrical. The right premaxillary and the left nasal bones are much larger than their fellows; indeed the right nasal is hardly present as a separate bone. The parietal if present is fused with the supra-occipital. The jugal is large, and is not divided into two pieces as it is in the Ziphioids. The pterygoids meet below for a considerable distance, as in many Dolphins, and in the Edentata among other mammals. The symphysis of the lower jaw is very long, but the bones do not appear to be ankylosed. The length of the symphysis recalls that of the Gangetic Dolphin, _Platanista_. In the vertebral column the atlas alone is free, the remaining cervicals being fused. There are only eleven dorsal vertebrae, eight lumbars, and twenty-four caudals. The breastbone of this Whale is a roughly-triangular bone made up of three pieces. Four cartilaginous sternal ribs are attached to this bone. The scapula is remarkable for the fact that it is concave on the outer and convex on the inner surface; otherwise it is quite typically Cetacean in form. The shortness of the pectoral limb is shown by the phalangeal formula, which is as follows:--I 1, II 5, III 5, IV 4, V 3. {365} One of the reasons for the pursuit of the Sperm Whale is the desire to obtain that extremely valuable product ambergris. This substance has long been known; but its true nature was for centuries in dispute. In Dr. Johnson's _Dictionary_ (so recently as the edition of 1818!) ambergris is provided with alternative definitions; it is either the excrement of birds washed off rocks, or honeycombs that have fallen into the sea! An old writer asserted of ambergris that it was "not the scum or excrement of the whale, but issues out of the root of a tree, which tree, howsoever it stands on the land, alwaies shoots forth its roots towards the sea, seaking the warmth of it, thereby to deliver the fattest gum that coms out of it, which tree otherwise by its copious fatness might be burnt and destroyed." These "explanations" were caused by the fact that ambergris is sometimes found floating in the sea. Ambergris is, of course, a product of the intestinal canal of the Sperm Whale; it seems to be of the nature of cholesterin, and its place of origin was conclusively proved by finding the beaks of cuttle-fish imbedded in it. When first extracted from the alimentary canal it is of greasy feel and consistency; later it hardens, and acquires its characteristic sweet earthy odour. Ambergris is used mainly as a vehicle for scents, and is a costly substance. A piece weighing 130 lbs. was valued at £500. Though now entirely used in connexion with perfumery, it was held by the ancients to be of great value as a specific in certain diseases. The Sperm Whale is chiefly a tropical animal. Examples that have been cast up on our shores are strayed individuals. It often goes about in herds, which seem to be composed of females. Its food is chiefly cuttle-fishes, and it is said to have a predilection for those colossal cuttle-fishes whose existence has until recently been doubted. Mr. Bullen has sketched a conflict between these two giants of the deep. On the other hand it is said that its large throat, more than big enough to swallow a man (the Whale is credited with being that which swallowed Jonah), does not usually admit fishes larger than Bonitos and Albacores. The ferocity of the Cachalot has been denied and affirmed. It certainly has great strength, for it can throw itself completely out of the water. Captain Scammon thinks that ships which are mysteriously lost at sea, with no obviously assignable cause, are sometimes the victims of the furious rushes of a bull {366} Sperm Whale. Marco Polo took much the same view, but suggested that the Whale did not deliberately attack the ship, but was deceived by the foam following in its wake into thinking "there is something to eat afloat, and makes a rush forward, whereby it shall often stave in some part of the ship."[249] Sir W. Flower and many others are of opinion that there is but one species of Cachalot. But many names have been given to supposed other forms. The genus itself has even been divided, and to a set of vertebrae from the south Dr. Gray gave the perfectly superfluous name of _Meganeuron kreffti_. The "High-finned Cachalot" rests mainly upon the suggestions of Sir Robert Sibbald. It is supposed to have a high dorsal fin, and teeth in the upper as well as in the lower jaw. Common though it was asserted by its describer to be, there is not a bone, not a fragment even of a bone, alleged to belong to _Physeter tursio_ in any museum in the world! It seems premature, therefore, to include this mysterious creature in any list of Cetacea, though that was done by no less a naturalist than the late Mr. Thomas Bell. It is this creature round which most of the stories of ferocity congregate. It is held to be the monster from which Perseus delivered Andromeda, and which was about to devour Angelica upon the shore of Brittany. The fact of the matter is, that the Sperm Whale, like so very many other Whales, is world-wide in range; and those naturalists who did not believe in so wide a distribution found themselves obliged, in order to satisfy their own views, to create new species for those of distant localities. Hence the dozen or so of synonyms which refer to what is to be called _Physeter macrocephalus_. The genus _Kogia_ (sometimes written _Cogia_), the so-called "Pygmy Sperm Whale," is a southern form of much smaller dimensions than its gigantic ally just described. _Kogia_ does not exceed 15 feet or so in length. It differs from _Physeter_ also in the well-marked and falcate dorsal fin, in its generally delphinoid form, in the short snout, and the more normal (for a Whale) shape of the blow-hole, which is crescentic. There are also a number of osteological characters in which the two Physeterines differ from each other. In _Kogia_ all the cervical vertebrae are ankylosed together; the skull is short, though equally asymmetrical; the ribs are as many as twelve or {367} fourteen; the scapula has not the concave face that it has in _Physeter_. The functional teeth of the lower jaw seem to be reinforced by two on each side of the upper jaw. Moreover, the articulation of the ribs with the vertebrae does not show the very anomalous state of affairs that characterises _Physeter_, where the two heads of a rib may be upon one vertebra. While there is no doubt as to the generic distinctness of _Kogia_, there is again the same difficulty that is met with throughout the whole of the order in settling into how many species the genus requires dividing. We can dismiss, as unnecessary, additional generic names (_Euphysetes_, _Callignathus_), but there do appear to be reasons for allowing two species, if the accounts of their osteology are to be depended upon. One of these is _K. breviceps_, with thirteen pairs of ribs, no teeth in the upper jaw, fourteen or fifteen on each side of the lower jaw, vertebral formula C 7, D 13, L 9, Ca 25, and phalangeal formula I 2, II 8, III 8, IV 8, V 7. The other will then be _K. simus_, with fourteen pairs of ribs, two teeth in the upper jaw, nine in each ramus of the lower jaw, vertebral formula C 7, D 14, L 5, Ca 24, and phalangeal formula I 2, II 5, III 4, IV 4, V 2. A Californian species has been called _K. floweri_, whose teeth seem to be particularly long and recurved. And the New Zealand _K. pottsi_ has been held to be also a distinct form. There seems to be nothing of special interest to record about the way of life of these Cetaceans, which are but imperfectly known. SUB-FAM. 2. ZIPHIINAE.--Teeth in the lower jaw not more than two on each side. A distinct lachrymal bone. Stomach with very numerous compartments. These Whales are all of moderate size, not exceeding 30 feet or so in length. They have a falcate dorsal fin rather near the end of the body; the muzzle is prolonged, hence the name often given to them of "Beaked Whales." The throat is grooved; the blow-hole is single and median, crescentic in form, with the concavity pointing forwards. A character possibly differentiating the Ziphioids from other Whales is the fact that the body ends in a rounded projection between the flukes of the tail. This has at any rate been noted in _Mesoplodon_, _Ziphius_, and _Hyperoodon_. The Ziphioid Whales are by no means common; indeed of _Berardius_ but four or five specimens have ever been {368} met with. Most of them are southern in range, and the vast stretches of desolate coast which occur in these regions of the world account possibly for the rarity of their remains. These Whales have done duty more than once for the "Sea Serpent." Quite recently an alleged sea serpent turned out to be a couple of _Mesoplodon_ lying head to tail! The head in these Whales is small compared to the body. The skull is characterised by the strong maxillary crests, enormously developed in the male _Hyperoodon_. The vertex of the skull too is raised, forming a pronounced prominence behind the aperture of the nares (blow-hole); in many forms the rostrum is made of very dense bone, and is thus relatively abundant in rock strata. The pterygoids meet in the middle line as in the Cachalot. In addition to the few functional teeth in the lower jaw there are more numerous but small teeth in the upper jaw. These are not always to be recognised, as they are not attached to the bone, but merely imbedded in the gums, so that they come away when the skull is prepared. The genus _Berardius_[250] differs from _Mesoplodon_ by its rather more symmetrical skull, of which the vertex is formed by the nasals. The mesethmoid is only partly ossified. The teeth are two on each side of the mandible, with their apices directed forwards. The vertebral formula is C 7, D 10, L 12, Ca 19. _B. arnouxi_, from the seas of New Zealand, is the only species of this genus which is well known. It is 30 or 32 feet in length, and is of a velvety black colour, with a greyish belly. Instead of lowing like a cow, this Whale has been described as "bellowing like a bull"! A singular and somewhat inexplicable fact has been stated of this species. The teeth were said to be protrusible, and Sir James Hector stated that the teeth were imbedded "in a tough cartilaginous sac which adheres loosely in the socket of the jaw, and is moved by a series of muscular bundles that elevate or depress it." Sir William Flower justly observed that these statements "accord so little with anything hitherto known in mammalian anatomy that further observations on the subject are extremely desirable." Like other Ziphioids, _Berardius_ feeds mainly, if not entirely, upon cuttle-fish, a prey eminently suited to their almost toothless mouths. It is not known whether _Berardius_ has the {369} Ziphioid grooves upon the throat. Nothing is known of the structure of the internal viscera of this Whale. It appears not to be really limited to the region of New Zealand, as is often stated, for Malm has lately described a skull (_Berardius vegae_) from Bering's Straits.[251] _Mesoplodon_[252] is a world-wide genus embracing a number of species; on the lowest estimate seven species can be distinguished, and Sir W. Flower would add two more. These are moderate-sized Whales, 15 to 17 feet in length. In the skull the mesethmoid is ossified; the nasals are sunk between the upper ends of the premaxillae. There are but a single pair of teeth in the mandible attached to nearly the middle of its length (whence the generic name). The vertebral formula is C 7, D 9 or 10, L 10 or 11, Ca 19 or 20. The sternum consists of four or five pieces. The amount to which the cervical vertebrae are fused varies; but some are always fused. The only species which has ever been stranded on the shores of this country is _M. bidens_, an example of which was described many years ago as the "Toothless Whale of Havre"; it was an old animal which had probably lost its teeth. Nevertheless it received the separate generic and specific name of _Aodon dalei_. The animal lived for two days out of the water, and made a sound like the "lowing of a cow." An instance of the rarity of the Whales of this genus is afforded by _M. europaeus_, of which only a single skull is known; this was extracted from a dead body, found floating, about the year 1840. It has never appeared since. _M. layardi_ is remarkable on account of the very large size of its strap-shaped teeth; these curve over the upper jaw in such a way as to prevent the animal from fully opening its jaws. The case is curiously paralleled by the Sabre-toothed Tiger. This species is antarctic in range. From the opposite extremity of the globe comes _M. stejnegeri_, again known by but a single skull. It is singular on account of the large size of the brain case, and is a native of Bering's Straits. _M. hectori_ has its two teeth situated quite at the extremity of the mandible, and in this feature approximates to the genus _Berardius_. It was, indeed, confounded with that genus by one naturalist. {370} _Ziphius_ is a genus which is also of world-wide range. Here again the number of species is at present merely a matter of opinion. The prevalent impression, however, is that but a single species exists, which will therefore have the name of _Z. cavirostris_. The genus (and for the matter of that the species too) may be thus characterised in comparison with its allies. The mesethmoid is ossified as in _Mesoplodon_, but the nasals joined together form the vertex of the skull. There are two teeth near the symphysis of the mandible, besides the usual small and "functionless" teeth in the upper jaw. The vertebral formula is C 7, D 9 or 10, L 11, Ca 21. The throat of a _Ziphius_ from New Zealand was described by Messrs. Scott and Parker[253] as having three grooves on each side. Whether this form is the same as von Haast's _Z. novae zelandiae_ is a matter of doubt; but the individual to which his name has been applied was 26 feet long, and had but a single groove on each side. Even in the external characters of many Whales many points require clearing up. Our knowledge of _Ziphius_ dates from the year 1804, when a skull "completely petrified in appearance" was picked up upon the Mediterranean coast of France, and described by the great Cuvier. It was forty years before another specimen was found. In the New Zealand specimen of von Haast already referred to, the body was scored by numerous lacerations. These wounds may have been due to fights among the Whales themselves; the forwardly-situated teeth would be capable of inflicting such wounds. But it has also been stated that the armed suckers of gigantic cuttle-fish are responsible for these scratches. _Hyperoodon_ is the most easily-distinguishable genus of Ziphioid Whales. Its characters are the following:--The skull has enormously-developed maxillary crests in the adult male; the mesethmoid is not fully ossified. There is but a single tooth to each ramus of the lower jaw, besides, of course, the usual small teeth in the upper jaw. The vertebral formula is C 7, D 9, L 9, Ca 18. The cervicals are fused into one mass, more or fewer being free in other Ziphioids. The sternum consists of three pieces only, the last of which is bifid posteriorly. The name _Hyperoodon_ was given to this Whale by Colonel Lacepède on account of the rough papillae upon the palate, which {371} were mistaken by that observer for teeth. It is curious that the name is really appropriate in spite of this mistake, though of course it would be so to all the Ziphioids. In more than one feature this genus comes nearest of all the Ziphiinae to _Physeter_. Its enormous maxillary crests are paralleled in that Whale; but in _Hyperoodon_ their great thickness contrasts with the thinness of those of the Cachalot. The correspondence in the attachment of a rib to its vertebra by both heads is noteworthy. It is remarkable that in this particular _Hyperoodon_ is more like _Physeter_ than the supposed nearest ally of the latter--_Kogia_. Of this genus two species are known. The best known is the common northern _H. rostratum_ (with many aliases); the second species from the southern hemisphere, _H. planifrons_, is only known from a single water- and pebble-worn skull. Its identification, however, depends upon the known accuracy of the late Sir William Flower. The northern species (_Hyperoodon rostratum_) has often been recorded upon our own coasts; the first record of the stranding of this Whale was in the year 1717. In that year an example was found at Maldon, in Essex. Like the Beluga, _Hyperoodon rostratum_ gets lighter in colour with advancing years. The young are black; the old animals pale brown with some white about them. The under surface, however, is always greyish white. The length of this Whale reaches to at any rate 30 feet. But John Hunter had a specimen which he believed to be 40 feet in length. The specimen, however, consisted only of a skull, so that error might have crept in. It has already been mentioned that the old males have enormous maxillary crests. According to M. Bouvier, who has lately made an exhaustive examination of the anatomy of this Whale,[254] the females occasionally exhibit the same crests, which are thus presumably of the nature of spurs sometimes seen in old females among the Gallinaceous birds. The number of grooves upon the throat is in dispute in this Whale as in _Ziphius_. One pair is the usual allowance; but Kükenthal found four in some embryos studied by him. Attention has already been called to the voice of Ziphioid Whales. _Hyperoodon_ neither "lows" nor "bellows," but "sobs"! _Hyperoodon rostratum_ is a gregarious Whale, going about in herds, or "gams" as they should technically be termed, of four to ten or even fifteen. This Whale {372} can leap right out of the water, and while in the air can turn its head from side to side, a capability which has not been mentioned in any other Whale. It can also stay under water for an unusually long period. Captain Gray,[255] who has made an accurate study of this species, states that so long a period as two hours is the limit of endurance; this event occurred in the case of a harpooned Whale. FAM. 2. DELPHINIDAE.--This family, which includes the greater number of Cetacea, may thus be characterised:--Whales of small to moderate size. Teeth as a rule numerous, and present in the upper as well as in the lower jaw. Maxillae without large crests; the pterygoids, often meeting in the middle line, enclose an air space open behind. The anterior (five to eight) ribs are two headed, the posterior with tubercular head only. The sternal ribs are ossified. The Dolphins and Porpoises, as already stated, embrace the greater number of existing species of Whales. Sir W. Flower and others who have followed him, allow nineteen genera. But as to the exact number of known species there is much uncertainty. That very careful observer, Mr. True, considers[256] that there are fifty which demand recognition. As many as one hundred have received names. The matter is one which is perhaps barely ripe for decision. All the Dolphin tribe are, for Whales, smallish animals. The Killer Whale, _Orca_, is the only genus (or species?) which usually attains to more than moderate bulk. The rather mysterious _Delphinus coronatus_, 36 feet in length, of M. de Fréminville, would seem to be a Ziphioid; it was described as having a very pointed beak, and as having the dorsal fin situated near the tail; such characters suggest a _Mesoplodon_. The genus _Delphinapterus_, the Beluga or White Whale, consists of but a single species, though as usual more than one name has been given to supposed different species. It is characterised as a genus by the following assemblage of structural features:--It has only eight to ten teeth occupying the anterior part of the jaws only. All the cervical vertebrae are free and unjoined. The vertebral formula is C 7, D 11 (or 12), L 9, Ca 23. The pterygoids are wide apart, though they converge as if about to meet at their posterior ends. There is no dorsal fin. The colour is white. {373} The Beluga is a northern species purely. The reputed form, _D. kingii_, was said to come from Australian seas; but there seems to have been an error in this statement. It is interesting to note that the white colour, so characteristic of the genus and species, is not found in the young, which are blackish. They gradually pale as they advance towards maturity. _Delphinapterus leucas_ reaches a length of 10 feet, and like other Porpoises will ascend rivers in search of food. It is said to be specially addicted to salmon. Among the contents of the stomach have been found quantities of sand. But this habit of swallowing sand or pebbles has been noted in other Whales. Whether it is or is not accidental (taken in with ground-living food), it seems hardly likely that it is used for purposes of ballast! The Beluga has a voice; but the name "Sea Canary" is hardly suitable to it. A specimen of this species, recently described from the shores of Scotland (it is often thrown up upon our coasts), which had got entangled in the stakes of a new net, was regarded by the natives, on account of its white colour, as a ghost. Externally, besides its colour, the Beluga is remarkable for possessing a distinct neck, which is correlated of course with the freedom of the cervical vertebrae, and is also seen in Platanistidae. The Narwhal (_Monodon_) is closely allied in structure to the last genus. It has the following anatomical characters:--The teeth are reduced to a single "horn" in the upper jaw, which is rudimentary in the female. The neck vertebrae are free. The vertebral formula is C 7, D 11, L 6, Ca 26. The pterygoids are as in _Delphinapterus_, and, as in that genus, there are no hairs upon the face or dorsal fin. This genus is of course most obviously characterised by the twisted tusk of the male, which is occasionally double. This tusk has given to the only species of the genus, _M. monoceros_, both its generic and specific name. The animal has a spotted colour; but, as in the case of the Beluga, old animals tend to become white. The use of its horn to _Monodon_ has been debated. In the first place it is clearly a secondary sexual character. The males have been observed to cross their horns like rapiers in a fencing match. It may be that they are used in more serious combats. An ingenious suggestion is that the long and strong tusk enables its possessor to break the thick ice and {374} make a breathing hole. A third suggestion is due to Scoresby, who was led to make it from having taken out of the stomach of a Narwhal a large skate. He held that with its tusk the Whale empaled the fish and then swallowed it. The Narwhal is not large, 15 feet or so in length. But Lacepède, who was apt to compile with lack of discrimination, speaks of 60 feet long Narwhals. _Monodon_ is purely Arctic, and but three or four specimens have ever been cast up on our shores. Of true Porpoises, genus _Phocaena_, there are apparently several species. The genus itself has the following characters:--The teeth are sixteen to twenty-six on each half of each jaw; their crowns are compressed and lobed. The pterygoids do not meet. The dorsal fin has a row of tubercles along its margin. The Porpoise of our coasts, _P. communis_, is a smallish species 6 to 8 feet in length. There are two to four hairs present in the young; its colour is black, generally lighter on the belly. The first six cervical vertebrae are fused. The ribs vary in number from twelve to fourteen pairs. It is a gregarious Whale, and will ascend rivers; it has been seen for example in the Seine at Paris. The name Porpoise is often written Porkpisce, which of course shows its origin. Very conveniently it was regarded as a fish, and therefore allowed to be eaten in Lent. The celebrated Dr. Caius, a gourmet as well as a physician and the refounder of a college, invented a particular sauce wherewith to dress this royal dish. Some time since Dr. Gray described a Porpoise from Margate as a distinct species (see p. 342) on account of the tubercles, which are now known to be a generic character. Dr. Burmeister's _P. spinipennis_ seems, however, to be really distinct. It was captured near the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. It is more tuberculated on the fin and back, and has fewer teeth (sixteen as against twenty-six). Mr. True's _P. dallii_ of the Pacific (where the Common Porpoise also occurs) is characterised chiefly by its very long vertebral column, consisting of ninety-eight vertebrae; there are only sixty-eight in the other species. The Eastern genus _Neomeris_ is placed with _Phocaena_ by Dr. Blanford. It practically only differs by the absence of a dorsal fin. It is only about 4 feet long, and inhabits the seas of India, Cape of Good Hope, and Japan. The one species is called _N. phocaenoides_. The genus _Globicephalus_ is to be defined thus:--Teeth {375} seven to twelve on each side, confined to anterior end of jaws. Skull raised into a prominence behind the blow-hole; pterygoids large and in contact. Pectoral fin long and falcate; dorsal fin present. No beak. Vertebral formula C 7, D 11, L 11 to 14, Ca 27 to 29. Six pairs of the ribs are two-headed. The best known species of the genus is the Ca'ing Whale, _G. melas_.[257] This animal reaches a length of 20 feet, and is thus one of the largest of the Delphinidae. It is gregarious and was, even is now, much hunted in the Faeroe Islands. Its sheep-like habits (embodied in one scientific name _deductor_) enable it to be easily driven on shore in herds, which are then harpooned. The foetus of this Whale has a few hairs; the number of phalanges in the two middle digits is very great, as many as eleven to fourteen. _G. scammoni_, _G. brachypterus_, and _G. indicus_ are other reputed species of the genus allowed by True and Blanford. _Grampus_ is a genus allied to the last. It has no teeth in the upper jaw, and but three to seven in the lower jaw, near the symphysis of the mandible. The pterygoids are in contact. There is no beak, and the pectoral fin is long. There are twelve pairs of ribs, of which six are two-headed. Apparently there is but one species, _G. griseus_, known as "Risso's Dolphin." It is a Mediterranean and Atlantic form, and is not common. The genus _Orca_ has as characters:--Teeth ten to thirteen, long and strong. Pterygoids not quite meeting. Vertebrae C 7, D 11 to 12, L 10, Ca 23. The first two or three fused. The dorsal fin is long and pointed. Of this genus there may be more than one species; but the best known is the Killer Whale, _O. gladiator_ (Fig. 180, p. 341), often spoken of as the "Grampus."[258] It is marked with contrasting bands of white or yellow upon a black body-colour. The animal grows to a considerable length, as much as 30 feet. _Orca_ is a powerful and rapacious Whale; and Eschricht has stated that from the stomach of one, thirteen Porpoises and fourteen Seals were extracted. They will also combine to attack larger Whales, and Scammon has related how he witnessed such an onslaught upon a Californian {376} Grey Whale. "Belua truculenta dentibus," observed Olaus Magnus of this Cetacean. The high dorsal fin has been much exaggerated in old drawings; it has been even represented as strong and sharpened at the end, so as to be capable of ripping open the belly of a Whale. The fact that it sometimes lies over a little to one side is responsible for another anecdote: that an example of this Whale was seen to retire with a couple of Seals tucked away under the flippers, another grasped by the dorsal fin, and a fourth in the mouth! "When an Orca pursues a whale," wrote Dr. Frangius, "the latter makes a terrible bellowing like a bull when bitten by a dog." It is probable, according to F. Cuvier, that this Whale is the "Aries marinus" of the ancients, certain bands of white upon the head giving an impression of curved horns. It may also be the "horrible Sea-satyre" of Edmund Spencer. Allied to _Orca_, but distinguishable from it by some rather minute peculiarities, is _Pseudorca_. It may be thus defined:--Teeth eight to ten, much like those of _Orca_. Dorsal fin rather small, falcate. Vertebral formula C 7, D 10, L 9, Ca 24. Six or all the cervicals united. The curious fact about this Whale, which embraces only a single species, _P. crassidens_, is that it was first known in the fossil condition from remains discovered in the fens of Lincolnshire. An important day for cetologists was that on which a whole herd entered the Baltic and furnished material for a better study of this Whale. It is not, any more than its near ally _Orca_, confined to northern seas; for several examples, at first relegated to a distinct species (_P. meridionalis_), have been obtained from the seas round Tasmania. _Orcella_ (which has been written _Orcaella_) has fourteen to nineteen small sharp teeth in each half of each jaw. The pterygoids are widely separate. The dorsal fin is small and falcate. The vertebral formula is C 7, D 14, L 14, Ca 26. Seven ribs are two-headed, and five of them reach the sternum. This genus contains but a single species, _O. brevirostris_, which is both marine and fresh-water in habit; it occurs in the Indian seas, and in the Irrawaddy even as far up as 900 miles from the sea. Some regard the fresh-water individuals as a distinct form, _O. fluminalis_. _Sagmatias_ is a genus known only from a skull, which is remarkable for the elevation of the premaxillae into a crest; the {377} pterygoids are short, and there are thirty-two teeth in each half of each jaw. _Feresia_ is known from two skulls which are provided with ten to twelve teeth in each half of each jaw. It is intermediate between _Globicephalus_, _Grampus_, and _Lagenorhynchus_, according to Sir W. Flower. The genus _Delphinus_ contains the Dolphin, _D. delphis_.[259] The genus may be characterised as follows:--Teeth small and numerous, forty-seven to sixty-five. Vertebral formula C 7, D 14 or 15, L 21 or 22, Ca 30 to 32. The atlas and axis are fused, the rest free. The palatal border of the maxillae is deeply grooved. The fins are falcate; the beak long and distinct. The Common Dolphin of the Mediterranean shows so many variations of colour, slight differences in the proportions of the bones of the skull, and in the number of the teeth, that it has been divided up into at least seventeen "species." But M. Fischer, who has studied many of these forms, does not admit them, and most students of this group of mammals follow him in the matter. The Dolphin is and has been the most familiar of Cetaceans; in consequence it has accumulated much anecdote of a mythical character. The extreme intelligence and goodwill towards man assigned to this creature by the ancients are possibly due to the anomaly of a creature ostensibly a fish showing many of the characters of higher animals. Its unfishlike intelligence baffled the early observers, who at once endowed it with especially advanced attributes. Hence the stories of Arion and others. The leaping of the Dolphin out of the water is exemplified in many Mediterranean coins and coats of arms; the heraldic dolphin is represented with an arched back as in leaping. The Dolphin reaches a length of some 7 feet, and appears to be world-wide in range. Possibly distinct is _D. longirostris_, characterised, as the name denotes, by the very long beak; it has also more teeth and is a native of Malabar. _D. roseiventris_ again may be a third species of _Delphinus_. It comes from Torres Straits, and has the under parts rosy in colour. The genus _Prodelphinus_ has, like _Delphinus_, a distinct beak; but it has not the grooved maxillaries. No other character of importance appears to separate it from _Delphinus_. {378} The genus consists of some eight widely distributed species, which are none of them large Dolphins. _Lagenorhynchus_ has the following assemblage of characters:--Head with short, not very distinct beak. Dorsal and pectoral fins falcate. Teeth small, twenty-two to forty-five in each half jaw. Vertebrae ranging in number from seventy-three to ninety-two. Pterygoid bones either in contact or separate. There are fifteen or sixteen pairs of ribs, of which six are two-headed. Of this genus Mr. True allows eight species, which have been increased by a ninth since the publication of his "Revision."[260] Two species of _Lagenorhynchus_ are known from our coasts; the rest are mainly southern in range. The British species are, firstly, _L. albirostris_, a Dolphin of some 9 feet in length. It has a large number of vertebrae, ninety-two in number. _L. albirostris_ is a rare species, the first record of its occurrence on these shores being in 1834. Since that date some eighteen individuals have been shot or stranded on the shores of the British Isles. The second British species, _L. acutus_, differs in colour from the first. As in the last, the upper parts are black and the under parts white; but in _L. acutus_ there is also a stripe on the flanks, brownish in colour. It has fewer vertebrae, not more than eighty-two. The next genus of Dolphins, _Sotalia_, is characterised by--Teeth tolerably large, twenty-six to thirty-five. The vertebral formula is C 7, D 11 or 12, L 10 to 14, Ca 22. The pterygoids are not in contact in the middle line. It has a distinct beak. Of this genus there are some six species (the exact number, as in so many other genera, cannot be positively asserted), most of which are fluviatile or estuarine in habit. They are also on the whole characterised by their pale, if not actually white, coloration. _S. sinensis_ of the Amoy is white with pinkish fins. _Sotalia guianensis_ is American as its name denotes. It is figured by van Beneden as of a pale brown colour. It is very abundant in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, and has the reputation of being a friend of man like some other Dolphins. The natives hold that it will bring to shore the bodies of drowned persons. The most singular species of the genus is that recently described by Professor Kükenthal as _S. teüszii_.[261] This animal is purely fresh-water, being found in {379} the Camaroon river, where it is extremely rare. The nostrils (blow-hole) are prolonged into a snout-like process, a fact which is of interest in connexion with the assertion that in _Balaenoptera_ the blow-hole is puffed out during spouting. What is temporary in the Rorqual appears to be permanent in the _Sotalia_. More remarkable still, perhaps, is the assertion that it is a vegetable-feeding Dolphin. This is not a mere assertion except that it may not apply universally; for in the stomach of a specimen nothing but vegetable débris was found. But in the stomachs of other Whales (e.g. _Rhachianectes_) vegetable matter has also been found, which may perhaps have been taken in accidentally with the food. _Steno_ comes near _Sotalia_, and Dr. Blanford has transferred to it (under the one name of _Steno perniger_) the two species, _Sotalia gadamu_ and _Sotalia lentiginosa_. It is, however, to be distinguished from _Sotalia_ by the following characters:--Teeth large and few, twenty to twenty-seven on each side of each jaw, with furrowed surfaces to crowns. Vertebrae C 7, D 12 or 13, L 15, Ca 30 to 32. Pterygoids in contact. There are but two species apparently (not counting Dr. Blanford's). _Tursiops_ is not a very easily definable genus. These are its chief features:--Teeth large, twenty-two to twenty-six in number in each half of each jaw. Vertebral formula C 7, D 12 or 13, L 16 or 17, Ca 27. Pterygoids in contact. Beak distinct. Some five species are allowed; but it seems to be difficult to differentiate the others from _Tursiops tursio_. This, the best-known form, is quite or nearly world-wide in range, and occurs, though not abundantly, on our own coasts. Mr. True has observed that the eyelids of this Whale, which is largely hunted on the American coast, are as mobile as those of a terrestrial mammal. The name "tursio" is derived from Pliny. Belon would also derive from this word the French vernacular "marsouin." The latter term is sometimes regarded as a corruption of "Meerschwein," but it would seem to be more probably derivable from "marinum suem," from the Latin direct. _T. tursio_ has the back black to lead-colour; the under parts white. In the reputed species, _T. abusalam_, from the Red Sea, the back is a dark sea-green. _T. tursio_ reaches a length of 12 feet, but is more usually smaller. The genus _Tursio_ must be carefully distinguished from {380} _Tursiops_. It has no dorsal fin, the teeth are small and numerous (forty-four), and the pterygoids are separate. There are two species, _T. borealis_ and _T. peronii_, the former being northern and the latter more widely spread. The genus _Cephalorhynchus_ has for its chief characters the following:--Teeth twenty-five to thirty-one, small and sharp. Pterygoids widely separated. Dorsal fin not falcate, but triangular or ovate in form. Beak not well marked off from the head. The species of this genus are all southern in range; four are perhaps to be allowed. FAM. 3. PLATANISTIDAE.--This family of Odontocetes may be distinguished from the Dolphins by the following assemblage of structural features:--Cervical vertebrae all free, and each one of some length (for a Cetacean). Jaws long and narrow, with a considerable length of symphysis. Teeth very numerous. This very meagre series of differential characters is largely due to _Pontoporia_ on the Platanistid side, and to _Monodon_ and _Delphinapterus_ upon the Delphinid side. Otherwise the family Platanistidae would be extremely distinct. The two last-named genera have separate cervical vertebrae, and in the Beluga at any rate this is expressed externally by a quite distinct neck. Moreover, as Mr. True has pointed out, the pterygoid bones have not the involuted cavity below which characterises other Dolphins; and they have, what other Dolphins have not, an articulation outwards with the roofing bones of the skull. Sir W. Flower described the fact that in Inia (and the same occurs in Pontoporia) the palatines are separated from each other by the intervention of the vomer. In this feature they resemble certain Ziphioids, _Berardius_, _Oulodon_ (= _Mesoplodon_) _grayi_, and _Hyperoodon_. The true Dolphins also appear to show the same intervention of the vomer in a few cases. There is nothing, therefore, distinctive from the Delphinidae in this feature. The existence of cartilaginous sternal ribs in _Inia_ and _Platanista_ shows affinity between these two genera and the Physeteridae. _Pontoporia_ is Dolphin-like in this particular, as it is also in the mode of articulation of the ribs with the vertebral column. But this last matter has already been dealt with. The principal reason for placing _Pontoporia_ with the other two genera is the close resemblance which its skull bears to that of _Inia_. The first genus of this family which will be noticed is _Platanista_. {381} The following are its main characters:--Dorsal fin absent. Eyes rudimentary. Pectoral fins large and truncated at the extremity. Teeth, about twenty-nine in each half of each jaw. Scapula with the acromion coinciding with its anterior edge. Skull with enormous maxillary crests, and with the palatines entirely concealed by the pterygoids. The length of the above definition will serve to indicate how anomalous in many particulars is the structure of this "Dolphin." There is apparently but one species, _P. gangetica_, the "Susu." The Indian vernacular name is derived from the sound that the animal makes when spouting. It is an inhabitant of the Ganges and the Indus, together with their tributaries, and ascends very high up its streams. It is also thought to be purely fluviatile and never to desert the rivers for the sea. _Platanista_ lives chiefly by grubbing in the mud for prawns and fish. Grains of rice have also been found in the stomach, but this would seem to be accidental. The long snout of the Susu has been compared to the long snout of the Gharial, a native of the same region. This Whale grows to a length of over 9 feet, but this length is exceptional. Its anatomy has been elaborately described by Dr. Anderson.[262] The next genus, _Inia_, is thus to be characterised:--Dorsal fin rudimentary; pectorals large and ovate. Teeth, as many as thirty-two on each side, often with an additional tubercle. Skull without large maxillary crests; palatines not hidden by pterygoids, but divided by vomer. The vertebrae of this genus are few in number, only forty-one in all, which are thus distributed: C 7, D 13, L 3, Ca 18. The peculiarities of the vertebral column are several. In the first place, as has been mentioned in the definition of the family, all the cervicals are separate and individually of some length. Secondly, the axis has a better trace of an odontoid process than in any other Whale except _Platanista_, where it is even more obvious. The lumbar region is remarkable on account of its restriction to three vertebrae. The sternum, by what we must regard as convergence, is somewhat like that of the Whalebone whales. It consists of one piece only, of a roughly-oval form, to which apparently only two pairs of (cartilaginous) sternal ribs are attached. In the fore-limb the proportions between the humerus and the radius are more like {382} those of terrestrial mammals; _i.e._ the humerus is distinctly the longer, the converse usually obtaining among Whales. But _Platanista_ again agrees with _Inia_. The teeth are remarkable for the fact that the hindermost ones of the series have an additional lobe; they are not purely conical as are those of Whales generally. There is but one species, _Inia geoffrensis_, which inhabits the Amazons, and grows to a length of 8 feet. Its colour variations are rather extraordinary, unless they can be set down to sex, which has been denied. Some individuals are wholly pink; others are black above and pink beneath. This Whale is believed by the Indians to attack a man in the water, and it is added that the _Sotalia_ of the same streams will defend him from these attacks! Naturally, therefore, superstitious reverence attaches to this Dolphin, which is tiresome to the naturalist who wants specimens, as Professor Louis Agassiz found. In the genus _Pontoporia_[263] the dorsal fin is well developed and falcate. The teeth are very numerous, 200 in all. The ribs articulate as in Dolphins. The skull closely resembles that of Inia, and the scapula is, as in that genus, "normal." The proper name for _Pontoporia_ is really _Stenodelphis_, which name was first used by Gervais a month or two before Gray, who separated it from the vague _Delphinus_ of its original discoverer, Gervais himself. It has a longer snout than _Inia_, which, being bent towards the extremity in a downward direction, curiously suggests the skull of a Curlew. In details, however, the skull is exceedingly like that of _Inia_. It is nearly symmetrical. The vertebral formula appears to be the following:--C 7, D 10, L 5, Ca 20 = 42, just one over the number of the vertebrae in _Inia_. The sternum is in two pieces. Of the ten pairs of ribs the first three are double-headed. These and the next have sternal moieties joining the sternum, of which the first three are ossified, the last being apparently merely a ligament. There is a single species of the genus, _P. blainvillii_. This Whale is described by Mr. Lydekker as being of a clear brown colour, harmonising with the waters of the estuary of the Amazons and the La Plata which it inhabits. The same colour characterises _Sotalia pallida_ of those parts of the world, and {383} may be a colour adaptation. But the extant accounts of the colour of this Dolphin vary--quite possibly in accordance with real variations, such as are exhibited by _Inia_ already spoken of. _Pontoporia blainvillii_ is a smallish Dolphin some 4 feet in length. FOSSIL ODONTOCETES.--Several of the existing genera of Dolphins are also known in a fossil condition, as well as Ziphioid Whales closely related to existing forms. We shall deal here only with a few genera of fossil Odontocetes which depart in their structure from existing forms. The genus _Physodon_ is Miocene, and has been found in Patagonia. It appears to be most nearly allied to the Physeteridae, but should probably form a distinct family. _Physodon_ was not so large as _Physeter_, the skull measuring only some 10 feet. It thus comes nearer in point of size to _Kogia_, and it is interesting to note that its relatively-shorter snout is also suggestive of the dwarf Cachalot. The general outline of the skull is, however, more like that of _Physeter_, and there is the same deep cavity for the lodgment of spermaceti. The main feature of interest in the skull is the presence of teeth in both jaws, and the fact that two or three are lodged in the premaxillae. This is precisely what is found in the most ancient Whales, the Zeuglodonts. Extinct Dolphins, apparently referable to the Platanistidae, are the most numerous among the earlier forms of Cetaceans, and it is significant that the earliest known forms of these go back to the Eocene. The genus _Iniopsis_ of Mr. Lydekker,[264] with one species, _I. caucasica_, comes from rocks which seem to be of that age. The back part of the skull of this animal, the only part of the skull known, has the same squarish excavation of the maxillaries that characterises _Inia_ and _Pontoporia_. Its lower jaw was slender and possessed numerous teeth. The long snout and jaws of Platanistids, especially exaggerated in _Pontoporia_ among living forms, are constantly found in these Tertiary Platanistids. _Eurhinodelphis_ had a beak three and a half times the length of the cranium, whereas in _Pontoporia_ the proportions are as 2:1. The teeth too were very numerous. The genus _Argyrocetus_, from Patagonian Tertiary strata, was an animal about as large as the existing Dolphin. It had the {384} slender rostrum and numerous teeth of the Platanistids and the squared excavations of the maxillaries. _Argyrocetus patagonicus_ possessed also archaic characters, suggesting earlier affinities still. The two condyles of the skull instead of being closely adpressed to the skull stood out in a way more like that met with in terrestrial mammals. The nasal bones instead of being abbreviated rudiments are well developed as in the archaic Zeuglodonts. The cervical vertebrae of this Whale are all perfectly free from each other and individually long. The skull is on the whole bilaterally symmetrical; this again is a feature more pronounced among the Platanistidae than among other Odontocetes. Accompanying these generalised Cetacean characters are some which show that the animal was too specialised to be the direct ancestor of any existing forms. The end of the mandible was upturned and without teeth, its form being quite unique among Cetacea. Other allied forms, such as _Zarrhachis_ and _Priscodelphinus_, showed the same length of the cervical vertebrae. A very distinct family of extinct Whales is that of the SQUALODONTIDAE. They to some extent bridge over the gap between the existing Odontoceti and the Eocene Archaeoceti (Zeuglodonts). The skull of these Whales was on the whole Dolphin-like. But they possessed teeth which were distinctly specialised into incisors, canines, and molars. The molars have a coarsely-serrated cutting edge as in the Zeuglodonts, and are also to some extent two-rooted. But they are more numerous, and so far approximate to the conditions which characterise the more typical modern Odontocetes. _Squalodon_ was a long-beaked form, and _Prosqualodon_ had a skull whose proportions are nearer those of _Kogia_. SUB-ORDER 3. ARCHAEOCETI. This division of the Whale tribe embraces but a single family, ZEUGLODONTIDAE, of which but a single genus, _Zeuglodon_, can with certainty be discriminated. _Zeuglodon_ is an Eocene form of large size, with teeth which are limited in number and disposed in three series as incisors, canines, and molars. The molars are double-rooted, a fact which has given to the genus its name. The nasal bones being long {385} instead of rudimentary like those of other Whales, the blow-hole lies more in the middle of the face. The skull, too, is not Whale-like in a number of other points. Thus the premaxillaries take their fair share in the outline of the upper jaw; and, furthermore, bear the incisor teeth. The parietals meet above in a crest and are not excluded from the roof of the skull. The vertebrae of the neck are in no way shortened; neither are they fused together. The ribs are double-headed, and the sternum is made up of several pieces. Some naturalists, particularly Professor D'Arcy Thompson,[265] have assigned a relationship to the Seals to these ancient Cetacea; but others[266] have disputed this view chiefly on the grounds that the characters which appear to be Seal-like are simply characters which are generalised and so far at most not Whale-like. Thus the long neck and the serrated character of the teeth may be accepted as Seal-like on the one hand; but on the other, a simple serrated tooth and a long neck are not by any means features of organisation which we should consider out of the way in an ancient form of Cetacean which probably preyed upon fish. The humerus of _Zeuglodon_, according to Mr. Lydekker, puts out of court any possible near relationship to the Seals. But the matter under dispute can be further studied by reference to the three memoirs quoted below. * * * * * {386} CHAPTER XIII CARNIVORA[267]--FISSIPEDIA ORDER VII. CARNIVORA This order may be thus defined:--Small to large quadrupeds, terrestrial, arboreal, or aquatic, of usually carnivorous habits. The teeth have generally sharp and cutting edges, and the canines are well developed; the incisors are small, and four to six in number. The number of toes is never less than four. There are usually strong and sharp claws. The clavicles are incomplete or absent. In the hand the scaphoid and lunar bones are always united. The brain is well developed, and the hemispheres are well convoluted. The stomach is always simple, while the caecum, if present, is always small. The members of this group have a deciduate and zonary placenta. The fewness of the characters used in the above definition is chiefly owing to the fact that the Seals and Sea-lions, although they are referable without a doubt to this order, have undergone in their metamorphosis into aquatic animals so many changes that some of the main features in the structure of their terrestrial relatives have been lost. This group will, however, be again characterised. We shall deal at present with the land division of the Carnivora, the CARNIVORA FISSIPEDIA as they are generally termed. The name is of course given to them to distinguish them from the corresponding division of the PINNIPEDIA. In the latter group the feet and hands are modified into "fins"; in the other the fingers and toes are cleft, as with terrestrial beasts generally. {387} SUB-ORDER 1. FISSIPEDIA. [Illustration] FIG. 190.--Under surface of the cranium of a Dog. × ½. _apf_, Anterior palatine foramen; _AS_, alisphenoid; _as_, posterior opening of alisphenoid canal; _BO_, basioccipital; _BS_, basisphenoid; _cf_, condylar foramen; _eam_, external auditory meatus; _ExO_, exoccipital; _flm_, _flp_, foramen lacerum medium and posterius; _fm_, foramen magnum; _fo_, foramen ovale; _Fr_, frontal; _fr_, foramen rotundum; _gf_, glenoid fossa; _gp_, post-glenoid process; _Ma_, malar; _Mx_, maxilla; _oc_, occipital condyle; _op_, optic foramen; _Per_, mastoid portion of periotic; _pgf_, post-glenoid foramen; _Pl_, palatine; _PMx_, premaxilla; _pp_, paroccipital process; _ppf_, posterior palatine foramen; _PS_, presphenoid; _Pt_, pterygoid; _sf_, sphenoidal fissure or foramen lacerum anterius; _sm_, stylomastoid foramen; _SO_, supraoccipital; _Sq_, zygomatic process of squamosal; _Ty_, tympanic bulla; _Vo_, vomer. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) A very marked feature of the terrestrial Carnivora is to be found in the structure of the teeth. The incisors are nearly always six, and are somewhat feebly developed in many cases. The canines are almost invariably very large strong teeth, and are always present. In some of the extinct Cats they reached enormous dimensions. The number of cheek teeth is not always identical; but the last premolar in the upper jaw and the first true molar in the lower jaw, known as the "carnassial" or "sectorial" teeth, mark a difference in structure between the anterior and the posterior crushing teeth; those in front of the carnassial tooth have cutting edges, and are often merely small, conical teeth; those behind have broader crowns and are tuberculate; those of simpler forms often trituberculate; those of others {388} with numerous tubercles. The carnassial tooth is often, but by no means always, very much larger and especially longer than the rest of the molar and premolar series. It is less pronounced in some of the omnivorous Arctoidea. The skull of the Carnivora is longer in the more primitive types, such as the Canidae, and shorter in the more specialised Felidae. The orbit is hardly ever completely shut off by bone, though the postorbital process of the frontal sometimes approaches the corresponding upward process of the zygomatic arch. The palate, which is completely ossified, sometimes reaches back for some distance behind the teeth; it always extends as far as the last molar. The tympanic bulla is often very inflated, and if flatter, as in the Bears, is at any rate large and conspicuous. The lower jaw has a high coronoid process, and the condyle is transversely elongated, this part of the bone being rolled into an almost cylindrical form; it fits very closely into the glenoid cavity, and the articulation is thereby very strict--an obvious advantage in a creature with so great a need for power of jaw. [Illustration] FIG. 191.--A, Atlas of Dog. Ventral view, × ½. B, Axis of Dog. Side view, × 2/3. _o_, Odontoid process; _pz_, posterior zygapophysis; _s_, spinous process; _sn_, foramen for first spinal nerve; _t_, transverse process; _v_, vertebrarterial canal. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) In the vertebral column the atlas always has large wing-like processes; the spine of the axis vertebra has a long antero-posteriorly elongated form. The transverse processes of the fourth to the sixth cervicals are, as a rule, double. These features, however, though characteristic of the Carnivora are not by any means distinctive. The true sacrum consists of but a single vertebra to which the ilia are attached; but at most two other vertebrae are fused with this. The clavicle is always small and sometimes quite rudimentary, or even absent. The spine of the scapula is well developed, and almost equally divides the {389} surface of that bone. The digits of the Carnivora are mostly five, and are never less than four. The mode of progression may be digitigrade or plantigrade, and the intermediate semidigitigrade mode of walking also occurs. The brain in all Carnivora is large and well convoluted. The arrangement of the convolutions is characteristic. There are three or four gyri disposed round each other, of which the lowest surrounds the Sylvian fissure. The stomach in these creatures is always simple in form, without {390} subdivisions. The caecum is never large, and may be, as in the Bear tribe, completely absent. [Illustration] FIG. 192.--Brain of Dog. A, Ventral; B, dorsal; C, lateral aspect. _B.ol_, Olfactory lobe; _Cr.ce_, crura cerebri; _Fi.p_, great longitudinal fissure; _HH_, _HH_^1, lateral lobes of cerebellum; _Hyp_, hypophysis; _Med_, spinal cord; _NH_, medulla oblongata; _Po_, pons Varolii; _VH_, cerebral hemispheres; _Wu_, middle lobe (vermis) of cerebellum; _I-XII_, cerebral nerves. (From Wiedersheim's _Comparative Anatomy_.) The distribution of the Carnivora is world-wide, excluding only the Australian region, if, as seems probable, the Dingo of that region is an introduced species. The most striking features in their distribution are perhaps the following:--There are no Bears in the Ethiopian region or in Madagascar, and but a single species in the Neotropical. The only Carnivora in Madagascar are the Viverridae, and of the seven genera there found six are peculiar. The Procyonidae are nearly entirely New World in range; out of sixteen genera of Mustelidae only five are New World, and only two of those are peculiar to the American continent. The Hyaenidae are limited to the Old World. The classification of the Carnivora is a matter which is difficult, and which has therefore been very variously effected. It is unfortunate that the classification of Flower (based upon the researches of H. N. Turner as well as his own, and accepted by Mivart) should fail when applied to fossil forms. For it separates with great clearness the existing genera into three great divisions, the Cynoidea, Aeluroidea, and Arctoidea, definable by visceral as well as by osteological characters. The apparent anomaly, too, of a single supposed Viverrine genus, to wit _Bassariscus_, existing in America, while all the rest of its kin are Old-World forms, was shown by his characters to be neither an anomaly nor a fact. It will be better, therefore, to divide the Carnivora into the families, Felidae, Machaerodontidae, Viverridae, Hyaenidae, Canidae, Ursidae, Procyonidae, and Mustelidae, indicating at the same time the reasons for and against retaining the three divisions of Sir W. Flower. FAM. 1. FELIDAE.[268]--This family includes only the Cats (_i.e._ Lions, Tigers, "Cats," Hunting Leopard, etc.), and is to be distinguished by the following characters:--In the skull the auditory bulla is much inflated, and there is an internal septum; the paroccipital processes are flattened against the bullae. There is no alisphenoidal canal. The dental formula is I 3, C 1, Pm 3 to 2, M 1. The carnassial tooth of the upper jaw has three lobes to the blade; that of the lower jaw is without an inner cusp. {391} The digits are five on the fore-feet, four on the hind. The caecum is present and small. This family contains but two genera, _Felis_ and _Cynaelurus_. [Illustration] FIG. 193.--Section of auditory bulla of Tiger. _am_, Auditory meatus; _BO_, basioccipital; _e_, Eustachian canal; _ic_, _oc_, two chambers of bulla divided by _s_, septum; *, their aperture of communication; _Pt_, periotic; _Sq_, squamosal; _t_, tympanic ring. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The genus _Felis_ is very wide in its distribution, being common to both the Old and the New Worlds. Its distinctive characters, as opposed to _Cynaelurus_, are mainly the following:--The claws are retractile, and the retractility is more markedly developed than in the Cheetah. The molar is not so nearly in a line with the other teeth; the upper carnassial, moreover, has an inner tubercle. The legs are relatively shorter. The complete retractility of the claws is a very distinctive feature of the true Cats. It is brought about in this way: the terminal joint of the toe, which is clad with the claw, folds back into a sheath by the outer side of or above the middle phalanx. It is held in this position by a strong ligament. The flexor muscles straighten the phalanx which bears the claw, so that the natural position for the animal is to be in a state of retracted claws, which of course preserves them from friction; when wanted for aggressive purposes, they are pulled into sight by the action of the muscles already mentioned. [Illustration] FIG. 194.--The phalanges of the middle digit of the manus of the Lion (_Felis leo_). × ½. _a_, The central portion forming the internal support to the horny claw; _b_, the bony lamina reflected around the base of the claw; _ph_^1, proximal phalanx; _ph_^2, middle phalanx; _ph_^3, ungual phalanx. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) Much has been written as to the shape of the pupil of the Cat's eye. Some careful observations upon the matter have been {392} made by Dr. Lindsay Johnson,[269] who found that out of 180 Domestic Cats 111 had round pupils, and that in 19 the shape was a pointed oval, intermediate conditions being offered by the rest. These 180 comprised males and females of many varieties. When the pupil of the Cat's eye contracts, it forms a vertical slit with two pin holes, one at each end, through which alone light appears to enter. In the Genet and the Civet the contraction of the pupil is as in the Cat. In the Lion, Tiger--in fact apparently in all the large Cats--the pupil retains its circular shape even when contraction is fully effected. Dr. Johnson has, furthermore,[270] made some interesting experiments upon the Seal's eye--a creature which has, of course, to exert its powers of vision in two media, and from one to the other. This is effected by dilatation of the pupil when in the water, and its contraction to a vertical slit with parallel margins and rounded ends when in the air, the contraction being to some extent at least under the influence of the animal's will. The coloration of these creatures is very varied: spots of black, or bordered with black upon a more or less tawny ground-colour, is the prevailing pattern. Stripes are also met with, as in the Tiger, but these are usually cross stripes,[271] while in the related Viverridae there are many examples of longitudinal stripes. Finally, many Cats, as for instance the Puma and the Eyra, are "self-coloured"--have, that is to say, a uniform tint. Just as the unstriped Horse sometimes shows traces of the former existence of stripes, so the self-coloured Cats are occasionally spotted when young; this is markedly so in the case of the Puma; while the Lion is spotted as a cub, and in the adult--particularly in the lioness--there are distinct indications of these spots. It is evident, therefore, that there are grounds for regarding a spotted condition to be antecedent, at least in some cases, to a uniform colour. There are divers explanations of these hues and of these changes. It is held by many that the coloration has a relation to the habits of the creature: the spotted Cats, it is pointed out, are largely arboreal; this is eminently so with the Jaguar at any rate; and in an arboreal {393} creature the spots, it is said, give the impression of flecks of sunlight broken up by foliage. On the other hand, the self-coloured Cats of a sandy to earthen hue assimilate in tint with a sandy or stony soil. The stripes of the Tiger, it is thought, approximate to the tall parallel stems of grasses and other plants in the dense cover in which it lives. In favour of these views is undoubtedly the fact that in other mammals and other animals belonging to quite different groups the same four plans of coloration are met with. Spots and cross stripes are found in the Marsupials; the young Tapir is spotted while the adult is self-coloured, and so forth. This last fact, however, serves to illustrate another view which has been put forward in explanation of these characteristic markings of the Felidae. Eimer has come to the conclusion that there is and has been a regular series of steps in the evolution of these markings. The primitive condition was, he thinks, a longitudinally striped one; the stripes then broke up into spots, and the spots rearranged themselves as transverse stripes; the self-coloured Puma and Lion are a final stage in this gradual evolution. In support of this is the fact that spots precede self-coloration in the individual growth of these animals. The exact sequence of these markings is, however, contradicted by Dr. Haacke's observations upon a certain Australian fish which is cross striped when young and longitudinally striped when adult, a precise reversal of what ought to occur on Eimer's view. The Felidae are almost universally distributed with the exception, of course, of Australia and a good deal of the Australian region; the headquarters of the group are undoubtedly in the tropics of the Old World. The characteristics of a few species of the Cat tribe will now be given. As there are at any rate forty-five species, this survey will have to be somewhat incomplete. The Lion, _F. leo_, differs from all other species by the mane of the male. It is an inhabitant of Africa, India, and certain parts of Western Asia. Within the historic period it ranged into Europe. According to Sir Samuel Baker those of us who have not seen the Lion in his native haunts have never seen a really magnificent specimen of the brute; but other travellers disagree, and state that a captive Lion is often a finer animal--by reason, of course, of good feeding. Unlike the majority of Cats, the Lion {394} cannot climb. His roar (which is so suggestive, towards its end, of that animal who once dressed himself up in his skin) is literally _after_ his prey. The Lion, it is stated, does not roar except upon a full stomach. The Lion is mainly nocturnal in its habits, and is said to be not in the least dangerous if unprovoked in the daytime; but here again opinions differ. The tail of the animal is provided at the extremity with a slight claw, but it can hardly be sufficient for the animal to lash itself into a fury with it. A Lion will live for thirty or forty years, and will breed freely in captivity. The Gardens of the Zoological Society of Dublin have been famed for their success in breeding Lions; but more surprising still, this has been successfully accomplished in travelling menageries. The "desert" colour of the Lion is familiar to all. It is stated that the likeness to the parched soil of certain parts of Africa is greatly heightened by black patches in the mane, for in certain regions of that continent the arid yellow of the general environment is diversified by pieces of black lava. It is apparently a popular delusion to speak of the Maneless Lion of Guzerat. No doubt maneless Lions do come from there, but so do young and maneless Lions from other places; in short, it is simply a question of age, and old Lions from the Asiatic continent are as fully maned as those from Africa. The Tiger, _F. tigris_, is an animal of about the same size as the Lion, distinguished, of course, by the stripes. The skeletons are much like those of other Cats; but the skull of the Tiger may be distinguished from that of the Lion by the fact that the nasal bones reach back beyond the frontal processes of the maxillae. The Tiger is an exclusively Asiatic beast, ranging northward into icy Siberia. The northern individuals have a closer fur, and have been quite unnecessarily separated as a distinct variety. Nine feet six inches is the size of the average full-grown Tiger; but the skins will stretch, a fact of which the sportsman will sometimes take advantage. A "man-eater" is a Tiger which has discovered "that it is far easier to kill a native than to hunt for the scarce jungle game." As with the Lion, the accounts of travellers differ enormously, particularly with regard to the strength of the creature. Some have said that a Tiger can easily lift a full-grown bullock and leap with it in the mouth over a considerable obstacle, a statement which is ridiculed by Sir Samuel Baker. Unlike the Lion, the Tiger can climb trees; {395} it will also voluntarily enter the water, and can swim considerable rivers. Mr. H. N. Ridley[272] observes that Tigers "habitually swim over to Singapore across the Johore Strait, usually by way of the intermediate islands of Pulau Ubin and Pulau Tekong. They make the passage at night, landing in the early morning. As so much of the coast is mangrove swamp, and the animals do not risk going through the mud, they are only able to cross where the shores are sandy, and thus they have regular starting- and landing-places." The Tiger is mainly nocturnal, but begins its depredations towards five o'clock in the afternoon, before which it remains sleeping in shady thickets. If the weather is rainy and windy it becomes restless and wanders about earlier. Under the provocation of extreme hunger it will hunt during the daytime. Hunger, too, naturally produces extreme boldness. Mr. Ridley relates a story of four Tigers who walked up the steps of a house in search of the master of the house or his dog, and broke into it, the inhabitants retiring in their favour. The Malays have superstitions about Tigers, which are precisely paralleled by the man-and-wolf stories of Europe. "Certain people are supposed to have the power of turning into tigers for a short time, and resuming their human form at pleasure. The transformation commences tail first, and the human tiger is so completely changed that not only has it all the actions and appearance of the tiger, but on resuming its human form it is quite unconscious of what it has been doing in the tiger state." Mr. Ridley disputes the common stories as to man-eaters. If a Tiger has once tasted human flesh it does not always confine itself afterwards to that article of diet, nor is it only aged and comparatively toothless animals which hunt man. That they do take a large toll of coolies is an undoubted fact, and many are the artifices to prevent the rest from knowing the fate of one of their fellow-workmen, or of becoming acquainted with the presence in the neighbourhood of one of the dreaded beasts. The Leopard or Panther, _F. pardus_, is, like the Lion, African and Asiatic in range. The animal is spotted with rosettes of black spots surrounding a central field of the tawny colour of the body generally. Some of the spots are solid and black. "The {396} pantere like unto the smaragdyne" seems to be an inapt description of this Cat, unless indeed the eyes be referred to. The ancients ascribed to it a most fragrant odour. As with the Tiger, a northern variety of this Carnivore has a closer and longer fur. There is a tendency towards melanism in this animal, the black Leopard being comparatively common, particularly, it appears, in high lands. Several other variations in colour are known. These have received different specific names; but it seems that there is in reality but one species of Leopard. The Leopard can climb with the agility of any Cat. Sir S. Baker reserves the name Panther for large Leopards, which reach a length of 7 feet 6 inches. But there is no valid distinction between any two such varieties. The Leopard is as ferocious as the Tiger; and Sir Samuel Baker advises that the power of the human eye be not experimented with when meeting unarmed one of these brutes. [Illustration] FIG. 195.--Snow Leopard. _Felis uncia._ × 1/20. The Snow Leopard or Ounce, _F. uncia_, is a beautiful creature, confined to the highlands of Central Asia. The ground-colour is white, and the spots are larger than those of the ordinary Leopard. Two examples of this rather rare Carnivore have been recently on view in the Zoological Society's Gardens, London. The Clouded Leopard, _F. nebulosa_, is an animal of considerable size (6 feet total length). {397} The Fishing Cat, _F. viverrina_, of India and China, is about 3 feet 6 inches including the tail. Its black spots upon a grey-brown ground have a tendency to form longitudinal lines. It is in fact, on Eimer's theory, a case of longitudinal stripes breaking up into spots. It differs from the bulk of Cats by preying upon fish, though it is not known how it catches them. It also feeds upon the large snail _Ampullaria_. In addition to these there are twenty-four species of Cats found in the Old World, mainly in the Oriental region, of small to moderate size. [Illustration] FIG. 196.--European Lynx. _Felis lynx._ × 1/12. The European Lynx, _F. lynx_, has rather long legs, a short tail, and tufted, pointed ears. It has only two premolars in the upper jaw instead of the usual three. It seems to be doubtful whether the Asiatic Lynx can be distinguished from the European, but the Spanish form, _F. pardina_, does appear to be distinct. The Common Lynx, sometimes called _F. canadensis_, also ranges into America, where some other forms exist, known by the specific names of _F. rufa_ and _F. baileyi_. In America there are altogether sixteen species of Cats, if we allow three species of Lynx, none of which, however, does Dr. Mivart allow to be different from the European and Asiatic Lynx (_F. lynx_). {398} The largest of American Cats is the Jaguar, _F. onca_. This is an arboreal creature with a long, heavy body and short limbs. Its pelage is much like that of the Leopard, but the spots are larger and more definitely arranged in groups. There are a number of distinct rows of spots. The length of the body alone is not greater than 4 feet. They prey very largely on the Capybara, and upon turtles, which they surprise upon the sand when about to lay their eggs; the reptiles are turned upon their backs, so as to be incapable of escaping, and the Jaguar then easily devours them. The Jaguar will even pursue the turtle into the water, and will devour its eggs and the newly-hatched young. [Illustration] FIG. 197.--Jaguar. _Felis onca._ × 1/15. The Ocelot is another spotted American Cat. _F. pardalis_[273] ranges from Arkansas in North America southwards, its range corresponding with that of the Jaguar. Although small for one of the "larger cats," the Ocelot inspired with considerable respect Captain Dampier, who remarked of it: "The Tigre-cat is about the bigness of a bull-dog, with short truss, body shaped much like a mastiff, but in all things else, its head, the colour of its hair, the manner of its preying, much resembling the {399} tigre, only somewhat less.... But I have wisht them farther off when I have met them in the woods; because their aspect appears so very stately and fierce." [Illustration] FIG. 198.--Ocelot. _Felis pardalis._ × 1/10. The Puma, _F. concolor_, the American Lion as it is called in the north, is a rather smaller animal than the last, and of a uniform tawny colour, tending to white on the abdomen and to a dark stripe along the back. The young, as already mentioned, are very distinctly spotted. Like the Tiger, the Puma can endure extremes of heat and cold; it is equally at home in the snow of North America and among the tropical forests and swamps of the south. It is a ferocious creature so far as concerns Deer, Lamas, Raccoons, even Skunks and Rheas, but, according to Mr. W. H. Hudson, will not attack man, and will even defend him against the Jaguar.[274] In captivity the Puma will purr like a Cat. The Eyra, _F. eyra_, is another self-coloured American cat, which has a curious likeness to the totally distinct _Cryptoprocta_ of Madagascar. The Wild Cat of Europe, _F. catus_, is found over the greater part of Europe, and also in Northern Asia. It was undoubtedly common at one time in this country, though it appears never to have extended its range into Ireland. But the real Wild Cat is now rare in this island, and is confined to certain districts in {400} Scotland. Plenty of alleged wild Cats have been seen and even shot; but these are too frequently merely feral Cats, _i.e._ domestic tabbies which have reverted to a hunting life. The real Wild Cat differs from the domestic races by the proportionately longer body and limbs, the shorter and thicker tail; the pads of the toes are not quite black. The period of the gestation of the Wild Cat, according to Mr. Cocks, is a week or so longer than that of any domestic Cat. The Domestic Cat is in fact regarded as the descendant of the Eastern _F. caffra_, or (perhaps _and_) the closely-allied _F. maniculata_. It is highly probable, however, that after introduction into this country as a domestic animal it has interbred with the Wild Cat. Many allied species of Cats will interbreed, even two so far apart as the Lion and the Tiger. There are interesting archaeological and linguistic reasons for regarding the Domestic Cat as an importation. The legend of Dick Whittington's Cat points to it being a rare and valuable animal, which a tamed _F. catus_ would not at that time have been. There was an enactment in Wales of a penalty against him who should kill the king's Cat, again suggestive of its rarity and consequent value. The very name "Puss" is a hint of a foreign origin. Some would derive it from Perse, and upon this is based the notion that the Cat is from Persia. But it seems that Puss is the same as Pasht and Bubastis, showing so far an Egyptian origin for the animal. The ancestral Cats mentioned above are natives of Egypt.[275] The genus _Cynaelurus_, which includes but a single species, _C. jubatus_, the Cheetah or Hunting Leopard, is separated from _Felis_ by a number of characters. In the first place the claws are non-retractile, or at least less retractile than those of the true Cats. It is, moreover, longer legged. The molar is more in a line with the other teeth of the jaw, and the upper carnassial tooth has no inner tubercle. Messrs. Windle and Parsons have lately pointed out many Dog-like features in the muscles. This animal is about as large as a Leopard, but has plain black spots. As its vernacular name implies it is used for sport, and is quite easily tameable. It will purr like the Puma. The Cheetah occurs in India, Persia, Turkestan, and also in Africa; the latter {401} form is sometimes, though quite unnecessarily, separated as _C. lanigera_. The genus occurs fossil in the Siwalik deposits of India, the species being known as _C. brachygnatha_. FAM. 2. MACHAERODONTIDAE.--This is a family of totally-extinct Cats which range from the Eocene down to the Pleistocene. Their general structure is like that of the Felidae; but they differ in a number of skeletal features. Thus there is an alisphenoid canal, and, as in Bears, there is a postglenoid foramen. There is also a distinct carotid foramen, which does not occur in the true Cats. The teeth are often distinguished by the huge size of the superior canines, which are "weapons for penetrating wounds, without rival among carnivorous animals." These must have been displayed at the sides of the chin when the mouth was closed, and it has even been suggested that the animal possessing these exaggerated canines could hardly have properly closed its mouth. The lower canines were often on the contrary much reduced, and in fact incisor-like. In tracing the series of these Cats we find a gradual reduction of the teeth from a more nearly complete number down to the specialised dentition of the existing Cats. The genus _Proaelurus_, Miocene in range, had four premolars in each jaw, and two molars in the lower and one in the upper. This is the greatest number of teeth found in any member of the group. The resemblance of this genus to _Cryptoprocta_ has been insisted upon. _Archaelurus_ has suffered a reduction, since one premolar in the lower jaw has disappeared, its formula being thus I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/3 M 1/2. The next stage is shown by _Dinictis_ with three premolars in both jaws. There are a good many species of this genus which are all American and Miocene. This genus has five toes upon the hind-feet, and was probably plantigrade. It had retractile claws. In the genus _Nimravus_ the dental formula is still further reduced. Another premolar of the lower jaw has gone, the formula being thus I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 3/2 M 1/2. _Nimravus gomphodus_ was a Carnivore about the size of a Panther. It has no third trochanter upon the femur, which process is present in the corresponding bone of _Dinictis_. _Pogonodon_ was an equally large animal in which the premolars were three in each jaw, but the molars have become reduced to one in the lower, as they have in this and other genera in the upper {402} jaw. Finally, _Hoplophoneus_ has acquired the dentition of existing Cats. The Machaerodons, however, show examples with a yet more reduced dentition than that of the most reduced existing Cat, viz. the Lynx, which has only two premolars in each jaw and one molar. In _Eusmilus_ the molar in both jaws is single, and there is but one premolar in the lower jaw. The genus _Machaerodus_ itself, which appears to include _Smilodon_, is referred by Cope to the true Cats, and not to the Nimravidae, as he terms the family which we have called here the Machaerodontidae. These creatures are known as "Sabre-toothed Tigers," and were of very wide distribution, occurring in South America as well as in Europe and North America. "As nothing," remarks Professor Cope, "but the characters of the canine teeth distinguished these from typical felines, it is to these that we must look for the cause of their failure to continue. Professor Flower's suggestion appears to be a good one, viz. that the length of these teeth became an inconvenience and a hindrance to their possessors. I think there can be no doubt that the huge canines in the Smilodons must have prevented the biting off of flesh from large pieces, so as to greatly interfere with feeding, and to keep the animals in poor condition. The size of the canines is such as to prevent their use as cutting instruments excepting with the mouth closed; for the latter could not have been opened sufficiently to allow any object to enter it from the front. Even when it opens so far as to allow the mandible to pass behind the apices of the canines, there would appear to be some risk of the latter being caught on the point of one or the other canine, and forced to remain open, causing early starvation. Such may have been the fate of the fine individual of the _S. neogaeus_, Lund, whose skull was found in Brazil by Lund, and which is familiar to us through the figures of de Blainville." _Machaerodus_ is placed among the Felidae on account of the fact that the condyloid and carotid foramina unite with the foramen lacerum posterius. But as in at least one species, _M. palmidens_, there is an alisphenoid canal, which, however, has disappeared in the more recent American forms, it seems permissible to retain the genus in the family Machaerodontidae though its existence reduces the differential character of that family to a minimum. The genus goes back to the Eocene. {403} FAM. 3. VIVERRIDAE.--The Civets, Genets, and their kind differ from the Cats in a number of points. They form, however, by no means so uniform an assemblage as do the Cats; so that the difficulty is, as Dr. Mivart has remarked, not to divide them into sub-families, but to avoid making too many. But before proceeding to subdivide the family we shall describe the characters of the family and contrast them with those of the Felidae. All the Viverridae are comparatively small creatures. The head and body are more elongate than in the Cats. The fingers and toes are generally five; but there are some (e.g. _Cynictis_) where the formula of the toes is as in the Cats, _i.e._ four on the hind-foot. In the Suricate the fingers are also reduced to four. The claws are perhaps never completely retractile,[276] and often are not at all so. The dental formulae of the genera differ considerably; but in the majority there are more teeth than in the Felidae. The well-known sharp-pointed, conical papillae of the Cat's tongue are not present. The majority have a scent gland beneath the tail, from which the perfume civet is derived. There are a number of osteological characters which differentiate the two families; thus the alisphenoid canal is sometimes present. The bulla is divided, as in the Cats, but is externally constricted. It seems clear from some at any rate of the characters, _i.e._ the more complete dentition, the five-fingered hands and feet, the non-retractile claws, etc., that the Civets are on a lower level of specialisation than are the Cats. SUB-FAM. 1. EUPLERINAE.--The genus _Eupleres_ is in many ways the most aberrant type of Viverrid, and is placed in a sub-family, Euplerinae. Its salient feature is the very peculiar dentition: peculiar in the small size of the canines, the canine-like character of the anterior premolars, and the resemblance of the premolars to molars. In some of the characters of the teeth, _Eupleres_ is Insectivore-like, and was formerly grouped with that family. There are four premolars and two molars in each jaw on each side. It has five toes upon both fore- and hind-limbs; the skull is very slender. It has no alisphenoid canal. The only species, _E. goudotii_, is of an olive-grey colour, with dark bands across the shoulders in the young. The nose and upper lip are grooved. There are no scent glands. It appears to burrow in the ground, and possibly contents itself with a diet of worms. _Eupleres_ is a {404} native of Madagascar, where all the most peculiar Viverridae live. SUB-FAM. 2. GALIDICTIINAE.--Mivart has placed in this sub-family the three Mascarene genera, _Galidia_, _Hemigalidia_, and _Galidictis_. In them the orbit is not enclosed by bone; there is no alisphenoid canal, and there are five toes and fingers. _Galidia_ consists of but one species, _G. elegans_, of a chestnut brown colour, with a tail ringed with black. The claws are not retractile. The scent gland is absent. There are five digits upon both hand and foot. There are three premolars and two molars on each side of each jaw. The caecum is (for an Aeluroid) long, and pointed at the apex; it is quite twice the length of that of _Genetta_. Closely allied to _Galidia_ is the genus _Hemigalidia_, of which there are two species. It is distinguished from the last genus by the non-annulated tail. It also differs in the dental formula, which is for the molars Pm 4/3 M 2/1. This animal is termed by Buffon the Vansire. He correctly enumerates its grinders, and distinguishes it from the Ferret! _Galidictis_ is a third genus from Madagascar containing two species, one of which has been unfortunately named _G. vittata_, leading perhaps to some confusion with the totally distinct _Galictis vittata_. As in the last two genera the digits are five. The dental formula is that of _Galidia_. It is distinguished from the other two genera of its sub-family by the longitudinal brown striping of the upper part of the greyish body. SUB-FAM. 3. CRYPTOPROCTINAE.--_Cryptoprocta_[277] represents a special sub-family, Cryptoproctinae, and includes only a single species, the Fossa (_C. ferox_) of Madagascar. It is the largest Carnivore of Madagascar, being about twice the size of a Cat, but with an elongated body; the colour is a tawny brown with no striping. The animal is active and lithe in its motions, and is said to be of almost unexampled ferocity in disposition. Its exact systematic position has been much discussed. By Zittel it is placed in a sub-family (including the extinct _Proaelurus_ and _Pseudaelurus_) of the Felidae. Mivart and Lydekker, on the other hand, regard it as a genus of the Viverridae. The dental formula of the molars, Pm 3/3 M 1/1, is {405} more like that of the _Felidae_ than of the _Viverridae_, and the teeth are more Feline in structure. The claws of the feet are retractile. As to internal structure the Fossa agrees largely with the Viverridae, but then this family has no very marked points of difference from the Felidae; but where the anatomy does diverge from that of the Felidae it approaches the Viverridae, especially in the muscular system. [Illustration] FIG. 199.--Fossa. _Cryptoprocta ferox._ × 1/6. The remaining and by far the larger number of genera of Civets are grouped by Professor Mivart in two sub-families: the VIVERRINAE, including the genera _Viverra_, _Viverricula_, _Fossa_, _Genetta_, _Prionodon_, _Poiana_, _Paradoxurus_, _Arctogale_, _Hemigale_, _Arctictis_, _Nandinia_, and _Cynogale_; and the HERPESTINAE, including the genera _Herpestes_, _Helogale_, _Cynictis_, and probably _Bdeogale_ and _Rhynchogale_. In the Viverrinae the digits are always five, the claws are more or less retractile, the prescrotal scent glands are usually present, and the anus does not open into a sac. On the other hand, the Herpestinae are characterised by the non-retractility of the claws, the absence of the glands in question, and the fact that the anus does open into a terminal sac. SUB-FAM. 4. VIVERRINAE.--_Viverra_ includes the true Civets. The genus, save for one African species, is Oriental in range. The molar formula is the complete one for the Viverridae, viz. {406} Pm 4/4 M 2/2. The secretion of the prescrotal gland of _V. civetta_ yields the civet of commerce. The "Rasse," genus _Viverricula_, has been separated generically from the true Civets. It is, remarkably enough, common to both Madagascar[278] and many parts of the Oriental region. It is, moreover, capable of climbing trees, which its relatives are not. It has no mane like _Viverra_ and is of slighter build. [Illustration] FIG. 200.--Civet Cat. _Viverra civetta._ × 1/6. _Prionodon_ or _Linsang_ differs from the last two genera in the loss of an upper molar. It thus approaches the Cats, with which it also agrees in the furry feet. It is a purely Oriental genus. It also resembles the Cats in that the claws are apparently quite retractile, a feature not common among the group. There are three species of the genus. _P. pardicolor_ has large black spots and a ringed tail. Its body is some 15 inches in length. Dr. Mivart has commented upon the particularly small caecum, which, like that of _Arctictis_, seems to be on the verge of disappearance. _Genetta_, including the Genets, is almost purely African. It has the full tooth formula of _Viverra_; but is to be distinguished by the absence of a scent pouch, and by a naked strip of skin running up the metatarsus. These animals are all brownish yellowish to greyish with darker spots. The Common Genet, _G. vulgaris_, is South European, and just gets into Asia; it is also North African. The Genet, an animal "with an appetite for petty carnage," is one of those smaller Carnivora which are possibly to be regarded as meant by the word [Greek: galê], and appear to have "functioned" as Cats among the Greeks. So recently as {407} the times of Belon we are told (by him) that Genets were common and tame at Constantinople. _Poiana_, containing a single African species, a spotted and entirely Genet-like animal, has been separated as a distinct genus. Dr. Mivart, however, holds it to be a _Prionodon_ which has acquired a Genet-like tarsus. _Arctictis_, containing but one species, _A. binturong_, the Binturong, is in some ways an exceptional form. It is a black arboreal creature of not very wide range in the Oriental region, with a fully prehensile tail. This feature and its plantigrade foot with naked sole have led to its being regarded as more allied to the Arctoidea. It is, however, undoubtedly an ally of _Paradoxurus_. The caecum is small, or may be quite absent. The dentition is I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/3 M 2/2. The structure of the animal has been investigated by Garrod.[279] The genus _Fossa_ is a Viverrine confined to Madagascar. There is but one species, _F. daubentoni_, the "Fossane." It is distinguished from _Viverra_ by the presence of two bare spots on the under surface of the metatarsus in the hind-limb, and by the absence of a scent pouch. The animal is not much spotted and striped, but the striping in the young is much more marked. Of the genus _Paradoxurus_ there are some ten or a dozen species, belonging entirely to the Oriental region. The teeth are as in _Viverra_, but occasionally the molars are reduced to one. The pupils are vertical. The tail though long is not prehensile, "but the animal appears to have the power of coiling it to some extent, and in caged specimens the coiled condition not unfrequently becomes confirmed and permanent" (Blanford). This fact accounts for the name _Paradoxurus_; for a prehensile tail is hardly to be expected in an animal of the zoological position of the Palm Civets, and yet its occasional twisting led originally to the view that it was so. The genus has scent glands. The dentition is I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M 2/2. _P. niger_, the Indian Palm Civet, is, like other species, not often to be seen in a wild condition. It is arboreal, and, like other members of the genus, feeds upon a mixed diet, consisting of all kinds of small Vertebrata and insects, varied by fruit. Another species, _P. grayi_, is so distinctly vegetarian in its habits that it makes considerable havoc in pine-apple beds in the Andaman Islands. {408} _Arctogale_ is another Oriental genus with very small teeth, those of the molar series being hardly in contact. The soles of the feet are more naked than in the last genus, and the scent glands, if present, appear to be small and ill developed. It has also a long tail, and is arboreal in way of life. There is "nothing particular recorded" as to its habits. The species are _A. leucotis_ and _A. stigmatica_. [Illustration] FIG. 201.--Hardwicke's Civet Cat. _Hemigale hardwicki._ × 1/5. (From _Nature_.) Closely allied to both the last genera is _Hemigale_, also an Oriental genus. It is to be distinguished from _Paradoxurus_ by having the soles of the feet much less naked, though they are more so than in _Viverra_ or _Prionodon_. The coloration of the species, _H. hardwicki_ (a Malayan animal), is very peculiar. The body is banded with five or six broad transverse stripes, and the basal portion of the tail is also ringed, an uncommon feature in the group. A second species of this genus is _H. hosei_, from Borneo. It is blackish in colour, but is not a melanic variety of the last. _Nandinia_ appears never to possess a caecum.[280] It is also peculiar among Carnivora in the non-ossification of the hinder {409} part of the bulla. It is an African genus, containing two species which are spotted. The tail is ringed. _Cynogale_ is at any rate a partially aquatic, short-tailed, web-footed, reddish brown-coloured Civet, which lives upon fish and Crustacea, and inhabits the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. It has long "moustaches," and is said to have a head bearing a singular resemblance to the head of the Insectivorous "Otter" _Potamogale_. The metatarsus is bald, and the pollex and hallux are very well developed. SUB-FAM. 5. HERPESTINAE.--There are over twenty species of _Herpestes_ (Mongooses) divided between the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, one species, _H. ichneumon_, being also found in Europe. The fur has a "pepper and salt" appearance; the feet are plantigrade. There are five fingers and toes. The pollex and hallux are small; the tail is long. The tarsus and metatarsus are usually naked. The Egyptian species "has been injudiciously denominated the Cat of Pharaoh." It is perhaps better known as Pharaoh's Mouse. The beast is so far Cat-like that it will destroy Rats and Mice; and it has been exported to sugar plantations for that very purpose. More famous are its combats with venomous serpents. According to Aristotle and Pliny the Ichneumon first coats its body with a coating of mud, in which it wallows, and then with this armour can defy the serpent. Topsell tells the tale better. The Ichneumon burrows in the sand, and "when the aspe espyeth her threatening rage, presently turning about her taile, provoketh the ichneumon to combate, and with an open mouth and lofty head doth enter the list, to her owne perdition. For the ichneumon being nothing afraid of this great bravado, receiveth the encounter, and taking the head of the aspe in his mouth biteth that off to prevent the casting out of her poison." In the West Indies the animal has been described as fearlessly attacking the deadly Fer de Lance and receiving its bites with impunity; it is also added that it will eat the leaves of a particular plant as an antidote! The real explanation of the result of these encounters is of course the agility of the Ichneumon[281]--_fort cauteleuse beste_, as Belon says. Another species, _H. albicauda_, is distinguished, as the name denotes, by its white tail. A species of this genus, _H. urva_, {410} sometimes raised to generic rank as _Urva_, is partly aquatic in habit; it feeds upon crabs and frogs, but is quite willing to take to poultry and their eggs. _Helogale_ is a genus whose validity appears doubtful (to Dr. Mivart). It is African, and contains two species. [Illustration] FIG. 202.--White-tailed Ichneumon. _Herpestes albicauda._ × 1/5. _Cynictis_ is an African genus, with five digits on the fore-limbs and four on the hind. As in _Herpestes_, the orbit is completely encircled by bone. There is but a single species, _C. penicillata_, which is of a reddish colour and has a bushy tail. _Bdeogale_, also African, has the toes still further reduced; there are only four on both limbs. The tarsus is hairy and the tail bushy. They are "very rare animals, and nothing is known of their habits." It is known, however, that they will kill poisonous snakes, for Dr. Peters took a Rhinoceros Viper out of the stomach of one. _Rhynchogale_[282] differs from all other genera of Viverridae, except _Crossarchus_ and _Suricata_, in having no groove upon the muzzle. There are five digits. There is the full Viverrine dentition, with five premolars in the upper jaw; but this may be an abnormality.[283] _Crossarchus_ differs from the last in only having three premolars on each side of each jaw. It is also African, and there are several species. _Suricata_ is the last genus of Viverridae; it is also African, and contains a single species, _Suricata tetradactyla_, the "Meerkat" of the Cape. The Suricate has but four toes on each foot; the tarsus and the metatarsus are naked below. The body is banded posteriorly. There are fifteen dorsal vertebrae, and the orbit is {411} closed by bone. The Suricate lives in caves and rock crevices, and will dig burrows. It is distinctly a diurnal animal, and sits upon its hind-legs after the fashion of a Marmot. As Buffon noticed in a tame specimen (thought by him to be a native of Surinam), the animal barks like a dog. The Suricate is largely vegetarian, living upon roots. [Illustration] FIG. 203.--Suricate. _Suricata tetradactyla._ × ¼. FAM. 4. HYAENIDAE.--Unlike though the Hyaenas appear to be to the last family--mainly perhaps on account of size--they are, nevertheless, very nearly akin to them, more so than to the Cat tribe. It will be remembered that the striping and spotting of the Hyaenas is very Genet- and Suricate-like. There are admittedly two genera among the Hyaenidae, _Hyaena_ itself with three species,[284] and the Aard Wolf, _Proteles_, with but one. But Dr. Mivart considers that the Spotted Hyaena should form a genus apart, _Crocuta_--a proceeding which was initiated by the late Dr. Gray of the British Museum. The Hyaenidae are to be distinguished by the following characters:--There are generally four toes, always so in the hind-foot. The claws are non-retractile. The nose and upper lip are grooved. The molar formula is Pm 4/3 M 1/1. The soles of the feet are covered with hairs upon the tarsus and metatarsus. No scent glands. Tail short. Dorsal vertebrae more numerous than in other Aeluroids, _i.e._ fifteen. The bulla is divided by a rudimentary septum only. {412} [Illustration] FIG. 204.--Spotted Hyaena. _Crocuta maculata._ × 1/12. The genera _Hyaena_ and _Crocuta_, the Striped and Spotted Hyaena respectively, are African and Asiatic in range, _Crocuta_ being limited to South Africa. There is neither hallux nor pollex. [Illustration] FIG. 205.--Striped Hyaena. _Hyaena striata._ × 1/12. The Hyaenas, stigmatised by Sir Samuel Baker as "low-caste creatures," are mainly carrion feeders. Much Arab superstition is associated with them. Certain peculiarities in the structure {413} of the organs of reproduction have led to the belief that a Hyaena changes its sex every year. Its almost human-sounding howls are supposed to be a deliberate trap for the unwary traveller. There is also a legend that in the eye of the Hyaena is a stone which if placed under the tongue of a man endows him with the gift of prophecy. _Proteles_ presents many resemblances to the Hyaenas, but also certain differences; by many it is placed in a separate family. There is but one species, _P. cristata_, the Aard Wolf of South Africa. In outward aspect it is very Hyaena-like, the coat being striped, and the ears, though longer, resembling those of a Hyaena. There is also a mane. There are, however, five toes on the fore-feet. The teeth are feebler, particularly the molars, which are also reduced in number. The skull, as in _Hyaena_, has no alisphenoid canal, but the bulla tympani is divided by a septum. The animal seems to feed largely upon insects, particularly Termites, and also upon carrion.[285] Of extinct Hyaenoids _Ictitherium_ seems to be transitional between them and the Viverridae. Its dentition, 3/3, 1/1, 4/3, 2/1, is that of a Viverrid, and the feet are five-toed. The upper carnassial tooth, however, is like that of _Hyaena_ in having a strong inner cusp. Other extinct genera of Hyaenas are _Lycyaena_ and _Hyaenictis_. The genus _Hyaena_ itself goes back as far as to the Miocene, and occurred in Europe until the Pleistocene. The Cave Hyaena of this country seems to be indistinguishable from _Crocuta maculata_, though it has received the name of _H. spelaea_. FAM. 5. CANIDAE.[286]--This family cannot be divided into more than five genera, and is universally distributed with the exception of New Zealand. The auditory bulla is smooth and rounded, and has internally a very incomplete septum, extending through about one-fourth or one-third of the cavity. The meatus has a fairly prominent under lip. The paroccipital process is long and prominent. The mastoid is distinct, though but slightly developed. The glenoid foramen is large; the condyloid foramen is conspicuous, and the carotid canal is deep within the foramen lacerum posterius. The last three characters are Bear-like; the {414} form of the bulla is Aeluroid. The teeth vary somewhat in number, and the following table will serve to indicate the gradual reduction observable in the number of molars:-- _Otocyon_ I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M (3 or 4)/4 _Canis_ generally I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M (3 or 2)/(4 or 3) _Cyon_ I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M 2/2 _Icticyon_ I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M (2 or 1)/2 All the Dogs have a caecum[287] of simple cylindrical form. In _C. cancrivorus_, _C. jubatus_, and _Nyctereutes procyonides_ this organ is straight or only very faintly curved; in other Dogs it is coiled into an [288]-like form, sometimes with an additional twist. The Dogs have, as a rule, five toes, one being dropped in _Lycaon_. The tail is fairly long and distinctly bushy. There is in a number of species a gland at the root of the tail, the presence of which can frequently be detected by the wet appearance due to the oozing secretion. The great majority of existing Canidae belong to the genus _Canis_. But certainly three, and more doubtfully four, other genera can be distinguished. The genus _Icticyon_ contains but one recent species, the Bush Dog (_I. venaticus_, Lund) of British Guiana. The animal has a somewhat Paradoxure-like, at any rate a distinctly un-dog-like, aspect, being longish in the body (some 2 feet long), shortish in the legs, and big-headed. It is blackish in colour, verging towards golden brown on the head and back. Sir W. Flower, to whom we owe our chief knowledge of its structure, characterises it as like a young Fox, and with the playful manners of a puppy. The animal appears to hunt in packs and by scent, and has a reputation for ferocity. _Icticyon_ differs from _Canis_ and agrees with the Indian _Cuon_ in having but forty teeth, the last molar having disappeared from the upper and lower jaws. The caecum, unlike that of the majority of Canidae, is only slightly curved. The brain, oddly enough, shows a Cat-like peculiarity. It has been pointed out that in their long bodies and short legs the genera _Cuon_ and _Icticyon_ resemble the primitive dogs.[289] A genus _Nyctereutes_ is usually separated from _Canis_ for the inclusion of _N. procyonides_ only. The separation is based upon {415} the strikingly unusual coloration of this Dog. It is a small animal, with numerous long white hairs dorsally. The face, chest, and much of the belly are black. Its aspect distinctly recalls that of a Raccoon,[290] especially in the black patches below the eyes, whence of course the scientific name and the pseudo-vernacular "Raccoon-like Dog." It inhabits China and Japan. As to structure, there is hardly anything that justifies its exclusion from the genus _Canis_. Garrod, however, mentions the unusually large size of the Spigelian lobe of the liver. [Illustration] FIG. 206.--Raccoon-like Dog. _Nyctereutes procyonides._ × 1/6. Wortman and Malkens[291] have instituted a genus _Nothocyon_ for Dr. Mivart's species _C. urostictus_[292] and _C. parvidens_, which are both South American forms. The genus _Otocyon_ contains but one species, _O. megalotis_, an African species, ranging pretty widely in that continent (from the Cape to Somaliland, in sandy districts), and sometimes confused with the Fennec on account of its long ears. Its principal structural difference from other Dogs is that there is an additional molar in each jaw, the molar formula being thus M 3/4 or even 4/4. Moreover the carnassial teeth are not so pronounced, and Professor Huxley laid especial stress upon the {416} likeness of some of the cheek teeth to those of the more primitive Arctoids. The angle of the lower jaw is inflected, a character, however, which seems to be more general than is usually allowed among animals not referable to the Marsupials. It is possible that _Otocyon_ is a persistent Creodont-like form which has developed in a direction curiously, and in a most detailed fashion, parallel to the Dogs. If, however, we may assume the addition of the molar, then this anomalous but not necessarily untenable conclusion is obviated. The genus _Cuon_, or _Cyon_, has been instituted for the two or three species of Eastern Dogs (_C. primaevus_, _C. dukkunensis_, etc.) which agree with each other in the constant loss of a molar in the lower jaw, or, it should be said, almost constant loss, for the missing tooth is occasionally represented. The latter of the two species mentioned, the Dhole, is, like its congeners, an animal which hunts in packs; it is said to hunt even the ferocious Tiger, and to be thus one of the few animals which can face the largest and fiercest of the Carnivora. The genus _Lycaon_ is a very distinct type, being differentiated from other Dogs by the possession of only four toes on both fore- and hind-limbs, and by the dental formula, which is Pm 4/4 M 2/3. The one species is _L. pictus_, the Cape Hunting Dog. It is singularly like a Hyaena[293] in general appearance; the ochraceous grey ground-colour with black markings and the long ears produce this likeness. The animal has got its vernacular name from the habit of hunting in packs. Its range is over a good part of Africa. The occurrence of this species (or at least genus, for the name _L. anglicus_ has been used) in caves in Glamorganshire seems to show that it is a comparatively recent immigrant into Africa. As to its visceral structures, _Lycaon_[294] does not differ widely from other Dogs. It has, however, no lytta beneath the tongue. The intestines are thus divided: large, 9 feet 1 inch; small, 1 foot 3 inches. This contrasts with the proportions observable in some other Dogs. While other Dogs have but a cartilaginous rudiment of the clavicle, _Lycaon_ has a considerably larger representative of this bone. [Illustration] FIG. 207.--Fennec Fox. _Canis zerda._ × 1/5. [Illustration] FIG. 208.--Prairie Wolf or Coyote. _Canis latrans._ × 1/8. The bulk of the Dogs, Wolves, Foxes, and Jackals are thus left over for inclusion in the genus _Canis_. But the numerous {417} members of this genus can, according to Professor Huxley, be sorted into two series by certain cranial characters. The two series he termed the "Alopecoid" or Fox-like, and the "Thooid" or Wolf-like. It was suggested that the generic name _Vulpes_ be used for the former, and _Canis_ for the second. The characters which will be dealt with immediately are also to be noted among {418} the Dogs belonging to genera that have already been separated off. Thus _Lycaon_ is distinctly Thooid. The characters in question are these:--In the Fox series, the frontal air-sinus of the Thooids is absent; the cranial cavity is pear-shaped, without an abrupt angle coinciding with the supra-orbital sulcus, such as exists in the other group; the coronoid process of the mandible is rather higher and more turned back in the Foxes, while the depth of the mandible at the level of the first molar is greater. [Illustration] FIG. 209.--Japanese Wolf. _Canis hodophylax._ × 1/8 (From _Nature_.) To the Fox series belong among others the species _C. lagopus_ (Arctic Fox), _C. zerda_ (the Fennec), _C. chama_ (the Silver-backed Fox of Africa), _C. virginianus_ (the Virginian Fox), _C. velox_ (the Kit Fox), and of course the Common Fox of this country. On the other hand, the Dogs proper (such as _C. dingo_), the Wolves (_C. lupus_, _C. pallipes_, _C. niger_), the Japanese Wolf (_C. hodophylax_), the Red Wolf of America (_C. jubatus_), the Jackals (_C. aureus_, _C. anthus_, etc.), the Prairie Wolf (_C. latrans_), and a number of American forms, such as _C. azarae_, its close ally _C. cancrivorus_ ( = _C. rudis_), _C. antarcticus_, _C. magellanicus_, etc., are decidedly Wolves rather than Foxes. {419} The Arctic Fox, _Canis lagopus_, is known by its bluish summer and pure white winter dress as "Blue Fox" and "White Fox" respectively. It is an inhabitant of the Arctic north; but in former days, as its remains show, it descended to such southern latitudes as Germany and this country. The most southern point which it now inhabits is Iceland. This small Fox is well known as being one of the few animals which change their dress to a complete white in winter. This change is, however, not absolutely universal; and M. Trouessart has even stated that the supposed change does not exist, but that the colours are a question of age and sex. This Fox feeds on birds and cast-up carcases of Whales and Seals; it is also said to devour shell-fish, and actually to store up food when abundant for seasons of scarcity. A Fox has been observed to "carry off eggs in his mouth from an eider duck's nest, one at a time, until the whole were removed"; and in winter to "scratch a hole down through very deep snow to a _cache_ of eggs beneath." These anecdotes are told by Sir Leopold McClintock; but others have also asserted the storing habits of this Fox, which really has only a short time of the year in which it can catch suitable living food. _Canis vulpes_, the Fox, is not only a native of England, but extends as far to the east as Egypt, the so-called _C. aegyptiacus_ being at most a mere variety. Varieties indeed occur in these islands; the English Fox being redder, the Scotch greyer. Not only is the Fox a truly indigenous English beast, but its remains go back a very long way into past time. Its bones occur in the Red Crag, a deposit of Pliocene times. Its prevalence now is no doubt due to its preservation as a beast of chase. It lives in burrows, either excavating them itself or taking possession of those of some other animal; the Badger suffers in this way, and is said to be vanquished not by the teeth of the burglarious Fox, but by its far fouler habits! It is curious that the expression "foxing" is not so suitable to this animal as to many others. The habit of "shamming death" is a widely-spread one in the animal world, but at least not common with our Fox. The sagacity of the Fox appears to be a little more proverbial than actual; literature teems with its accomplishments. The worthy Archbishop of Upsala, Olaus Magnus, figured Foxes dipping their tails in the streams, and then pulling out inquisitive crayfishes {420} which had seized upon them. "It is a crafty, lively, and libidinous creature," observed a writer of the last century. Of Jackals there are many species, both African and Oriental. Mr. de Winton allows the following list of African species[295]:--_C. anthus_, _C. variegatus_, _C. mesomelas_, _C. lateralis_. _C. mesomelas_ is distinguished by the broad black patch in the middle of the back. These animals do not appear to go in packs as so many Canidae do; they live upon carrion, but also rob hen-roosts, and commit other depredations upon the live stock of farmers. The "Quaha," _C. lateralis_, is distinguished from the last by its sharp bark, and by the obvious side stripe which has given to it its name. It is curious that it should live in apparent amity with _C. mesomelas_, since the habits of the two are identical and would lead, one might suppose, to a severe struggle for existence, in which one of the two would disappear. Of Indian Jackals _C. aureus_ is the most familiar type. [Illustration] FIG. 210.--Wolf. _Canis lupus._ × 1/8. The European Wolf, _Canis lupus_, was once, but is no longer, an inhabitant of the British Islands. Their former prevalence is indicated by many names of towns and villages, such as Ulceby and Usselby in Lincolnshire, the town of Wolverton, and Woolmer Forest. In Saxon times Wolves were very abundant; and even so recently as the reign of Elizabeth they were to be seen on {421} Dartmoor and in the Forest of Dean. In the New Forest they were hunted in the twelfth century. It would seem that the last English Wolf was slain some time during the reign of Henry VII. In Scotland, however, they persisted very much longer. So recently as 1743 was the last killed. But before this period they had begun to get exceedingly scarce, for the price of a skin in 1620 is quoted at £6:13:4. In Ireland Wolves lingered yet longer; about 1770 is believed to be the date of their final extinction in that island. The Wolf nowadays is distributed over the greater part of Europe, Northern Asia, and North America, the American form not being considered to be distinct from its European ally. Much legend has collected round this fierce Carnivore. Aristotle, usually accurate in the main, still "states more of wolves than experience warranted." Pliny, unable to sift truth from falsehood, was in this matter "an eager listener to all old women's tales." Aelian added to his marvels and asserted that the Wolf cannot bend its head back; if it should happen to tread on the flower of the squill it at once becomes torpid. So the wily fox, fearing his more powerful enemy, takes care to strew his path with squills! The conversion of men into Wolves was a well-known superstition, dating from Grecian and Roman times; it formed the basis of much of the witchcraft persecutions of the Middle Ages and onwards, and has left its mark in folklore, _e.g._ the Wolf in "Red Riding Hood." The Indian Wolves, _C. pallipes_, _C. chanco_, and _C. laniger_, are hardly, if at all, different from _C. lupus_. Professor Huxley has remarked upon the likeness of _C. pallipes_ to a Jackal, thus bridging over the very inconsiderable gap that may be held to divide Jackals and Wolves. The Dingo, _Canis dingo_, is an interesting and somewhat mysterious species of Dog or Wolf. As is well known, it is an Australian species; but it does not seem to be certain whether it was tamed and brought over to Australia by the native races, or is a true and indigenous Australian species. The colour of this species varies, but is usually of a reddish brown; it is, however, often grey and indeed almost black. Whether indigenous or introduced, the Dingo is a plague to Australian settlers, devouring Sheep, which it generally destroys by tearing out the paunch. It does not as a rule hunt in packs. The Dingo is stated to feign death with so much persistence that {422} an individual has been known to be partly flayed before moving. Dingo remains have been found in river-gravels in Australia where no human remains have been detected. This argues for its indigeneity; but, on the other hand, it has been pointed out that man himself in the Australian continent goes back a very long way into time, and may thus still have imported this companion with him. Anyhow it is quite a wild creature now. Dr. Nehring, an expert investigator into the subject of domestic animals, has stated that the skeleton of the Dingo does not suggest a feral animal at all but a purely wild race. [Illustration] FIG. 211.--Dingo. _Canis dingo._ × 1/8. The Domestic Dog is usually spoken of as _Canis familiaris_; but to remains in bone caverns the name of _C. ferus_ or _C. mikii_ has been given. There seems to be no doubt that the Dog was the "friend of man" in very early times. Its remains have been met with in Danish kitchen-middens, in the lake-dwellings of the Swiss lakes, and during the Bronze Age in Europe generally. But "there are few more vexed questions in the archaeology of natural history than the origin of the dog." Its remains already referred to may in many cases have argued its use as food. But in a Neolithic barrow a Dog was found buried with a woman, the {423} skeletons of both being _in situ_; this animal was about the size of a Shepherd Dog. The actual Dog of to-day is divisible into more than 180 different breeds; but in a work upon "Natural History" it would seem out of place to enumerate and characterise these artificial products. Authors vary in their opinion as to what stock gave rise to the domestic races of the past and of to-day. The Jackal, the Bunasu (_C. primaevus_), the Indian Wolf (_C. pallipes_), have been proposed as likely ancestors. It is more probable that there is much admixture, and that various wild types have been selected by man in various countries. EXTINCT CANIDAE.--Many of the existing species of Canidae are also to be found in Pleistocene deposits of the countries which they now inhabit. A few show a wider range in the immediate past than in the present. Thus _Lycaon_ (_L. anglicus_) has been met with in caves in Glamorganshire, while _Icticyon_ of South America appears to be congeneric with _Speothos_ of the Brazilian caves. The African _Otocyon_ seems to occur in deposits in India. There are also numerous extinct species belonging to the genus _Canis_, which extend as far back as the Pliocene. The earlier types of Dogs have been placed in different genera. _Cynodictis_ is an Eocene form from European strata. The skull is decidedly Civet-like, with a short snout. The fore- and hind-feet were five-toed, with well-developed pollex and hallux. The dentition was that of modern Dogs, the molars being two in the upper and three in the lower jaw. The general aspect of the creature and the form of the skeleton was much like that of the Viverrine genus _Paradoxurus_, of which, as well as of the Dogs, _Cynodictis_ might have been an ancestor. _Simocyon_ of the Upper Miocene serves as the type of a separate sub-family of Dogs, Simocyoninae. The skull is short, broad, and high; the shortening of the skull affecting the jaws has reduced the teeth greatly; the first three premolars are very small, fall out soon, and are thus often deficient. There are only two molars in each jaw. This type is of course nowhere near the ancestral Dog. It is a much-specialised branch of an early type. _Cephalogale_ is less specialised; there are the usual four premolars. _Enhydrocyon_ is an intermediate form; it has lost one premolar in each jaw. _Amphicyon_, forming the type of another sub-family, Amphicyoninae, though usually placed among the Dogs, presents us with {424} many Bear-like features in its organisation. The feet, for instance, were plantigrade and five-toed. The ulna and the radius are specially compared with the same bones in the Bear tribe. The skull on the other hand is as distinctly Dog-like in form. The molars are large, broad, and crushing, and Bear-like. The largest known species, _A. giganteus_, is of about the size of the Brown Bear. _Amphicyon_ is a Miocene genus. Eocene and allied to it is _Pseudamphicyon_. This genus has, like _Amphicyon_, the complete dentition of forty-four teeth. In the Amphicyoninae generally the feet are five-toed, the humerus has an entepicondylar foramen and the femur a third trochanter. The upper molars are large. The closely allied and American genus _Daphaenus_ has also plantigrade feet, and has in its structure many reminiscences of the Creodonts. So, too, has the Eocene _Uintacyon_. _Cynodesmus_ is closely allied to _Cynodictis_. It has ancient features combined with quite modern ones. The skull is described as being Creodont-like, but the dentition is that of the microdont modern Dogs. In accordance with its age the cerebral convolutions of this Dog are much simpler than in existing Dogs, and the hemispheres do not cover the cerebellum so much. THE BEAR-LIKE CARNIVORA OR ARCTOIDEA.--That division of the Carnivora which is typically represented by the Bears embraces three recent families, which are united by a number of characters. These Carnivora are always plantigrade or nearly so. They have nearly always five toes. The claws are not retractile, or at most semi-retractile as in the Panda. In the skull the tympanic bulla is often depressed, and is not so globular and obvious as in the Cats. Its cavity is not divided by a septum. The paroccipital processes are not applied to it. The carnassial tooth is less emphasised in this group than in the Cats. These characters, however, have to be used with caution, as they are hardly universally applicable. A fairly typical Arctoid bulla is seen in such a form as _Cercoleptes_. The bulla itself is a little more swollen than in _Ursus_, but it is flattened off in the same way towards the bony meatus. The paroccipital processes, slightly developed, are at a distance of ¼-inch from the posterior margin of the bulla. In the Raccoon the bullae are much more swollen, and the paroccipital processes are closer to them. In the Marbled Polecat, _Putorius sarmaticus_, the bullae are fairly {425} swollen, and there is but little flattening towards the meatus: the paroccipital processes, though slight, are in contact with the bullae basally, though their free tips are turned away from them. Finally, in _Ictonyx_ the bullae are much swollen; there is but little flattening towards the meatus, and the paroccipital processes, themselves much swollen, are pressed closely against the bullae. The Mustelidae, therefore, in this as in other characters, approach the Aeluroids. [Illustration] FIG. 212.--Section of the left auditory bulla and surrounding bones of a Bear (_Ursus ferox_). _am_, External auditory meatus; _BO_, basioccipital; _Car_, carotid canal; _e_, Eustachian canal; _g_, glenoid canal; _Sq_, squamosal; _T_, tympanic; _t_, tympanic ring. (From Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1869.) There is no caecum, a feature which marks off the Arctoidea from all Carnivora except the Viverrids _Nandinia_ and _Arctictis_ (occasionally). The brain is characterised by the possession of what Dr. Mivart has described as the "ursine lozenge," a tract about the middle of the hemispheres, defined posteriorly by the crucial sulcus, and formed by the emergence on to the surface of the brain of the hippocampal gyrus. The Arctoidea are very widely distributed. But there are some curious exceptions. Thus there are no representatives of the group (as might be expected) in the Australian region; they are completely absent from Madagascar; while the true Bears (family Ursidae) are totally absent from Ethiopian Africa, and are only represented by a single species, _Ursus ornatus_, in the Neotropical region. It is noteworthy that the Arctoidea never show spots or {426} cross stripes (save rings on the tail), which are so common a feature of the coloration of the Cat-like forms. In bracketing together the three families which are described in the following pages, emphasis is laid upon a number of undoubtedly common features. Palaeontology seems, however, to suggest that the Mustelidae come nearer to the Viverridae. That the Bears and Dogs are connected by extinct annectent genera does not interfere with their present distinctness. The systematic arrangement of these Carnivora is not easy. It may be useful, however, to give a method of arrangement for the convenient placing of the genera. The most primitive group is perhaps that of the true Bears, family Ursidae; for in them the molars are two above and three below, and have thus not become diminished in number as in some of the other members of the order. Moreover, the Bears have lobate kidneys, which character, often occurring in the young of animals which when adult have smooth kidneys, may be looked upon as a primitive character. The feet furthermore are completely plantigrade. This family will contain only three genera, _Ursus_, _Melursus_, and _Aeluropus_. Next comes the family Procyonidae, in several members of which one molar is lost below, though in others the more archaic formula is retained. The kidneys are simple. This family contains the American genera _Procyon_, _Nasua_, _Bassariscus_, _Bassaricyon_, _Cercoleptes_, and the Old-World form _Aelurus_. The third family, Mustelidae, has the molar formula reduced to 1/2 or 1/1. The kidneys are simple except in the Otters. To this family are assigned the following genera:--_Arctonyx_, _Conepatus_, _Meles_, _Mephitis_, _Taxidea_, _Mydaus_, _Mellivora_, _Helictis_, _Ictonyx_, _Mustela_, _Galictis_, _Grisonia_, _Putorius_, _Gulo_, and the aquatic _Lutra_, _Enhydris_, and _Aonyx_. FAM. 6. PROCYONIDAE.--This family is mainly American in range, the genus _Aelurus_ alone being a native of the Old World. But Zittel would include with the genera of this family the Viverrine and Oriental genus _Arctictis_, a proceeding which is perhaps hardly admissible, though the occasional absence of a caecum in that animal is so far in favour of such an alliance. The largely vegetable nature of its food and its arboreal habits cause a certain amount of likeness to some of the members of the present group of Carnivores. The Procyonidae have two {427} molars in either half of each jaw. The carnassial teeth are not typically developed, and the molars are broad and tuberculate. The tail is long, often prehensile, and often ringed in the disposition of its colour pattern. The alisphenoid canal is absent save in the aberrant _Aelurus_. Both condyloid and postglenoid foramina are present. The members of this family are plantigrade. [Illustration] FIG. 213.--Raccoon. _Procyon lotor._ × 1/5. The genus _Procyon_ includes at least two species of Raccoon, the northern form, _P. lotor_, and the South American, _P. cancrivorus_. To these may possibly be added a third, _P. nigripes_. This genus is characterised by the length and the mobility of the fingers, and indeed it uses its hands greatly. It has no median groove upon the muzzle, which is found in many other Arctoids; the ears are moderately large; the tail is not long, being about one-third of the entire length of the animal, including the tail. The soles of the feet are naked. Its limbs are very long (for an Arctoid), and this gives to the animal a bunched-up appearance when walking. There are four premolars and two molars on each side of each jaw. There are fourteen pairs of ribs, of which ten pairs reach the sternum. The latter is composed of nine pieces. The first-named species has received its name from the fact--of which there is abundant proof--that it dips its food into water. As a matter of fact, the animal frequents the margins of streams, and hunts in the shallow water beneath stones for {428} crayfish, and it also captures fish. Not only is this animal partially aquatic, but it can climb well--"they make their homes in trees, but carry on their business elsewhere." The animal can be readily tamed, but is a tiresome pet on account of its insatiable curiosity and its skill in the use of its hands, which enables it to unlatch doors and generally to pry about everywhere. The Raccoons are mostly nocturnal creatures. The genus _Bassaricyon_[296] includes two species, both American, _B. alleni_ being from Ecuador, and _B. gabbii_ from Costa Rica. They have so much the aspect of a Kinkajou that a specimen, which arrived at the Zoological Gardens, was presented and entered as one of those animals. Nevertheless there are many differences between the two genera. The tail of _Bassaricyon_ is not prehensile, and the animal, as will be seen from Fig. 214, has a sharper snout; the brain is more like that of _Bassariscus_. The likeness to _Cercoleptes_ can hardly perhaps be regarded as an example of "mimicry" since the forms are so nearly related, and the advantage of such an imitation remains to be proved. The muzzle of _Bassaricyon_ is grooved; the ears are fairly large; the soles of the feet are naked; there is but a single pair of teats. There are two molars and four premolars to each half jaw. [Illustration] FIG. 214.--Bassaricyon. _Bassaricyon alleni._ × 1/5. The dorsal vertebrae are thirteen in number; nine of the ribs reach the sternum. The slenderness and convexity of the lower margin of the lower jaw, as well as the feeble angular process, distinguish this genus from its undoubtedly near ally _Cercoleptes_. The dental formula also is different. _Bassariscus_ has a ringed tail like a Raccoon, and is also American in range; it furthermore agrees with the Raccoon in {429} being nocturnal and mainly arboreal in habit. There are apparently three species, of which _B. astutus_ is the best known, having been on several occasions exhibited at the Zoological Society's Gardens, the last examples so lately as 1900. The animal was for a long time believed to be allied to the Oriental Paradoxures, and its occurrence in America was therefore puzzling. The real affinities of the creature were, however, definitely set at rest by Sir W. Flower, and later accounts of its anatomy have confirmed this opinion.[297] The vertebrae are more numerous than in _Procyon_, and the teeth are slightly different; otherwise it presents many likenesses to its nearest ally. The ears are long; the nose is grooved; and the palms and soles are naked. [Illustration] FIG. 215.--Cunning Bassarisc. _Bassariscus astutus._ × 1/5. (From _Nature_.) The Kinkajou, _Cercoleptes_, is likewise an American Arctoid. It ranges from Central Mexico down to the Rio Negro in Brazil. It was at one time confounded, and, considering its external appearance, not unnaturally, with the Lemurs. Sir R. Owen dispelled this view by a careful dissection of the creature. Nevertheless, there are certain anatomical features in which it differs {430} from Carnivora and resembles Lemuroids.[298] It has been pointed out that the form of the lower jaw "much resembles that of the Lemuroid _Microrhynchus_." There is, however, no doubt that it is rightly placed in the present group. The tail is very prehensile, and the animal is therefore, as might be supposed from this circumstance, purely arboreal. It has some twenty-eight vertebrae. This genus has a median groove upon the nose. The claws are long and sharply pointed, and the palms and soles of the feet are naked. The premolars are three, the molars two. There are fourteen dorsal vertebrae, of which nine are united to the nine-jointed sternum by ribs. There is but one species, _C. caudivolvulus_, of a uniform yellowish-brown colour. [Illustration] FIG. 216.--Kinkajou. _Cercoleptes caudivolvulus._ × 1/6. [Illustration] FIG. 217.--Coati. _Nasua rufa._ × 1/6. _Nasua_, the Coati, ranges from Texas to Paraguay, and has two species. In Guatemala it reaches a height of 9000 feet on the mountains. The nose is produced into a short and very {431} mobile proboscis, hence its name. The native Mexican name for the creature is "Quanhpecotl." The Coati is largely arboreal, and hunts iguanas in large bands, some of them being on the trees and some on the ground beneath. It also grubs up worms and larvae, for which purpose its long snout is suited. The molars of the genus resemble those of _Procyon_. There is not a median groove upon the nose. The palms and soles are naked. Six teats occur. There are thirteen dorsal vertebrae. _Nasua nasica_[299] and _N. rufa_ are the best known and perhaps the only species. The colour of the fur varies a good deal, and has led to the use of other names for supposed species. _Aelurus_, the Panda, is a largish animal found in the south-eastern Himalayas up to a height of 12,000 feet. It has a glossy fur of a reddish colour, and a "white somewhat cat-like face." The molar formula which distinguishes it from the New-World Arctoids belonging to the Procyonidae, as well as from its possible ally _Aeluropus_, is Pm 3/4 M 2/2. The anatomy of the animal has been described by Sir W. Flower.[300] Dr. Mivart has pointed out that the muzzle though short is upturned in a way distinctly recalling that of _Nasua_. The animal inhabits forests, and feeds almost entirely upon vegetable food. It eats eggs, however, and insects. Though living to a great extent upon the ground, it is also arboreal, and has sharp semi-retractile claws. It is said to be dull of sight, hearing, and smell, and yet with these disadvantages is also unprovided with cunning or ferocity. Its habits have been compared with those of a Kinkajou. FOSSIL PROCYONIDAE.--In addition to several of the existing genera, the remains are known of various extinct forms of Procyonidae. _Leptarctus_, with one species, _L. primaevus_, is of Pliocene age, but is known only by one ramus of the lower jaw. It appears to "offer a number of transitional characters between the more typical Procyonidae and the aberrant _Cercoleptes_."[301] FAM. 7. MUSTELIDAE.--Contrary to what has been stated with regard to the habits of the Procyonidae, the Mustelidae are for the most part "bloodthirsty robbers," and are spread over the {432} whole surface of the world, with the exception of Australia and Madagascar. The molar teeth are generally reduced to one in the upper jaw, and sometimes to one in the lower jaw, which thus gives "a sort of _prima facie_ resemblance to the feline dentition." There is no alisphenoid canal; postglenoid and condyloid foramina are found. SUB-FAM. 1. MELINAE.--Of this sub-family there are representatives both in the Old and New Worlds. [Illustration] FIG. 218.--Badger. _Meles taxus._ × 1/6. _Meles_, the Badger, is exclusively Palaearctic in range.[302] Dr. Mivart says that _Meles_ has a relatively longer dorsal region than any other Carnivore, and that it is most nearly approached by its allies _Ictonyx_ and _Conepatus_. The molar formula is, as in _Arctonyx_, _Mydaus_, and _Helictis_, Pm 4/4 M 1/2. The molars differ from those of any other Carnivore in the much greater size of the first molars than of the last premolars. The nose is not grooved; the soles of the feet are naked. The claws of the fore-feet are much longer than those of the hind-feet. The genus _Arctonyx_ is a "pig-like badger" from Hindostan, Assam, and North China. The epithet "pig-like" is derived from the long and mobile snout, which is truncated and has terminal nostrils. It is remarkable for having a part of the palate formed by the pterygoids, as in Whales and certain Edentata (e.g. _Myrmecophaga_). There are sixteen dorsal vertebrae. _A. collaris_ lives in {433} fissures of rocks, or in holes dug by itself. It is a purely nocturnal beast. The singular genus _Mydaus_, containing the species _M. meliceps_, the Teledu or Javanese Skunk, is an inhabitant of Java and Sumatra. It frequents the mountains of these islands, into the soil of which it burrows in search of worms and larvae. There is but one species, which is "like a miniature badger, of rather eccentric colours." It is blackish brown, with a yellowish-white top to its head, and a stripe of the same colour down the back. It may be distinguished by its elongated snout, obliquely truncated, and with inferiorly-placed nostrils. As to osteological characters, it has a more oblique symphysis of the mandible than in any other Carnivore. The secretion of the anal glands is said to rival that of the Skunk in offensiveness and in the distance to which it can be propelled. SUB-FAM. 2. MUSTELINAE.--Representatives occur in both the Old and New Worlds; but the genera and even the species are in one or two cases common to both. [Illustration] FIG. 219.--Tayra. _Galictis barbara._ × 1/7. _Galictis barbara_,[303] the Tayra, is a brown, elongated, and Weasel-like animal from Mexico and South America. As is the case with the Weasel, it is sometimes gregarious, a herd of twenty having been observed. The soles of the feet are naked, and the molar formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/2. In these characters the Grison (_G. vittata_) agrees with _G. barbara_; but it has been referred to a different genus, _Grisonia_. The Grison, "this savage and diabolical-looking weasel," as {434} Mr. Aplin terms it,[304] is known also as the "Hurón." It almost rivals the Skunk in the power of the odour which it can emit when enraged. A trapped specimen was placed in a cage 50 yards or so from the house, and even at this distance it was disagreeably easy to tell when any one visited the animal--at least when the wind set in the right direction. It is greyish yellow above and blackish beneath, presenting, as has been remarked, a curious similarity to the Ratel. The nose of this animal is destitute of a median groove, which is present in the Tayra; the soles of the feet, however, are naked as in that animal, and it is nearly plantigrade in walk. It differs also from _Galictis_ in having sixteen[305] instead of fourteen dorsal vertebrae. Eleven of the ribs reach the sternum. Considering the differences that exist between some other genera of Arctoids, it may be fairly allowed that a genus _Grisonia_ is tenable. [Illustration] FIG. 220.--Grison. _Grisonia vittata._ × 1/7. _G. allamandi_ is darker coloured than the Grison, with a white band from the forehead to the neck. Mr. T. Bell described a tame individual as eating eggs, frogs, and even a young alligator. A third genus of this group has recently been founded by Mr. Oldfield Thomas[306] for a small African animal, which is Grison-like in its coloration. The name given to the genus, _Galeriscus_, is intended to suggest its likeness to the Grison (_Galera_ or _Grisonia_). The chief distinctive feature of this genus, whose skeleton is not yet known, is the presence of only four digits on each limb; the pollex and the hallux being entirely absent. The ears of this Grison are short. {435} The genus _Mustela_ includes the Martens and Sables, which are distinguished from the following genus by the molar formula, which is Pm 4/4 M 1/2. The same character separates them from _Galictis_, and also the generally hairy under surface of the feet. In more southern latitudes, however, the palms are sometimes naked. The nose is grooved, and the ears are short and broad. The genus is widely distributed, being common to the Old and New Worlds. In the Old World it extends from Europe to Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. The largest species of the genus is the American Pekan, an animal which may be 46 inches in length, including the tail. There are two species of Sable, one European (_M. zibellina_), the other American. The only British species of the genus is the Pine Marten, _M. martes_. It is dark brown, with a brownish-yellow throat, and reaches a length of some 17 inches, with an eight-inch tail. It is getting rare, but is still fairly common in the Lake country. The animal is largely arboreal in habit, whence the vernacular name. It is also called Marten Cat. The allied _M. foina_, the Beech Marten, has been stated to be, but apparently is not, an inhabitant of these islands. The colour of the animal is a rich brown. It has small eyes and ears and a short tail. The palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are hairy; the muzzle is naked, and has a groove as in _Cercoleptes_, etc. The Glutton, _Gulo_, is a well-marked genus, containing but one species, which is circumpolar in range. The dentition is Pm 4/4 M 1/2. The ferocity but not the voracity of this animal appears to have been exaggerated. It mainly feeds on carcases, and is not really a successful hunter. As to the carcases, Olaus Magnus tells in straightforward language the way in which the animal dilates in size during a meal, and presently, after following the practice of the ancient Romans, returns to the banquet: "Creditur a natura creatum ad ruborem hominum qui vorando bibendoque vomunt redeuntque ad mensam"! This is one of the few land animals which ranges completely round the pole. There is no difference to be noted between the Old-World and the New-World specimens. It is now an entirely northern form, but in Pleistocene times it reached as far south as this country. The fossil species seems to be _Gulo luscus_, and to be quite indistinguishable from the living forms. _Putorius_, the genus which embraces the Weasel tribe, contains {436} many species known popularly as Weasels, Ermines, Stoats, Ferrets, Polecats, Minks, and Vison. Not only is the genus common to both Old and New Worlds, but in a few cases the species (e.g. _P. erminea_) range from Asia to America. The molar formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/2. The form of the body is an exaggerated one, the length of the trunk to the limbs being very great. The feet are more or less hairy beneath, and the animals are digitigrade. The nose is grooved. The dorsal vertebrae vary from thirteen to sixteen. [Illustration] FIG. 221.--Polecat. _Mustela putorius._ × 1/6. There are four British representatives of this genus:-- The Polecat, _P. foetidus_, is a dark brown-coloured animal. Its total length is about 2 feet, of which the tail occupies some 7 inches. It is a species banned by the gamekeeper, and hence is approaching extinction in this country. It is excessively bloodthirsty, as are apparently all the members of this genus, and kills out of mere wantonness. The Ferret is simply a domesticated variety of the Polecat. The Stoat or Ermine, _P. erminea_, is reddish brown above, white beneath. In winter, in certain localities, it becomes white with the exception of the black tip of the tail. This colour-change bears some relation to the degree of latitude. It is universal in the north of Scotland, rare in the south of England. As is the case with some other animals that generally change {437} their colour in the winter, there are individuals which seem to have lost the power of change, and others which change in an apparently capricious manner, not influenced by season or cold. Like so many other animals, the Stoat appears at times to migrate, which it does in large parties. Such parties are said to be dangerous, and will attack a man who crosses their path. The Weasel, _P. vulgaris_, has much the same colour as the Stoat, but is a smaller animal; it differs also by undergoing no seasonal change. It is equally agile and ferocious, and ought to be encouraged, as it vents its ferocity largely upon Voles and Moles, which it can pursue underground. Like other species of _Putorius_, it seems to kill its prey by biting through the brain-case. The fourth British species is the recently-described Irish Stoat, _P. hibernicus_. It is somewhat intermediate between the last two. _Poecilogale_ is a genus recently instituted by Mr. Thomas for a small South African Weasel, _P. albinucha_, coloured like the Zorilla, _i.e._ with whitish stripes upon black, but differing in its reduced molar formula, which is Pm 2/2 M 1/1 or 1/2. _Lyncodon_[307] is thought to be more doubtful; it is South American (Patagonian), with the same molar formula as the most reduced forms of the last genus, _i.e._ Pm 2/2 M 1/1. The ears are short and almost invisible; the claws of the anterior limbs are long, those of the hind limbs short. It is not quite certain that it is not "an aberrant southern form of _Putorius brasiliensis_." That its distinction is justifiable appears to be shown by the discovery in the same region of a fossil species, _L. luganensis_. Matschie places it near _Galictis_. The Ratel, _Mellivora_, is common to India and West and South Africa. It is a black animal with a grey back and grey on the top of the head, the contrast of colour suggesting a dorsal carapace. It runs with a swift trot. The animal lives much on the ground, but can climb trees. It is exclusively nocturnal in its habits. It has the reputation in India of feeding upon dead bodies, a view which has probably no foundation in fact save that it can burrow. The molar formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/1. There are fourteen dorsal vertebrae. The African and Indian species are {438} hardly to be distinguished from each other. The ears are very minute. The tail is short. The muzzle is rather pointed, and the soles and palms are naked. [Illustration] FIG. 222.--Ratel. _Mellivora capensis._ × 1/8. The structure of _Helictis_ has been described by the late Professor Garrod,[308] as well as by Sir W. Flower in his general account of the Carnivorous skeleton. The animal, which is a native of East Asia, is sometimes gaily coloured. _H. subaurantiaca_, the species dissected and figured by Garrod, is a varied black and orange. The genus is arboreal, and the tail may be moderately long and bushy. The ears are small; the nose is grooved; the palms are naked, but the soles of the feet are hairy. There are fourteen dorsal vertebrae. The molar formula is Pm 4/4 M 1/2. The Zorilla, _Ictonyx_, is the last of the Old-World genera of Melinae. It is African, ranging from the tropical parts of the continent to the Cape. "In colour and markings," remarks Dr. Mivart, "as well as in the odour of the secretion of its anal glands, the one or two species which form this genus resemble the skunks; so much so that did they inhabit the same region, and were they devoid of an offensive secretion, they would certainly be said to mimic the skunks." The molar formula of the genus is Pm 3/3 M 1/2. There are fifteen dorsal vertebrae. The nose is grooved and the soles partly hairy. The American Badger, _Taxidea_, is a burrower of omnivorous tastes, and correlated with the former habit are the immense {439} claws of the fore-paws. It is North American, but gets into Mexico. The molar formula is as in the American genera _Mephitis_ and _Conepatus_, and as in the Old-World _Ictonyx_, and it thus differs from that of _Meles_. Besides the great size of the claws upon the hand, which are larger relatively than those of any other Carnivore, the genus _Taxidea_ is to be distinguished from all Arctoids (indeed, from all Carnivora) except _Mydaus_, by the fact that the pelvic limb is of the same length as the pectoral. The muzzle is furry except at the very extremity; this is grooved. The animal is carnivorous, subsisting upon the following very varied kinds of food--"Spermophiles, Arvicolas, birds' eggs, and snails, also honey-comb, wax, and bees." The Skunk, _Mephitis_, is an American animal with several species, which range from North to Central America. The black-and-white colour distinguishes the genus, which is furthermore marked by the fact that the third digit of the hand is relatively longer than in any other Carnivore except _Taxidea_. The soles are partly hairy. It is a terrestrial fossorial animal with well-known powers of protecting itself from aggression. But nevertheless the Skunk has its enemies, and is not quite so unmolested as is sometimes popularly supposed. The Puma, Harpy Eagle, and the Great Horned Owl will at least occasionally attack and devour it. The molar formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/2. There are sixteen dorsal vertebrae. _Conepatus_ is a more southern form of Skunk, extending down into South America. Its dentition is like that of _Mephitis_ save for the loss of an upper premolar. This genus, which has been further subdivided, differs from _Mephitis_ in the fact that the soles of the feet are wholly naked, whereas in Mephitis those of the hind-limbs are partially hairy. It has no groove on the nose. Its tail is shorter than that of _Mephitis_. This Skunk has the same habits as the last. In certain parts of South America the animals are so abundant and their odour so powerful that in the evening there is generally a recognisable smell about. This is said to be good for the headache! SUB-FAM. 3. LUTRINAE.--Of this sub-family there are at least two genera. _Enhydris_ (_Latax_),[309] the Sea-Otter, is confined to the shores of the North Pacific. It is more purely aquatic than are {440} other Otters. Specimens have been seen swimming fifteen miles from land. The gait of the creature when on land is suggestive of a marine animal; the webbed hind-feet are doubled back upon the knuckles during progression upon land, and locomotion is effected by a series of short springs from these feet; the Otter does not walk "in ordinary acceptance of the term." The tail is flattened, being twice as broad as it is thick, and ends in a bluntish point. _Enhydris_ feeds mainly upon crabs and sea-urchins, but also upon fish. Its dental formula is peculiar by reason chiefly of the reduction of the lower incisors. The formula runs as follows: I 3/2 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 1/2. The molar teeth of this creature, in accordance with its diet, have lost the sharp points of the Mustelidae in general; the crowns are flattened, and the tubercles very blunt. In this it contrasts with _Lutra_, and presents some resemblance to the Crab-eating Raccoon, _Procyon cancrivorus_; but the teeth are still further blunted. _Enhydris_ feeds largely upon sea-urchins and shell-fish, and needs blunt teeth for the crushing of the hard shells of its prey. It is interesting to notice that the habits of this animal have been altered by the interference of man. The creature has been hotly pursued for a long time on account of its valuable fur. Instead of feeding and breeding upon the shore in places readily accessible to its pursuers, the Sea-Otter has now taken to the open sea in a greater degree. It utilises masses of floating seaweed for those purposes, and hunts for its food in the deeper water at a greater distance from the shore. In conjunction with the increasing rarity of the Sea-Otter the price of its skin has enormously increased: whereas in 1888 the average price per skin was £21:10s., the value of a fine skin now is at least £100, and as much as £200 and even £250 has been given. The animal is captured by netting and by clubbing and spearing.[310] From the Miocene Siwalik beds remains of an allied form, _Enhydridon_, have been obtained, whose teeth are somewhat intermediate in their crowns between _Lutra_ and _Enhydris_. _Lutra_, including the Otters, is widely distributed. Both manus and pes are webbed. The ears are small and hairy. The nose is not grooved, and the naked part is very circumscribed; {441} the claws upon the hind-feet are flattened and somewhat nail-like. There are about ten species, but of course, as is so universally the case, a great many more names have been given. The molar formula is like that of _Enhydris_ save that there is an extra premolar in the upper jaw. There are fourteen pairs of ribs, of which eleven pairs reach the ten-jointed sternum. The caudals are twenty-three. The Cape Otter, the "clawless" Otter, has been separated as a genus _Aonyx_. So too has the South American _Pteronura brasiliensis_. But in neither case is the separation allowed by Mr. Thomas in a recent revision of the genus.[311] The latter species has the reputation of being very fierce, and is known in Uruguay by the name of "Lobo de pecho blanco." The British species, _L. vulgaris_, reaches a length of 2 feet or so, with a tail of 16 inches; it ranges over the whole of Europe and a large portion of Asia. This Otter often burrows in the banks of the streams which it frequents; and in the burrow in March or April the female brings forth her young, three to five in number. It will also frequent the sea-coast. [Illustration] FIG. 223.--Otter. _Lutra vulgaris._ × 1/6. FOSSIL MUSTELIDAE.--Besides a number of the existing genera there are fossil members of this family which cannot be referred to existing genera. These latter extend back into time as far as the Eocene. _Stenoplesictis_, one of these Eocene forms referable to the sub-family Mustelinae, is to be distinguished {442} from living Mustelines by its comparatively long legs. In this genus as in several others there are two upper molars. FAM. 8. URSIDAE.--This family is nearly universal in distribution, and consists of but three genera, _Ursus_, _Melursus_, and _Aeluropus_. _Ursus_ has the palms and soles naked except in the Polar Bear, which needs a furry sole to walk with ease upon ice surfaces. The ears are fairly large, and the nose may or may not be traversed by a median groove.[312] The molar formula[313] is Pm 4/4 M 2/3. The brain is naturally (because of the size of the animals of this genus) richly convoluted. The lobate kidneys have already been mentioned in defining this family (see p. 426). [Illustration] FIG. 224.--Himalayan Bear. _Ursus tibetanus._ × 1/15. A very large number of species of Bears have been described. But it is the opinion of Mr. Lydekker[314] and of others that many of these are really to be referred to the European Brown Bear; in this event the Grizzly of North America, the Isabelline Bear, the Syrian Bear, a Bear from Algeria, the Kamschatkan and Japanese Bears, besides the extinct _Ursus fossilis_ of Pleistocene caves, are to be regarded as slight modifications of _Ursus arctos_. On the other hand, the great Cave Bear, _U. spelaeus_, {443} and the Thibetan Blue Bear (_U. pruinosus_) are distinct species, not to be confounded with _U. arctos_. Neither, of course, are the Peruvian _U. ornatus_ and the Sun Bear, _U. malayanus_. [Illustration] FIG. 225.--Malayan Bear. _Ursus malayanus._ × 1/12. The Polar Bear has even been placed in a separate genus, _Thalassarctos_, a proceeding which is quite unnecessary. The white colour of this Bear tends to become browner with age. It is one of the few mammals which extend right round the pole; the Polar Bear is of course a purely Arctic animal. The chief food of the Polar Bear is Seal. Out of thirty Bears examined, Mr. Koettlitz found that only fifteen had animal remains in their stomachs, and these remains were invariably Seal. The animal apparently hunts by scent rather than by sight or hearing, both of which senses seem to be somewhat dull. The males and females wander separately, except of course during the breeding season. The Bears dig holes in which they may remain for some time, but there is no hibernation. In Pleistocene times, the Polar Bear extended as far south as Hamburg. The female has four mammae, pectoral in position. _Melursus_ includes only _M. labiatus_, the Sloth Bear of India. This animal has an upturned snout, which is described as closely resembling that of _Mydaus_, the Teledu. The snout has no groove. {444} All Bears are largely vegetarian and insect feeders; but this Bear is especially so. It delights in the nests of Termites, and its energy in destroying these hills for the sake of their inhabitants is so great that the name of "sloth" appeared to Sir Samuel Baker to be an entire misnomer. _Aeluropus_, a rare Carnivore with but one species, _A. melanoleucus_, is not inferior in size to the Brown Bear, and is distinguished by its largely white coloration. It was discovered in the mountains of East Thibet by Père David, and described by Milne-Edwards[315] as a distinct and new genus, the discoverer himself having named it as a species of _Ursus_. It is a vegetable-feeding creature and bulky in form, with a rudimentary tail and a short broad head; in fact, more like a Bear than a Procyonid (with which group it is placed by some). The width of the head, however, is greater than in any other Carnivore; it is most closely approached in this by _Aelurus_ and by _Hyaena_. The molar formula is Pm 4/3 M 2/3. The soles are hairy. There is no alisphenoid canal. The molars are especially large and multicuspid. [Illustration] FIG. 226.--_Aeluropus melanoleucus._ × 1/12. FOSSIL URSIDAE.--The genus _Ursus_ itself goes back to Pliocene times. The well-known Cave Bear, _Ursus spelaeus_ of {445} Pleistocene times, was one of the commonest of Carnivorous creatures during the very early times of the present era. It was as huge as a Polar Bear or a Grizzly. The skull is remarkable for the fact that the first three premolars, which are small in all Bears, dropped out early in life. An immense number of names have been given to what are in all probability the same species as this Cave Bear of remote antiquity. _Hyaenarctos_ is the oldest genus of true Ursidae. It goes back into Middle Miocene times, and ranged over Europe and North Africa. _Arctotherium_ is an American genus of Pleistocene times. The likeness of some of the extinct Canidae to Bears has been already commented upon. * * * * * {446} CHAPTER XIV CARNIVORA (_CONTINUED_)--PINNIPEDIA (SEALS AND WALRUSES)--CREODONTA SUB-ORDER 2. PINNIPEDIA This group includes the Seals, Sea-Lions, and Walruses,[316] all aquatic and, for the larger part, marine creatures. Being aquatic they have to some extent acquired a fish-like form, though not so completely as have the Whales and even the Sirenia. This is most complete so far as the group is concerned in the Seals, where the hind-limbs have become soldered to the tail and are inefficient as walking legs, where the external ears have vanished, and where the general shape of the body is tapering and thus fish-like. The Walruses and Sea-Lions are less modified in this direction; in the latter (not in the former) the external ear, though small, is persistent, and the hind-limbs are capable of being used as organs of progression upon dry land. The general characters applicable to the Carnivora, given upon a previous page, apply to the Pinnipedia. [Illustration] FIG. 227.--Skeleton of Seal. _Phoca vitulina._ (After de Blainville.) The characters confined to the Pinnipedia as a whole are mainly these:--The greater part of the limbs are enclosed within the skin, the hands and feet are fully webbed, and there is a tendency for the nails to disappear, and for the phalanges to increase in number--characters which are clearly not diagnostic of the order but correlated with an aquatic life, since they reappear, and are indeed exaggerated, in the Cetacea. The teeth are peculiar in that the milk dentition is feeble and is early shed. This, as it were, undue emphasis upon one of the two sets of teeth is another likeness to the Whales, {447} where, however, it is the milk dentition that is most pronounced, the "permanent" being feeble and very early shed. But the dentition of the Pinnipedes presents other likenesses to the Cetacea, which are, it must be remembered, regarded by some as a modification of the Carnivorous stock, in which case, of course, the likenesses may be genetic rather than due to adaptation in the two cases. There is a distinct tendency towards a homodont series, the grinding teeth being often very simple, and the very distinct carnassial tooth of many terrestrial Carnivores being absent. Finally, the number of the back teeth shows some signs of being on the increase; and Professor Kükenthal has found that this increase is due to the division of existing teeth. Here is a point of likeness to the many teeth of the typical Toothed Whales. Dr. Nehring found in several examples of _Halichoerus grypus_ the normal five back teeth increased to {448} six, and the additional molar was at the end of the series, thus suggesting a lengthening of jaw coupled with an increase in number of teeth. The incisor teeth of the Pinnipedia differ from those of the land Carnivora in that there are nearly always fewer than 3/3, at least in the adult animal. In possessing lobulated kidneys the Pinnipedia differ from all terrestrial Carnivores except the Otters and Bears--a significant fact. In the characters of the skeleton the Pinnipedia show many peculiarities. The cranial part of the skull is proportionately to the facial part greater than in terrestrial Carnivora; there is no lachrymal bone, and the orbit is to some extent defective in ossification. The alisphenoid canal, so important a feature in the Carnivora, may be present or absent. It is present, for example, in _Otaria jubata_.[317] This genus also has the more primitive small and rugged tympanic bullae, which are inflated and more Cat-like in others. The vertebrae show an interesting Creodont peculiarity in the complex interlocking arrangements of the zygapophyses of the dorsal vertebrae. The ossicula auditus differ from those of their terrestrial allies in their large size and massive growth. In this they have come to be like those of the Whales and Sirenians. [Illustration] FIG. 228.--Patagonian Sea-Lion. _Otaria jubata._ × 1/20. There is no doubt about their close resemblance to the {449} terrestrial Carnivora, but the question is, to which group of Carnivora have they the most likeness. The semiaquatic Otter, and the still more thoroughly aquatic (marine) _Enhydris_, suggest an affinity in that direction. The long body and short legs of the Otter, which is more thoroughly at home pursuing fish in the streams than in waddling clumsily upon the banks of the streams, seem to require but little external change to convert it into a small Seal, while the long and completely webbed hind digits of _Enhydris_ are even more like those of a Pinniped. The Sea-Lions, in which the external ear has been preserved, and in which the limbs have not become so entirely useless for progression on the land as they have in the Seals, seem to be the intermediate step in the evolution of the latter. This, however, is not the opinion of Dr. Mivart, who, without definitely committing himself on the point, presents some evidence for the assumption that the marine Carnivora are diphyletic. This double origin, however, is not from two groups of the terrestrial Carnivora. Dr. Mivart, in common with many others, holds that the Pinnipedia as a whole are undoubtedly nearer to the Arctoidea than to either of the two remaining sections of the sub-order. One of the most striking structural characters in which they show this resemblance is the brain; the peculiar Ursine lozenge, already treated of as so distinctive a character of the Arctoidea, is repeated in the Pinnipedia. There are, however, other points of likeness which seem rather to point to a Creodont origin. _Patriofelis_ is a genus that from more than one side may be looked upon as a possible ancestor of these animals. The Creodont peculiarity of the vertebrae has already been referred to. It may be added that the facial part of the skull is small in _Patriofelis_, which appears, moreover, to have had an alisphenoid canal. A very remarkable resemblance lies in the structure of the astragalus. This is not deeply grooved on the tibial facet as it is in Fissiped Carnivora. This might be held to be an instance of degeneration in the aquatic Seals, which do not use their limbs as walking organs. But Professor Wortman[318] has pointed out that in the Sea-Otter, which is entirely aquatic, the groove exists and is plain. The likeness offered to the Seals by the spreading feet of _Patriofelis_ is noticed under the description of that genus.[319] {450} [Illustration] FIG. 229.--Cape Sea-Lion. _Otaria pusilla._ × 1/16. FAM. 1. OTARIIDAE.--The family Otariidae[320] is no doubt the least modified of the aquatic Carnivora. It is rational, therefore, to commence the survey of the group with this family. They have preserved, as already noted, the independence of the hind-limbs; the external ear is present, though small; there is an obvious neck, and the nostrils are at the end of the snout, as in terrestrial creatures generally. The nails are small and rudimentary, save those upon the three middle digits of the foot. It is a singular fact that among the Otaries the angle of the lower jaw is "inflected as much as in any Marsupial." The literature relating to this family is great, and it seems difficult to reconcile the very varying opinions as to how many genera ought to be admitted. Mr. Allen arranged the nine species which he allowed {451} in six genera; but more generic names have been proposed. At the other extreme stands Dr. Mivart, who speaks of only one genus, _Otaria_; of this genus the number of species is by no means agreed upon. There can, however, be no doubt of the distinctness of the Northern Fur Seal, _O. ursina_ (the "Seal" of commerce and the cause of international complications), of the Patagonian Maned Sea-Lion, _O. jubata_,[321] of _O. pusilla_ of the Cape, of the Californian _O. gillespiei_, of _O. hookeri_ from the Auckland Islands, and of four or five others. The range of the genus is wide, but is mainly Antarctic. It is usual to speak of "Hair Seals" and "Fur Seals," the latter being the species which produce the "sealskin" of commerce. The difference is that in the Fur Seals there is a dense, soft under-fur, which is wanting in the other group. It is, however, impossible to make this character the basis of a generic subdivision. There is a Fur Seal, _O. nigrescens_, in South America as well as the more widely-known northern form. FAM. 2. TRICHECHIDAE.--This family contains but one genus, _Trichechus_, the Walrus or Morse, or _Odobaenus_, as the more correct term seems to be. It is a tiresome result of accurate conformity with the rules of priority in nomenclature that the name _Trichechus_ should be applied to the Manatee. There is but one species of Walrus, though it has been attempted to show that the Pacific and Eastern forms are different. The animal is Arctic and circumpolar. The Walrus is characterised by the enormous canines of its upper jaw, which form the well-known tusks and reach a length of 30 inches. The animal can progress on land like the Sea-Lions; but, as in the Seals, there are no external ears, though there is a slight protuberance above the meatus auditorius. The strong bristles upon the upper lip are as thick as crow quills. The pectoral limb has nails, but these are small, as in the Sea-Lions. The under surface of the manus has a warty pad, which cannot but assist[322] in maintaining a foothold upon slippery ice. The hind-limbs have longer nails, which are still diminutive and subequal in size. There is no free tail. The liver of this animal is much furrowed, but not so much so as in _Otaria_, though more so than in _Phoca_. The kidneys are of course lobulate, as in the other aquatic Carnivores. The milk dental formula appears to be I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm + M 5/4. In the adult the formula[323] is I 1/0 C 1/1 M 3/3. {452} [Illustration] FIG. 230.--Common Seal. _Phoca vitulina._ × 1/8. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) FAM. 3. PHOCIDAE.--The true Seals have no external ears, and the nostrils are quite dorsal in position as in other aquatic animals, such as the Crocodile. There is obviously an approach to the conditions characteristic of the Whales. The hind-limbs are useless for locomotion on land. They are bound up with the tail, and form functionally merely a part of the tail. In this family there are, at any rate, eight genera. _Phoca_ and _Halichoerus_ are not very wide apart from each other. In both there are five well-developed claws on feet and hands. They are British, and generally Arctic and temperate in range. For some reason or other the late Dr. Gray placed _Halichoerus_ in the same sub-family with the Walrus! _Phoca_ is not only marine, but is found in the Caspian and in Lake Baikal. Their existence in those inland seas is believed to be a vestige of a former connexion with the sea. _Halichoerus grypus_ is a large seal 8 feet in length when full grown. Its colour is yellowish grey, with darker grey spots and blotches. It is not uncommon on the shores of our islands, particularly of the Hebrides and Argyllshire. The commonest Seal is _Phoca vitulina_, not more than 4 to 5 feet long, and of the same spotted coloration as the last. This Seal has, however, a much wider distribution, being Arctic as well as British, American, and North Pacific. A curious fact about this Seal is that it is not impatient of fresh water; not only will it ascend rivers, but it will live in inland lakes. It is said to be especially sensitive to musical sounds. _P. hispida_ is British, but a rare visitor to our islands. It is essentially an Arctic species. The Harp Seal, _P. groenlandica_, is so called on account of a harp-shaped black bar in the males, which starts at {453} the shoulders and extends to the thighs. Like the other Seals mentioned, the young are white when first born. As may be inferred from its scientific name this species is also Arctic in range. It is also a rare visitor to these shores. The genus _Cystophora_ is the only other genus of which there is a British representative. It is called the Hooded Seal on account of an inflatable sac upon the face, with which it is said to attempt to terrify its enemies. The genus has an incisor less in each half of each jaw than _Phoca_ and _Halichoerus_. Its formula is I 2/1 while these genera are both 3/2. _C. cristata_ is a large species reaching a length of 10 feet. The colour of the back is dark grey with deeper coloured spots. A few individuals only have been recorded from our coasts. _Stenorhynchus_ ( = _Ogmorhinus_) is an Antarctic genus. The hind-feet are clawless. The incisors are 2/2. The molars have an additional cusp, _i.e._ three in all. The genus _Leptonyx_ with but one species, _L. weddelli_, is purely Antarctic in range. Like the last genus it has two incisors, and has but rudimentary claws upon the hind-feet; the first and fifth toes moreover are the longest. The genus chiefly differs from the last in the simple conical crowns of the molars, which have not the additional cusps of _Stenorhynchus_. _Ommatophoca_ is another Antarctic genus with but a single species, _O. rossi_. In this genus the hind-feet have no claws, and the first and fifth toes are longer than the others. The claws of the fore-feet are rudimentary. The immense size of the orbits gives the name to the genus. There are two incisors, and the molars are all very small. _Monachus_ is a northern genus inhabiting the Mediterranean and the Atlantic in the vicinity of Madeira and the Canary Islands. It has rudimentary nails upon both pairs of feet. The first and fifth toe of the hind-feet are longer than the others. As with the preceding genera, the incisors are two in each jaw. The species are _M. albiventer_, the Monk-Seal, and _M. tropicalis_, the Jamaica Seal. Allied to _Cystophora_ is the genus _Macrorhinus_, with (possibly) two species, of which one is Antarctic, the other frequents or frequented the coast of California. The incisors are two in the upper jaw, and but one in the lower. The premolars are four and the molar one; all the teeth are small and simple, but {454} have long roots. The nose of the male has a dilatable proboscis. The southern Elephant Seal is _M. leoninus_, and reaches a length of some 20 feet. It occurs on the shores of Kerguelen and some other more or less remote islands. Its habits have been studied and described by several observers, beginning with Anson in the last century. The late Professor Moseley gave a good account of this marine monster in his book on the voyage of the "Challenger." When the animal is enraged, the end of the snout is dilated; but when this happens there is no long and hanging proboscis such as has sometimes been described. The inflation affects the skin on the top of the snout, which thus rises rather upwards during inflation. The inflated region, according to Mr. Vallentin, quoted by Mr. J. T. Cunningham, is about 1 foot long in an individual of 17 feet. It has been stated that this proboscis is a temporary structure, only appearing in the breeding season; but recent observations have shown that this statement is inaccurate; it persists all the year round. The males fight greatly during the breeding season, and produce a roar which has been compared to the "noise made by a man when gargling." The females and the young males bellow like a bull. The males fight of course with their teeth, literally falling upon one another with their whole weight. Mr. Cunningham thinks that the use of the proboscis is to protect the nose from injury; or that it may be merely the result of "emotional excitement." In any case the Bladder-nosed Seal, _Cystophora_, is undoubtedly protected from injury by the possession of a corresponding hood. The nose is the most vulnerable place, and the existence of this hood would stave off the effects of a blow in that region. Moseley, however, has said of _Macrorhinus_ that it cannot be stunned by blows on the nose as other Seals can; but he attributes this, not to the dilated snout, but to the bony crest on the skull, and to the strength of the bones about the nose. This Seal crawls with difficulty on the land, and as the animals move "the vast body trembles like a great bag of jelly, owing to the mass of blubber by which the whole animal is invested, and which is as thick as it is in a whale."[324] When lying on the shore, these animals scrape sand and throw it over themselves, apparently to prevent themselves from being {455} incommoded by the direct rays of the sun, to the effects of which they are very susceptible. The Elephant Seal is mild and inoffensive, unless enraged, and, of course, during the breeding season. ORDER VIII. CREODONTA. This entirely extinct group of Mammalia may be thus characterised:--Small to large carnivorous mammals, with skull on the whole like that of the Carnivora and with trenchant teeth; digits with unguiculate phalanges; tail long; extremities usually with five, sometimes with four digits. In the carpus a centrale is present, and the scaphoid and lunar are separate. Interlocking of posterior dorsal and lumbar zygapophyses very perfect. Brain small but convoluted. This group, which corresponds with the CARNIVORA PRIMIGENIA of Mr. Lydekker, is not easy to separate absolutely from the existing and more especially from some of the extinct members of the CARNIVORA VERA. They also come exceedingly near the Condylarthra, the presumed ancestors of the Ungulata, and like them begin in the earliest Tertiary deposits. Their likeness to the carnivorous Marsupials has also been insisted upon; but it would seem that the succession of teeth in the Creodonta is typically Eutherian. The characteristics of the group may be exemplified by an account of the genus _Hyaenodon_, after which some of the more important deviations in structure shown by other genera will be referred to. _Hyaenodon_ is both American and European, and ranges through the Eocene and the Upper Miocene. It is a much-specialised Creodont, and therefore exhibits well the distinctive characters of the group. About a dozen species have been described. One of the best-known is the American _H. cruentus_, and the following description refers to it. The back part of the skull is low and broad, and is compared by Professor Scott (who has described this and other species) as being "somewhat like that of an opossum."[325] The whole skull is {456} long, and the top has a great sagittal crest. The paroccipital processes are short and are closely applied to the mastoid processes. The mesethmoid is larger than in the carnivorous Marsupials, and the frontals are very large. The palate has a peculiar structure; in most species the hinder ends of the palatines are separated by a narrow fissure which broadens gradually, thus forming the posterior nares. In _H. leptocephalus_ the posterior nares are brought very far back by the meeting of the alisphenoids. The presphenoid, contrary to what we find in the Dog, for example, is chiefly concealed by the vomer, which covers it. The mandible has a long and strong symphysis, and its angle is not inflected. The fore-limb is described as being "weak when compared with the modern Carnivora." The scaphoid and lunar are separate, and there is a centrale. The teeth present us with nearly the typical formula. There is only one molar missing in the upper jaw. The canines are enlarged. It has been suggested from a consideration of its palate that _Hyaenodon_ was a semiaquatic animal; the deep cleaving at the extremities of the phalanges seems to point in the same direction, since they resemble in this the genus _Patriofelis_, which there are other reasons to regard as aquatic. This latter genus has a fore-limb which is very like that of the Pinnipedia, the digits are much spread out, and would seem to have supported a kind of paddle. In any case it certainly fed upon aquatic tortoises, for their remains have been found in its coprolites. The name _Limnofelis_, also applied to what appear to have been members of this genus, is suggestive of their habits. _Patriofelis_, at least one species, seems to have been of about the size of a Lion. _Mesonyx_ has a brain case which is actually smaller than that of the Marsupial _Thylacinus_. The lachrymal bone is very large, and extends a little way over the face, as is also the case with _Hyaenodon_; this condition is also found in Insectivora and in _Thylacinus_. The axis vertebra has a curiously-shaped spine, which is very different from the hatchet-shaped process of that vertebra usual in the Carnivora, but is not unlike what exists in the Arctoid genera _Meles_ and _Mydaus_. The limbs show much disparity in length, and seem to argue a much-arched back when the creature progressed. The carpus is stated to be strikingly like that of the Insectivora. There is as in other Creodonts a separation between the scaphoid and lunar; {457} the centrale appears to be present. The pelvis "is most like that of the bear," the metacarpals and the tibia, and some other bones, resemble those of the Hyaena. In fact this animal shows those combined characters which are common in archaic forms. * * * * * {458} CHAPTER XV RODENTIA--TILLODONTIA ORDER IX. RODENTIA[326] Small to moderately large animals, furry, sometimes with spines. Toes with nails of a claw-like character, or sometimes approaching hoofs. Usually plantigrade, and only occasionally and partly carnivorous. Canine teeth absent; incisors long and strong, growing from persistent pulps, and with enamel only or chiefly on the anterior face, producing a chisel-shaped edge; molars few (two to six), separated from the incisors by a wide diastema. Caecum (nearly always present) very large, and often complicated in structure. Brain, if not smooth, with few furrows, the hemispheres not overlapping the cerebellum. Surface of skull rather flat; orbits not separated from temporal fossae; malar bone in middle of zygomatic arch; palate very narrow, with elongated incisive foramina; articular surface for lower jaw antero-posteriorly elongated. Clavicles generally present. Testes generally abdominal. Placenta deciduate, and discoidal in form. The Rodents are a very large assemblage of usually small, sometimes quite minute, creatures, embracing an enormous number of living generic types. They are distributed all over the world, including the Australian region, and, being small and often nocturnal, and by no means particular in their diet, have managed to thrive and multiply to a greater extent than any other group of living mammals. They are chiefly terrestrial creatures, and often burrow or live in ready-made burrows. {459} Some, however, such as the Voles, are aquatic; others, _e.g._ the Squirrels, are arboreal, and there are "flying" Rodents exemplified by the genus _Anomalurus_. Their range of habitat is in fact as wide as that of any other Order of mammals, and wider than that of most. [Illustration] FIG. 231.--Side view of skull of Cape Jumping Hare (_Pedetes caffer_). × 3/5. _AS_, Alisphenoid; _Ex.O_, exoccipital; _Fr_, frontal; _L_, lachrymal; _Ma_, malar; _Mx_, maxilla; _Na_, nasal; _OS_, orbito-sphenoid; _Pa_, parietal; _Per_ points to the large supratympanic or mastoid bulla; _PMx_, premaxilla; _Sq_, squamosal; _Ty_, tympanic. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The most distinct anatomical characteristic of the Rodents concerns the teeth. They are without exception entirely deprived of canines. Thus there is a long diastema between the incisors and the molars. Another peculiarity is, that in many cases the dentition is absolutely monophyodont. In such forms as the Muridae there seems to be no milk dentition at all. In that family there are only three molars; but in other types where there are four, five, or six molars, the first one, two, or three, as the case may be, have milk predecessors, and may thus be termed premolars. This has been definitely proved to be the case in the common Rabbit, which has the unusually large number of six grinding teeth in each half of the upper jaw when adult. The first three of these have milk forerunners. On the other hand the existence of four molars does not apparently always argue that the first is a premolar; for Sir W. Flower found that in _Hydrochoerus_,[327] none of the teeth had any forerunners, at any rate so far as could be detected from the examination of a very young animal. The Rabbit appears to be also exceptional, in that the second incisor of the upper jaw and the incisor of the lower jaw have milk forerunners. In any case the tendency towards monophyodontism is peculiarly well-marked in this group of mammals. The incisors of Rodents are as a rule in each jaw a single pair of long and strong teeth, which grow from persistent pulps, and {460} grow to a very great length, extending back within the jaw to near the hinder part of the skull. These teeth are reinforced in the upper jaw by a small second pair in the Lagomorpha only. The incisors are chisel-shaped, and often brown or yellow upon the outer face, as is the case also with some Insectivores. This peculiar shape, and their strength, renders them especially capable of the gnawing action which characterises the Rodents. It has been pointed out that where the incisors are wider than thick, the gnawing powers are feebly developed; and that on the contrary, where these teeth are thicker than wide, the animals are good gnawers. The incisors have often an anterior groove, or it may be grooves. [Illustration] FIG. 232.--Molar teeth of Rodents. A, of Capybara (_Hydrochoerus_); B, of Squirrel (_Sciurus_); C, of _Ctenodactylus_. (After Tullberg.) The cheek teeth vary in number from two (_Hydromys_) to six (Rabbit) on each side of the two jaws. Four is the prevailing number outside the large division of the Rat-like Rodents. They are often set at an angle to the horizontal plane of the jaw, looking outwards and obliquely to its longitudinal axis; the individual teeth too are not unfrequently bowed in form, reminding us of those of _Toxodon_. This of course only occurs in those genera which have hypselodont teeth. The pattern of the teeth varies much, and the different forms recall the teeth of more than one other group of mammals. They are either bunodont or lophodont. In many cases the tooth is encircled with a ridge of enamel, which is either almost simple or has a more complicated contour; such teeth are by no means unsuggestive of the Toxodonts. Some of the lophodont molars are by no means unlike those of the Proboscidea. In _Sciurus vulgaris_ the {461} encircling ridge is broken up into tubercles, which gives to the tooth a striking likeness to those of _Ornithorhynchus_. Other genera have teeth like those of many Ungulates. It has been shown by Sir J. Tomes[328] that the minute structure of the enamel differs in different groups of Rodents. The skull shows certain primitive characters. In the first place there is no distinction between the orbital and the temporal fossa.[329] The sutures between the bones retain their distinctness for very long. Other characteristic features are the following:--The nasals are large, and so are the paroccipital processes. The palate in front of the molars is not distinct from the sides of the skull, its edge gradually becoming rounded off above. It is also very narrow. The premaxillae are large in relation to the great incisors. There is often a very much enlarged infra-orbital foramen through which passes a part of the masseter muscle. The jugal bone lies in the middle of the zygomatic arch, which is complete and enormously enlarged in the Spotted Cavy (_Coelogenys paca_). As in many Marsupials, the jugal bone sometimes extends backwards to the glenoid cavity, where the lower jaw articulates. It is usually said with an absolute want of accuracy that the cerebral hemispheres of the Rodents are smooth and without convolutions. This error has been repeated again and again in text-books. As a matter of fact the cerebral hemispheres of many forms are quite well convoluted,[330] the degree of furrowing corresponding, as in so many groups of mammals, with the size of the animal. This at any rate is generally true, though the large Beaver with its scant convolutions is an exception. The smaller forms, such as _Mus_, _Sciurus_, _Dipus_, and _Cricetus_ are quite smooth-brained. The best furrowed brain of any Rodent which has been examined is that of the huge _Hydrochoerus_. The Sylvian fissure is very generally not pronounced; but is particularly well-marked in _Lagostomus_. In all, or in most, Rodents the hemispheres are separated by an interval from the cerebellum, the optic lobes being visible between the two. The mouth cavity of this group of mammals is divided into two chambers by a hairy ingrowth behind the incisors; this arrangement is useful for animals which use their strong incisors {462} as gnawing and excavating tools as well as for the purposes of alimentation; for it allows of substances being gnawed away without the products of the chisel-like action being taken into the hinder cavity of the mouth. The Rodents have for the most part a simple stomach of normal form; but in a few this is complicated by a marked constriction, which divides the cardiac from the pyloric portions. The Hamster, for example, is thus characterised. In all the members of the order, with the exception of the Dormice and some allied forms, the caecum is large and often sacculated. In some forms (e.g. _Arvicola_, _Myodes_, _Cuniculus_) the large intestine is coiled upon itself in a spiral way--a state of affairs strongly suggestive of Ruminants. The Rodents are primarily divisible into two great groups, the Simplicidentata and the Duplicidentata, characterised mainly by the upper incisor teeth. In the former there is but one pair of these teeth; in the latter a second smaller pair lie behind the former. SUB-ORDER 1. SIMPLICIDENTATA. SECTION 1. SCIUROMORPHA. The Anomaluri are separated by Thomas and others from this section as an equal section, while by Tullberg they are grouped with _Pedetes_. FAM. 1. ANOMALURIDAE.--The genus _Anomalurus_ suggests at first sight the Flying Squirrels of Asia, _Pteromys_. It is, however, an entirely African genus, and is to be distinguished from the Asiatic Rodents by a series of scales at the root of the tail, imbricated, keeled, and forming possibly a "climbing organ." This character serves also to distinguish the present genus from _Sciuropterus_. The cartilage, moreover, which supports the patagium springs from the elbow. There are four molars in each half of each jaw. The eyes and ears are large. There are five fingers and toes, but the thumb is small, though provided with a nail. The sternum has seven joints, and nine ribs reach it. The clavicle is strong. Huet, who has recently monographed the genus,[331] allows six species. The species vary in size. {463} _Anomalurus peli_ appears, according to Mr. W. H. Adams,[332] to be a common species on the Gold Coast; it is coloured black and white, but in spite of the warning which this colour should convey, is considered by the perhaps rather omnivorous native as "the greatest delicacy." The animal is nocturnal, but affects only bright moonlight nights. Their "flying" consists of a jump from a high branch to a lower one, after which they reascend the tree to a point of vantage for another jump. They are said to feed upon nuts; but Tullberg only found the remains of leaves in the stomach. _Idiurus_ is a lately-described genus allied to _Anomalurus_. There are at any rate two species, _I. zenkeri_ and _I. macrotis_. The thumb is more reduced than in _Anomalurus_, and the fibula, contrary to what is found in that genus and in most Sciuromorphs, is fused with the tibia below. A third genus, very recently described and allied to both the foregoing, is _Aëthurus_. It is a native of the French Congo,[333] and differs by the absence of flying membranes. It has, however, the pad of large scales. There is but one species, _A. glirinus_. It has a black bushy tail. The postorbital processes of the frontals are totally wanting--there are not even the traces to be seen in _Anomalurus_. The thumb has vanished. If we are to compare _Anomalurus_ with the Squirrels then, thinks Mr. de Winton, the present genus is probably diurnal by reason of the want of flying membranes. FAM. 2. SCIURIDAE.--The Squirrels, genus _Sciurus_, are world-wide in range, the Australian region and the island of Madagascar being alone excepted. The eyes and the ears are large; the tail is of course long and bushy. The fore-feet have an inconspicuous thumb; the hind-feet have four toes. The soles of the fore-feet are naked or furry, those of the hind-feet are hairy. There are twelve or thirteen dorsal vertebrae, and in correspondence seven or six lumbars. The caudal vertebrae may be as many as twenty-five. In the skull the frontals are broad, and there are long {464} postorbital processes. The infra-orbital foramen is, as a rule, not large, but is increased in size in a few forms. The number of separate pieces of bone in the sternum is five. The molars of the upper jaw are five, but the first is very small and soon drops out. The Squirrels are often rather brilliantly coloured. The Chinese _Sc. castaneiventris_ has grey fur with a rich chestnut-coloured under surface. The Malabar Squirrel, _Sc. maximus_, as its name implies, a large animal, has a deep reddish or chestnut-coloured fur above, which becomes yellow below. The "Common Squirrel," "the lytill squerell full of besynesse," which is the Squirrel of this country, is brownish red on the upper parts and white below. It ranges from this country as far east as Japan. Like many other Rodents the Squirrel likes animal food and will eat both eggs and young birds. "Camel's hair" brushes are made from this animal. The genus _Tamias_, almost exclusively North American in range, is included by Dr. Forsyth Major[334] in this genus, which then consists of considerably over one hundred species. The Ethiopian Ground Squirrels, genus _Xerus_, have a more elongated skull than _Sciurus_, and the postorbital processes are shorter. The feet are not hairy. _Nannosciurus_ forms a perfectly distinct genus of Squirrels. These "Pygmy Squirrels" differ in possessing a very elongated "face" and in the very broad frontal region. The teeth are unlike those of _Sciurus_ in certain features, and have been especially compared by Forsyth Major to those of the Dormice. Four species of this genus are Malayan; one is West African. The Bornean _Rheithrosciurus macrotis_ is the only species of its genus. The genus may be distinguished by the exceedingly brachyodont molars, this feature being more marked in this genus than in all other Squirrels. It is called the "Groove-toothed Squirrel," from the "seven to ten minute parallel vertical grooves running down the front face of its incisors."[335] The genus _Spermophilus_ includes a large number (forty or so) of Palaearctic and Nearctic animals known as Sousliks. The ears are small; there are cheek pouches as in _Tamias_. The general aspect of the animal is like that of a Marmot, and they bridge over the exceedingly narrow gap which separates the Marmots from the true Squirrels. Anatomically the skull is like that of {465} _Arctomys_; the molars are five in the upper and four in the lower jaw. The caecum is relatively speaking very small; the measurements in a specimen of _S. tredecimlineatus_, dissected by Dr. Tullberg, were: small intestine, 580 mm.; large intestine, 170 mm.; and caecum, 27 mm. In _Tamias_ also the caecum is not greatly developed. These animals are burrowing in habit. The Prairie-dogs, genus _Cynomys_, of which the best-known species is perhaps _C. ludovicianus_, are very like the Squirrels, but they are not arboreal creatures; they live in burrows on the ground, as their vernacular name denotes. The genus is entirely North American, and four species have been differentiated. The Prairie-dog or Prairie-marmot is some 10 inches to one foot in length. The tail is no more than 2 inches. The ears are very small; the thumb is fully developed and bears a claw. The measurements of the various sections of the intestine are the following:--Small intestine, 860 mm.; large intestine, 690 mm.; caecum, 75 mm. Thus the caecum is not large comparatively speaking. These animals dig burrows on grassy plains which they share with the Ground Owl (_Speotyto cunicularis_) and with Rattlesnakes, all three species appearing to live in perfect amity. Probably the Owls use the conveniently-constructed burrows, and the Rattlesnakes come there to look after the young of both. [Illustration] FIG. 233.--Long-tailed Marmot. _Arctomys caudatus._ × 1/7. Closely allied to the last are the Marmots, genus _Arctomys_. They differ in the rudimentary character of the thumb and in the longer tail. The eyes and ears are small. The distribution of the genus is Nearctic and Palaearctic. There are ten species of {466} the genus. The Alpine Marmot, _A. marmotta_, is familiar to most persons. The animal lives high up in the Alps, and when danger threatens it gives vent to a shrill whistle. It hibernates in the winter, and as many as ten to fifteen animals may be found closely packed together in a single, carefully-lined burrow. The only other European species is _A. bobac_, the Siberian Marmot, which occurs in the extreme east of Europe, and is also Asiatic. There are four North American species, including the Quebec Marmot, _A. monax_. [Illustration] FIG. 234.--Flying Squirrel. _Pteromys alborufus._ × 1/5. The genus _Pteromys_ (of which the proper name, antedating _Pteromys_ by five years, appears to be _Petaurista_) is confined to the Oriental region, where there are a dozen species or so. The limbs are united by a parachute extending to the toes, and supported anteriorly by a cartilage attached to the wrists. There are also membranes anteriorly uniting the fore-limbs to the neck, and posteriorly uniting the hind-limbs to the root of the tail and a trifle beyond. The skull and the dental formula are as in Sciurus, but the pattern of the molars, which is much complicated, seems to argue a different mode of nutrition. There are twelve pairs of ribs. The large intestine (in _P. petaurista_) is very nearly as long as the small, and the caecum is also "colossal"; the measurements in an individual of the species named were: small intestine, 670 mm.; caecum, 320 mm.; large intestine, 650 mm. {467} The caecum is disposed in a spiral. The teats are three pairs, non-inguinal in position. The size of these squirrels is 16 to 18 inches exclusive of the tail, which is longer. These animals can make an exceedingly long jump with the help of their flying membrane. Nearly eighty yards is the longest distance given for these aerial excursions. It is stated that they are able to steer themselves to some extent while in the air. As appears to be the case with so many Rodents, these animals feed largely upon beetles and other insects, besides bark, nuts, etc. The allied genus _Sciuropterus_ has a much wider range. It extends into the Palaearctic region and into North America, besides being found in India. There is here no membrane reaching to the tail. The palms and soles are furry. The caecum is very much shorter, and so is the large intestine. The latter, in _S. volucella_, is not more than one-third of the length of the small intestine. In other features there are no remarkable differences in structure, save that the mammae, always three pairs, may be inguinal. Of the genus _Eupetaurus_[336] but a single species is known, which is limited to high altitudes at Gilgit and perhaps in Thibet. Its principal difference from the other genera of Flying Squirrels is that the molars are hypselodont instead of brachyodont. The interfemoral membrane is rudimentary or wanting. The one species is _E. cinereus_. It is thought to live "on rocks, perhaps among precipices." Dr. Tullberg attributes the hypselodont teeth to the fact that the mosses upon which it is believed to feed may have much sand and earth intermingled, which would naturally lead to a more rapid wearing away of the teeth, and hence a need for a good supply of dental tissue to meet this destruction. FAM. 3. CASTORIDAE.--This, the third family of the Sciuromorpha, contains but one genus, _Castor_, the Beaver, with at most two species, one North American, the other European. This large Rodent has small eyes and ears, as befits an aquatic animal, and the tail is exceedingly broad and covered with scales; the transverse processes of the caudal vertebrae, in order better to support the thick tissues lying outside them, are divided in the middle of the series into two. The hind-feet are much larger than the fore-feet, and are more webbed than in any other aquatic Rodent. {468} In the skull the infraorbital foramen is small as in Squirrels. The postorbital process has practically vanished. The four molars stand out laterally from the jaws. The incisors, as might be surmised from the habits, are particularly strong. The stomach has near the entrance of the oesophagus a glandular patch, which seems to be like that of the Wombat (see p. 144). In both sexes the cloaca is very distinct and comparatively deep. The two species of the genus are _C. canadensis_ and _C. fiber_. The latter is of course the European species, which is now found in several of the large rivers of Europe, such as the Danube and the Rhone. But it is everywhere getting scarce, and limited to quite small and isolated colonies. In this country it is absolutely extinct and has been since before the historic period. There is apparently no documentary evidence of its survival down to this period. But the numerous names of places which are called from this animal illustrate its former prevalence. Examples of such names are Beverley in Yorkshire, and Barbourne or Beaverbourne in Worcestershire. In Wales, however, Beavers seem to have persisted longer. But they were rare in the Principality for a hundred years or so before the Norman Conquest. The king Howel Dda, who died in 948 A.D., fixed the price of a Beaver skin at 120 pence, the skins of Stag, Wolf, and Fox being worth only 8 pence apiece. The Beaver was called by the Welsh "Llost-llyddan," which means "broad-tail." Its existence in the country is handed down in the name of Llyn-ar-afange, which means Beaver lake. The last positive record of the Beaver in Wales seems to be the statement of Giraldus Cambrensis that in 1188 the animal was still to be found in the river Teivy in Cardiganshire. In Scotland the Beaver is said to have continued down to a later date. Ireland it never reached. The remains of this animal by their abundance show the former prevalence of _C. fiber_ in this country. It is known from the fens of Cambridgeshire, and from superficial deposits elsewhere. The Thames formerly had its Beavers, and apparently it was widely spread through the country generally. The Beaver not only furnishes collars and cuffs for coats; it was used, as every one knows, to provide hats. But the usefulness of the animal by no means ended here in the eyes of our {469} forefathers. The Rev. Edward Topsell observed that "for giving great ease unto the gowt the skinnes of beavers burned with drie oynions" are excellent. Castorein as a drug, if not in actual use, has quite recently been a part of the pharmacopoeia. It is derived from the anal glands common to this and other Rodents, and indeed many other mammals. A large extinct form of Beaver is _Trogontherium_,[337] found in the "Forest-bed" of Cromer. The skull is about one-fourth longer than that of _Castor_. It has a less inflated bulla, and slightly more pronounced postorbital processes than _Castor_. The third molar (fourth grinding tooth) is relatively larger than in _Castor_, and has a rather more folded crown. The foramen magnum is more triangular. FAM. 4. HAPLODONTIDAE.--A separate family seems to be required for the genus _Haplodon_, whose characters will therefore be merged with those of its family. It is to be distinguished from most other Squirrel-like creatures by the fact that there is no postorbital process to the frontal. The molar teeth are five in the upper and four in the lower jaw. The Sewellel, _H. rufus_, like the other species of the genus (_H. major_), is found in North America west of the Rocky Mountains. It has the habit of the Prairie-marmot, and has a short tail, only moderately long ears, and five-toed feet. Tullberg is of opinion that this animal nearly represents the ancestral form of the Squirrel tribe. SECTION 2. MYOMORPHA. This subdivision of the Rodents contains, according to Mr. Thomas's recent estimate,[338] no less than 102 genera. It is therefore obviously impossible to do more than refer to some of the more interesting of these. This group is again divided into the following families:-- (1) Gliridae, including the Dormice. (2) Muridae, the Rats, Mice, Gerbilles, Australian Water-rats, Hamster. (3) Bathyergidae, Cape Mole, etc. (4) Spalacidae, Bamboo Rats. {470} (5) Geomyidae, Pouched Rats. (6) Heteromyidae, Kangaroo Rats. (7) Dipodidae, Jerboas. (8) Pedetidae. The Gliridae have no caecum, so usual in the Rodentia. It is true that all the genera have not been dissected, but it is known that in the true Dormice, as well as in the genus _Platacanthomys_, a caecum is absent. Apart from these few exceptions the Mouse-like Rodents all possess a caecum, though it is often not very large. They are all smallish animals, and are modified to a great variety of habit and habitat. There are burrowing, swimming, and climbing forms. The group is universal in range, even including the Australian region, in which they are the only Rodents. FAM. 1. GLIRIDAE.--This family, also called Myoxidae,[339] includes the Dormice, and is entirely an Old-World family, absent only from the Malagasy region. Its most important differential character is the total absence of the caecum and of any sharp boundary between the small and large intestine. The molars are usually four. The eyes and ears are well developed. The genus _Muscardinus_ includes only the Common Dormouse, _M. arellanarius_. This small creature, 3 inches long with a tail of 2½ inches, is, of course, a well-known inhabitant of this country. It is also found all over Europe. It is not particularly abundant in this country, and a good specimen is said to be worth half a guinea. As the specific name denotes, it lives largely on hazel nuts; but it will also suck eggs and devour insects. The animal makes a "nest" in the form of a hollow ball. Its hibernation is well known, and has also given rise to the German name ("Schläfer") of the group. It was well known to Aristotle, who gave or adopted the name [Greek: Eleios] for the animal. Its winter sleep--suggestive of death--and its revivification in the spring gave the Bishop of Salamis, Epiphanius, an argument for the resurrection of man. The fur was reckoned in Pliny's time a remedy for paralysis and also for disease of the ears. The genus _Myoxus_ includes also but a single species, _M. glis_, the so-called "Fat Dormouse" of the Continent. It has no {471} glandular swelling at the base of the oesophagus, such as occurs in the last genus and in _Graphiurus_. Of _Graphiurus_ there are thirteen species, all African in range. The genus does not differ widely from the last. There is, however, a glandular region of the oesophagus. _Eliomys_ is the last genus of typical Dormice. It is Palaearctic in range. _Platacanthomys_, of a Dormouse-like form, has like other Dormice a long tail, on which the long coarse hairs are arranged in two rows on opposite sides towards the tip; it is represented by a single species, _P. lasiurus_, from the Malabar coast. It is arboreal in habit. The fur is mingled with flattened spines. The molars are reduced to three on each side of each jaw. This form has been bandied about between the "Mice" and the "Dormice"; but Mr. Thomas's discovery of the absence of the caecum argues strongly in favour of its correct location among the Gliridae. _Typhlomys_ is an allied genus, also from the Oriental region. This and the last are placed in a special sub-family of the Gliridae, Platacanthomyinae, by Mr. Thomas. FAM. 2. MURIDAE.--This family, that of the Rats and Mice in a wide sense, is the most extensive family of Rodents. In it Mr. Thomas includes no less than seventy-six genera. The molars are generally three. The tail is fairly long, or very long, and the soles of the feet are naked. SUB-FAM. 1. MURINAE.--The true Rats and Mice may be considered to form a sub-family, Murinae. The genus _Mus_, including the Rats and Mice in the limited sense of the word, contains about 130 species. They are exclusively Old World in range, being only absent from the Island of Madagascar. In the New World there are no species of the restricted genus _Mus_. The eyes and the ears are large; the pollex is rudimentary, and bears a nail instead of a claw. The tail is largely scaly. All the members of the genus are small animals, some quite minute. In this country there are five species[340] of the genus, viz. the Harvest Mouse, _M. minutus_, which has a body only 2½ inches long with an equally long tail. It is the smallest of British quadrupeds with the exception of the Lesser Shrew. The Wood Mouse, _M. sylvaticus_, is about twice the size; it differs also from the last species in that it {472} frequents barns, and is thus sometimes mistaken for the Common Mouse, from which, however, it is to be distinguished by its coloration and longer ears. The latter, _M. musculus_, is too familiar to need much description. A curious variety of it has occurred. This has a thickened and a folded skin like that of a Rhinoceros, and the hair has disappeared. The Black Rat, _M. rattus_, is like a large Mouse, and is smaller and blacker in colour than the "Hanoverian Rat." It is sometimes called the "Old English Rat," but seems nevertheless to be not a truly indigenous Rodent. It has been so defeated by competition with the Hanoverian Rat that it is now not a common species in this country. The Hanoverian or Brown Rat, _M. decumanus_, is a larger and a browner animal than the last. It is very widely distributed through the globe, no doubt largely on account of the fact that it is readily transported by man. The same is the case with the Common Mouse, whose real origin must be a matter of doubt. The original home of the Brown Eat is thought by Dr. Blanford to be Mongolia. There is so far a justification for the name "Hanoverian Rat" that the animal seems to have reached this country about the year 1728. But there is no reason for calling it, as is sometimes done, the Norway Rat. Some members of this genus, whose fur is interspersed with spines, or which are quite spiny, have been separated as a genus, _Leggada_, which, however, is not generally allowed. Closely allied again is _Chiruromys_, which has a strongly prehensile tail, a feature which is not common among the Myomorpha, though _Dendromys_, a tree-frequenting form, and _Mus minutus_, already spoken of, show the same character. Many Mice seem to have prehensile tails, which they can curl round branches; but it is not so fully developed as in the species just named. A number of other genera are referable to the true Mice, the sub-family Murinae of Thomas's classification. The Syrian and African _Acomys_ has very spiny fur, so much so that "when it has its spines erected it is almost indistinguishable at the first glance from a diminutive hedgehog." The genera _Cricetomys_, _Malacomys_, _Lophuromys_, _Saccostomus_, _Dasymys_ are restricted to the Ethiopian region. _Nesokia_ is Oriental, reaching {473} also the Palaearctic region. _Vandeleuria_, _Chiropodomys_, _Batomys_, _Carpomys_ are Oriental, the last two being confined to the Philippines. Another peculiar Philippine genus is _Phlaeomys_, of large size, and allied to it is _Crateromys_, originally confounded with it. _Batomys granti_ is also confined to Luzon. Its molars are three, like those of the also restricted and Philippine _Carpomys melanurus_, which is an arboreal form. There is a second species, _C. phaeurus_. _Phlaeomys_ is placed, however, by Mr. Thomas in a distinct sub-family of its own, PHLAEOMYINAE, and is removed from the Murinae. _Hapalomys_, with but one species, is Burmese. _Pithecochirus_ is Javanese and Sumatran. _Conilurus_ (also known as _Hapalotis_) is a genus containing species which are termed Jerboa Rats, on account of their mode of progression. They are desert and Australian forms. There are sixteen species. [Illustration] FIG. 235.--Spiny Mouse. _Acomys cahirinus._ × ½. _Mastacomys_, with one species, is limited to Tasmania. _Uromys_, with some eight species, is from Queensland, and inhabits also the Aru Islands and the Solomon Islands. The Celebesian _Echiothrix_, or _Craurothrix_ as it should apparently properly be called, is another genus containing but a single species. _Golunda_ is both Oriental and Ethiopian, one species occurring in each region. The beautiful little striped Barbary Mice, _Arviacanthis_ (or _Isomys_), are African, north as well as tropical. The genus _Saccostomus_ resembles the Hamsters in the presence of cheek pouches. Its teeth, however, are Murine. It agrees with _Steatomys_ in the comparatively short tail. The caecum is rather long. {474} SUB-FAM. 2. HYDROMYINAE.--The genus _Hydromys_,[341] of which there are several species, the best known being _H. chrysogaster_, is an exclusively Australian form, and is aquatic in habit. It is a foot or so in length, and has a fairly long tail. The fore- and hind-limbs are webbed, in correspondence with its habits. The Australian Water-Rat is black, with an admixture of golden-coloured hairs dorsally and golden colour below, with a lighter median stripe. The thumb is small, and the webbing of the hands is not so marked as is that of the feet. The molars are only two in each half of each jaw. The caecum is rather small, the measurements of the alimentary canal being: small intestine, 895 mm.; large intestine, 278 mm.; caecum, 70 mm. Allied to the last is _Xeromys_, a genus which is also Australian, but limited to Queensland. It has been established by Mr. Thomas,[342] who discovered that it has the same reduced formula as _Hydromys_. _Xeromys_, however, is not an aquatic animal, and has unwebbed feet. In the Luzon highlands Mr. Whitehead has discovered, and Mr. Thomas quite recently described,[343] a number of peculiar Rodents. Of these the genera _Chrotomys_, _Celaenomys_, and _Crunomys_ are allied to the Australian and New Guinea _Hydromys_. _Chrotomys whiteheadi_ is unusual among Muridae, in its coloration being marked by a pale stripe down the back. The creature is the size of the Black Rat (_Mus rattus_). It is terrestrial not aquatic in habit, in spite of its likeness to _Hydromys_. The molars, however, are 3/3. _Crunomys fallax_ is more like _Hydromys_. It has, however, three molars, as in the last genus. But the skull has the flattened form characteristic of _Hydromys_ as opposed to _Mus_. Like _Batomys_, _Celaenomys silaceus_ is also somewhat intermediate between _Hydromys_ and _Mus_. It is described as very Shrew-like in appearance, and has a very pointed muzzle. Its habits Mr. Whitehead is "quite unable even to guess at." Like _Hydromys_ and _Xeromys_ this Rodent has but two molars. SUB-FAM. 3. RHYNCHOMYINAE.--The genus _Rhynchomys_, containing but one species, _Rh. soricioides_ (of Thomas), is also, as both its generic and specific names imply, a somewhat Shrew-like form in external aspect. The skull, too, is Insectivore-like in its {475} elongation, and the lower incisors are worn to needle-like points. The two molars are excessively minute, and thus the always large gap in the jaws is greatly exaggerated. It is suggested that this Rat is an insect-eater, but nothing positive is known. SUB-FAM. 4. GERBILLINAE.--The Gerbilles form another sub-family, Gerbillinae, of the Muridae, or a family, according to some. The best-known genus is _Gerbillus_, including the Gerbilles proper. These animals are Old World in range, belonging to the three regions of that part of the world. There are a large number of species in the genus, over thirty. They have a Jerboa-like form, with rather long hind-limbs and a long and hairy tail. But the hind- as well as the fore-feet are five-toed. The molar teeth have no trace of tubercles, but only transverse lamellae of enamel. The incisors are orange; they are white in _Dipus_. _Gerbillus pyramidum_ is 90 mm. long, with a tail of 125 mm. The ears are long, 13 mm. The tail has longer hairs at the tip. [Illustration] FIG. 236.--Gerbille. _Gerbillus aegyptius._ × ½. _Psammomys_ is in some respects different. The tail is shorter than in _Gerbillus_; its length in an individual of 165 mm. was 130 mm. As in _Gerbillus_ there are four pairs of teats, two pectoral and two inguinal. This genus is exclusively Palaearctic in range. _Meriones_ has a range co-extensive with that of _Gerbillus_. _Pachyuromys_ is an Ethiopian genus with a short tail. As the generic name denotes, the tail is not only short but thick and fleshy. SUB-FAM. 5. OTOMYINAE.--The allied genera, _Otomys_ and _Oreinomys_, are Ethiopian. _Otomys unisulcatus_ has a tail shorter than the body, the measurements of a female of this species being 137 mm. with a tail of 87 mm. The ear is long, whence the name; it measured in this specimen 20 mm. {476} SUB-FAM. 6. DENDROMYINAE.--The genus _Deomys_ is an African form, consisting of only one species from the Congo region. _D. ferrugineus_ has a reddish colour as its name implies; the soles are quite naked and the tail is long and slender. It is considerably longer than the body, measuring (minus a fragment of the tip) 172 mm., while the body is 125 mm. long. The characters of the molar teeth, which are three, are intermediate in their form between those of the true Rats and those of the Hamsters. _Dendromys_ is also Ethiopian in range. There are several species. _D. mesomelas_ is a smallish creature, 60 mm. long, with a tail of 90 mm. _Steatomys_ is another African genus, allied to the last. Its tail, however, is only half the length of the body. The two remaining genera are _Malacothrix_ and _Limacomys_. Their range is African. SUB-FAM. 7. LOPHIOMYINAE.--Allied to the Hamsters is the singular East African genus _Lophiomys_, with only one species, _L. imhausi_, of Milne-Edwards.[344] The size is between that of a Rabbit and of a Guinea-pig. The stomach is curved and somewhat intestiniform. It has been termed the Crested Rat on account of the "prominent crest of stiff hair running down the back." The fingers and toes are five, and the very long tail is clad with hair longer than that upon the body generally. The pollex is rudimentary, and the hallux is opposable. The most remarkable structural feature in this genus concerns the skull, and on account of this it has been regarded as the type of a separate family. The temporal fossa behind the eye is covered over by a complete bony plate, formed by a downgrowth of the parietal, meeting an upgrowth from the malar; this singular arrangement of the bones recalls the conditions which obtain in turtles. The whole skull, moreover, is covered with symmetrically disposed granulations, such as are found in no other mammal; it suggests rather the skull of certain fish. It is believed that the bony plate already referred to is not really a portion of the bones of which it appears to be a prolongation, but merely an ossification of fasciae in this region. The atlas is granulated like the skull; there are sixteen pairs of ribs and a feeble clavicle. The molars are three, and of a peculiar form. {477} They have, in the case of the first three, transverse ridges, from which stand up two sharp and long tubercles. The other teeth have two ridges. The incisors are pale yellow. The shape of the teeth and the smallness of the caecum suggest that this Rodent is not so purely a vegetarian as others, and that it nourishes itself largely upon insects. SUB-FAM. 8. MICROTINAE.--The Voles or Water-Rats form a distinct group of Murine animals, to which the sub-family name of Microtinae has been applied from the genus _Microtus_ (more generally known as _Arvicola_), a genus which includes the Water-Rat and Field-Voles of this country. This genus has short ears, and a short and hairy tail. Its build is stouter and clumsier than that of the Rats. The genus is confined to the Palaearctic and the Nearctic regions. In this country there are three species. The best known is the Water-Vole or Water-Rat, _M. amphibius_, which has been seen by most people, and which frequents streams, ponds, and canals. The feet, curiously enough, are not webbed, which seems to argue the recent adoption of an aquatic life. Mr. Trevor-Battye has remarked that this animal, when swimming at leisure, uses its hind-limbs only, carrying the fore pair at the sides like a Seal. The Bank-Vole, _M. glareolus_, is rather a local species in this country. It is a terrestrial Vole, and burrows. The Field-Vole, _M. agrestis_, has become notorious on account of the "plagues," to which its immense numbers have on occasions given rise. It is the smallest species, and has a greyish-brown fur like the Water-Vole, the Bank-Vole being redder. To give an idea of the cost of the depredations of this animal, Mr. Scherren quotes[345] a farmer who gave evidence before the Agricultural Commission to the effect that, putting the damage of one Vole at two pence, the amount of loss suffered on a farm of 6500 acres in two years would be £50,000! The genus _Fiber_ comes very near the last. It is a North American genus. The hind-feet are slightly webbed; the tail is a trifle shorter than the body, and is compressed and scaly, with scattered hairs. The thumb is short, but with a fully-developed claw. As in the last genus, the small and large intestines are roughly of the same length, and the caecum is about one-fourth of the length of either. It is known as the "Musquash." {478} Of _Fiber zibethicus_, or rather a closely-allied form, _F. osoyoosensis_, from Lake Osoyoos near the Rockies, Mr. Lord writes[346] that it constructs for itself a house of bulrushes built up from the bottom in 3 or 4 feet of water. It is dome-shaped, and rises about a foot out of the water. "If a dead or badly-wounded duck be left on the pool, it is at once seized on, towed into the house, and doomed." Thus it appears that this Rodent, like so many others, is largely carnivorous. It has also been asserted that it eats fish. _Neofiber_ is an allied genus, North American in range. The species, _N. alleni_, is compared, as regards outward form, with the Water-Vole, _M. amphibius_. It has, however, a shorter tail. Another very well-known member of this sub-family is the Lemming. The name, however, applies to two quite distinct genera. The genus _Cuniculus_, including the Banded Lemming, _C. torquatus_, is an inhabitant of North America, Siberia, and Greenland. The tail is short, its length being 12 mm. as against a body length of 101 mm. The feet are furred beneath, a not unusual state of affairs in Arctic mammals. The ears are very slight. The thumb is well developed, and bears a claw. In _Myodes_, on the other hand, which is not so markedly an Arctic animal, though occurring in both Palaearctic and Nearctic regions, the ears are rather bigger, though still smaller than those of _Microtus_. The under surfaces of the feet are similarly furred. The tail is also short. It is commonly said that the two genera are to be distinguished by the furred feet of _Cuniculus_, and by the absence of fur in the present genus. That, according to Tullberg, does not appear to be the case. The differences are thus so much reduced that it seems almost unnecessary to retain the two genera. The best known species of _Myodes_ is of course the Scandinavian Lemming, _M. lemmus_. This animal used to occur in this country in Pleistocene times (as did also _C. torquatus_), and recently Dr. Gadow has found remains with skins attached in caves in Portugal. It may still survive in the mountains of the Peninsula. The actual habitat of the Lemming in Scandinavia is the great tablelands, 3000 feet high in the centre. The migrations do not take place with regularity; even twenty years may elapse before the appearance in cultivated lands of those countless {479} hordes so familiar (as far as their description is concerned) to everybody. The Lemmings do not return from their exodus. They die from various causes, including combats with one another. Their chief foes, however, are Wolves and Gluttons, Buzzards and Ravens, Owls and Skuas, which batten on the migrant hordes. Their sudden increase in numbers recalls the similar increase at times of the Field-Vole, to which reference has already been made. _Ellobius_ is an Old-World genus, which leads a "Talpine" life, and has in consequence rudimentary external ears and very small eyes. The tail is short. Contrary to what might be expected from its mode of life, the claws upon the digits are not strong. The remaining genera of Vole-like Murines are _Phenacomys_ and _Synaptomys_ from North America, and Siphneus from Palaearctic Asia. _Evotomys_ is one of those genera which are common to both the Palaearctic and the Nearctic regions, but the bulk of the species are North American. SUB-FAM. 9. SIGMODONTINAE.--This is the name given to another sub-family of Murine Rodents, a group which includes the Hamsters in the Old World as well as a large number of South American genera of Rat-like animals. Of these latter there are a very large number, the bulk of the group being American. The Hamsters, genus _Cricetus_, as it is usually called, although apparently the correct name is Hamster, are Old-World forms of Pouched Rats. The Common Hamster, _C. frumentarius_, is about 210 mm. long, with a tail of 58 mm. It has cheek pouches. The small and the large intestines are not very unequal in length, and the caecum is fairly large, being about one-sixth to one-seventh of the length of either. It is a purely vegetable-feeding creature, and in Germany where it occurs (and from which language its vernacular name is derived), hibernates during the winter in its burrow, having previously surrounded itself with a great accumulation of food carried thither. To North America are peculiar the genera _Onychomys_, _Sigmodon_, and _Peromyscus_. The genus _Sigmodon_, the Cotton Rats, reaches Central America, and even gets a little farther south. The other two genera, though mainly North American, also extend their range to the south. _Onychomys_ has hairy {480} foot-pads, a state of affairs which characterises a number of these Rodents. The genera _Megalomys_, _Chilomys_, _Reithrodontomys_, _Eligmodontia_, _Nectomys_, _Rhipidomys_, _Tylomys_, _Holochilus_, _Reithrodon_, _Phyllotis_, _Scapteromys_, _Acodon_, _Oxymycterus_, _Ichthyomys_, _Blarinomys_, _Notiomys_ are South American forms. _Oryzomys_ and _Rheithrodontomys_ are common to both parts of the New World. The genus _Ichthyomys_ is remarkable on account of its un-Rodent-like habits and of certain associated structural changes. _I. stolzmanni_ was obtained from Mount Chanchamays in Peru at an altitude of 3000 feet; it is a habitual fish-eater, and lives in streams. Another species, _I. hydrobates_, was formerly referred to _Habrothrix_. The skull shows likenesses to that of the Australian _Hydromys_; but the most marked characters of adaptation are those of the teeth and caecum. The cutting edges of the upper incisors form a reversed [347] of obvious use in holding a slippery fish. The caecum is much reduced, short, and narrow. The general Otter-like shape of the creature is largely due to its flattened head, though its "size and general proportions are much as in the common Black Rat."[348] This sub-family contains a number of genera from Madagascar, viz. _Brachytarsomys_, _Nesomys_, _Hallomys_, _Brachyuromys_, _Hypogeomys_, _Gymnuromys_, and _Eliurus_. SUB-FAM. 10. NEOTOMINAE.--The last sub-family of the Muridae is that of the Neotominae, containing the North American genera _Neotoma_, _Xenomys_, _Hodomys_, and _Nelsonia_. FAM. 3. BATHYERGIDAE.--This family contains several genera which consist of subterranean forms. All these Rodents agree in a number of characters, of which the principal are as follows:-- The eyes are very small, and the external ears are reduced to the merest fringe of skin round the aural aperture. The legs are short, as is the tail; the hair-covering is reduced--a reduction which finds its culmination in the nearly nude _Heterocephalus_. Being burrowing creatures, a number of other modifications in accordance with this mode of life are to be seen in their structure. The upper incisors stand out in front of the closed lips, and prevent the entrance of earth. For the same reason {481} the nostrils are small, and the forehead but little expanded between them. The genus _Bathyergus_ contains but a single species, the Cape Mole-Rat, which is found in Southern Africa; it is of moderate size, not exceeding a small Rabbit in dimensions. On the fore-limbs are exceedingly long claws, of which that borne by the second finger is the longest, and the claw of the thumb the shortest. The hind-feet have by no means such long claws. The scratching and burrowing is naturally chiefly effected by the fore-limbs. The small and large intestines are of equal length, and each is rather more than six times the length of the caecum; in these measurements the present genus differs from the next. _Georhychus._--Of this African genus there are about ten species. The claws are not so long as in the last genus, but there are, as in _Bathyergus_, four molar teeth on each half of each jaw. The intestinal measurements in an example of _G. capensis_ were: small intestine, 25 inches; caecum, 4 inches; large intestine, 15 inches. The genus _Myoscalops_ or _Heliphohius_ (also with an African range) has six back teeth on each side. A number of species sometimes referred to the last genus are placed here by Mr. Thomas. The claws are small. One of the most remarkable genera of this family is the little _Heterocephalus_ from Abyssinia and Somaliland. As Mr. Thomas justly remarks,[349] it "is a peculiar-looking little creature, about the size of the Common Mouse, but looking almost more like a tiny hairless puppy on account of its nearly naked skin, small eyes, and peculiar physiognomy." Though apparently naked, there are numerous scattered hairs over the entire body, and the toes are fringed with stiffish hairs, which must be advantageous to a burrowing animal. There are two species, _H. glaber_ (originally described by Rüppell), and _H. phillipsii_, of which our knowledge is due to Mr. Thomas. The length of the entire creature including the tail is not more than 134 mm., both species being approximately of the same dimensions. Mr. Lort Phillips, the discoverer of the species which bears his name, writes "that this little creature, called 'Farumfer' by the Somali, throws up in places groups of miniature craters, which exactly resemble volcanoes in active eruption. When the little beasts were at {482} work, I used frequently to watch them, and found that the loose earth from their excavations was brought to the bottom of the crater, and sent with great force into the air in a succession of rapid jerks, and that they themselves never ventured forth from the shelter of the burrows."[350] FAM. 4. SPALACIDAE.--"The Spalacidae," observes Dr. Blanford, "are sometimes called rodent moles, and resemble a mole in general aspect, having cylindrical bodies, short limbs, small eyes and ears, large claws, and a short or rudimentary tail." The existence of a spiral valve in the caecum may perhaps characterise this family; but it has at present only been found in the two genera _Spalax_ and _Rhizomys_. _Spalax_ has inconspicuous eyes and external ears. The tail is totally absent. The lower incisors are more developed than in other Rodents; they project in a bony sheath beyond the posterior end of the ramus of the lower jaw. The scapula is long and narrow. The large intestine is half the length of the small intestine. The animal seems to have only two pairs of teats, one pectoral the other inguinal. _Spalax typhlus_ of Egypt, which is probably not different from the European form, makes extensive burrows, some of the branches being even 30 to 40 yards in length. In a "domical chamber," situated along the course of one of these burrows, Dr. Anderson found no less than 68 bulbs stored up. Its eyes are mere black specks among the muscles, but they appear, however, to have a proper organisation. There are altogether eight species of the genus, which is entirely Palaearctic in its range. The genus _Rhizomys_, including a number of species known as Bamboo Rats, is purely Oriental in range. _Rh. sumatrensis_ reaches a length of 19 inches; the better-known species, _Rh. badius_, is at most only 9 inches in length--in both cases the measurements are exclusive of the tail, which is a quarter to one-third of the length of the body, and is not scaly but nearly naked, with a few scattered hairs. The molars are three, and the incisors usually orange in colour; but sometimes the upper incisors are white as in _Rh. badius_. There are thirteen dorsal vertebrae. In _Rh. pruinosus_ the large intestine is considerably longer than the small intestine; the lengths of the two sections of the gut are 42 and 30 inches respectively. In another {483} species the large intestine is slightly shorter than the small intestine. In _Rh. badius_ the two parts of the gut are almost exactly equal in length. There are three pairs of inguinal and two pairs of pectoral teats. The name _Rhizomys_ appears to have been given to the animals of this genus for the reason that they feed largely on roots. They burrow, and, like many other burrowing animals, feed in the evening. As is the case with other forms, _Rhizomys_ is said to burrow with the assistance of its teeth as well as of its claws. [Illustration] FIG. 237.--Bamboo Rat. _Rhizomys badius._ × ¼. _Tachyoryctes_ is an African genus closely allied to the last. There are three Ethiopian species. It is mainly to be distinguished by the different pattern upon the grinding surface of the molars. FAM. 5. GEOMYIDAE.--This family of burrowing Rodents is limited to North and Central America. The animals have cheek pouches, and small eyes and ears, in accordance with their mode of life. The claws of the fore-limbs are very strongly developed. The genus _Geomys_ contains some eight species, which are Central and North American, not extending, however, far north. The incisors of the upper jaw are grooved with two grooves. There are three pairs of teats--one axillary, and the two remaining inguinal. _Thomomys_, without grooves on the incisors, reaches to Canada in the north, and does not extend as far south as the last genus. {484} Allied to this family, and indeed united with it by Tullberg, but kept separate by Thomas, is the FAM. 6. HETEROMYIDAE.--The members of this family are also American, but are not confined to the northern-central regions of that continent, for the genus _Heteromys_ extends into South America. The genus _Dipodomys_, with twelve species, is of a Jerboa-like form, as the following measurements of an example of _D. merriami_ will show. The length of the head and body was 85 mm.; of the tail 127 mm.; the hind-foot is 32 mm. It has but four toes. The hind-limb is longer than the front-limbs. In _Perodipus_ the same form is exhibited. There are, however, five toes, and the sole of the foot is hairy. The axis vertebra and the two following vertebrae are fused together. _Perognathus_ is a third genus. It has the same general slender form, but the tail is not so long, being but little longer than the body. The hind-limbs, too, are shorter. The teats of this and of _Perodipus_ are as in _Geomys_. The two remaining genera of the family are _Heteromys_ and _Microdipodops_. [Illustration] FIG. 238.--Jerboa. _Dipus hirtipes._ × 1/3. Eastern Europe. FAM. 7. DIPODIDAE.--This family consists of small, plain-living, and leaping or arboreal creatures, commonly known as Jerboas. The main anatomical characters of the family are the following:--There is a large infra-orbital foramen. The molars are always reduced, the premolar being either absent in the lower jaw alone or in both jaws. This family presents an obvious likeness to _Dipodomys_ (hence the name of the latter) and to some other members of the American family Heteromyidae {485} There is even the same ankylosis of the neck vertebrae. We find, moreover, the same association of long-legged and shorter-legged forms that characterises the Heteromyidae. [Illustration] FIG. 239.--Bones of right pes of Jerboa, _Dipus aegyptius_. × ¾. _a_, Astragalus; _c_, calcaneum; _c_^2, middle cuneiform; _c_^3, outer cuneiform; _cb_, cuboid; _n_, navicular; I-IV, first to fourth toes. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) The typical genus _Dipus_ is a smallish quadruped with long naked ears and a long tail. The ten species are all Palaearctic in range. The fore-limbs are short and five fingered, and the short pollex has no claw; the hind-limbs are excessively long and only three-toed. The bony structure of these limbs is remarkable. The three metatarsals are elongated almost like those of a bird, and are ankylosed together. The digits have long phalanges which alone reach the ground as the animal hops. It is a curious fact, and one not so easily identifiable with the way of life, that the neck vertebrae of this genus are ankylosed together with the exception of the atlas, which is free; the arrangement is precisely like that of the Sperm Whale. The last vertebra is, however, sometimes free. The Jerboas not only leap but they burrow, and their strong incisors are said to be used in burrowing through stony ground. They are eaten by the Arabs, and are, or have been, called Daman Israel, _i.e._ Lamb of Israel. In _D. hirtipes_ the body and tail measure respectively 4½ and 7 inches. The hind-feet have a tuft of long hairs below. Mr. W. L. Sclater's newly-founded genus _Euchoreutes_[351] is somewhat more primitive in its characters than is _Dipus_. The general form is the same, with long ears and a long tail. But there are five toes to the hind-limb, the two lateral ones though nailed being much shorter than the middle three. It has a "long pig-like snout," and the tail is cylindrical as in most other Jerboas, with a tuft of longer hairs at the end. The incisor teeth, grooved in _Dipus_, are here smooth, as in _Alactaga_. The species was probably obtained "in the sandy plains round the city of Yarkand." {486} _Alactaga_ is much like _Euchoreutes_; it has five toes, a cylindrical tufted tail, the hairs at the end distichous, smooth incisors, and a premolar present in the upper jaw. It also differs from _Euchoreutes_ by the much smaller auditory bulla as well as in the fact that the infra-orbital foramen has no separate passage for the nerve, which passage is to be distinguished in both _Dipus_ and _Euchoreutes_. The best-known species is the Siberian Jumping Rabbit, _A. jaculus_. Beneath the ends of the three main toes of the feet are remarkable fan-shaped pads. In _A. decumana_ the body and tail measure 7 and 10 inches respectively, the ears 2 inches. _Platycercomys_, a fourth genus of the family, is much less known and is to be differentiated from the last three genera by the fact that it has no premolars at all, the grinding tooth formula being thus 3/3. The tail too is flattened and "lancet shaped." It extends from Siberia to Nubia, and thus just enters the Ethiopian region. The above are the more typical Jerboas. There remain several forms which are not at all Jerboa-like in their way of life, but are nevertheless, on anatomical grounds, placed with them. _Zapus_, an American genus, with the exception of one Palaearctic species, is transitional in that its hind-legs are rather long, but there is not so much difference between them as in the typical Dipodidae. _Sminthus_ is at the opposite extreme to _Dipus_. Its feet are short and of equal length; it climbs in trees, and may perhaps be looked upon as nearest of all Dipodidae to the ancestral form of the group. FAM. 8. PEDETIDAE.--The genus _Pedetes_ contains but one species, _P. caffer_, the Cape Jumping Hare. The animal suggests a large Jerboa in appearance on account of its jumping habits, the long hind-limbs, and the long tail. The length of a fair-sized example is some 17 inches, with a tail of the same length. The eyes and ears are large. The hands are five-fingered and the feet only four-toed, the hallux being of course the absent digit. In the skeleton it is interesting to note that the second and third cervical vertebrae are so close together that there can be no free movement; interesting because in _Dipus_ the cervicals are actually ankylosed. The dorsal vertebrae are twelve. The small intestine is long, measuring 7 feet 4 inches, while the caecum is short, being only 8 inches long. The large intestine is 3 feet 10 inches long. The gall-bladder appears to be {487} absent,[352] an exceptional state of affairs in Rodents. A singular fact in the anatomy of this animal is the existence of a septum dividing the lower part of the trachea. This is sometimes met with in birds. As might be supposed from its large eyes, the Spring Haas, as the animal is sometimes called, is nocturnal. Its long hind-limbs permit it to leap enormous distances. It is a burrowing Rodent. SECTION 3. HYSTRICOMORPHA. FAM. 1. OCTODONTIDAE.--The Rodents of this family are of small to moderate size, the only, relatively speaking, giant in the family being the "Water-Rat," _Myocastor_. The toes are with but one exception not reduced; the tail is long in the majority of the genera. The teats are placed high up on the sides of the body. The clavicle is fully ossified. All the genera are South or Central American in range with the exception of _Petromys_.[353] SUB-FAM. 1. OCTODONTINAE.--_Octodon_ has four species, which are all Chilian, Peruvian, and Bolivian in distribution. The Degu, _O. degus_, has a length of 160 mm., with a tail 105 mm. long. The ears are 18 mm. long. At the roots of the claws are longish and stiff hairs which appear to serve as "combs." The tail has long but sparsely scattered hairs. There are twelve pairs of ribs. The lengths of the various sections of the intestine are as follows: small intestine, 680 mm.; caecum, 90 mm.; large intestine, 390 mm. These animals live in large companies. Closely allied is the genus _Habrocoma_ (more correctly, as it appears, to be written _Abrocoma_), with two species. _H. bennetti_ is 204 mm. long, with a tail of 103 mm. The ears are long, 22 mm. The fore-feet have no outward trace of the thumb. Stiff hairs like those that characterise _Octodon_ are found also in this genus. The fur is very soft. The furring of the tail is much thicker than in _Octodon_. _Spalacopus_ with but a single species, _S. poeppigi_, is a burrowing animal, from which indeed, and on account of its resemblance to _Spalax_, it has received its name. The ears in accordance with the underground life are short, only 5 mm. in length in an {488} example of 120 mm. The tail too is reduced, being in the same example only 42 mm. in length. As in the last two genera the large intestine is about one half of the length of the small intestine. The "Tuco-tuco," genus _Ctenomys_, has also short ears and tail. The claws of the fore-feet are longer than those of the hind-feet. A related form is _Aconaemys_ (better known as _Schizodon_), with similar external characters; it inhabits high localities on the Andes. _Petromys_ is the only genus of the sub-family which is not American in habitat. It is an African form and there is but one species. Its anatomy conforms to that of the genera already considered. The main difference in structure is shown by the teeth. Their surface is uneven, and differs from that of other Hystricomorphs "in that the enamel to the inside of each upper jaw-tooth and outside on each lower jaw-tooth forms two tubercles, to which correspond grooves in the reverse position of the applied teeth." SUB-FAM. 2. LONCHERINAE.--The genus _Echinomys_ with thirteen species belongs to the Neotropical region. The members of the genus are entitled "Spiny Rats" since they have spines mixed with the fur. The tail is long and the ears are very well developed. Both feet are five-toed. The tail is scaly as well as haired. _Trichomys_ (also called _Nelomys_) is very close to the above, and is also from the same part of the world. The genus _Cannabateomys_ contains but one species, _C. amblyonyx_, which was formerly included in the genus _Dactylomys_, but has lately been separated by Dr. Jentink.[354] The animal is Brazilian and has a total length of 520 mm., of which 320 mm. belong to the tail. It is a climbing rat, and in accordance with that way of life has undergone some modifications. The fore-feet are four-toed, the two middle toes being markedly longer than the outer ones. The hind-feet are five-toed with the same greater development of the two middle toes. The claws are small and somewhat nail-like. _Dactylomys_, also Brazilian, and with but one species, _D. dactylinus_, differs from the last in the fact that the molars are simpler in form; they are divided into two lobes, each of which {489} has but a single enamel fold, whereas in _Cannabateomys_ these teeth have several enamel folds. The tail, moreover, is but slightly hairy. _Loncheres_ with eighteen species is another Neotropical genus allied to the foregoing. Small spines are, as in many of these genera, intermingled with the fur. This genus has as many as seventeen dorsal vertebrae, which is an unusually large number. _L. guianae_ is known as the "Porcupine Rat." Allied genera, also South American, and without spines in their fur, are _Mesomys_, _Cercomys_, and _Carterodon_. The South American _Thrinacodus_ is also known by one species,[355] _T. albicauda_, which has rather more than the distal half of the long tail of a white colour. The fore-feet have four toes. The ears are broad and short. SUB-FAM. 3. CAPROMYINAE.--A third sub-family of the Octodontidae is formed by the genera _Myocastor_, _Capromys_, _Plagiodontia_, and _Thrynomys_, which are all Neotropical forms with the exception of the last, which is African. _Thrynomys_ (better known perhaps as _Aulacodus_) is a genus of African Rodent, containing some four species. The best-known of these is _T. swindernianus_, the Ground-Rat of West and South Africa. Its structure has been investigated by Garrod,[356] by Tullberg,[357] and by myself.[358] The fur is mingled with flattish bristles; the tail is moderately long, about half as long as the body. The fore-feet are five-toed, but the two toes at each end of the series are quite small. The hind-feet are only four-toed, the hallux being absent. The claws of the hind-feet are stronger than those of the fore-feet. The ears are not long. The limbs are decidedly short, hence the name of "Ground-Pig" sometimes applied to this animal. The molars are four in number in both jaws. The incisors of the upper jaw are twice grooved. There are thirteen dorsal vertebrae. The length of the small intestine is 60½ inches, that of the large 49; the caecum is short, being only 8 inches long. It is a remarkable fact that the acromion is joined to the rest of the spine of the scapula by a joint. _Myocastor_, a name which seems to have the rights of priority over the more familiar _Myopotamus_, applies to a large South American aquatic Rodent. The general aspect of the animal {490} suggests a Water-Rat of large size (it has been exhibited in shows as a phenomenal product of London sewers!); the tail is nearly as long as the body. The ears are small. The limbs are short. The tail is naked. The hind-feet are webbed, but not so much so as in _Hydromys_. A small thumb is present. The animal has thirteen pairs of ribs; the molars are four in each jaw. The large intestine is more than three times the length of the small, and the caecum is, as in the last genus, relatively short. _Capromys_ is a genus[359] which is remarkable on account of its restricted distribution. It is found only in the islands of Cuba and Jamaica. There are four species, of which _C. melanurus_ is a dark brown-coloured animal with a blacker tail, nearly as large as a Rabbit. The native name of this Rodent is "_hutia_." It is also remarkable for having a stomach more complicated than is the rule among the mammals of this group. The organ is divided by two constrictions into three compartments. In _C. pilorides_ the liver is occasionally divided up in an extraordinary fashion into small lobules. _Capromys_ has the large number of sixteen dorsal vertebrae. FAM. 2. CTENODACTYLIDAE.--For these African genera it seems admissible to form a distinct family, though Thomas, and Flower and Lydekker, only allow to the genera _Ctenodactylus_, _Pectinator_, and _Massoutiera_ sub-family rank. On the other hand, Tullberg removed these genera entirely from the Hystricomorph section and placed them as a section of the sub-tribe Myomorphi of the tribe Sciurognathi. It was chiefly the form of the mandible which led to this placing, for in these Rodents, as in all Squirrel- and Rat-like Rodents, and unlike what is found in the Hystriciform genera, the angular process of the mandible is not bent sideways. The genus _Ctenodactylus_ derives its name from the peculiar strong bristles which form a comb-like structure upon the hind-feet and hide the claws; these are stated to be for the purpose of dressing the fur. The Gundi of North Africa, _C. gundi_, has a length of 190 mm., with a short tail of 17 mm. The ears are only moderate in size. The dental formula of the molars is 4/3. The incisors are white. The feet have four digits, and the hind-limbs are the longer. The large intestine is distinctly longer than the small intestine. {491} _Pectinator spekii_ is the only representative of a genus not far removed from _Ctenodactylus_; it is a smallish Rodent, 6 inches in length, exclusive of a rather bushy tail nearly 3 inches long. It comes from Abyssinia. It has somewhat the appearance of a Squirrel, which is heightened by the fact that when sitting the tail is arched over the back; when running the tail is carried out straight. There are only four toes visible externally on both fore- and hind-limbs, but pollex and hallux exist in the skeleton, with a single phalanx each. There is only a single pair of mammae, and in correspondence with this but two or three young are produced at a time. The hind-feet have bristles very much like those of _Ctenodactylus_. The molars, however, are 4/4. There are twelve ribs, of which six reach the sternum. The latter is made up of six pieces, and the manubrium in its breadth anteriorly suggests that of the Vizcachas. The clavicles are present.[360] [Illustration] FIG. 240.--Carpincho. _Hydrochoerus capybara._ × 1/12. FAM. 3. CAVIIDAE.--This family, which includes the Cavies and the Capybara, is entirely South American and West Indian in distribution. It embraces animals of fair to large size, the Capybara {492} (or Carpincho) being the greatest of existing Rodents. The ears are well developed. The toes are commonly reduced, and the members of this family possess only a rudimentary tail. The hair though rough is not spiny. Other characters had best be deferred until the several genera are treated of. We shall begin with the giant of the family, the genus _Hydrochoerus_. This genus contains but a single species, _H. capybara_ of South America. It reaches a length of some 4 or 5 feet. The ears are not large; the tail is completely absent. The fore-feet are four-toed, the hind-feet three-toed; the digits are webbed, though not to a very great degree, and the nails have the appearance of hoofs. There are fourteen dorsal vertebrae; the clavicle is absent. In the skull the paroccipital processes are of great length. The infra-orbital foramen is large. The most remarkable fact about the teeth is the great size of the posterior molar of the upper jaw; it has fourteen folds of enamel, more than all the anterior teeth possess collectively. The incisors are white and grooved in front. The measurements of the alimentary tract as given by Tullberg are: small intestine, 4350 mm.; caecum, 450 mm.; large intestine, 1500 mm. [Illustration] FIG. 241.--Patagonian Cavy. _Dolichotis patachonica._ × 1/10. The Capybara or Carpincho is largely aquatic in its habits. Their "favourite locality," writes Mr. Aplin,[361] "is a broad laguna {493} in the river, furnished with open water, and also beds of 'camelotes,'--a sloping open grassy bank on one side, where the Carpinchos can lie in the daytime in the cooler weather, sleeping and basking in the sunshine; on the other a low shelving bank, clothed with 'Sarandi' scrub growing out into the black reeking mud and shallow water beyond." They always take to the water when alarmed, at a rate and with a gait which reminded Mr. Aplin of a Pig. When in the water they swim slowly with the upper part of the head, including nose, eyes, and ears, above the surface. But they can dive for a considerable time and distance, and baffle their enemies by seeking the shelter of a mass of water-plants, and lying there with their noses only just above the surface. The genus _Dolichotis_[362] has long ears, and generally resembles a rather long-legged Hare in appearance. The front-feet are four-toed, the hind three-toed. The Patagonian Cavy, as this animal is called, has twelve dorsal vertebrae, and rudimentary clavicles.[363] The paroccipital processes are long; the incisors are white, and are not grooved in front. The sternum has six pieces, and seven ribs reach it. _Cavia_, including the species _C. porcellus_, the Guinea-pig (which name is a corruption apparently of Guiana pig), has the same number of toes on its hind- and fore-feet as has the Capybara. The name applied to the wild stock whence our Guinea-pig is derived is the Restless Cavy. The fur is greyish; of the domestic animals the colour is too well known to need description. FAM. 4. DASYPROCTIDAE.--The genus _Coelogenys_ includes but two species. _C. paca_, known as the "Spotted Cavy" or "Paca," has a brown body, with white spots like those of a Dasyure; it is one of the largest of Rodents, and has a quite short tail. The hand and foot are both provided with five digits; but the thumb is small, and in the foot the three middle toes considerably exceed the others in length. The hind-foot is practically three-toed. The fibula is not nearly so reduced as in _Dolichotis_. The skull of the animal is remarkable for the extraordinary development in breadth of the jugal arch, which is sculptured externally. There is a large cavity formed below, at the maxillary end of this huge {494} arch, by the curving inwards of the bone, which lodges a cavity continuous with the mouth. The palate has anteriorly a ridge on either side, and is thus divided from the sides of the face in a way which is not found[364] in the allies of _Coelogenys_. Clavicles are present. There are thirteen dorsal vertebrae. The incisors are coloured red in front. The animal is South American, and in that continent is limited to the Brazilian sub-region. This, the best-known species of Paca, is called the Gualilla by the natives of Ecuador; in the same district another form is met with which the natives term Sachacui (signifying Forest Cavy). It is very often the case that a different native name expresses a real specific difference; and to the latter form M. T. Stolzmann has given the name of _C. taczanowskii_.[365] This form, unlike the common Paca, which is fond of forests and low-lying ground in the neighbourhood of water, is alpine in habitat, living upon mountains of 6000 to 10,000 feet. It burrows in much the same way as its congener, and is greatly sought after as food, its meat possessing an "exquisite taste." It is pursued by dogs, by whose aid one of the two entrances to the burrow is guarded, and the creature is smoked out and killed with a stick. The genus _Dasyprocta_, containing those Rodents known as Agoutis, is divisible into several species, apparently about twelve, all of which are, like the Pacas, confined to the Neotropical region. They have, however, a much wider range within that region, and occur as far north as in Central America and in some of the West Indian Islands. They are of rather smaller size than the Paca, and are without spots. The colour is of a golden brown in some forms, but usually has a freckled, grizzled, greenish kind of appearance. The tail is stumpy, the hind-limbs are distinctly longer than those of the Paca, and the two lateral toes have disappeared from the feet--a concomitant as it seems of the Agouti's greater powers of running. The three metatarsals are closely pressed together, and the foot is as it were on the way towards the highly-modified foot of the Jerboa. The fore-feet are, however, five-toed. The clavicle is rudimentary,[366] whereas it is well developed in the Paca. The skull has not the peculiar modifications of that of the last-mentioned type. The sternum has seven {495} pieces, and eight ribs reach it. A curious difference between this genus and the last is in the relative proportions of the regions of the intestine. The figures given by Tullberg for the two animals are--for _Coelogenys_, small intestine, 4800 mm.; caecum, 230 mm.; large intestine, 21,000 mm.;--for _Dasyprocta aguti_ the same author gives: small intestine, 4200 mm.; caecum, 200 mm.; large intestine, 1000 mm. The Agouti, says Mr. Rodway,[367] is as wily as the Fox. "If chased he will run along the shallows of a creek to hide his scent from the dogs, or swim over and back again several times for the same purpose. He never runs straight when pursued, but doubles, often hiding until a dog has passed, and then making off in a different direction. Like the fox he has been hunted for a very long period, and, like Reynard, has grown wiser with every generation." [Illustration] FIG. 242.--Agouti. _Dasyprocta aguti._ × 1/10. FAM. 5. DINOMYIDAE.--The genus _Dinomys_ of Dr. Peters[368] is a very little known and remarkable form from South America allied to the Capybara, the Chinchilla, and other South American Rodents. It is only known by a single example found wandering about a courtyard in a town of Peru. It is externally like, and of about the same size as the Paca, but has a hairy tail. The animal is four-toed and plantigrade; the ears are short, and the nostrils are [369]-shaped. It is usually regarded as belonging {496} to a separate family which will include but the one species, _D. branickii_. FAM. 6. CHINCHILLIDAE.--This family, likewise South American, contains three genera,[370] all of which agree in having long limbs, especially the hind-limbs, and a bushy and well-developed tail. The hair is exceedingly soft, hence the commercial value of "chinchilla." The genus _Chinchilla_, containing but a single species, _C. laniger_, is a small and squirrel-like creature, living at considerable heights in the Andes. The eyes, as it is a nocturnal creature, are naturally large; and so also are the ears. The fore-feet have five toes, the hind-feet only four; they are furnished with feeble nails. The innermost toe of the hind-foot has a flat and nail-like claw. There are thirteen dorsal vertebrae, and the long tail has more than twenty. The clavicle is well developed, as in the other genera of this family. The large intestine of this animal is extraordinarily long; the proportions of the different regions of the gut are shown by the following measurements: small intestine, 820 mm.; caecum, 125 mm.; large intestine, 1340 mm. Such a disproportion between the large intestine and the small, to the advantage of the former, is a very strange fact in the anatomy of this Rodent. The genus _Lagidium_ (also called _Lagotis_), which includes "Cuvier's Chinchilla," is also a mountain dweller. There are several species of this genus, which differs from _Chinchilla_ by the complete abortion of the thumb and of the great toe. The intestinal proportions are those of _Chinchilla_. The ears and tail are long. _L. cuvieri_ measures 1½ feet in length. _Lagostomus_, again, has but one species, _L. trichodactylus_. The animal has a tail about half the length of the body. The digits are reduced as compared with _Chinchilla_, there being but four on the fore- and three on the hind-feet. There are only twelve dorsal vertebrae, and seven ribs reach the sternum. In the skull a distinguishing mark from the last two genera is the separation of the infra-orbital foramen into two by a thin lamella of bone. The large intestine is between one-half and one-third the length of the small intestine, and thus differs much from that of _Chinchilla_. {497} [Illustration] FIG. 243.--Vizcacha. _Lagostomus trichodactylus._ × 1/10. The Vizcacha lives in societies of twenty to thirty members,[371] in a "village" ("Vizcachera"), a dozen or so of burrows, which intercommunicate. They lie at home during the day and come out in the evening. Their burrows, like those of the Prairie Marmot, harbour other creatures, which apparently live on amicable terms with the Vizcachas; such are the burrowing owl, a small swallow, and a _Geositta_. The Fox also affects these burrows, but then he ejects the rightful owner of the particular burrow which he selects. When the young Foxes are born the vixen hunts the Vizcachas for food. The Vizcacha has a most varied voice, producing "guttural, sighing, shrill, and deep tones," and Mr. Hudson doubts if there is "any other four-footed beast so loquacious or with a dialect so extensive." These animals are very friendly, and pay visits from village to village; they will attempt to rescue their friends if attacked by a Weasel or a Peccary, and to disinter those covered up in their burrows by man. FAM. 7. CERCOLABIDAE.--A number of the characters which differentiate this family from the Hystricidae or Ground Porcupines of the Old World are given under the description of the latter. The principal external characters are the prehensile tail, the admixture of spines with hairs, and the nature of the sole of the foot. In these points the New-World Cercolabidae differ from the Old-World Hystricidae. It is interesting to notice that {498} in both families we have long-tailed and short-tailed forms. _Cercolabes_ corresponds to _Atherura_ or _Trichys_, and _Erethizon_ to _Hystrix_. The genus _Erethizon_, the "Urson" of Canada, has a short, stumpy tail. Its spines are almost hidden by enveloping hair. The fore-feet have four, the hind-feet five toes. The short tail of this creature is remarkable when we reflect upon its climbing habits. It appears, however, to be a weapon with which it strikes sideways at the enemy. [Illustration] FIG. 244.--Brazilian Tree Porcupine. _Sphingurus prehensilis._ × 1/6. Of the Neotropical genus _Cercolabes_ (sometimes called _Sphingurus_, _Synetheres_, or _Coendou_) there are some eight or nine species, all found in Central and South America. The animal is arboreal, and has in correspondence with that habit a prehensile tail. The spines are not so stout as in the Ground Porcupines, and are often coloured yellowish or reddish. In correlation with its tree-frequenting habits the bones of _Cercolabes_ show certain differences from those of the Ground Porcupines. The scapula is broader and rounder in front than is that of _Hystrix_; the phalanges of the thumb (which is rudimentary) are fused together as in the Canadian _Erethizon_; but those of the very small hallux are also fused, whereas in _Erethizon_, as in _Hystrix_, they are separate. In one species, _C. insidiosus_, Sir W. Flower states that there are as many as seventeen dorsal vertebrae and thirty-six caudals. The tail is thus very long. In _C. villosus_ there are fifteen dorsals and twenty-seven caudals; eight ribs reach the sternum, which is composed of seven pieces, the {499} sixth being very small. The clavicles are well developed. A curious fact about _C. villosus_ is that the acetabular cavity is perforate (on both sides), or at least only closed by membrane. In many forms of Rodents the bone is very thin in this region. This fact perhaps lessens the significance of the perforation of the acetabulum of _Echidna_ (see p. 109). Of the allied genus _Chaetomys_, also Neotropical, there is but a single species, which inhabits Brazil. It has a nearly completely closed orbit, a feature which differentiates it from the last animal, and one which also shows it to be a more modified form. The spiny covering is less pronounced than in its allies. FAM. 8. HYSTRICIDAE.--This family is characterised by the fact that all its members possess spines; but the tail, if at all long, is not prehensile, and the soles of the feet are smooth and not covered with rough tubercles, as in the Tree Porcupines of the next family, Erethizontidae. The clavicle is less developed than in the arboreal forms. In the organs of digestion there are points of a family difference between the two groups of spiny Rodents. The tongue has serrated scales arranged in transverse rows, which are directed backwards. A gall-bladder, though not always present, is sometimes found; it apparently never exists in the arboreal Porcupines and in _Erethizon_. The lungs show a great tendency to subdivision, which appears to be especially marked in the genus _Atherura_. The caecum seems also to be shorter in the Ground Porcupines. In _Hystrix cristata_ the small intestine measures 15 feet 7 inches; the caecum, 8 inches; the large intestine, 4 feet 4 inches:--in _Atherura africana_ the caecum measures 7½ inches; the large intestine, 1 foot 10 inches. The corresponding measurements of _Synetheres villosus_ were: small intestine, 7 feet 3 inches; caecum, 1 foot 4 inches; large intestine, 2 feet 7 inches. In _Erethizon_ the caecum is 2 feet 4 inches in length. These differences are too large and too constant in a number of presumedly allied forms to be overlooked. Mr. Parsons has directed attention[372] also to a number of muscular differences, such indeed as might be expected to occur between animals of such different habits. The genus _Hystrix_ embraces the better-known Porcupines. It is a genus of wide range, extending from the East Indies to Africa, {500} and even occurring in Europe. There are several species, of which the common _Hystrix cristata_ is the best known, and is the one which is to be found in Europe. [Illustration] FIG. 245.--Common Porcupine. _Hystrix cristata._ × 1/10. The spines of the common form and of the others are solid in the middle of the body, but on the tail they are expanded into hollow quills, which make much rattling. They are as a rule black and white, the middle of the spine being banded with black. A great crest of coarse long hairs on the head is responsible for the scientific name of the well-known form. Sometimes in this genus, as in the Tree Porcupines of Brazil, the spines are orange or yellow; but it is said that the colour is soon lost in this country. As a matter of fact it is the easiest thing in the world to wash out with ordinary tap-water much of the yellow colour of the spines of the South American _Sphingurus_. The same may be the case with the pigment of the Old-World Porcupines. There are fourteen to fifteen dorsal vertebrae and four or five lumbars. The tail varies in length, but is shorter than the long tail of the arboreal New-World forms. It seems impossible when mentioning the Porcupine to escape from some observations about its alleged habit of shooting its quills. For some reason or other Buffon has got the credit of inventing, or at {501} least promulgating, this legend, which has even grown so in the telling that the quills are said to be capable of penetrating planks of wood. What Buffon said _apropos_ of this matter is, "The marvellous commonly is pleasingly believed, and increases in proportion to the number of hands it passes through." It is of course the rattling of the spines and the occasional falling out of loose ones which has started the legend. They are, however, excellent weapons of offence, and the animal charges somewhat backwards to make the best use of them against the foe. The spines, however, are by no means an absolute protection, since, as Mr. Ridley informs us,[373] Tigers will kill and eat these animals just as the Thylacine is apparently indifferent to the spiny armature of _Echidna_. Of the Brush-tail Porcupine, _Atherura_[374] there are at any rate two species, the West African _A. africana_ and the Malayan _A. fasciculata_. It is interesting that the gap in the present distribution is partially filled by the discovery of fossil teeth near Madras. The genus does not differ widely in external appearance from _Hystrix_; it has, however, a rather longer tail; there are fewer large spines, and there is a tuft of them at the end of the tail, whence is derived the name of the genus. The frontal bones project a little distance between the nasals, a feature which does not seem to appear in the true Porcupines. There are fourteen dorsal vertebrae and five lumbars. The twenty-four caudal vertebrae of this Porcupine shows how much longer is its tail than that of _Hystrix_; for in the latter twelve is about the number. A third genus of Old-World Porcupine is the singular _Trichys_.[375] Of this there is but one species, _T. lipura_. It is a curious fact that out of three examples, all from Borneo, two were quite without a tail. But this appears to be merely a mutilation, though it is singular that the natives state it to be without a tail. One cannot help thinking of the way in which lizards sometimes shed their tails when pecked at. The tail of this genus is more than half the length of the body and head. _Trichys_ has sixteen dorsal and six lumbar vertebrae. There is a tuft of quills at the end of the tail, which are thin and compressed, {502} though truncate at the free extremity and hollow; they represent in a more rudimentary way the much stronger tuft at the end of the tail of other Porcupines. It is a curious fact that this and other Porcupines possess a mechanism for warning their foes precisely comparable to that of the rattlesnake. There are sixteen dorsal vertebrae. SUB-ORDER 2. DUPLICIDENTATA. The chief feature of this group is the existence of two pairs of incisor teeth in the upper jaw, of which the inner are very small and lie behind the outer. In the skull the infra-orbital foramen is small; the incisive foramina are very large. The tail is short or absent. FAM. 1. LEPORIDAE.--This family is distinguished from the Lagomyidae by the long ears, by the tail, which is present, though short, and by the longer limbs. There are six teeth belonging to the molar series in the upper jaw, and five of the same in the lower. The clavicle is imperfect. The longest known genus of this family, _Lepus_, was, until the quite recent discovery of _Romerolagus_, the only genus. It is of universal range, excepting Australasia and Madagascar, and consists of about sixty species. These are the Hares and Rabbits, to the former being assigned the longer-limbed forms. As every text-book of zoology contains a more or less elaborate account of the structure of the Common Rabbit, and as there is but little structural difference between the members of the genus, a short account of the generic peculiarities of _Lepus_ will suffice here. The fore-feet are five-toed, the hind-limbs four-toed. The hairy integument enters the mouth cavity, and the inside of the cheeks have a hairy covering. The soles of the feet are, moreover, hairy. The maxillary bones are curiously sculptured. [Illustration] FIG. 246.--_Lepus cuniculus._ Skull. A, Lateral view; B, ventral view. _ang.pro_, Angular process of mandible; _as_, alisphenoid (external pterygoid process); _aud.me_, external auditory meatus; _b.oc_, basioccipital; _b.sph_, basisphenoid; _cond_, condyle; _cor_, coronoid process; _fr_, frontal; _int.pa_, inter-parietal; _ju_, jugal; _lcr_, lachrymal; _max_, maxilla; _nas_, nasal; _opt.fo_, optic foramen; _o.sph_, orbitosphenoid; _pa_, parietal; _pal_, palatine; _pal.max_, palatine plate of maxilla; _pal.p.max_, palatine process of premaxilla; _par.oc_, paroccipital process; _peri_, periotic; _p.max_, premaxilla; _pt_, pterygoid; _p.t.sq_, post-tympanic process of squamosal; _s.oc_, supraoccipital; _sq_, squamosal; _ty.bul_, tympanic bulla; _vo_, vomer; _zyg.max_, zygomatic process of maxilla. (From Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_.) The Common Rabbit, _L. cuniculus_, differs from the Common Hare in the comparatively shorter ears and legs. The ears have not, to so marked a degree, the black tips of those of the Hare. The animal, moreover, produces naked young, and lives in burrows of its own excavation. A difference in the structure of the caecum, which distinguishes the Rabbit from the Hare, has been {504} pointed out by Professor W. N. Parker.[376] These differences have led some to approve of its separation from the Hares into a genus _Oryctolagus_. This animal is believed to be an introduced species, and to have been brought by man into these islands. Its original home is the Spanish Peninsula, the south of France, Algiers, and some of the Mediterranean islands. Mr. Lydekker thinks that the only other species of _Lepus_ which can be considered to be a "Rabbit" is the Asiatic _L. hispidus_. Of Hares there are two species in this country. The Common Hare, _L. europaeus_ (the name _L. timidus_ seems to be really applicable to another species to be referred to presently), extends all over Europe excepting the extreme north of Russia and Scandinavia. It is not known in Ireland, and, curiously enough, attempts to acclimatise this animal in that island have failed--a state of affairs which contrasts with the fatal ease with which the Rabbit has been introduced into Australia. Ireland has, however, the Variable Hare, _L. timidus_ (also called _L. variabilis_), a species which is common in other parts of Europe, and which extends as far east as Japan. This species differs from its ally by the fact that it often turns white in winter with the exception of the black tips to the ears. In Ireland this change does not always occur; but Mr. Barrett-Hamilton has commented upon the fact that Hares of this species do change on Irish mountains. It appears that in this animal the change from the winter to the summer dress is accomplished by the actual casting off of the white hairs and their replacement by a fresh growth of "blue" hairs. A similar change occurs in the American _L. americanus_. Dr. Forsyth Major has noted the fact that the various species of Hares can be distinguished by the condition of the furrows upon the upper incisors. Thus two African species, _L. crawshayi_ and _L. whytei_, are to be separated by the fact that in the former the incisors are quite flat, whereas in _L. whytei_ the groove is more prominent and there is a second shallow furrow. The genus _Romerolagus_[377] is quite a recent discovery. It occurs on the slopes of Popocatepetl in Mexico; it has the general aspect of the last genus, and is spoken of as a "Rabbit." It inhabits runs in the long grass which clothes the sides of the {505} mountain. Externally it is something like the Pikas, since it has no tail visible. The ears, too, are short, and the hind-legs comparatively short. The skull is very like that of the Rabbit; but in other osteological details it is aberrant. Thus the clavicle is quite complete, and only six ribs articulate with the sternum, instead of the seven that we find in the Rabbit. FAM. 2. LAGOMYIDAE.--The animals of this family are smaller than the Hares and Rabbits; they have short Vole-like ears and no external tail. The limbs also appear to be shorter. As there is but a single genus, the characters of the family may be described in connexion with those of the genus, which is known as _Lagomys_ (apparently more correctly _Ochotona_). Of this genus there are about sixteen species, which are mainly Asiatic; one species extends its range into Eastern Europe, and three are North American. The skull has not the supra-orbital grooves of the Rabbits, and has a well-marked backward process of the zygomatic arch. There are eighteen dorsal vertebrae. The molars and premolars are five. The vernacular names of "Pika" and "Piping Hares" have been applied to the members of this genus, the latter on account of their peculiar call. They live among rocks in companies and they burrow. They are usually found at considerable altitudes: thus _L. roylei_, the "Himalayan Mouse Hare," is found at elevations as high as 16,000 feet; while _L. ladacensis_ gets even higher, 19,000 feet having been recorded. With the habits of a Marmot, so far as concerns living in burrows and at great altitudes, the animals of this genus, with their squat form and short ears, are not unlike those animals. In the past this genus occurred more generally over Europe. Species from Miocene beds have been met with in England, France, Germany, and Italy. FOSSIL RODENTS.--Quite a large number of existing genera of Rodents are known from even the earlier strata of the Tertiary period. The Squirrels (and even the genus _Sciurus_ itself) occur in the Upper Eocene. So, too, do the genera _Myoxus_, and (in South America) _Lagostomus_. _Spermophilus_, _Acomys_, _Hystrix_, _Lagomys_, _Lepus_, _Hesperomys_ are known from Miocene rocks. _Rhizomys_, _Castor_, _Cricetus_, _Mus_, _Microtus_, and some others appear to have originated so far as we know in the Pliocene, while a still larger series of existing genera are Pleistocene. It is interesting {506} to note that some of the extinct genera were much larger than recent forms. At present, _Hydrochoerus_ is the biggest Rodent; but the genus _Megamys_ from the Pampas formation of Argentina was "nearly as large as an ox." The wider range of genera in the past is illustrated by _Hystrix_, which, now an Old-World form, is represented by remains in the Miocene and Pliocene of America. It is a significant fact that of living genera _Sciurus_ is the oldest; for it has been pointed out that in a number of features the Squirrels are among the most primitive of Rodents. The zygomatic arch is slender, and has thus not acquired the specialisation that is to be found in that part of the skull in other Rodents; moreover, the "jugal bone is not supported by any process from the maxilla exactly as in the primitive Ungulata." The feet, too, are unspecialised, though that is the case with many other genera. It may also be pointed out that the teeth bear not a little likeness to those of _Ornithorhynchus_ in their multituberculate character. Some few fossil forms have already been dealt with in the preceding pages. The two genera _Castoroides_ and _Amblyrhiza_, from the Pleistocene of North America and the West Indies, are usually regarded as forming a family. The skull of the former genus indicates an animal of the size of a Bear. It is compared to that of _Castor_, but it has a wide infra-orbital foramen. The teeth are four in each jaw, and are formed of three to five lamellae; the incisors of this animal are powerful but short. _Amblyrhiza_, on the other hand, has long incisors which are longitudinally grooved anteriorly. It has a free fibula. This latter as well as other characters have led Tullberg to remove it from association with _Castoroides_. ORDER X. TILLODONTIA. This group of Eocene mammals is to be defined by a number of characters, of which the more important are the following:--The incisors are enlarged, grow from persistent pulps, and are coated with enamel upon the outer surface only; they are those of the second pair only, the first and third having disappeared or become small. The canines are reduced in the later forms. {507} [Illustration] FIG. 247.--_Tillotherium fodiens._ Left lateral view of skull. (From Flower, after Marsh.) These animals have been regarded as ancestral Rodents, to which the tooth characters just mentioned clearly show likenesses. The earliest known form is _Esthonyx_. This genus shows such primitive characters, compared with its later representatives, as the existence of all three pairs of incisors in the upper jaw, but only two in the lower jaw. The enlarged incisors of both jaws do not seem to have grown from persistent pulps. _Anchippodus_, a later form, still preserves the upper pair of first incisors in a vestigial form; the strong second incisors grew from persistent pulps. The most recent genus, _Tillotherium_, shows the characteristics of the group at their height. The strong Rodent-like, chisel-shaped incisors, which are reinforced by a small additional pair in the upper jaws only, are persistent. The grinding teeth are of the tritubercular pattern; there are three of each kind in the upper jaw, but in the lower jaw only two premolars on each side. This is at any rate the case with some, while others have three. The canine, though present in both jaws, is insignificant. As in many ancient types, there is an entepicondylar foramen in the humerus. The feet were five-toed, and bore sharp, laterally-compressed claws. The skull has been compared in general aspect to that of a Bear. * * * * * {508} CHAPTER XVI INSECTIVORA--CHIROPTERA ORDER XI. INSECTIVORA. The Insectivora[378] are an order of mammals to which it is (to quote Professor Huxley) "exceedingly difficult to give a definition." They are, however, none of them large animals, and most of them are nocturnal in habit--two circumstances which may have had something to do with their survival from past ages, as may have also their modification to so many and diverse modes of life; for everything points to the antiquity of the group. They are, for instance, more or less plantigrade. The snout is generally long, and is often prolonged into a short proboscis.[379] There is a tendency for the teeth to be of a generalised type, and their number is often the typical mammalian forty-four. Moreover, trituberculate teeth, which are certainly an ancient form of tooth, are common; and indeed the Insectivora of the southern regions of the globe, _e.g._ Centetidae, Solenodontidae, and Chrysochloridae, have the most prevalent trituberculism, a fact which is of importance in considering the age of the animal life of these regions of the world. The limbs are, as a rule, provided with five digits. The hemispheres of the brain are usually smooth, and do not extend over the cerebellum. The palate is often fenestrate as in the Marsupials, and as in that group the lower jaw is sometimes inflected. But the latter character also occurs in the Sea-lions and elsewhere. Clavicles are present, as a rule, but not in _Potamogale_. {509} There is, furthermore, a distinct tendency towards a disappearance of functional milk teeth, which is best seen in _Sorex_, where there are only seven milk teeth, none of which ever cut the gum. This suppression of the milk dentition is like that of the Marsupials, Edentates, and Whales, all of which appear to be--the first certainly are--ancient forms of mammalian life. There is also a fairly well-defined, though shallow, cloaca in many genera. Finally, the testes are purely abdominal in some, and in none is there a full descent into a scrotum, as in the more highly-developed Eutheria. SUB-ORDER 1. INSECTIVORA VERA. FAM. 1. ERINACEIDAE.--This family contains the genera _Erinaceus_, _Hylomys_, and _Gymnura_. _Hylomys_, considered by Dobson to fall within _Gymnura_, is kept separate by Leche.[380] _H. suillus_ is a Malayan animal, small in size, about 5 inches long, with a short tail. Like _Gymnura_ it is spineless. The ears are decidedly large and nude. There is one pair of inguinal and one pair of thoracic teats. The colour above is a rusty brown with yellowish-white under parts. The palms and soles are quite naked. In its general form it recalls _Tupaia_ very much more than its own immediate relatives. There is no doubt, however, of its systematic position when the skeleton and teeth are examined. A variety has been described from altitudes of 3000 to 8000 feet on Mount Kina Balu in Borneo. It has the complete dentition of forty-four teeth. There are fourteen pairs of ribs. As in _Gymnura_ the tibia and fibula are united below. The genus is considered by Leche to be the oldest existing type of Erinaceidae. _Gymnura_[381] is also a Malayan form with the complete dentition of the last, but with fifteen pairs of ribs and a longer tail, consisting of twenty-three vertebrae as against fourteen. There is, as with _Hylomys_, but one species, _G. rafflesii_. This animal has a peculiar odour, resembling decomposed cooked vegetables. {510} The under surface of the tail is rough, and it is thought by Dr. Blanford that it may be of use to the animal in climbing. Its compressed terminal third and the fringe of stiff bristles on the under surface of this indicate, according to Dr. Dobson, powers of swimming, or at any rate a not very remote ancestry of swimming creatures. It is purely insectivorous in diet. _Erinaceus_, including the Hedgehogs, is a widely distributed genus--Palaearctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian in range. There are about twenty species. The familiar spines distinguish the Hedgehogs from their allies, as also the fact that they possess but thirty-six teeth, the formula being I 3/2 C 1/1 Pm 3/2 M 3/3. There are fifteen or fourteen ribs, and the tail is very short, consisting of only twelve vertebrae. As in _Gymnura_ there is no caecum. The upper canine has usually, as in other Erinaceidae, two roots, but not in _E. europaeus_, which is one of the most modified of Hedgehogs. The Hedgehog is a more omnivorous creature than _Gymnura_. It eats not only insects and slugs, but also chickens and young game birds, and lastly vipers. Four, or in some cases as many as five or six, young are produced at a birth; they are blind, with soft and flexible white spines. In hot and dry weather Hedgehogs disappear; they come forth in rainy weather. The English Hedgehog, as is well known, hibernates. The Indian species do not. The Hedgehog is occasionally spineless, which condition may be regarded as an atavistic reversion.[382] The Hedgehog has acquired the reputation of carrying off apples transfixed upon its spines. Blumenbach thus quaintly describes this and other habits of the animal, whose English name he gives as "hedgidog": "Il se nourrit des productions des deux règnes organisés, miaule comme un chat, et peut avaler une quantité énorme de mouches cantharides. Il est certain qu'il pique les fruits avec les épines de son dos, et les porte ainsi dans son terrier."[383] The Miocene _Palaeoerinaceus_ is so little different from _Erinaceus_ that it is really hardly generically separable. _Erinaceus_ is therefore clearly one of the oldest living genera of mammals. _Necrogymnura_ of the same epoch and the same beds (Quercy Phosphorites) is doubtless an ancestral form. The palate is {511} perforated as in _Erinaceus_ (it is not so in _Gymnura_ and _Hylomys_), but on the whole it comes nearest to _Hylomys_. FAM. 2. TUPAIIDAE.--This family contains the genera _Tupaia_ and _Ptilocercus_. _Tupaia_ is Oriental in range, extending as far east as Borneo. There are a dozen or so of species, which are generally arboreal and have the outward aspect of Squirrels. It has been suggested that this is a case of mimicry, the animal gaining some advantage by its likeness to the Rodent. The name Tupaia, it should be added, means Squirrel, and the long-nosed Squirrel, _Sciurus laticaudatus_, is so extraordinarily like it that "one has to look at the teeth" to distinguish them. Moreover this Squirrel, like some Tupaias, lives largely on the ground among fallen logs. _Tupaia_ resembles a Lemur in the complete orbit. The dental formula is I 2/3 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 3/3 = 38. The sublingua, too, is stated by Garrod to be like that of _Chiromys_. There is a minute caecum in _T. belangeri_, none in _T. tana_. _Ptilocercus_[384] has a pen-like posterior portion to the tail, a modification which is found in other groups of animals. The tail of certain Phalangers, for instance, shows this same modification. The rest of the tail is scaly. The animal, as was pointed out by Dr. Gray,[385] looks very much like a Phalanger. The orbit is entire as in _Tupaia_. The fingers and toes are five. The one species, called after Sir Hugh Low, G.C.M.G., _P. lowi_, is a Bornean animal. FAM. 3. CENTETIDAE.--This family is entirely confined to the Island of Madagascar. It includes some seven genera. The best-known genus is _Centetes_. _C. ecaudatus_, the Tanrec, Tenrec, or Tendrac, is an animal a foot or so in length, without a tail, and with forty-four teeth.[386] The immature animal is so different from the parent as to appear quite a different form. It has three narrow rows of spines along the back, which do not wholly disappear until the permanent dentition has been acquired. Even then the hairs are of a rather spiny character, particularly those upon the back of the head, which are erected when the animal is {512} annoyed. The Tanrec feeds mainly upon earthworms. It is "probably the most prolific of all animals," since as many as twenty-one young are said to have been brought forth at a birth. Some Opossums, however, have twenty-five teats. [Illustration] FIG. 248.--Skull of Tenrec. _Centetes ecaudatus._ _fr_, Frontal; _max_, maxilla; _pa_, parietal; _p.max_, premaxilla; _sq_, squamosal. (After Dobson.) _Hemicentetes_[387] is a genus with two species. These have spines mixed with the fur of the back. There is no caecum in this or in other Centetidae. The teeth are forty in number, there being only three molars. _Ericulus setosus_ is a small Insectivore, resembling externally a small Hedgehog. It is covered with close-set spines which, unlike what is found in _Erinaceus_, extend over the short tail. The total number of teeth is thirty-six, the formula being I 2/2 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 3/3. _Echinops_[388] is another spiny genus which is a stage in advance of _Ericulus_, for still another molar has been lost, reducing the total number of teeth to thirty-two. The dental formula is thus I 2/2 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 2/2. The zygomata are reduced to mere threads. _Microgale_, a genus recently instituted by Mr. Thomas, is a small furry Insectivore with a long tail, which is more than double the length of the head and body. There are no less than forty-seven vertebrae in the tail, which is relatively longer than that of any other mammal. _Limnogale_, discovered by Forsyth Major, is an aquatic genus, also furry and not spiny, which has departed from the Centetid type and taken to an aquatic life. The single species, {513} _L. mergulus_, is about the size of _Mus rattus_; it has webbed toes and a powerful laterally-compressed tail. Clavicles are present, which is not the case with _Potamogale_. _Oryzoryctes_ is a Mole-like Centetid. It has fossorial fore-limbs, but a fairly long tail. This genus is furry like the last two. It is said to burrow in the rice-fields and to do much harm. The teeth are forty in number, three incisors and three molars in each half of each jaw. FAM. 4. POTAMOGALIDAE.--This family contains two genera, _Potamogale_ and _Geogale_. _Potamogale velox_ is a West African animal, which though an Insectivore has the habits of an Otter. It is "somewhat larger than a stoat." The upper surface of the body is dark brown, the belly brownish yellow. It has a flat head and a long tail like the Stoat, but the tail is laterally compressed and very thick. The eyes are very small; the nostril has valves. The toes are not webbed; but the second and third toes are united for the whole length of their first phalanges. Along the outer side of the foot is a thin extension of the integument. In swimming the feet are drawn up along the body, hence webbing would be of no use; but the thin flattening prevents the edge of the foot from acting as a hindrance to the motion of the animal. M. du Chaillu describes it as catching fish, which it pursues with extreme rapidity in the clear mountain streams it frequents; but Dr. Dobson, remarking that no stomachs have been examined, thinks that water insects are more probably its prey. It is not known whether the animal possesses a caecum. The tooth formula[389] is I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 3/3. The animal is exceptional among the Insectivora in having no clavicles.[390] There are sixteen ribs; there is no zygomatic arch, and the pterygoids converge posteriorly. _Geogale_, with one species, _G. aurita_, is a small representative of this family from Madagascar. It has only thirty-four teeth. When better known it may be necessary, thinks Mr. Lydekker, to make this animal the type of a separate family. The tibia and fibula are distinct, not confluent with one another as in _Potamogale_. FAM. 5. SOLENODONTIDAE.--This family contains but a single genus. {514} _Solenodon._ This genus, including two species, one from Cuba, the other from Hayti, was at one time referred to the Centetidae. It offers, however, numerous points of difference from the members of that family with some general points of agreement. Possibly its isolation in the two West Indian islands mentioned is comparable to the isolation of the Centetidae in Madagascar; they are both survivors of an ancient group of Insectivores extinct elsewhere. _Solenodon_ has nearly the complete dentition. It has lost only one premolar, and has therefore forty teeth in all. The formula is thus I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 3/3. It also differs from the Centetidae in having only two inguinal mammae instead of both inguinal and thoracic; the penis of the male does not project from a cloaca, but lies forward. On the other hand, the molars have their cusps arranged in the [391]-fashion of the Centetidae, a fact, however, which, in the opinion of some, merely points to an ancient trituberculism not indicative of special affinity. It has, moreover, no zygoma in the skull, and there is no caecum. Dr. Dobson has furthermore tabulated a number of differences in muscular anatomy between the two families. _Solenodon_ has a long naked tail. The snout, always developed in Insectivores, is extraordinarily long in this genus. It is a furry, not a spiny animal. _S. cubanus_ is liable to fits of rage when irritated, a feature which it has in common with Shrews and Moles; it is also stated to have the ostrich-like way of concealing its head in a crevice, "apparently thinking itself then secure." But nothing is known of the genus in a wild state. FAM. 6. CHRYSOCHLORIDAE.--This family contains only the genus _Chrysochloris_, comprising some five species, all natives of Africa south of the equator. The scientific name of the genus, and also the vernacular name Cape Golden Mole, are derived from the beautiful iridescent hairs which are intermingled with softer and non-iridescent fur. _Chrysochloris_ has [392]-shaped cusped teeth like those that are possessed by the Centetidae and Solenodontidae. In the skull as in the Macroscelidae, etc., but not in the Centetidae, there are complete zygomata. They are Moles in habit, and the eyes are covered with skin; the ears, moreover, have no conches. The teeth are forty or thirty-six in number, the reduction being caused by the losing of a molar in those forms which possess the smaller number.[393] It is interesting to notice that the {515} adaptation to a digging life is brought about in quite a different way from that of the true Moles (_Talpa_). In the latter the fore-limbs are changed in position by the elongation of the manubrium sterni, carrying with it the clavicles, which are extraordinarily shortened (Fig. 251). In _Chrysochloris_, on the other hand, the same need (_i.e._ that the limbs project as little as possible from the sides of the body, while the length of the limbs is retained, and the leverage of the muscles unaffected) is provided for by a hollowing out of the walls of the thorax, the ribs and the sternum being here convex inwards. The sternum and the clavicles are not modified. The tibia and fibula are ankylosed below. In the manus, moreover, there are but four digits, of which the two middle ones are greatly enlarged. In the Moles there are five fingers, and all are enlarged; there is, too, a great radial sesamoid bone, which is as good as a sixth finger (which, indeed, it is considered to be, in common with similar structures in other animals, by some anatomists). The foot has only four toes. [Illustration] FIG. 249.--Golden Mole. _Chrysochloris trevelyani._ A, Lower surface of fore-foot. × ½. (After Günther.) FAM. 7. MACROSCELIDAE.[394]--This family contains three genera, all of them African in range, and mainly Ethiopian. _Macroscelides_, the Elephant Shrews, are jumping creatures of Shrew-like appearance, combined with a Marsupial look. Both radius and ulna, and tibia and fibula, are ankylosed. There {516} are five fingers and toes. There is a caecum as in but few Insectivores. The tooth formula, as revised by Thomas,[395] is I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M 2/(2 or 3), the total number being thus forty or forty-two. There are several species of this genus. [Illustration] FIG. 250.--_Rhynchocyon chrysopygus._ × ¼. (After Günther.) _Rhynchocyon_ and _Petrodromus_ differ from _Macroscelides_ in not having such long hind-legs. The dental formula of the first is I (1 or 0)/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M 2/2 = 34 or 36, of the latter I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M 2/2 = 40. In _Petrodromus_ the toes are reduced to four; in _Rhynchocyon_ there are only four digits in the manus as well as in the pes. This animal, as its name implies, has a longish proboscis, which can be bent, and is really very like a miniature Elephant's trunk, and also like that of the Desman (_Myogale_). It has thirteen pairs of ribs, and a well-developed caecum. Dr. Günther has pointed out that in _Petrodromus tetradactylus_ the hairs of the lower part of the tail are stiff elastic bristles 5 mm. long, with a swelling at the free tip. The use of this singular modification is not at all apparent. _Pseudorhynchocyon_, of European Oligocene, is believed to be related to this family. [Illustration] [Illustration] FIG. 251.--Sternum and sternal ribs of the Common Mole (_Talpa europaea_), with the clavicles (_cl_) and humeri (_H_); _M_, Manubrium sterni. Nat. size. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) FIG. 252.--Bones of fore-arm and manus of Mole (_Talpa europaea_). × 2. _C_, Cuneiform; _ce_, centrale; _l_, lunar; _m_, magnum; _p_, pisiform; _R_, radius; _rs_, radial sesamoid (falciform); _s_, scaphoid; _td_, trapezoid; _tm_, trapezium; _U_, ulna; _u_, unciform; _I-V_, the digits. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) FAM. 8. TALPIDAE.--This family is confined to the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions, or practically so, being fairly equally {517} distributed as regards genera; a Mole just gets over the boundary into the Oriental region. The genus _Talpa_ is entirely Old World in range, and includes several species, of which the Common Mole, _T. europaea_, is the best known. There are forty teeth, one of the molars of the full mammalian dentition not being represented. In the milk dentition there is an additional premolar, not represented by a successor in the permanent dentition. The formula is thus I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M 3/3. There are no external ears, and the eyes are rudimentary; the soft silky fur is familiar to everybody. The sternum has a strong crest, associated with a powerful development of the pectoral muscles, so necessary to a burrowing animal. The animal, it is hardly necessary to state, lives underground in burrows excavated by itself, which have not, it has been stated, the elaborate and, it appears, fanciful shape assigned to them by many writers. At times Moles appear above ground. {518} Their principal food consists of earthworms, and it may not be out of place to quote Topsell's quaint account of their pursuit of the annelids: "When the wormes are followed by molds (for by digging and heaving they foreknow their owne perdition) they fly to the superficies and very toppe of the earth, the silly beast knowing that the molde, their adversary, dare not followe them into the light, so that their wit in flying their enemy is greater than in turning againe when they are troade upon." It has lately been said[396] that Moles store up earthworms for consumption during the winter, biting off their heads to prevent their crawling away. _Scalops_, an American genus, is a Mole-like creature of largely aquatic habits, as its webbed hind-feet show; it has a short, naked tail. Apparently, like the Shrews, it has no lower canines. _Condylura_, another American genus, is called the Star-nosed Mole on account of a curious radiating structure at the end of the snout. _Myogale_, the Desman, is still more aquatic in habit, and connects the Moles with the Shrews, though, as in many of the former, it has lower canines. It has webbed hind-feet and a long tail. One species occurs in the Pyrenees, the other in Russia. A few other genera (_Urotrichus_, _Uropsilus_, _Scaptonyx_, _Dymecodon_, _Scapasius_, _Perascalops_) belong to the same family. FAM. 9. SORICIDAE.--The true Shrews have a much wider range than other families of the present order. In the Palaearctic region are found _Sorex_, _Crossopus_, _Crocidura_, _Nectogale_, _Chimarrogale_. The first is also Nearctic, and reaches Central America. In the Ethiopian region is the single peculiar genus _Myosorex_, but _Crocidura_ occurs there also. _Blarina_ and _Notiosorex_ are "Sonoran" in range; _Soriculus_ Oriental. _Crocidura_, _Anurosorex_, and _Chimarrogale_ also enter this region. _Sorex_ has teeth tipped with reddish colour, its dental formula being, according to Mr. Woodward's recent researches, I 3/(2 or 3) C 1/0 Pm 3/1 M 3/3 = 32 or 34. As compared with other Insectivores, therefore, the most remarkable fact found throughout the family is the absence of the lower canines. In addition to this the genus may be known--the family indeed--by the large size of the first pair of incisors. In the above formula it is possible, thinks Mr. Woodward, that there may be errors; he is not certain whether the supposed {519} upper canine may not be a fourth incisor, and whether the first premolar may not be really the canine. Another peculiar feature about the dentition of _Sorex_ is the suppression of the teeth of the milk dentition, which are functionless, and probably uncalcified. The genus _Sorex_ is terrestrial. The tail is long and covered with hairs. There are two species in this country, _S. vulgaris_ and _S. minutus_. The former is the Shrew of legend and superstition; and it is no doubt the species that has lent its name to the more untameable members of the softer sex, though it is the males which are especially pugnacious. As to legend, everybody has heard of the shrew ash whose leaves, after a Shrew has been inserted living into a hole cleft in the tree, are a specific for diseases of cattle, caused by the Shrew itself creeping over them. The Rev. Edward Topsell, author of _The Historie of Four-footed Beastes_, who defends his veracity by asserting that he does not write "for the rude and vulgar sort, who being utterly ignorant of the operation of learning, do presently condemne al strange things," says of the Shrew that "it is a ravening beast, feigning itself gentle and tame, but, being touched, it biteth deep and poysoneth deadly. It beareth a cruel minde, desiring to hurt anything, neither is there any creature that it loveth, or it loveth him, because it is feared of all." It is probable that all this rustic feeling is due to the powerful effluvium which the Shrew undoubtedly emits. _S. minutus_ has the distinction of being the smallest British mammal; it is scarcer than the last. This form is found upon the Alps, as is also the peculiarly Alpine species _S. alpinus_, which inhabits the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians, and the Hartz. _Crossopus fodiens_, the Water Shrew, has also brown-stained teeth. It is not uncommon in this country, and lives in burrows excavated by the sides of the streams which it affects. Besides these two genera, _Soriculus_, _Blarina_, and _Notiosorex_ have red-tipped teeth. In _Crocidura_, _Myosorex_, _Diplomesodon_, _Anurosorex_, _Chimarrogale_, and _Nectogale_ the teeth are white-tipped. These are all the genera of the family allowed by the late Dr. Dobson in a review of that family.[397] _Chimarrogale_ and _Nectogale_ are aquatic genera. The former {520} consists of a Himalayan and Bornean, and of a Japanese species, which have not webbed feet, but have a tail with a fringe of elongated hairs. _Nectogale elegans_ is one of the characteristic animals of the Thibetan plateau. It has webbed feet. The teeth are as in _Chimarrogale_ I 3/2 C 1/0 Pm 1/1 M 3/3. The other genera are terrestrial in habit. SUB-ORDER 2. DERMOPTERA. [Illustration] FIG. 253.--_Galeopithecus volans._ × 1/3. (After Vogt and Specht.) The family GALEOPITHECIDAE contains but one genus, which has been at times referred to the Lemurs, to the Bats, or has been made the type of a special order of mammals. It is better to regard it as an aberrant Insectivore--so different indeed from other forms that it requires a special sub-order for its reception. {521} _Galeopithecus_[398] inhabits the Oriental region. It is a larger animal than any other Insectivore, about the size of a Cat, and has a patagium extending between the neck and the fore-limb, between the fore-limb and the hind-limb, and between the hind-limb and the tail. This patagium is abundantly supplied with musculature, but the fingers are not elongated as in the Bats for its support. In the degree of its development, however, the patagium of this creature is midway between that of _Sciuropterus_ on the one hand, and the Bats on the other. It presents many remarkable features in its organisation. The brain is like that of the Insectivora in the exposure of the corpora quadrigemina by the slight extension backward of the cerebral hemispheres; but its upper surface is marked by two longitudinal furrows on each side, a state of affairs (in combination) which is unparalleled among the Mammalia. The teeth are peculiar by reason of the singular "comb-like" structure of the lower incisors. This, however, is an exaggeration of what is to be found in _Rhynchocyon_ and _Petrodromus_, while the same style of tooth, though not so highly developed, characterises certain Bats. The Tupaiidae and certain Lemurs show what Dr. Leche regards as the beginning of the same thing. As in _Tupaia_ also there is an indication of the characteristically Lemurine sublingua. The stomach is more specialised than in other Insectivores, the pyloric region being extended as a narrowish tube. There is a caecum. A peculiarity of the intestinal tract is that the large intestine is longer than the small. ORDER XII. CHIROPTERA. We may thus define the Bats:--Flying mammals, with the phalanges of the four digits of the hand following the pollex greatly elongated, and supporting between themselves and the hind-limbs and tail a thin integumental membrane, which forms the wing. The radius is long and curved; the ulna rudimentary. The knee is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the limb outward by the wing membrane. From the inner side of the ankle-joint arises a cartilaginous process, the calcar, which supports the interfemoral part of the wing {522} membrane. The mammae are thoracic; the placenta discoidal and deciduate. The cerebral hemispheres, which are smooth, do not extend over the cerebellum. [Illustration] FIG. 254.--Barbastelle. _Synotus barbastellus._ × ½. (After Vogt and Specht.) This large order of mammals was once placed with the Primates. There is no doubt, however, that they form a perfectly distinct order; no knowledge of fossil forms in any way bridges over the gap which distinguishes them from the highest mammals. The most salient feature in their organisation is clearly the wings. These consist of membrane, an expansion of the integument, provided with nerves, blood-vessels, etc., which mainly lie stretched between the digits 2 to 5. These digits themselves, which are enormously elongated, act like the ribs of an umbrella, and when the wing is folded they come into contact. Besides this part of the flying apparatus there is a tract of membrane lying in front of the arm, which corresponds to the wing membrane of the bird, but which in the Bats takes quite a subordinate place. In the bird, on the other hand, there is a metapatagium, which is the main part of the wing of the Bat. It seems just possible that in _Archaeopteryx_ the metapatagium was more Bat-like. Furthermore, a steering membrane, like that which fringes the tail in some Pterosaurians, lies interfemorally in Bats, and includes the whole or a part of the tail. The pollex takes no share in the wing, but projects, strongly armed with a claw, from the upper margin. The bones of this order of mammals are slender and marrowy; they are thus light, and subserve the function of flight. A most remarkable feature among the external characters of the Bat tribe is the extraordinary and often highly complicated membranes which surround the nostrils. These are at least often {523} more strongly developed in males than in females, and may perhaps be partly relegated to the category of secondary sexual characters. But it seems that they have also an important tactile function, and enable the creatures to fly without touching bodies which intrude themselves upon their way. The ears, too, are frequently very large, and it may be supposed that the sense of hearing is correspondingly acute. In the common Long-eared Bat of this country, the ears are not greatly inferior in length to the head and body of the animal combined. The ears are of every variety of shape, and offer characters which are valuable in the systematic arrangement of the members of the order. [Illustration] FIG. 255.--Skeleton of Flying Fox. _Pteropus jubatus._ × 1/8. (After de Blainville.) In the skull of Bats there is very rarely a complete separation between the orbital and temporal fossae; the lachrymal duct is outside the orbit. The tympanics are annular, and in a rudimentary condition. The centra {524} of the vertebrae tend to become ankylosed in old individuals; the caudals have no processes, but are like those quite at the end of the series in long-tailed animals. The sternum is keeled for the better attachment of the pectoral muscles, the chief muscles of flight. The ribs, which are much flattened, are occasionally ankylosed together by their margins. There is a well-developed clavicle. In the carpus the scaphoid, lunar, and cuneiform are all fused together. In the hind-limb the fibula is rarely fully developed. The Bats are divisible into two primary groups, which are those of the Megachiroptera and the Microchiroptera. SUB-ORDER 1. MEGACHIROPTERA. [Illustration] FIG. 256.--Skull of _Pteropus fuscus_. × 3/2. (After de Blainville.) The PTEROPODIDAE are frugivorous Bats, usually of large size. The chief distinguishing feature is the fact that the molars are not tubercular, but marked with a longitudinal furrow, which is, however, concealed in the genus _Pteralopex_ by cusps. The palate is continued back behind the molars. The index finger has three phalanges, and is usually clawed. The ears are oval, and the two edges are in contact at the base of the ear. The tail, if present, has nothing to do with the interfemoral membrane. This group is entirely Old World in range. The genus _Pteropus_ embraces the creatures known as Flying Foxes. They are the largest forms in the sub-order, sometimes having an expanse of wing of 5 feet (this is the case with _P. edulis_). The muzzle is long, and the face therefore "foxy" in appearance. {525} The inner margin of the nostrils projects, a preparation for the tubular nostrils of _Harpyia_. The tail is absent. The premolars are three and the molars two. The pyloric region of the stomach is extended and twisted upon itself. Of this genus there are nearly sixty species, extending from Madagascar to Queensland. Thirty species inhabit the Australian, twenty the Oriental region. Madagascar has seven, and one species just enters the Palaearctic. The occurrence of this genus in India and in Madagascar is one of those facts which favour the view supported, on these and other grounds, by Dr. Dobson and Dr. Blanford that a connexion between India and Madagascar must once have existed; for these slow-flying creatures could hardly be believed capable of traversing vast stretches of ocean by their unaided efforts.[399] [Illustration] FIG. 257.--Flying Fox. _Pteropus poliocephalus._ × 1/3. _Pteropus_ is represented in the Ethiopian region by the allied genus _Epomophorus_. Of this there are perhaps a dozen species. The teeth are reduced to two premolars in the upper jaw, {526} three remaining below; while there is but one molar in each upper jaw, and two in each lower. Dr. Dobson has studied the structure of the remarkable pharyngeal sacs which exist in the neck of the male, and are capable of inflation. _Pteralopex_ of the Solomon Islands has shorter ears than have many _Pteropus_, otherwise its external characters are the same. As in _Pteropus nicobaricus_, this genus has the orbits shut off by a bony ring, an extremely rare phenomenon in Bats. The canines have two cusps. The characters of the grinding teeth have already been mentioned. It is uncertain whether the only species of this genus, _P. atrata_, is, or is not, a vegetable feeder. _Harpyia_ has shortish ears and extraordinarily prolonged and tubular nostrils. There is a hint of the accessory cusp to the canines mentioned above in _Pteralopex_. The incisors are reduced to one on each upper jaw, and none below. _Cynopterus_ has also often bituberculate canines. It is an Oriental genus with several species. _Nesonycteris_, with one species from the Solomon Islands, _N. woodfordi_, has the dental formula I 2/1 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 2/3. The index finger has no claw; the tail is absent. The premaxillae are separated anteriorly. _Eonycteris_, with a single cave-dwelling species from Burmah, _E. spelaea_, has also no claw upon the index; the tooth formula is fuller by reason of the presence of an additional incisor below. The tongue is very long and is armed with papillae. There is a short but distinct tail. _Notopteris_, from New Guinea and the Fiji Islands, is distinguished from the related genera by its long tail. The remaining genera of Fruit Bats are _Boneia_, _Harpyionycteris_, _Cephalotes_, _Callinycteris_, and _Macroglossus_, from the Oriental region, and _Scotonycteris_, _Liponyx_, and _Megaloglossus_ from the Ethiopian region; finally, there is the Australian _Melonycteris_. SUB-ORDER 2. MICROCHIROPTERA. The members of this sub-order are mostly insectivorous though occasionally "frugivorous or sanguivorous" Bats. The molars are multicuspid with sharp cusps. The palate is not continued back behind the last molar. The second finger has but one phalanx, or {527} none; occasionally there are two. It has no claw. The ear has its two sides separate from their point of origin upon the head. The group is of Old-World distribution. FAM. 1. RHINOLOPHIDAE.--The Bats of this family possess the leafy outgrowths around the nostrils. The ears are large, but have no tragus. The index finger has no phalanx at all. The premaxillary bones are quite rudimentary, and are suspended from the nasal cartilages. In addition to the pectoral mammae they have two teat-like processes situated abdominally. The tail is long, and extends to the end of the interfemoral membrane. The genus _Rhinolophus_ has a large nose leaf, and an antitragus to the ear. The first toe has two joints, the remaining toes have three joints each. The dentition is I 1/2 C 1/1 Pm 2/3 M 3/3. There are nearly thirty species of the genus, which are restricted to the Old World. Two species occur in this country, viz. _R. ferrum equinum_, the Great Horse-shoe Bat, and the Lesser Horse-shoe Bat, _R. hipposiderus_. The name is of course derived from the shape of the nose leaf. The genus _Hipposiderus_ and some allied forms are placed away from _Rhinolophus_ and its immediate allies in a sub-family _Hipposiderinae_. The type genus _Hipposiderus_, or, as it ought apparently to be called, _Phyllorhina_, is Old World in range, like all the other members of the family. The nose leaf is complicated, and there are only two phalanges in all the toes; there is no antitragus to the ear. A curious feature in the osteology of the genus, and indeed of the sub-family, is the fact that the ileo-pectineal process is connected with the ilium by a bony bridge; this arrangement is unique among mammals. The genus _Anthops_, only known from the Solomon Islands, and represented there by but a single species (_A. ornatus_), has an extraordinarily complicated nose leaf. The tail, like that of the Oriental _Coelops_, likewise represented by a single species (_C. frithii_), is rudimentary. _Triaenops_, Ethiopian and Malagasy, has, like the Australian _Rhinonycteris_, a well-developed tail. _Triaenops_ has also a highly-complicated nose leaf. FAM. 2. NYCTERIDAE.--This family is to be distinguished from the Rhinolophidae by the fact that the ear has a small tragus, and by the small and cartilaginous premaxillae. In addition to {528} these two characters it may be added that the nose leaf is well developed, but is not so complicated as in the last family. The type genus _Nycteris_ is Ethiopian and Oriental, nine species being African, and only one, _N. javanica_, being, as the specific name denotes, from the East. _Megaderma_ is to be distinguished by the loss of the upper incisors. There is no tail, and the ears are particularly large. They are carnivorous Bats, and _M. lyra_, called the "Indian Vampire Bat," chiefly affects frogs as an article of diet. FAM. 3. VESPERTILIONIDAE.--This family has not the nose leaf of other families. The apertures of the nostrils are simple, round, or crescentic apertures. The ear has a tragus, and the tail is not produced to any great degree behind the interfemoral membrane. There are two phalanges to the index digit. This family in numbers of species is vastly in excess of any other family of Bats. The most recent estimate, that of P. L. and W. L. Sclater, allows 190. But the generic types are by no means so numerous as in the Phyllostomatidae. This is a significant fact when we reflect upon the geographical range of the two families. The Vespertilionidae range over the whole earth, while the Phyllostomatidae are practically limited to the South American continent, only just getting into the Nearctic region. They inhabit, therefore, a more restricted area, and, in consequence of competition, have specialised more freely than the widely-spread and therefore not crowded Vespertilionidae. The genus _Vesperugo_ is by far the largest genus of this family, embracing no less than seventy species. The tail is shorter than the head and body together; the ears are separate, and moderate or short in size; the tragus is generally short and obtuse. The dentition is I 2, C 1, Pm 2 or 1, M 3. It is a remarkable fact that this genus, unlike most Bats, produces two young at a time. The genus is universal in range, and one species, the Serotine Bat, known in this country, even ranges from the New World to the Old; but with so small a creature the possibility of accidental transportation by man must not be left out of sight. The British species are--_V. serotinus_, the Serotine already mentioned; _V. discolor_, a single example only of which has occurred, and may have been introduced; _V. noctula_, the habits of which were described by Gilbert White; _V. leisleri_; and the Pipistrelle, _V. pipistrellus_, which is the best-known member of the genus in this country. {529} The genus _Vespertilio_ contains some forty-five species, and is world-wide in range. It has one more premolar in the upper jaw than has _Vesperugo_. There are no less than six British species, of which _V. murinus_ is the largest species of Bat recorded from this country, but is not quite certainly indigenous. _Plecotus_ has very long ears. The dentition is I 2/3 C 1/1 Pm 2/3 M 3/3. The tragus is very large. There are but two or possibly three species, of which one is North American, and the other is the Long-eared Bat, _P. auritus_, of this country, but ranging as far as India. The shrill voice, inaudible to some ears, of this Bat has been heard _of_ by everybody. _Synotus_ includes the British Barbastelle, _S. barbastellus_, as well as an Eastern form. It differs from the last genus principally by the loss of a lower premolar. The ears, too, are not so large. _Otonycteris_, _Nyctophilus_, and _Antrozous_ are allied genera; the last is Californian, the others Old-World forms. _Kerivoula_ (or _Cerivoula_) has a long, pointed, narrow tragus. The tail is as long as or longer than the head and body. The dentition is as in _Vespertilio_; but the upper incisors are parallel instead of divergent as in that genus. The brilliantly-coloured _K. picta_ is, on account of this very fact, the best-known species. The name _Kerivoula_, a corruption of the Cinghalese "Kehel vulha," signifies plantain bat. This Bat has been described as looking, when disturbed in the daytime, more like a huge butterfly than a Bat, which is naturally associated with sombre hues. Other species occur in the Oriental, Australian, and Ethiopian regions. _Miniopterus_ has a premolar less in the upper jaw; it has a long tail as in the last genus. One species, _M. scheibersi_, has almost the widest range of any Bat, it being found from South Europe to Africa, Asia, Madagascar, and Australia. _Natalus_ is an allied form from Tropical America and the West Indies. It is chiefly to be separated from _Kerivoula_ by the short tragus to the ear. _Thyroptera_ is also South American. It is distinguished by the curious sucker-like discs upon the thumb and foot. These "resemble in miniature the sucking cups of cuttle-fishes." The Madagascar genus, _Myxopoda_, with but one species, has also an adhesive but horse-shoe-shaped pad upon the thumb and foot. _Scotophilus_ has shortish ears with a tapering tragus. The tail is shorter than the head and body, and is nearly contained within {530} the interfemoral membrane. The dentition is I 1/3 C 1/1 Pm 1/2 M 3/3, with another upper incisor in the young. It is African, Asiatic, and Australian. This genus appears to be connected with _Vesperugo_ by Mr. Dobson's proposed genus, or sub-genus as it is generally held to be, _Scotozous_.[400] The genus _Nycticejus_, founded for the inclusion of _Scotozous dormeri_, an Indian species, should, according to Dr. Blanford, replace on grounds of priority the name _Scotophilus_. But as this name (_Nycticejus_) is one introduced by Rafinesque, whose work was so uncertain and untrustworthy, it seems preferable to retain the better-known name of _Scotophilus_, introduced by William Elford Leach. The genus _Chalinolobus_[401] has short, broad ears with an expanded tragus. A distinct fleshy lobule projects from the lower lip on either side of the mouth. The tail is as long as the head and the body. The dental formula is I 2/3 C 1/1 Pm 2/2 or 1/2 M 3/3. The genus occurs in Africa, Australia, and New Zealand; but the African species, with diminished premolars and pale coloration, have been distinguished as _Glauconycteris_. FAM. 4. EMBALLONURIDAE.--The Bats belonging to this family have no nose leaf. The tragus is present, but often very small. The ears in this family are often united. There are two phalanges in the middle finger. The tail is partly free, either perforating the interfemoral membrane and appearing upon its upper surface, or prolonged beyond its end. The face is obliquely truncated in front, the nostrils appearing beyond the lower lip. _Emballonura_ is Australian, Oriental, and Mascarene in range. The ears arise separately, and there is a fairly developed and narrow tragus. The tail perforates the interfemoral membrane. The dental formula is I 2/3 C 1/1 Pm 2/2 M 3/3. _Rhinopoma_ has the ears united; the incisors are reduced by one on each side of each jaw, and the premolars are similarly reduced, but only in the upper jaw. _Noctilio_ is an American genus of two or three species, which has one pair of markedly large upper incisors, which completely conceal the outer pair. On these grounds this Bat was removed from its allies and placed by Linnaeus among the Rodents, an instance of the disadvantage of the artificial scheme of classification. The species named _N. leporinus_ has been shown to feed upon fish. {531} _Furia_, _Amorphochilus_, _Rhynchonycteris_, _Saccopteryx_, _Cormura_, and _Diclidurus_ are other Neotropical genera of the same family. The genus _Taphozous_[402] has a tail which perforates the interfemoral membrane, appearing on its upper surface; it is capable of being withdrawn. The premaxillaries are cartilaginous. The dentition is I 1/2 C 1/1 Pm 2/2 M 3/3. The upper incisors often disappear. Many species of the genus have a gular sac, opening anteriorly between the jaws. This is better developed in the males. The genus ranges from Africa through Asia to New Guinea and Australia. There are some twelve species. The genus _Molossus_[403] has short legs and well-developed fibulae. The tail is thick and fleshy, and is prolonged far beyond the margin of the interfemoral membrane. The ears are united together above the nose; the tragus is minute. The dentition is I 1/1 or 1/2 C 1/1 Pm 1/2 or 2/2 M 3/3. This genus, which is confined to the tropical and subtropical portions of America, has long and narrow wings. The Bats can thus fly rapidly, twist about with ease, and capture strongly-flying insects. There are a large number of species. _Nyctinomus_ is an allied genus, and also has many species. These range through both hemispheres. The chief differences from _Molossus_ are that the premaxillary bones are separate in front or united by cartilage, and that the incisors may be three in the lower jaw. FAM. 5. PHYLLOSTOMATIDAE.--The Bats of this family are extremely numerous and almost entirely confined to South America. None of them occur outside the New World. There are some thirty-five genera. The members of the family are to be distinguished by the presence of the nose leaf, by the well-developed premaxillae, and by the possession of three phalanges by the middle finger. They are large, and the tragus of the ear is well developed. _Vampyrus_ of South America contains the large species V. spectrum, which, mainly on account as it seems of its "forbidding aspect," was supposed to be a bloodsucker. This genus has two incisors on each side of the upper jaw. The genus _Glossophaga_ represents another type of structure in this family. The tongue is long and extensile, and is much attenuated towards the tip, where it is covered with strong and recurved papillae. This structure was at one time thought to indicate a {532} bloodsucking habit; but its use appears to be merely that of scooping out the soft insides of fruits, upon which the Bat mainly lives. The incisors are only one on each side of the upper jaw. The really bloodsucking Bats of this family belong to the genera _Desmodus_ and _Diphylla_. The former is the Vampire, the species being known as _Desmodus rufus_. These Bats have no tail; there is no true molar tooth; the canines are large, and the single pair of upper incisors quite caniniform, and very sharp and strong. These are the main teeth for aggression. In accordance with its diet of blood, the Vampire has a peculiarly modified intestine. The gullet is provided with a bore so small that nothing but fluid food could pass down it; the stomach is intestiniform in shape. * * * * * {533} CHAPTER XVII PRIMATES ORDER XIII. PRIMATES. The highest of mammals, the Primates,[404] may be thus differentiated from other groups:--Completely hairy, generally arboreal mammals, with five digits on fore- and hind-limbs, provided with flat nails (except in the case of certain Lemurs and the Marmosets), the phalanges that bear these being flattened at the extremity and expanded rather than diminished in size. The fore-feet are grasping hands as a rule, and the hind-feet walking as well as (generally) grasping organs, and the mode of progression is plantigrade. The teats, except in _Chiromys_, are thoracic, and even axillary in position. The skull is characterised by the fact that the orbital and the temporal vacuities are, at least partly, separated by bone. The clavicles are always present. The carpus has separate lunar and scaphoid bones, and the centrale is often present. There is rarely an entepicondylar foramen in the humerus, except in some archaic Lemurs. The femur has no third trochanter. The stomach is usually simple, being sacculated only in Semnopithecinae. The caecum is always present, and often large. This great group could be easily divided into two separate orders, the Apes and the Lemurs, if it were not for certain fossil types. As will be seen from the description of _Nesopithecus_ and of _Tarsius_, the actual hard and fast lines between _all_ Apes and _all_ Lemurs are very few. On the other hand, it is a little difficult to draw a hard and fast line between the Primates as a whole--or at least between the Lemurine section--and the Creodonta, a {534} group to which so many others appear to converge. It is disputed, for example, whether the Chriacidae among extinct Lemurs are rightly placed, or whether they should be referred to the Creodonta. The number of primitive characters seen among the Primates, even in Man himself, is remarkable. Of these the more important are the five digits of both limbs and the plantigrade walk, the presence of clavicles and of a centrale, and the absence of a third trochanter. All these features distinguish the early Eutheria. SUB-ORDER 1. LEMUROIDEA.[405] The animals known as Lemurs, from their nocturnal and ghostly habits, are on a lower level of organisation than the other division of the Primates. Even the external form enables the members of the present sub-order to be readily distinguished from the higher Anthropoidea. The head is more like that of a Fox, with a sharp muzzle; it lacks the human expression of the face of even the lower among the Apes. The long tail is never prehensile, and there is never any trace of cheek pouches or of integumental callosities, which are frequently so characteristic of the Apes. The Lemurs agree with the remainder of the Primates in having pectoral mammae (sometimes abdominal ones are present in addition, and in _Hapalemur_--in the male at least--there is a mamma upon each shoulder), in having opposable thumbs and toes, and in the flattened digits. The tail varies from complete absence (in the _Loris_) to a great length and bushiness in the Aye-aye. The pectoral limbs are always shorter than the hind-limbs; the reverse is occasionally the case in the Anthropoidea. A curious contrast between the two divisions of the Primates concerns the digits of the hands and feet. In the Anthropoidea it is the hallux or pollex which is subject to great variation. In the Lemurs, on the contrary, the thumb and great toe are always well developed, but the second or the third digit constantly shows some abnormality; thus the singular elongation of the third digit of the hand in _Chiromys_ and the absence of the index in the _Potto_.[406] In all Lemurs the {535} second toe is furnished with a sharp nail, unlike the flattened nails of the other fingers and toes, and in _Tarsius_ the third also is thus provided. As to osteology, the shape of the head, already referred to, indicates some of the differences in the skull which mark off the Lemurs from the Anthropoidea. The brain case is small relatively to the face; the orbital and temporal fossae are in communication, though the frontal and jugal bones are united behind the orbit. The two halves of the lower jaw are not invariably ossified to form one piece, as is the case with most Apes. The lachrymal foramen lies upon the face in front of the orbit. The teeth are characteristic, not so much in their number (the dental formula is usually I 2, C 1, Pm 3, M 3 = 36) as in the disposition of the incisors. The incisors of the lower jaw and the canines project forwards in a way only found in a few American Monkeys; as in the Apes there are four incisors in each jaw, but, with the exception of the highly aberrant _Chiromys_, there is a space in the upper jaw between the incisors of the two sides. The canines of the lower jaw, moreover, are often incisiform. There is a well-developed sublingua beneath the tongue (see p. 61). The stomach is perfectly simple; and the caecum, always present and varying in length, never has a vermiform appendix. The gall-bladder is always present. The brain differs from that of the Anthropoidea in that the cerebellum is, as in the lower Mammalia, exposed. The convolutions upon the cerebral hemispheres are not greatly developed, a circumstance, however, which (see p. 77) may have more relation to the size of the animals than to their mental development. Though the brain in its general outlines is not like that of the other Primates, there are certain resemblances; the most striking of these is perhaps the presence, though in rather a rudimentary condition, of the "Simian fissure." The Lemurine brain has been chiefly studied by Flower,[407] by Milne-Edwards,[408] and by myself.[409] There are also a number of scattered papers dealing with particular types, such as the memoirs of Owen[410] and Oudemans,[411] upon the brain (and the general anatomy) of _Chiromys_. Without going into great {536} detail it may be stated generally that the anatomy of the brain of this group confirms the classification which is adopted in this work. A curious feature in the anatomy of the Lemurs, which they share with animals so remote from them in the system as the Edentata, is the breaking up of some of the arteries of the limbs to form retia mirabilia; nothing of the kind is known among the other Primates. Perhaps the most remarkable difference between the Lemurs and the Anthropoidea, which are really in many respects more closely allied than might be inferred from the above summary of differences, is in the structure of the placenta. The Lemurs agree with the Ungulates in having a non-deciduate placenta. A curious feature confined to the sub-family Lemurinae was first discovered by myself in _Hapalemur griseus_.[412] On the forearm (see Fig. 258) is an area of hardened skin, which is raised into spine-like processes. Fully developed, this organ is characteristic of the male, the area being marked off in the female, but without the spiny outgrowths. On removing the skin a gland about the size and shape of an almond is brought into view. In other Lemurs there is no modified skin, but a small tuft of particularly long hairs, which are also present in _Hapalemur_, and a small gland beneath the skin. The gland of _Hapalemur_ may be comparable with a tract of hardened skin in _Lemur catta_, which projects to a large extent and has been spoken of as a "climbing organ." An almost exactly similar tuft of spine-like outgrowths exists upon the lower end of the ankle of _Galago garnetti_. The spines are black and bent, just as they are in _Hapalemur_. There appears also to be a gland. This structure is not universal in the genus _Galago_ any more than is the patch of spines in the genus _Hapalemur_. In addition to this gland and to the patch of spines which cover it, the same Lemur as well as _Chirogaleus_ and certain species of _Lemur_ possess to the inner side of it a bundle of long and stiff bristles associated with unusually large sebaceous glands; these structures are, of course, not homologous with the gland of the arm of _Hapalemur_, as they coexist in the same {537} species. They are, moreover, not peculiar to the Lemurs, but exist in the Squirrel, in the Domestic Cat, in the Leopard, in _Bassaricyon_,[413] the Otter, various Marsupials, and doubtless in many mammals which require a tactile organ, for these hairs are associated with a large branch of the radial nerve. [Illustration] FIG. 258.--A, left arm of _Hapalemur griseus_ [male]. __a__, Teat; _b_, spines on arm gland; _c_, tactile bristle. B, left foot of _Nycticebus tardigradus_. 1 to 5, Pads upon sole of foot. (After Sutton, and Mivart and Murie.[414]) The Lemurs have at the present time a most remarkable distribution. There are altogether about fifty species, referable to seventeen genera. Thirty-six species are confined to Madagascar {538} and to some small neighbouring islands. The rest occur in the Ethiopian and in the Oriental region. The rest of the world is at present totally without Lemurs, though, as will be seen in the sequel, the order was more widely spread over the globe in past times. FAM. 1. LEMURIDAE.--This family can be usefully subdivided into four sub-families. SUB-FAM. 1. INDRISINAE.--This sub-family is limited to Madagascar, and has been exhaustively treated of by M. Grandidier and Professor Milne-Edwards in the _Histoire de Madagascar_. These Lemurs contrast with others by the large size of the hind- as compared with the fore-limbs. The ears are short. The tail varies in length. The thumb is but slightly opposable, and the toes are webbed. Correlated with the first two of these characters, these Lemurs when upon the ground progress by means of the hind-limbs, holding their arms above their heads. The number of teeth is reduced, the total being thirty. The formula[415] is I 2/2 C 1/0 Pm 2/2 M 3/3. The colon or large intestine, as figured by Milne-Edwards, has a remarkable watch-spring-like coil, highly suggestive of the Ruminants and of certain Rodents. This, however, is only in _Propithecus_ and _Avahis_. The caecum in this sub-family is specially large. The brain is characterised by the comparatively slight development of the angular fissure in _Propithecus_ and _Avahis_; it is in them anterior in position. In _Indris_ it is more [416]-shaped and larger as in _Lemur_. The parieto-occipital fissure is fairly well developed, so too is the antero-temporal. The genus _Indris_ has more pronounced external ears than have the two other genera of the sub-family. The tail is rudimentary. The incisors of the upper jaw are sub-equal and set close together, those of the lower jaw have marked longitudinal ridges upon the outer surface, which suggests _Galeopithecus_ (see p. 520). The molars are quadricuspidate. There is but a single species, _I. brevicaudata_, which is of a black colour, diversified with white upon the rump and the limbs. The term "Indri"[417] means, as does "Aye-aye," "look." One of the native names for the {539} animal, "Amboanala," signifies "dog of the forest," and is derived not only from the woeful howls of the creature, but from the fact that in certain parts of the island it is used as a dog to chase birds. These howls are largely effected by means of a laryngeal pouch, which is described as different from that of Apes; the mechanism must also differ from that of _Megaladapis_, inasmuch as the lower jaw is not deep as in that extinct Lemur. The Indri is the largest of Lemurs, measuring about two feet in length. It is arboreal and social, travelling in large companies. As is the case with the _Propithecus_, the natives of Madagascar hold the Indri in awe and veneration. It is curious that the name Lemur or ghost is peculiarly applicable to the Indri or Babakote in another sense from that which led to its adoption by Linnaeus. The natives, in fact, believe that men after death become Indris. Naturally, therefore, these Lemurs have reaped the advantage of this superstition in almost perfect immunity from destruction. Their "long-drawn-out, melancholy cries" are probably at the root of much of the ghostly terrors which they inspire. The genus _Avahis_[418] has but a single species, _A. laniger_, which is the smallest of this sub-family. It is a foot long without the tail. The Avahi has a long tail (15 inches in length) like _Propithecus_. The outer incisors are larger than the inner, thus differentiating the genus from _Propithecus_. The molars of the upper jaw are quadricuspidate, of the lower jaw five cusped. This genus has only eleven pairs of ribs instead of the twelve of _Indris_ and _Propithecus_. The Avahis, unlike the Sifakas and Indrinas, lead a solitary life, or go about in pairs. They are, moreover, completely nocturnal. The genus _Propithecus_ is characterised by the fur being rather silky than woolly, which latter is the kind of fur found in the two other genera of the sub-family. They are also rather larger animals, the body reaching a length of nearly 2 feet. The tail is long as in _Avahis_; the inner incisors are larger than the outer. The "Sifakas," as these Lemurs are termed, have a reputation for gentleness of character, but, as is the case with other animals, the males fight for the possession of the females at the breeding season. They are mainly vegetarian in habit, and travel in large companies. There are at least three species, and {540} several varieties are allowed. The colours of these Lemurs are bright, and distributed so as to form contrasting bands; thus _P. coquereli_, a variety of _P. verreauxi_, has a black face and a body mainly white, with splashes of a rich maroon upon the limbs and upon the chest. These Lemurs are diurnal, and are especially active in the early morning and evening, sleeping, or at any rate remaining quiet, during the heat of the day. Their fitness for an arboreal life is shown by the existence of a parachute-like fold of skin between the arms and the body, which suggests a commencement of the more complete parachute of Flying Foxes, etc. These Lemurs are said to be reverenced and therefore shielded from injury by the natives of Madagascar. SUB-FAM. 2. LEMURINAE.--The "True Lemurs" are all inhabitants of Madagascar and of the Comoro Islands. They have not such long hind-limbs as have the members of the last sub-family, nor are the toes webbed. The tooth formula differs from that of the Indrisinae in that there is one more premolar on each side of the upper jaw, and often one more incisor in the lower jaw, making thus a total of thirty-six teeth. Sometimes, however, the incisors of the upper jaw are totally wanting. The Hattock, genus _Mixocebus_, is a scarce creature, only known from a single species, _M. caniceps_. As it is rare, nothing is known of its habits. It has one pair of upper incisors. The creature is one foot and half an inch long, exclusive of the tail, which is an inch longer than the body. Genus _Lepilemur_.--The Lemurs belonging to this genus, entirely confined to Madagascar, as are all the Lemurinae, have received the perfectly unnecessary and pseudo-vernacular name of "Sportive Lemurs"; an equally inappropriate and not at all ingenious name of "Gentle Lemurs" being bestowed upon the allied genus _Hapalemur_. In _Lepilemur_ there are seven species, which are to be distinguished from _Mixocebus_ in having the tail shorter than the body. There are no incisors in the upper jaw. The last molar is tricuspidate in the upper jaw; that of the lower jaw has five cusps. They are nocturnal creatures, and but little is known of their habits. Previously to Dr. Forsyth Major's visit to Madagascar only two species of the genus were known; he has added five others. The length of the body is 14 inches, and that of the tail 10 inches, in _L. mustelinus_, which is the largest species. {541} The genus _Hapalemur_[419] has a shorter muzzle than _Lemur_, and shorter ears. There are two pairs of mammae instead of only one; these are upon the breast and abdomen. In the male there is a pair upon the shoulder. The incisors are small, sub-equal, and placed one behind the other; the last one is at the inside of the canines. The molars of the upper jaw and the last premolar have only three well-marked cusps; in the lower jaw they have four. The caecum is blunter and is not so long as in _Lemur_; it differs from that of other Lemurinae in having only two supporting mesenteries, which are both furnished with blood-vessels. As in _Lepilemur_ and the Indrisinae the carpus has no os centrale. The genus, which is confined to the island of Madagascar, has two species, of which one, _H. simus_, is the larger and has a broader muzzle, and does not possess the peculiar arm gland (Fig. 258) already described in _H. griseus_. The former species is stated by Mr. Shaw to be chiefly a grass-eater, and to dislike berries and fruits, which are usually so popular with Lemurs. It is, however, believed by some that there is but one species of _Hapalemur_. _H. griseus_ is 15 inches long, and has a tail of the same length. Its native name is "Bokombouli." It is nocturnal, and is especially addicted to bamboos, upon the shoots of which it feeds and among which it lives. It is often exhibited in the Zoological Society's Gardens; but the specimens seem to be always males. This Lemur is of a dark iron-grey colour with a tinge of yellow, more marked in individuals which have received the separate specific name of _H. olivaceus_. The genus _Lemur_ is distinguished by the long tail, half as long as the body at the least, by the elongated face, and by the Fox-like muzzle; the teeth are present to the full number of the family, viz. thirty-six; the incisors are small and equal in size, and are separated from each other and from the canines by spaces. The molars of the upper jaw have five cusps, but there are only four in the lower jaw. This genus is entirely confined to Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, and consists of several species, the exact number of which is doubtful. Wallace in his _Geographical Distribution_ allows fifteen; Dr. Forbes only eight, with a plentiful allowance of varieties. One of the best-known species is _Lemur catta_, the {542} Ring-tailed Lemur, or the "Madagascar Cat" of sailors. _Lemur macaco_ shows a remarkable sexual dimorphism, the male being black, and the female--formerly described as a distinct species, _L. leucomystax_--being reddish brown with white whiskers and ear tufts. This led to a confusion with a totally distinct species, _L. rufipes_, of which the male (regarded as distinct and called _L. nigerrimus_) is entirely black. This latter identification is, however, considered by Dr. Forsyth Major[420] to be not quite certain at present. The young Lemur is at least sometimes carried by the mother across her belly; its tail passes round her back and then round its own neck. [Illustration] FIG. 259.--Ruffed Lemur. _Lemur varius._ × 1/9. The Lemurs of this genus agree with those of some other genera in the loudness of their voice, which is constantly exercised. Some move about by day and others by night. They are insectivorous and carnivorous as well as vegetarian; and Mr. Lydekker suggests[421] that their abundance and hardiness is to be traced to this fondness for a mixed diet. _Lemur catta_ seems to be the only member of the genus that is not arboreal. It lives among rocks where but few trees, and those much stunted, occur. Many species of _Lemur_ are always to be seen in the Zoological Society's Gardens. Fourteen "species" have at one time or another been exhibited. SUB-FAM. 3. GALAGININAE.--This sub-family is found on the continent of Africa as well as in Madagascar; but the genera are {543} different in the two districts. In Madagascar we have _Opolemur_, _Microcebus_, and _Chirogale_; on the continent, _Galago_. The members of this sub-family have markedly large ears, which are but little furry; the tail is long. A very marked skeletal character distinguishes this sub-family from other Lemuridae, and allies them to _Tarsius_, that is the lengthening of the calcaneum and naviculare in the ankle. The dental formula is as in _Lemur_. The supporting bands of the caecum are in this sub-family as in the genus _Lemur_. There are but two folds, of which one is median and non-vascular; the lateral fold bears a blood-vessel, and is joined by the median frenum. The brain is but little known. The only figure of the brain of _Galago_ is one by myself. There are four mammae, two on the breast and two upon the abdomen. The genus _Galago_ comprises at any rate six distinct species. They are all African, and range right across the continent from Abyssinia as far south as Natal, and to Senegambia in the west. The incisors of the upper jaw are small and equal; there is a gap between the canine and the first premolar. The molars and the last premolar have four cusps; the last molar of the lower jaw has an additional fifth cusp as in _Macacus_, etc. The Galagos are chiefly nocturnal, and are more or less omnivorous. Owing to their long hind-legs these animals when they leave the trees advance upon the ground by hops like a Kangaroo. _Galago senegalensis_ makes a nest in the fork of two branches, where it sleeps during the day. The Great Galago (_G. crassicaudatus_) is named by the Portuguese "Rat of the Cocoa-nut Palm." Sir John Kirk, after whom a variety of this species is called, relates that it is incapable of resisting the fascinations of palm wine, upon which it will readily intoxicate itself, and as a consequence brave probable captivity. I have referred above (p. 536) to the patch of spines upon the tarsus of _G. garnetti_. The genus _Chirogale_ is entirely confined to Madagascar. It is to be distinguished from _Galago_ by the fact that the inner incisors are larger than the outer. There are five species of the genus known: four previously to Dr. Forsyth Major's recent visit to Madagascar, and a fifth brought back by him.[422] In connexion with this genus the naturalist just mentioned has observed that all the Lemurs of Madagascar, including the aberrant {544} _Chiromys_, differ from the African forms by the fact that the tympanic ring "is completely enclosed by the bulla ossea, but without osseous connexion with the same." This character he thinks so important as to justify the inclusion of all the Mascarene forms in one group as opposed to another group consisting of the continental Lemurs. In this event _Chirogale_ will have to be separated from its close association with _Galago_. For the present, however, it is left in the more generally accepted position. [Illustration] FIG. 260.--Smith's Dwarf Lemur. _Microcebus smithii._ × ¾. [Illustration] FIG. 261.--Mouse Lemur. _Chirogale coquereli._ × ½. _Microcebus_ contains the most minute among the Lemurs. _M. smithii_ has a body only 5 inches long, the tail being another 6 inches. It occurs in Madagascar, and includes five species. _Opolemur_, the Fat-tailed Lemur, was so called on account of a {545} deposit of fat formed chiefly at the root of the tail, and intended to tide over the time of the creature's hibernation. But, as a matter of fact, this peculiarity also exists in _Chirogale_. Of _Opolemur_ but two species are known, and of one of these, named after Mr. Thomas of the British Museum, only three examples are in existence in museums, that is to say in one museum--our own at South Kensington. Many of these dwarf Lemurs are exceedingly rare. In this genus and in the last two the palate has a pair of posterior fenestrae, of which there are also traces in other Lemurs, but which are particularly large in _Microcebus_. This is, of course, a well-known character of the Marsupials, and also, which is more important in the present connexion, of certain Insectivores. SUB-FAM. 4. LORISINAE.--This sub-family is the only one with a wide distribution, and it contains, with the exception of _Tarsius_, the only Asiatic members of the group. Correlated with its wide distribution there is more divergence in anatomical characters than is the case with the other sub-families of the Lemuridae. In external features all the three genera of this sub-family agree in their small size, their short or entirely deficient tail, large staring eyes, and the rudimentary character, or absence, of the index finger, which is never provided with a nail; in all of them the thumb diverges widely from the other fingers, and the great toe is so divergent as to be directed backwards. In the brain there is one character common to all three genera, and that is the small length of the angular fissure. The caecum, which is long, is supported by three folds, of which the median is anangious, and is sometimes attached to the longer of the two lateral folds, which are vascular. The members of this sub-family have more dorsal vertebrae than are found in other Lemurs; the range is from fourteen in _Loris_, to sixteen in _Nycticebus_. The genus _Nycticebus_ contains only a single species, _N. tardigradus_, though four other names have been given to supposed varieties. Moreover, the genus itself has been named _Stenops_, as also the next genus _Loris_. The body of this animal is stouter than that of the next to be described. Professor Mivart has pointed out that, though Asiatic like the Loris, it presents more resemblances to the African Potto. The index finger is small; the inner of the two incisors is smaller than the outer, but both of one side are close together. They may be reduced to one on each side of the upper jaw. {546} [Illustration] FIG. 262.--Slow Loris. _Nycticebus tardigradus._ × 1/3. The animal has a wide distribution in the East, occurring in Assam and Burmah, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and Cochin-China, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines. Its vernacular names signify "Bashful Cat" and "Bashful Monkey" in allusion to its nocturnal and shy habits. It lives among trees, which it does not voluntarily leave. Its movements are deliberate, as its popular name, Slow Loris, implies; but it makes up for this by a vigorous tenacity of grasp. The animals "make a curious chattering when angry, and when pleased at night they utter a short though tuneful whistle of one unvaried note, which is thought by Chinese sailors to presage wind." Much superstition has collected round this harmless though rather weird-looking creature. Its influence over human beings is as active when it is dead as when it is alive. "Thus," writes Mr. Stanley Flower,[423] "a Malay may commit a crime he did not premeditate, and then find that an enemy had buried a particular part of a loris under his threshold, which had, unknown to him, compelled him to act to his own disadvantage." The life of the Loris, adds Mr. Flower, {547} "is not a happy one, for it is continually seeing ghosts; and that is why it hides its face in its hands!" The genus _Perodicticus_ contains two quite recognisable species, known respectively as the Angwantibo and Bosman's Potto. The former has been regarded as referable to a distinct genus, _Arctocebus_. A curious internal character of the Potto which is visible, or at least can be felt, externally, is the long neural processes of the cervical vertebrae, which project beyond the level of the skin. The index finger is rudimentary and so is the tail, being only just visible (about an inch in length) in the Potto. The colour of both genera is a reddish grey, redder in the Potto. The incisors are equal and minute. Both species are confined in their range to West Africa, and are arboreal like the other members of the sub-family. The Potto seems to share the leisurely mode of progression of its Asiatic relatives, if Bosman, its original describer, is to be trusted. He says: "By the negroes called Potto, but known to us by the name of Sluggard, doubtless from its lazy, sluggish nature; a whole day being little enough for it to advance ten steps forward." The same writer did not at all appreciate his addition to zoological knowledge, for he remarked that the Potto "hath nothing very particular but his odious ugliness." The Angwantibo is rare and but little known. Our knowledge of its anatomy is derived from a paper by Huxley.[424] It is an animal measuring about 10½ inches in total length to the end of the tail, which is only a quarter of an inch long. The hands and feet are smaller than those of _Perodicticus_. The index finger is rudimentary and has but two phalanges, and it has no trace of a nail. In this it agrees with the Potto, but "the spinous processes of the cervical vertebrae do not project in the manner described by van der Hoeven in the Potto, though they can be readily felt through the skin." The dental formula of this genus as of the last is I 2/2 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 3/3. The last lower molar has a fifth cusp, which is wanting in the Potto. The last upper molar is tricuspid. It is bicuspid in the Potto. It seems impossible to avoid agreeing with Professor Huxley that the Angwantibo is entitled to generic separation. The genus _Loris_ also contains but a single species, _L. gracilis_, and is, as its name denotes, an animal of more slender build than the Slow Loris. Its eyes are very large, and the limbs excessively {548} slender. The index finger is much as in _Nycticebus_. The colour, too, is not widely different, being of a yellowish grey, but it lacks the dorsal stripe which distinguishes its relative. The incisor teeth are equal and very small. The last upper molar has four cusps instead of the three of _Nycticebus_. This Lemur is confined to Southern India and Ceylon, and has much the same habits as the last. But it is rather more active, and can capture small birds when sleeping upon the trees; its diet, however, is mixed, and is vegetarian as well as animal. A mysterious Lemur, which we conveniently place as a kind of appendix to the present family on account of its locality, has been shortly described by Nachtrieb from the Philippines. The tail is rudimentary; there are two upper incisors, but as many as six lower. It is doubtful what the beast really is. [Illustration] FIG. 263.--Aye-aye. _Chiromys madagascariensis._ × 1/10. FAM. 2. CHIROMYIDAE.--This family contains but a single genus and species, the Aye-aye, _Chiromys madagascariensis_, whose characters therefore are for the present those of the family as well as of the genus and species. The external features of this extraordinary animal will be gathered from an inspection of Fig. 263, from which it will be seen that the earlier name of _Sciurus_ given to the creature was not by any means a misnomer. The Squirrel-like appearance is due, of course, chiefly to the strong and long incisor teeth. As to the external characters, which are of systematic importance, {549} attention may be called to the long and bushy tail, to the greater length of the hind-limbs, to the abdominal teats (one pair) in the female, and above all to the singular third digit of the hand, which is thin and elongated. The thumb is, as in other Lemurs, opposable, and has a flat nail; the remaining digits have claws, as have also the toes with the exception of the great toe, which has a flat nail like the thumb. The anatomy of this animal has occupied the attention of a considerable number of observers, dating from Sir R. Owen, who was the first to give a connected account of its entire organisation. The most recent paper of importance is by Dr. Oudemans.[425] The teeth are very unlike those of other Lemurs. The most remarkable divergence is in the incisors, which are present to the number of but a single pair in each jaw, and are shaped like those of the Rodentia, and in the same way as in that group grow from persistent pulps. There are likewise, as in the Rodents, no canines. There are two premolars in the upper jaw (none in the lower) and altogether twelve molars, so that there is a total of eighteen teeth. The intestine has a moderately long caecum. The brain has been most fully described by Oudemans, who had fresh material to work with, the brain described by Owen having been extracted from a spirit-preserved carcase. The angular fissure is well developed, as in Lemur and the Indri; but it does not join the infero-frontal. The antero-temporal fissure is also well developed. "The name of Aye-aye," wrote Sonnerat, the discoverer of the animal, "which I have retained for it, is a cry of surprise of the inhabitants of Madagascar." It is, however, usually said that the animal itself makes a sound which may be written in the same way (or with an initial H). It is an arboreal and nocturnal animal, which accounts for its excessive rarity at one time. In one of his many eloquent essays upon natural history the late Mr. P. H. Gosse adduced the Aye-aye as an example of a creature on the verge of extinction. It is, however, now more frequently met with, though the superstition of the natives renders its capture a matter of some difficulty. There is a specimen at the moment of writing in the Zoological Society's Gardens. There has been some discussion as to the use of the slender middle finger: it is stated that it can thrust it into the {550} borings of the larva of a certain beetle of which the Lemur is particularly fond, and can extract the insect, or at any rate discover its position, when it may be extracted by the powerful chisel-shaped teeth. The partiality of the Aye-aye for animal food of any kind including insects has been both reaffirmed and denied; and Mr. Bartlett has seen the creature use its slender finger for combing out its hair, and for other purposes of the "toilet." Dr. Oudemans has figured in his paper an apple which has been largely eaten by the _Chiromys_; the fleshy pulp has been entirely excavated, leaving only the core and the skin, which are untouched. The Rev. Mr. Baron is one of the latest writers upon the ways of life of _Chiromys_.[426] He states that it inhabits the most dense parts of the forests. It has the habit of prowling about in pairs, and the female produces but a single young one at a birth. A nest, which is about 2 feet across, is made of twigs in lofty branches. This is occupied during the day, and entered by a hole in the side. With regard to the superstitious veneration in which the animal is held, it is said that if a person sleeps in the forest the Aye-aye will bring him a pillow. "If a pillow for the head, the person will become rich; if for the feet, he will shortly succumb to the creature's fatal power, or at least will become bewitched." But a counter-charm may be obtained. It is said that the reverence for this beast leads the natives to bury carefully a specimen found dead. FAM. 3. TARSIIDAE.--This family also consists of but a single genus, _Tarsius_, to which it is the general opinion that but a single species belongs; there are, however, at least four different specific names on record. The general aspect of the animal is not unlike that of a Galago, with which it also agrees in the elongation of the ankle; but the elongation is more pronounced in the present genus. The ears are large, and the eyes are extraordinarily developed. The fingers and toes terminate in large expanded discs, and are furnished with flattened nails except on the second and third toes, which have claws. The tail is longer than the body and is tufted at the end. The skull is more like that of the Anthropoidea than is the skull of any other Lemur. The resemblance is by reason of the almost complete separation of the orbit and the temporal fossa by bone; {551} there is, however, a gap left to mark the Lemurine characters of the animal. The placenta, too, has been compared to that of the Apes. The dental formula is that of the genus _Lemur_, save for the absence of an incisor on each side of the lower jaw; the number of teeth is therefore thirty-four. The incisors of the lower jaw are upright, and not procumbent as in other Lemurs. The caecum is of moderate length. The brain is almost smooth, but there is a Sylvian fissure and an antero-temporal, which latter does not reach the lower margin of the brain, but divides the middle part of the temporal lobe. The name Tarsier, as may be inferred, was originally given to this creature by Buffon on account of the abnormal ankle, and it was compared by him with the Jerboa, like which animal the Tarsier leaps when it descends to the ground. The genus is Malayan, but its range extends to the Philippines and to Celebes and Borneo. The Tarsiers are nocturnal and particularly arboreal; they live in pairs, in holes in tree stems, and are mainly insectivorous in their food. One, rarely two young are produced at a birth. Contrary to what is found in many Lemurs, the Tarsier is a silent creature, and at most emits a "sharp, shrill call." Dr. Charles Hose, who has studied this creature, has noticed that the mother often carries her young one about in her mouth like a Cat. Like so many Lemurs this animal is held in superstitious dread, which no doubt is the result of its most weird appearance.[427] [Illustration] FIG. 264.--Right pes of _Tarsius spectrum_. (Nat. size.) _a_, Astragalus; _c_, calcaneum; _c_^1, internal cuneiform; _c_^2, middle cuneiform; _c_^3, external cuneiform; _cb_, cuboid; _n_, navicular; _I-V_, the digits. (From Flower's _Osteology_.) FOSSIL LEMURS.--The Lemuroids are a very ancient race; they extend back to the very earliest strata of the Eocene, the Torrejon and Puerco beds, which, as already said, are thought to be more referable to the Cretaceous than to the Tertiary epoch. {552} One of these early forms is referred to the genus _Mixodectes_, a genus which has been placed, though with a query, in the order Rodentia. It appears, however, to be a Lemuroid, and is of American range. The incisor teeth have been held to argue that it lies on the direct track of _Chiromys_; but other features, more especially the form of the astragalus, have been used to argue the justice of the inclusion of this type within the order Rodentia. Allied, as it is supposed, to this form is _Indrodon_, also of the lowest Eocene deposits of the United States. _Indrodon malaris_ is known from fragments of nearly all parts of the skeleton. They indicate the existence of a creature of about one-half the size of _Lemur varius_. It had slender limbs and a long and powerful tail. The humerus, as in so many archaic beasts, has an entepicondylar foramen. The femur has three trochanters, and the fibula articulates with the astragalus. It is not always easy to distinguish these primitive mammals from each other, so that the minutest of characters have to be called in to our assistance. One of the contemporaneous groups with which these early Lemurs might be confused is that of the Condylarthra; it is important, therefore, to note that in _Indrodon_ the calcaneo-cuboidal articulation is nearly flat, and not bent as it is in the former group. The teeth are of the tritubercular pattern. The incisors are not known, but the molars and premolars are each three. To the same family, which has been termed ANAPTOMORPHIDAE, is referred the genus _Anaptomorphus_, which has been specially compared to _Tarsius_. This small animal has a Lemurine face with huge orbits. It has a premolar less than _Indrodon_. It has been ascertained that _A. homunculus_ had an external lachrymal foramen.[428] Another family, that of the CHRIACIDAE, appear to hover on the border line of Lemurs and Creodonts, having been referred to both by various palaeontologists. Professor Scott suggests their Lemurine or at least Primate relationships, while Cope urged their Creodont affinities. A difficulty raised by Scott was, that in _Chriacus_ the premolars of the lower jaw were spaced. But it appears that this is not fatal to their inclusion in the Primates, since _Tomitherium_, an "undoubted Primate," shows the same feature. If _Chriacus_ is a Lemur it is an earlier type than those {553} which have been considered; for it has the typical Eutherian dentition of four premolars and three molars. These teeth, especially the superior molars, are particularly compared to the corresponding teeth of _Lemur_ and _Galago_. Of this and the allied genus, _Protochriacus_, several species are known. _Adapis_, a representative of another family, is one of the best known of ancient Lemuroids. It has the typical mammalian dentition of forty-four teeth in a close series without diastemata. The orbits are completely separated from the temporal cavity, the eyes looking forwards. The canines are large and caniniform. The skull is deeply ridged behind with the usual sagittal crest. This genus is European, and corresponds to the already mentioned American Eocene _Tomitherium_, perhaps belonging to the same family. _Nesopithecus_ is an extinct genus from Madagascar, lately described by Dr. Forsyth Major.[429] There are two species, _N. roberti_ and _N. australis_. The dental formula is I 2, C 1, Pm 3, M 3, for the upper jaw, the lower jaw having but a single pair of incisors. The lachrymal foramen is just inside, or on the edge, of the orbit, so that one distinctive Lemurine character is lost. The genus is also Ape-like in the form of the canines and incisors, these having been especially compared by Dr. Forsyth Major with those of the Cercopithecidae. The molars, too, agree with those of the same family. There is, however, one important feature in which _Nesopithecus_ resembles not only the Lemurs as opposed to the Apes, but the Malagasy Lemurs. As already mentioned (p. 544), Dr. Major has shown that in the Malagasy Lemurs, even including the aberrant _Chiromys_, and in the Tertiary and European _Adapis_, the bulla tympani is not produced by an ossified extension of the annulus tympanicus, but from the adjacent periotic bone, the annulus remaining separate and lying within the fully-formed bulla. This feature shows conclusively that _Adapis_ is a Lemur, and that _Nesopithecus_, originally supposed to be a Monkey, cannot be removed from the Lemuroidea, many though its likenesses to the higher Primates undoubtedly are. However, this feature, combined with the fact that the orbital and temporal cavities are in communication, shows the Lemuroid position of _Nesopithecus_, though it is quite conceivable that it is on the way to become an Ape. {554} A family, MEGALADAPIDIDAE, has been quite lately founded by Dr. Forsyth Major[430] to include the remains of a gigantic extinct Lemur from Madagascar, which when alive, so far as we can judge from the skull, must have been three or four times the size of the Common Cat. The name _Megaladapis madagascariensis_ was given to the fossil on account of certain resemblances to the also extinct _Adapis_. It differs from other Lemurs in a number of characters which jointly warrant its inclusion in a distinct family. The small size of the orbits suggest a diurnal life; the deep mandibles, which, unlike what is found in other Lemurs, are completely blended at the suture, point to the existence of a howling apparatus, as in _Mycetes_. The low brain-case is a character which is found in so many extinct Mammalia belonging to many different orders that it weighs neither one way nor the other in considering the systematic position of the animal. The shape of the molars, which are three in each half of each jaw as in other Lemurs, is, according to the discoverer, like that of the genus _Lepilemur_. The incisors and the canines are not known. Of a still larger form, _M. insignis_, the molar teeth are known.[431] SUB-ORDER 2. ANTHROPOIDEA. The Apes differ from the Lemurs in that the teats are always restricted to the thoracic region; the orbit, though surrounded by bone as in the Lemurs (and in _Tupaia_, a very Lemur-like Insectivore), does not open freely behind into the temporal fossa as in Lemurs (except _Tarsius_). The lachrymal opening is inside the orbit instead of outside; the cerebral hemispheres are more highly developed, and conceal, or nearly conceal, the cerebellum; the upper incisors are in close contact; a few other points are mentioned under the description of the characters of the Lemurs. There are altogether about 212 species of Monkeys and Apes. They are tropical and subtropical in range, and, with but few exceptions, are impatient of cold. The Monkeys are primarily divisible into two great divisions, which have been termed, on account of the characters of the nose, {555} the Catarrhines and Platyrrhines. In the former the nostrils look downward and are close together; in the latter they are separated by a broad cartilaginous septum, and the apertures are directed outwards. But numerous other points of difference separate these two groups of the Monkey tribe. The Catarrhines often have those remarkable ischial callosities, patches of hard skin brightly coloured; the tail may be totally wanting as a distinct organ, as is the case, for instance, with the Anthropoid Apes; there are often cheek pouches, so that, as Mr. Lydekker has remarked, if a Monkey be observed to stow nuts away in its cheeks for future reference, we may be certain that its home is in the Old World, for the Catarrhines are exclusively denizens of the Old World, while the Platyrrhines are as exclusively New World in range. Again, those of the Catarrhines which do possess a long tail, such as the members of the genus _Cercocebus_, never show the least sign of prehensility in that tail. The teeth of the Catarrhines are invariably thirty-two in number, the formula being I 2/2 C 1/1 Pm 2/2 M 3/3 = 32. In the Old-World Apes there is a bony external auditory meatus, which is wanting (as a bony structure) in the Platyrrhines. The late Mr. W. A. Forbes pointed out that in most of the New-World forms the parietals and the malars come into contact; in the Monkeys of the Old World they are hindered from coming into contact by the frontals and the alisphenoids. The Platyrrhines may have the same number of teeth; this is the case with the Marmosets, but in them there are three premolars and two molars; in the remaining New-World Monkeys there are thirty-six teeth, but of these three are premolars and three molars. Not only are these two groups of the Primates absolutely distinct at the present day, but they have been, so far as we know, for a very long time, since no fossil remains of Monkeys at all intermediate have been so far discovered. This has led to the suggestion that the Monkeys are what is termed diphyletic, _i.e._ that they have originated from two separate stocks of ancestors. It is hard, however, to understand on this view the very great similarities which underlie the divergences that have just been mentioned. But, on the other hand, it is equally hard to understand how it is that, having been separated from each other for so long a period, they have not diverged further in {556} structure than they have. The Platyrrhines seem to stand at the base of the series. This is another example of the existence of archaic creatures in South America. GROUP I. _PLATYRRHINA._ FAM. 1. HAPALIDAE.--We may begin the account of the Platyrrhine Monkeys with the Hapalidae or Marmosets; for this family is structurally lower than the rest. They have thirty-two teeth, arranged as in the following formula: I 2/2 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 2/2 = 32. The molars have three main tubercles, and not four as in the higher forms. The digits are for the most part clawed, not nailed, as in the higher types; the great toe alone bears a flat nail. The tail, too, is ringed, a condition which is characteristic of many of the lower groups of mammals, but not of the higher Apes. The cerebral hemispheres are smooth, but this is a matter rather connected with their small size than with low zoological position. The tails of the Marmosets, unlike those of so many other American Monkeys, are not prehensile though they are long. The genus _Hapale_ is broadly distinguished from the other genus, _Midas_, by the fact that the lower incisors slant forwards as in the Lemurs. They are small, soft-furred, long-tailed Monkeys, familiar to every one. There are some seven species, which are entirely restricted in range to Brazil, Bolivia, and Colombia, one species only, _H. pygmaea_, extending northward into Mexico. Of Tamarins, genus _Midas_, there are rather more species--about fourteen. They are South and Central American in distribution. Since both these genera are arboreal in habit, it is extraordinary that they have not the prehensile tails of their American allies. As, however, the late Mr. Bates observed an individual of the species _M. nigricollis_ fall head-foremost from a height of at least 50 feet, alight on its feet, and run off as if nothing in particular had occurred, it is evident that no extra prehensile powers are absolutely necessary. Some of the Tamarins have a long mane; this is well seen in _M. rosalia_, or rather in _M. leoninus_, which, if not identical with it, is at least very closely allied to it. The name is obviously derived from the character {557} referred to, and the Monkey, originally described by the traveller von Humboldt, is said to have "the appearance of a diminutive lion." _M. bicolor_ is an example of the species with no mane, but with a patch of white round the mouth, looking like "a ball of snow-white cotton" held in the teeth. FAM. 2. CEBIDAE.--The remaining American Monkeys are comprised in the family Cebidae. This is to be distinguished from the last by the fact that there is an additional molar, thus making thirty-six teeth in all. The tail, sometimes very short, is more generally long and highly prehensile, being nude at the extremity, which part is therefore especially prehensile; this state of affairs is often to be seen in animals with prehensile tails. The Cebidae, though for the most part larger than the Marmosets, never approach in size the Old-World Apes. Typical of the family is the genus _Cebus_, including the "Capuchin" Monkeys, and consisting of nearly twenty species; the tail, though prehensile, is covered with hair to the tip, a fact which is indicative of a less perfect prehensility than is exhibited in some Monkeys with a naked under surface to the tip of the tail. The thumb is well developed. The genus ranges from Costa Rica to Paraguay. The commonest Monkey which accompanies the street organs of this country is a _Cebus_. It is a popular delusion that these and other monkeys are purely vegetable-feeding animals. _Cebus_ is in fact particularly fond of caterpillars, as are also the Marmosets. Allied to _Cebus_ is _Lagothrix_, the Woolly Monkey, of which _L. humboldti_ is the best-known species, there being indeed but one other. It is a larger and heavier animal than any species of _Cebus_; and the Hare-like woolliness of the fur suggested its scientific name to its original describer, von Humboldt. It has a perfectly prehensile tail, naked at the tip. The thumb and great toe are well developed. These are purely fruit-eating Monkeys, and are known as "Barrigudos" by the Portuguese of the Amazon country on account of their prominent belly, due apparently to the immense amount of fruit consumed. They are, or were, much eaten by natives. _Brachyteles_ is a little-known genus, connecting the last with the next genus. The under fur is woolly; the thumb is small or absent. The tail is naked below. The Spider monkeys, _Ateles_ or Coaitas, have been described as {558} the most typically arboreal of American monkeys. The use of the prehensile tail can frequently be studied in living examples in the Zoological Society's Gardens. With this "fifth hand" the Monkey feels for a place to grasp, and securely twists its tail round, moving it with the greatest ease from point to point. When the tail is being thus used it is carried erect over the head. The fact that this genus possesses no functional thumb is thought to be associated with the extreme perfection of its adaptability to an exclusively arboreal life. The hand without a thumb can act as an equally efficient hook for suspending the body; and what is useless in nature tends to disappear. These Monkeys have a wide range, extending from Mexico in the north to Uruguay in the south. There are ten species. The flesh of many Monkeys is eaten not only by natives but by Europeans; but the Spider Monkeys are said to furnish the most sapid food of all. [Illustration] FIG. 265.--Spider Monkey. _Ateles ater._ × 1/12. The Howling Monkeys, genus _Mycetes_, have also received the appropriate generic names of _Alouatta_ and _Stentor_. The former of these two names, indeed, is that which should properly be applied to the genus. But _Mycetes_ is perhaps better known. The "howling" is produced by saccular diverticula of the larynx, larger than those of other American Monkeys, such as _Ateles_, where, however, they are also developed. The hyoid bones, too, {559} are enormously enlarged and cavernous, while the jaw--in order to accommodate and protect these various structures--is unusually large and deep. The Howlers are furnished with a fully prehensile tail. The thumb is present. They are described as being the most hideous in aspect of the American Monkeys, and of the lowest intelligence, with which latter characteristic is associated a less convoluted brain than in _Ateles_, for example. The noise produced by these Monkeys is audible for miles, and is said not to be due to emulation, _i.e._ not to be comparable to singing or talking, but to serve to intimidate their enemies. The story told of these and other Monkeys with prehensile tails, that they cross rivers by means of a bridge of intertwined Monkeys, is apparently devoid of truth. There are six species, which are Central and South American in range. The Squirrel Monkeys, genus _Chrysothrix_, are small creatures with a long head, the occiput projecting. Their tail, though long, has no naked area at the extremity and is non-prehensile. It is a remarkable fact that the proportions of the cranium as compared with the face are greater, not only than in other Monkeys, but than in Man himself. The thumb is short, but not so short as in the Spider Monkeys. The cerebral hemispheres are very smooth; but, as already remarked, this is a matter of size, and not of low position in the series. It may appear at first sight that this statement contradicts the one made concerning the Howlers. But the latter are large Monkeys, and therefore ought, so to speak, to have a more complex brain; but they have not. Like so many of the American Monkeys, the Squirrel Monkeys are gregarious, and, in spite of their tails, arboreal. They are largely insect-feeders, and also catch small birds and devour eggs. There are four species, of which _C. sciurea_ is the commonest, and is constantly an inmate of the Zoological Society's Gardens. Humboldt asserted of it that when vexed its eyes filled with tears; but Darwin did not succeed in seeing this very human expression of an emotion. _Callithrix_ is a genus not far removed from the last, and, like it, occurs both in Central and in South America. It is chiefly to be distinguished from _Chrysothrix_ by the non-extension backwards of the head, and by the more furry character of the tail. The lower jaw is rather deep, as in the Howlers; but there is not, or there has not been discovered, a howling apparatus like {560} that of _Mycetes_. Nevertheless Professor Weldon[432] has found in a female of _C. gigot_ a patch of ossification on the thyroid cartilage of the larynx which may be an indication of something more in the male. There are eleven species. _Nyctipithecus_, the Doroucouli Monkeys, is a genus of somewhat Lemurine appearance, caused by their large eyes. But they reminded Bates of an Owl or a Tiger-cat! They have a long, but not prehensile tail. As in the Marmosets, the lower incisors project forwards in a Lemurine fashion. The thumb is very short. A peculiarity of this genus is the twenty-two dorso-lumbar vertebrae. As in _Chrysothrix_, but not as in _Callithrix_, the hemispheres of the brain are smooth. There are five species, of which one occurs so far north as Nicaragua; the rest are Brazilian, extending down to the Argentine. [Illustration] FIG. 266.--Red-faced Ouakari. _Brachyurus rubicundus._ × 1/5. The Ouakari Monkeys, _Brachyurus_,[433] are, as the name denotes, short-tailed forms. Two species, _B. rubicundus_ and _B. calvus_, have bright red faces; _B. melanocephalus_ has a black one. There is a small thumb. The brain is fairly convoluted, and is to be specially compared with that of _Cebus_ and _Pithecia_. The {561} species _B. rubicundus_ at any rate has an absolutely as well as a relatively greater length of intestines and caecum than any other American Monkey known. [Illustration] FIG. 267.--White-nosed Saki. _Pithecia albinasa._ × 1/5. (From _Nature_.) Not the least remarkable fact about these Ouakari Monkeys is their distribution in South America. We cannot do better than quote the summary given by Messrs. P. L. and W. L. Sclater in their _Geography of Mammals_, which is as follows: "Each of them, as first shown by Bates and afterwards further explained by Forbes, is limited to a comparatively small tract of forest on the banks of the Amazon and its affluents. The Black-headed Ouakari (_B. melanocephalus_) ... is met with only in a tract {562} traversed by the Rio Negro; the Bald-headed Ouakari appears to be confined to the triangle formed by the union of the Amazon with another affluent, the Japura; and the Red Ouakari to the forests on the north bank of the Amazon opposite Olivença, and lying between the main stream and the River Iça. Each of them evidently takes the place of the others in its particular district. Of this peculiar kind of distribution few instances are known amongst mammals, but many somewhat similar cases have been observed in birds, reptiles, and insects." The genus _Pithecia_, the Sakis, consists of five species with long bushy tails, which are non-prehensile. They are bearded and have a thumb. Like the last genus, _Pithecia_ does not extend into Central America. The incisors project forwards, and the lower jaw is deep, though the howling apparatus of _Mycetes_ is wanting. The thin, closely-set, and projecting incisors are very suggestive of those of the Lemurs. _Brachyurus_ is much like _Pithecia_ in this respect, and both differ markedly from such a genus as _Cebus_, where the lower incisors are vertical. An anatomical peculiarity of _Pithecia_ is the breadth of the ribs. _P. satanas_ is perhaps the best-known species, but all five have been exhibited at the Zoological Society's Gardens. As its name suggests, _P. satanas_ is entirely black; it shows a curious point of difference from _P. cheiropotes_ in its way of drinking. The latter species, as its name denotes, uses its hand to drink, while _P. satanas_ puts its mouth to the water. _P. albinasa_ is black with a red patch on the nose, within which again is a small white patch. GROUP II. _CATARRHINA._ The Catarrhine Apes are divisible into three or perhaps only two families, the Cercopithecidae and the Simiidae, to which must be added the Hominidae. The Simiidae are sometimes spoken of as the Anthropoid Apes. FAM. 1. CERCOPITHECIDAE.--Of the Cercopithecidae there are eight genera (perhaps nine) to be recognised, which may be distributed into two sub-families. The first of these two sub-families, that of the CERCOPITHECINAE, has the following characters:--There are cheek pouches in which the animals store food temporarily. {563} The stomach is simple and globular; this corresponds with a mixed diet. The tail is long or short, or practically absent. [Illustration] FIG. 268.--Tcheli Monkey. _Macacus tcheliensis._ × 1/6. (From _Nature_.) The most familiar genus is undoubtedly _Macacus_. This includes all the common so-called Macaques, the Bonnet Monkey, the Pig-tailed Monkey, etc. In this genus we find that the males are larger than the females, and have stronger canine teeth. Ischial callosities are well developed. The genus is purely Asiatic, reaching as far east as Japan, with the exception of the Barbary Ape, _M. inuus_, also known as the Gibraltar Ape. There are altogether some seventeen species. _Macacus inuus_ is doubtfully indigenous to Gibraltar. It is, however, definitely established there at present, and is carefully fostered. It is a large Ape with no external tail, in which {564} particular it is unique among the members of its genus. At one time its extinction on the "Rock" was nearly accomplished, but three individuals being known. In 1893 the Governor of Gibraltar informed Mr. Sclater that he had himself counted as many as thirty in one herd. Its depredations seem to have led to the expression of a wish in some quarters that the numbers should be thinned; but feeling on the opposite side appears to be stronger, so that whatever was the actual mode of its introduction on to the "Rock" it will at any rate remain there unmolested for the present. _M. tcheliensis_ is a species found in the Yung-ling Mountains in North China. It is, with the possible exception of _M. speciosus_, the most northerly form of Monkey. It is interesting on account of the fact that like the Tiger of those regions it has put on an extra coating of fur to enable it to combat with the bitter winters. It is doubtful whether it is more than a variety of the Rhesus Monkey (_M. rhesus_). _M. nemestrinus_, "the Pig-tailed Macaque," is trained by the natives of the east to climb cocoa-nut palms and to carefully select and throw down only the ripe fruit. Sir Stamford Raffles apparently was the first to report upon this useful intelligence of the animal, and Dr. Charles Hose of Borneo has confirmed him. The Japanese Macaque (_M. speciosus_) is well known from the work of Japanese artists. It is the only species of Monkey found in Japan, and goes very far north. A rather rare form is _M. leoninus_. It has a short tail, and occurs in Burmah. _M. silenus_ is distinguished by a ruff of long light-coloured hair surrounding the face. It is sometimes called the Wanderoo; but this is apparently quite inaccurate, since that term is used by the Ceylonese for a _Semnopithecus_. For those who wish a "pseudo-vernacular" name Dr. Blanford suggests Pennant's name of "Lion-tailed Monkey." The commonest species of the genus are _M. cynomolgus_, _M. sinicus_, and _M. rhesus_. The genus _Cercocebus_, including those Monkeys known as Mangabeys, is confined to West Africa. They have always a long tail, quite as long as the body. The upper eyelids are pure white in colour. The ischial callosities are more pronounced than in the Macaques. In the Mangabeys also the hairs are not ringed with differently coloured bars, as is the case with both {565} Macaques and _Cercopithecus_, giving to them the greenish hue which characterises so many of the last two genera. There are no laryngeal air sacs as in the Macaques. There are not more than seven species. The genus _Cercopithecus_ (the Guenons) represents in Africa the Oriental and Palaearctic Macaques; the genus has a long tail. The cheek pouches are larger than in the genus _Macacus_. The ischial callosities are less extensive than in that genus. A tooth character also distinguishes this genus from _Macacus_; the last molar of the lower jaw has, as a very general rule, only four cusps instead of the five which are found in _Macacus_. The supraciliary ridges in the skull are by no means so marked as in the allied genera. One species, the Talapoin, _C. talapoin_, has been separated into a distinct genus, _Miopithecus_, on account of the fact that the lower molars have only three tubercles instead of the usual four. But if this be done, then _Cercopithecus moloneyi_, which has a lower molar with five tubercles, should also be separated. [Illustration] FIG. 269.--Diana Monkey. _Cercopithecus diana._ × 1/6. The genus _Cercopithecus_ is limited to Africa, and its numerous species have often a very limited range. They are frequently rather brightly coloured, with blue and white patches on the face. The Diana Monkey has a pointed white beard. Of the Vervet Monkey (_C. lalandii_) a curious fact was noticed at the Zoological {566} Society's Gardens a year or two back: the young was observed to take both teats of the mother into its mouth at once. Mr. Sclater[434] in a recent list of the group allows forty-seven species, of which thirty-three were examined by himself. Subsequently, however, the list has been reduced to forty by the same authority. One of the rarest species is _C. stairsi_, first described from a skin stripped from a specimen which lived for a short time at the Zoological Gardens. The genus _Cynocephalus_ (or _Papio_) includes the Baboons; and the scientific name indicates the Dog-like aspect of these animals, due to the projecting snout. _Cynocephalus_ is confined to Africa and Arabia. Several of the species of the genus are well known. The Mandrill, _C. mormon_ (or _maimon_), has blue ridges on the muzzle, the bridge of the nose being red. The animal lives in herds, and is ferocious and omnivorous. The Chacma Baboon, _C. porcarius_, is the largest of Baboons. It lives in South Africa in large herds. The Arabian Baboon, _C. hamadryas_, is the Sacred Baboon of the Egyptians. The names of two other species, _C. thoth_ and _C. anubis_, serve also to remind us of the ancient Egyptians. There are altogether eleven species of _Cynocephalus_. _Gelada_ (or _Theropithecus_) is separated as a distinct genus. Though regarded as a Baboon, Garrod has pointed out many points of likeness to _Cercopithecus_.[435] The two species are, like the other Baboons, African. _Cynopithecus niger_ is a small black Baboon from Celebes. It has swellings on the muzzle as in other Baboons, but differs from them in being a more amiable creature as well as in its smaller size. It has a rudimentary tail, smaller even than the small tail of the typical Baboons. It has, like them, ischial callosities. In the second sub-family, SEMNOPITHECINAE, the following characters are distinctive:--All the Apes of this group are slender in form, with a long tail. There are no cheek pouches. The stomach is sacculated; it is divided into three portions. This is accompanied by an apparently more exclusively vegetarian diet than characterises other Apes, which mingle with their diet of fruit a large proportion of insects, eggs, etc. {567} [Illustration] FIG. 270.--Black Celebesian Ape. _Cynopithecus niger._ × 1/5. The first with which we shall deal is _Colobus_, containing the Monkeys known as Guerezas. These creatures are entirely confined to the African continent, and they are arboreal in habit. It has been attempted to show that their affinities are more with the Platyrrhines than with the group in which they are really to be placed. In favour of regarding them as nearer akin to the American monkeys are only two facts of importance: the first is the practical absence of the thumb, which of course recalls the condition characteristic of _Ateles_; in the second place, the nostrils in their wideness somewhat resemble those of the Platyrrhines. They are slender Monkeys with well-marked callosities. They have a complex sacculated stomach, resembling the large intestine of some other animals; it is not divided into distinct chambers like the stomach of a Ruminant or of a Whale. Correlated apparently with this large stomach is the small development of the cheek pouches. This genus, of which there are about ten species, is characterised by beautiful skins, which are largely collected. The Arabs have a legend to the effect that one species, when wounded, and seeing its capture and the removal of its skin {568} inevitable, carefully tears the latter, that its captors may not profit by it. The species of this genus are most abundant on the west coast of Africa. It is interesting that one species, _C. kirki_, is limited to the Island of Zanzibar, where, however, it is nearly extinct. The "Holy Apes," or Langurs, genus _Semnopithecus_, are allied to the last, but they are Asiatic in range. The thumb is better developed, but still shorter than in other Cercopithecidae; the callosities are small, and the cheek pouches are absent. There is a single large laryngeal sac, and the stomach is complex. This genus is, like the Tiger, often quoted as an example of a race supposed to be characteristically tropical, existing habitually in the coldest climate. A species of _Semnopithecus_ has been observed climbing snow-laden branches at a height of 11,000 feet in the Himalayas. There are some thirty species, which extend as far east as Borneo. [Illustration] FIG. 271.--Entellus Monkey or Hanuman. _Semnopithecus entellus._ × 1/6. The name _Semnopithecus_ is derived from the fact that the Hanuman is regarded as sacred by the Hindus. The best-known species of _Semnopithecus_ is this Langur or Hanuman, _S. entellus_. Being regarded as a sacred animal, and with the advantage thus gained, it has become a fell nuisance in gardens and to crops. Though the veneration with which the Hindoos regard these animals will not allow them to slay them, they are exceedingly thankful to a European who will enable them to {569} commit a sin vicariously. This Ape has immense powers of leaping--a space of 20 to 30 feet can be cleared by them if one side, that from which the leap is taken, be considerably higher than the other. They are useful to the Tiger hunter, as they follow and hoot at this, their deadly enemy. _S. schistaceus_ is a species which lives at great heights, not less than 5000 feet, in the Himalayas. The genus _Nasalis_ is hardly separable from the genus _Semnopithecus_. It is a Bornean animal, and is distinguished by a comical long nose, which not only suggests, but goes beyond, the aquiline nose of the human species. It is no doubt on this account that the Borneans, unconsciously imitating our habit of comparing "natives" in general to Monkeys, call it by a name which signifies "white man." _Rhinopithecus_ has also a long, but a more definitely upturned nose. FOSSIL MONKEYS.--Several of the existing genera of Old-World Apes are also known to have existed in past times; in some cases their past distribution indicates a greater range. Thus _Macacus_ is now represented--and that doubtfully--in Europe by the Barbary Ape alone. But from Montpellier have been unearthed the remains of _M. priscus_, from Pliocene beds. The Asiatic _Semnopithecus_ is known to have lived during the Pliocene period; its remains are discovered in France and Italy, as well as in Asia. In addition to these existing forms, a number of totally extinct Old-World genera are known. The rich formation at Pikermi near Athens has produced _Mesopithecus pentelici_; this Monkey has a skull which recalls that of _Semnopithecus_, while the stout limbs are rather Macaque-like. As is the case with many living Catarrhines, the males have stronger canines. The animal had a long tail. An analogous annectent character is shown by the Italian fossil, _Oreopithecus bambolii_. This animal was referred by one palaeontologist to the Man-like Apes, by another to the Cercopithecidae. It suggests a common ancestral form, and is Middle Miocene in horizon. Just as there are no Platyrrhine Apes in the Old World so there are no Catarrhines met with in a fossil condition in the New World; the two great divisions of the Apes were as distinct in the past, so far as we know, as they are now--a strong argument in favour of those who would derive them from two sources. The {570} existing genera, _Cebus_, _Mycetes_, and _Callithrix_, now living in South America, are also known in a fossil state. The extinct genus _Homunculus_ is known from the Tertiary strata of Patagonia, and an apparently allied form is _Anthropops_. These creatures, however, are at present far from exhaustively known. FAM. 2. SIMIIDAE.--The Anthropoid, or Man-like Apes,[436] may be separated from the lower Apes as a group, Simiae, or perhaps better, on account of the after all slender points of difference, a family Simiidae, which has the following distinctive characters. Though arboreal creatures for the most part, these Apes, when they come to the ground, progress in at least a semi-erect fashion. Moreover, when they, as is usually the case, put their hands upon the ground to aid in walking, they do not rest as do the lower Apes upon the flat of the hand, but upon the back of the fingers. None of the Anthropoids has a tail, or cheek pouches. Ischial callosities are only seen in the Gibbons. There is commonly a laryngeal pouch, which is of large size, and aids in the production of the generally loud voice of these creatures. The hair is rather more scanty than in the Cercopithecidae, which is an approach to Man. The placenta differs in detail from that of the lower Apes, and is exactly like that of Man. These Apes show as further differences from the underlying Cercopithecidae, the greater length of the arms as compared with the legs, and the presence of a vermiform appendix to the caecum. In the latter but not the former character they agree with Man, whom we shall place in a separate family, Hominidae. The Anthropoid Apes are entirely Old World and intratropical in range at the present time. The Gibbons, genus _Hylobates_, stand quite at the base of the series of existing Anthropoid Apes. They are the smallest and the most purely tree-frequenting of all the members of that group. Connected with this habit is the structural peculiarity that their arms are proportionately longer than in the other Anthropoids. The affinity of the Gibbons to the Catarrhines is proved by the presence of distinct but small ischial callosities. The arms are so long that when walking upright the hands reach the ground. The hallux is well developed. The ribs are thirteen pairs. In the skull the chief noteworthy character as {571} compared with other Anthropoids is the fact of the large size of the canines, which are of equal or nearly equal size in the two sexes. The molars on the other hand have been particularly compared to those of Man. The brain is simpler than in the higher forms. But it is not clear that this may not be a case of diminished complexity of convolution going hand in hand with smallness of size. [Illustration] FIG. 272.--Hoolock. _Hylobates hoolock._ × 1/6. The Gibbons range through south-eastern Asia from Assam and Burmah to Hainan. The number of species is a little doubtful. It is clear that in the first place we may distinguish the Siamang, _H. syndactylus_, which indeed some regard as a separate genus. It is mainly to be defined by the syndactylous character of the second and third toes; they are united by skin as far as the last joint. The Hainan species, _H. hainanus_, is probably distinct, and the following names have been given to various other species or races, viz. _H. agilis_, _H. leuciscus_, _H. leucogenys_, _H. lar_, _H. hoolock_. These animals can walk erect; and when they do so, the big toe is separated as in unsophisticated or at least unbooted man. The voice is well known to be loud, {572} and it is a curious fact that the Siamang, which has a large laryngeal pouch, is not excelled in this respect by species in which this sac is not developed. [Illustration] FIG. 273.--Cerebrum of the Gibbon (_Hylobates_). (Lateral aspect.) _c.c_', _c.c_", Anterior and posterior central convolution; _fi_, interparietal fissure; _fr_, frontal lobe; _f.s_, Sylvian fissure; _oc_, occipital lobe; _pa_, parietal lobe; _s.c_, fissure of Rolando; _tp_, temporal lobe; *, fronto-orbital fissure. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) Of Gorillas, genus _Gorilla_, there is but one species, which must apparently and rather unfortunately be called _Gorilla gorilla_. The misfortune is double: in the first place the repetition of the same word as both generic and specific appellation is tiresome to the ears and barbarous in its suggestion; in the second place it is now well known that the "Gorilla" of Hanno, observed by that Carthaginian voyager on an island off the African coast, was not a Gorilla at all as the word is now understood, but probably a Baboon. The external aspect of this great Anthropoid is familiar from many reproductions. The male, as is usual, is larger than the female, and his characters are more pronounced. The face is naked and black, and the skin generally is deep black, even at birth. The ear is comparatively small, and is adpressed to the side of the head; it is altogether more human in form than that of the Chimpanzee, and this statement applies also to the rudimentary condition of the muscles of the ear, which are more rudimentary than in the Chimpanzee. The nose has an obvious median ridge, and is thus pronounced as an external feature; the nostrils are very wide. The hands and feet are short, thick, and broad; the digits are webbed. In the foot the heel is more apparent than in other Anthropoids. It is not, {573} however, so marked as in Man, and the phrase "Ex pede Herculem" has been aptly supplemented by "Ex calce hominem." The hair upon the head forms a kind of crest, which can be elevated when the animal is enraged. The neck is thick and short, and the beast has massive shoulders and a broad chest. [Illustration] FIG. 274.--Gorilla. _Gorilla gorilla_, [female]. × 1/8. If it were not for the fewness of the Anthropoid Apes, and their nearness to Man, it is doubtful whether the Gorilla would be ranked as a distinct genus,[437] for in internal structure it is very near the Chimpanzee. The microscopic character of the investigations into the anatomy of Man have somewhat dimmed the proper sense of perspective, and have tended to throw into greater prominence than seems necessary the divergences of structure seen in the Gorilla. Dr. Keith[438] has recently summed up and commented upon these divergences, and the following account of this Anthropoid is mainly deduced from his memoir. The cranial capacity of the Gorilla is greater than that of the Chimpanzee. It is not possible, however, to decide from this point of view whether a given skull is that of one or of the other of these Apes. Some Chimpanzees are higher in capacity {574} than some Gorillas. But the average is undoubtedly as stated. It is to be noted that there is a correspondence between cranial capacity and size of palate, the correspondence being converse, _i.e._ the greater the brain the smaller the palate. This applies to Man as compared with his Ape-like relatives, but does not apply so accurately to the Gorilla, which has a more extensive palate than the Chimpanzee; its "brute development" is much greater than that of the Chimpanzee. Not only is the palate larger, but the molar teeth, slightly different in form, are also larger and stronger. This is so plainly marked that "one may say almost with certainty, that any upper molar tooth over 12 mm. in length is that of a Gorilla, and under 12 mm. is that of a Chimpanzee." In the skeleton generally it may be said that the crests for muscular attachments upon the bones are greater in the Gorilla. The nasal bones are more like those of lower Apes in their length, and they have a sharp ridge more marked than in the Chimpanzee, which, however, disappears in aged animals. It is a curious fact that Gorillas often have a "cleft palate," owing to the failure of the palatal part of the palatine bones to meet completely. The general conformation of the skull is less brachycephalic in the Gorilla. The limbs show a number of small differences, which are associated with a more completely arboreal life in the Chimpanzee as compared with the Gorilla. The latter is approaching the human way of life. In spite, however, of these differences, no hard and fast lines of divergence can be laid down between the two African Anthropoids, for it appears from the many memoirs that have been written upon both that "there is scarcely a feature in any muscle or bone found in one animal which is not also found in the other." The heel of the Gorilla has already been referred to. This is, of course, associated with a plantigrade and therefore non-arboreal mode of progression. Certain of the muscles of the calf of the leg attached to the heel show a more human arrangement in the Gorilla than in the Chimpanzee. It is interesting to find that the muscles of the little toe are diminishing in the Gorilla as in Man. This is most clearly due to terrestrial progression and we may apply the same explanation to Man and ignore tight boots! The arm of the Gorilla is less adapted to arboreal progression. Its proportions differ from those of the arm of the Chimpanzee in that the fore-arm is shorter. In {575} both animals the thumb is not of much use, and this digit is more retrograde in the Gorilla, not only in proportionate length but in its muscular supply. The hip girdle tells the same tale. It is broader in the Gorilla, and the glutaei muscles are more prominent, all these features being connected with the more erect gait. The brain of both animals have been studied, but not in the case of the Gorilla from a sufficiently large number of examples to make any generalisations of great value. On the whole, the Gorilla has the larger brain, but this must be discounted by the fact that it also has the larger body. It is a remarkable fact that the Gorilla's liver is much more like that of lower Apes than the liver of other Anthropoids. It has, as has the Chimpanzee, laryngeal sacs. The general conclusion concerning the relative position of the two African Anthropoids seems to be that the Gorilla is the more primitive; and as thus it must approach more nearly to the original parent than does the Chimpanzee, it may be said that it also comes rather nearer to Man, since the Chimpanzee has travelled away from the common stock on another line. The detailed likenesses to Man, however, are not to be unduly dwelt upon; for they mainly come from a tendency to assume the plantigrade mode of progression. In mental characteristics there is the widest difference between the two Apes that we are considering. The Chimpanzee is lively, and--at least when young--teachable and tameable. The Gorilla, on the other hand, is gloomy and ferocious, and quite untameable. When angry the Gorilla beats its breast, a statement that was originally made, we believe, by M. du Chaillu, but which has been disputed, though it appears to be perfectly true. A young Gorilla, exhibited some time since in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, could be observed to do so. The cry of the Chimpanzee is different from the "howl" of the Gorilla. An immense amount has been written upon the ways of this animal in its own home, including much that is legendary. The Gorilla has been said to lurk in the depths of the forest, and to stretch down a prehensile foot to grasp and strangle an unfortunate black man passing below. It is said, too, to vanquish the Elephant by hitting it hard upon the trunk with a stout stick, and to crumple up the barrel of a rifle with its powerful teeth. {576} Apart from the doubtful "Pongo" and "Engeco" of Andrew Battel, our first intelligence concerning the Gorilla is due to Dr. Savage, after whom, indeed, the late Sir Richard Owen called the animal _Troglodytes savagei_, a name which has to be abandoned in favour of an earlier name. The Gorilla is limited in its distribution to the forest tract of the Gaboon. It goes about in families, with but one adult male, who later has to dispute his position as leader of the band with another male, whom he kills or drives away, or by whom he is killed or driven away. The animal is said to make a nest in a tree like the Orang; but this statement has been questioned. It feeds upon the berries of various plants, and upon other vegetable substances; there is apparently not so marked an inclination for animal food as is exhibited by the Chimpanzee. In search of their food they wander through the forest, walking partly upon the bent hand, and progressing with a shuffling gait. It is noteworthy that the Gorilla has been said to walk upon the palm of the hand and not upon the back, as is the case with the Chimpanzee. It can readily assume the upright posture, and, in this case, balances itself largely with its arms. Professor Hartmann, however, states that the back of the hand is also used. Unlike most or many wild beasts, the Gorilla exhibits no desire to run away when he views a human enemy. Dr. Savage remarks that "when the male is first seen, he gives a terrific yell, that resounds far and wide through the forest, something like kh-ah! kh-ah! prolonged and shrill." This is accompanied by offensive tactics, which the natives do not willingly encounter. When making an attack the Gorilla rises to his feet, and as a full-grown animal reaches a height of some five feet, he is a most formidable antagonist. The attack of one of these animals is said to be made with the hand, with which he strikes his adversary to the ground, and then uses the powerful canines. The beating of the breast which heralds an attack is a statement made by M. du Chaillu. It has been denied with a vigour and asperity quite incommensurate with the importance of the matter.[439] [Illustration] FIG. 275.--A, Cerebrum of a female Chimpanzee two years old. × ½. (Dorsal aspect, showing asymmetrical development.) _c.c_', _c.c_", Anterior and posterior central convolutions; _f.i_, interparietal fissure; _f.l_, the longitudinal fissure; _f.po_, parieto-occipital fissure; _fr_, frontal lobes; _oc_, occipital lobes; _s.c_, sulcus centralis. B, Brain of a female Chimpanzee two years old. × ½. (Lateral aspect.) _cb_, Cerebellum; _c.c_', _c.c_", anterior and posterior central convolutions; _fr_, frontal lobe; _f.s_, fissura Sylvii; _is_, island of Reil; _md_, medulla oblongata; _oc_, occipital lobe; _pa_, parietal lobe; _s.c_, sulcus centralis; _tp_, temporal lobe. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) The Chimpanzees, genus _Anthropopithecus_ (or _Troglodytes_), are {577} to be distinguished from the Gorilla by the characters mentioned in the account of the latter animal. Briefly summed up they are mainly as follows:--The ears are large, and generally stand out from the head; but there are exceptions to be noted {578} presently. The pigmentation of the body is not always so pronounced as in the Gorilla. The nasal bones are shorter. The skull as a whole is more brachycephalic, and the molar teeth are smaller. The hands and feet are much longer, the animal being more purely arboreal than the Gorilla. The female Chimpanzee is slightly smaller than the male, but the great disparity observable in the Gorilla does not characterise its ally. The animal, like the Gorilla, has large air sacs. [Illustration] FIG. 276.--Skull of Chimpanzee. _Anthropopithecus troglodytes._ × 1/3. (After de Blainville.) Chimpanzees are entirely restricted to Africa, and though they appear to extend rather farther east than the Gorilla, the forest-clad region of the equatorial belt is their home. It has been mentioned in treating of the Gorilla that the main feature of this animal, which affords a constant difference from the Chimpanzee, is its gloomy and ferocious manner. The Chimpanzee, on the other hand, is lively and playful, though often maliciously so, and quite tameable, as many instances--particularly the notorious "Sally" of the Zoological Gardens--show. The earliest mention of animals that are probably Chimpanzees is to be found in a work upon the Kingdom of Congo, published in 1598. In a cut illustrating that work, and of {579} which a part is reproduced in Professor Huxley's essay referred to below,[440] the Apes, which correspond roughly in their appearance to Chimpanzees, are represented as being captured by the device of limed boots, which the Apes are putting on. This idea has been subsequently imitated and acted upon. A little later, Andrew Battel wrote of the Pongo and of another creature the Engeco. This latter, whatever may be the case with the former, is in all probability the Chimpanzee, since the word 'Nchego, now applied to those creatures, seems to be the same word. From this seems also to be derived the sailor's term "Jacko." Whether there are or are not more than one species of Chimpanzee, is a matter which has exercised and perplexed naturalists. That there are plain differences of external features, at any rate between individuals, is perfectly clear. We are justified in recognising three forms, but the question of their specific distinctness may for the present be held in reserve. The commonest of these is the variety known as _A. troglodytes_. This is frequent in menageries, though the specimens on view are nearly always young and small. The face and the hands are flesh-coloured, and the ears are very large. The black hair gets a reddish tinge on the flanks. The second variety is that which was termed by du Chaillu _Troglodytes kooloo-kamba_. This animal appears to be also the _T. aubryi_ of MM. Gratiolet and Alix,[441] and to be identical with two Apes known by the names of "Mafuca" and "Johanna."[442] The former of these was exhibited in Dresden, the latter at Messrs. Barnum and Bailey's show. The two animals have been carefully studied. They differ from the common Chimpanzee by the dark colour of the face, and in the case of Mafuca the ear was Gorilline in form. So too was the ear of _A. aubryi_, while Johanna has a larger one. These features have led to the suggestion that the Kooloo-kamba was the result of a mésalliance between a Gorilla and a common Chimpanzee. It has at any rate been stated that the two Anthropoids do go about in company; but there seems to be little doubt that there is no question here of a hybrid. Dr. Keith's careful studies[443] upon Johanna have demonstrated the impossibility of {580} regarding this Ape as anything but a Chimpanzee. The animal has the ways and manners of the Chimpanzee; has a cry exactly like that of _A. troglodytes_; does not beat her breast like a Gorilla when annoyed. Anatomical knowledge, however, of this specimen is at present wanting. [Illustration] FIG. 277.--Young Orang-Utan. _Simia satyrus. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_ (_Anthropolog. Gesellschaft_), Bd. viii. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) _Anthropopithecus calvus_[444] seems to be at least as much entitled to distinction as the last. It was originally described by du Chaillu; but Dr. Gray who examined the skins thought that the baldness was accidental, and then after this wise caution proceeded to describe, under the name of _A. vellerosus_, perhaps the "worst" species of Chimpanzee that has been added to the unnecessarily long list of "species" of Chimpanzees. To this variety belonged "Sally"[445] of the Zoo, whose intelligence has been celebrated by the late Dr. Romanes. The form is characterised {581} by its intense blackness, the red reflection of other Chimpanzees not being visible; also by the bald head, whence of course the name. The nostrils of this Ape, as of Johanna, were somewhat expanded, and thus present a certain likeness to the Gorilla. But there can be no suggestion that _A. calvus_ is the product of a union between the two African Anthropoids. As is the case with Johanna, Sally was given and enjoyed animal food on occasions. It is a curious fact that both Sally and Johanna appear to have been colour-blind. [Illustration] FIG. 278.--Young Orang-Utan. _Simia satyrus. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_ (_Anthropolog. Gesellschaft_), Bd. viii. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) The Orang Utan, genus _Simia_, has but one definable species, viz. _S. satyrus_. The supposed species of Owen, _S. morio_, cannot be satisfactorily defined. Plenty of other specific names have also been given to what is in all probability but a single species of large Anthropoid Ape inhabiting the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. {582} [Illustration] FIG. 279.--Skeleton of Orang. _Simia satyrus._ (After de Blainville.) The name Orang-Utan, now applied exclusively to the subject of the present description, was formerly applied also to the Chimpanzee, and to that animal, moreover, under the latinised version of _Homo sylvestris_. The Orang is a large and heavy Ape with a particularly protuberant belly and a melancholy expression. The face of the old male is broadened by a kind of callous expansion of naked skin at the sides. The colour of the animal is a yellow brown, varying in the exact shade. The ears are particularly small and graceful in appearance, pressed closely to the sides of the head. The head is very brachycephalic. The arms are very long, and when the animal is in the erect posture they reach as far as the ankle. The hallux is very short and usually destitute of a nail. It is a curious fact that the head of the thigh bone is unattached by a ligament to the socket of the pelvis in which it articulates, a state of affairs which may give the limb greater freedom in movement, but does not add to its strength; {583} indeed, the Orang has been described as moving with laborious caution. This Ape inhabits flat and forest-clad ground, and lives mainly in the trees. The male leads a solitary life except at the pairing season, but the female goes about with her family. On the ground the Orang walks with no great ease, and uses his arms as crutches to swing the body along. Even on trees the rate of progress is not rapid, and is accomplished with careful investigations as to the capabilities of the branches to bear his weight. The "Man of the Woods" has been stated to build a hut in trees. This is an exaggeration of the fact that it constructs a temporary nest. [Illustration] FIG. 280.--A, Skull of a young Orang-Utan. _Simia satyrus._ (One-third natural size.) B, Skull of an adult Orang-Utan. (One-third natural size.) (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) One of these nests has lately been described elaborately by Dr. Moebius. It was found (by Dr. Selenka) on the fork of a tree at a height of 11 metres from the ground. Every night, as it appears, or every second night, the animal constructs a new nest for himself, abandoning the old one. So numerous, therefore, are these nests in localities frequented by Orangs, that a dozen can be readily found in a day. The particular nest which Dr. Moebius examined was 1.42 metres long, and at most .80 metre broad. It was built of about twenty-five branches, broken off and laid for {584} the most part parallel to each other. Above this framework a number of loose leaves lay. There is no doubt, therefore, that these nests are not by any means elaborate structures, and that they only serve as sleeping-places, and not as nurseries for the upbringing of the young, as has been asserted. The Orang seems to be usually of a fairly mild disposition; it will rarely attack a man unprovoked. But Dr. Wallace, who has accumulated a large number of observations upon these animals, describes a female Orang who "on a durian tree kept up for at least ten minutes a continuous shower of branches, and of the heavy-spined fruits as large as 32-pounders, which most effectually kept us clear of the tree she was on. She could be seen breaking them off and throwing them down with every appearance of rage, uttering at intervals a loud pumping grunt, and evidently meaning mischief." The name given by the Dyaks to the Orang is Mias Pappan.[446] FOSSIL ANTHROPOID APES.--Undoubtedly the most interesting of fossil Anthropoids is the now famous _Pithecanthropus erectus_. Our knowledge of it is due in the first place to Dubois.[447] But there is hardly an anatomist or an anthropologist who has not had his say upon this regrettably very incomplete remnant. The creature is only known by a calvarium, two separate teeth, and a femur. And the femur, moreover, is diseased. M. Dubois discovered these remains in the island of Java in andesite tufa of Pliocene or at least early Pleistocene age. The remains were found in company with _Stegodon_, which is now extinct, and _Hippopotamus_, which is no longer found in that part of the world. The name _Pithecanthropus_ was given to it by the discoverer in order to furnish with a definite habitation and a name the theoretical _Pithecanthropus_ of Haeckel. Even the most particular of students of mammalian nomenclature will hardly object to the utilisation of a name for a second time which is with some clearness a _nomen nudum_! The animal when erect must have stood 5 feet 6 inches high. The contents of the cranium must have been 1000 cm., that is to say 400 cm. more than the cranial capacity of any Anthropoid {585} Ape, and quite as great as or even a trifle greater than the cranial capacity of some female Australians and Veddahs. But as these latter are not 5 feet in height, the Ape-like man had really a less capacious cerebral cavity. The skull in its profile outline stands roughly midway between that of a young Chimpanzee (young in order to do away with the secondary modifications caused by the crest) and the lowest human skull, that of Neanderthal Man. This creature is truly, as Professor Haeckel put it, "the long searched for 'missing link,'" in other words represents "the commencement of humanity." The remains of Apes, more distinctly Apes than _Pithecanthropus_, are known from Miocene strata of France. Two genera, _Pliopithecus_ and _Dryopithecus_, are known. The former appears to be close to _Hylobates_. _Dryopithecus_ is more Man-like than any other, and seems to have been as large as a Chimpanzee. The incisors are human in their relatively small size. But it has been pointed out that the long and narrow symphysis of the lower jaw is a point of likeness to the Cercopithecidae. FAM. 3. HOMINIDAE.--Apart from _Pithecanthropus_, which perhaps is a member of this family, but whose remains permit us to leave it among the Simiidae, at least for the present, the family Hominidae contains but one genus, _Homo_, and probably but one species, _H. sapiens_. The characters of the family may therefore be merged in those of the genus.[448] Though it is easy enough to distinguish a Man from an Ape, it is by no means easy to find absolutely distinctive characters which are other than "relative." As Professor Haeckel has pointed out, there are really only four characters which differentiate Man: these are the erect walk, and the consequent modification of the fore- and hind-limbs to that position; the existence of articulate speech; the faculty of reason. Whether one body of psychologists are right who argue that reason is a distinctive human attribute, not to be confused with the apparent reasoning powers of lower animals, or whether others are justified in separating Man only in degree from the lower animals, it is clear that this very diversity of opinion prevents us for the present from utilising such characters as absolute differences. In any case the discussion of these matters is beyond the scope of the present book. {586} [Illustration] FIG. 281.--Skull of Immanuel Kant. (After C. von Kupffer.) The great size of the cranium is a noteworthy feature. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) Anatomically there are a number of small points which distinguish Man; but they are mainly due to the erect gait. It is sometimes attempted to divide Man as a naked animal. But this is an apparent difference only; the hair is not so much developed upon the body as in the Apes, save in occasional abnormalities, such as the various hairy men and women who can be seen in travelling shows, and to a less extent the Japanese Ainos, but it is present everywhere, as is shown by microscopical investigation of the skin. The skull in Man "is a smooth and imposing, rounded or oval bony case," which contrasts with the smaller and deeply ridged skull of the Anthropoid Apes. The shape of the skull is largely in accord with the large brain. The face does not project so much as in the Anthropoid Apes, though this character must not {587} be insisted upon too strongly, as in some American Monkeys the face is as little projecting. Still we are now comparing Man with his undoubtedly nearest relatives the Simiidae. In the lower jaw the anterior line at the symphysis is an approximately straight one, that is at right angles to the long axis of the jaw, while Apes have a more retreating chin. The "beautiful sigmoid curve formed by the lumbar and dorsal vertebrae" is more pronounced in Man, but exists not only in the Anthropoids, but in other Apes.[449] [Illustration] FIG. 282.--Foot of Man, Gorilla, and Orang of the same absolute length, to show the difference in proportions. The line _a'a'_ indicates the boundary between the tarsus and metatarsus; _b'b'_, that between the latter and the proximal phalanges; and _c'c'_ bounds the ends of the distal phalanges. _as_, Astragalus; _ca_, calcaneum; _sc_, scaphoid. (After Huxley.) [Illustration] FIG. 283.--Skeleton of the left pes of a Chimpanzee. (Dorsal aspect.) _as_, Astragalus; _cb_, cuboid; _cl_, calcaneum; _ec_, ectocuneiform; _en_, endocuneiform; _ms_, mesocuneiform; _nv_, navicular; _I-V_, digits. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) The fore-limbs are relatively short, the extreme length of the arm being such that the outstretched hand does not reach the knee. The thumb is a large and useful digit in Man, much more so than in the Anthropoids. On the other hand the hallux is not opposable. This is, of course, correlated with the upright attitude, as is also the greater relative thickness of that digit, upon which {588} the greatest stress is laid in walking. As to muscles, the glutaeus maximus is more developed in Man--the Ape which most nearly approaches him being the Gorilla, in which animal the life is less thoroughly arboreal than in some others. The so-called "scansorius" is only present in Man as an occasional occurrence. The rudimentary character of the ear muscles for the movement of the external ear in Man has often been insisted upon, as also their occasional functional activity. But here and elsewhere, so numerous are the abnormalities, that "the gap which usually separates the muscular system of Man from that of the Anthropoids appears to be completely bridged over." These are words of Professor Wiedersheim quoted from Testut, and express a final summary of the matter of muscles in Man and the Apes. {589} [Illustration] FIG. 284.--The hard palate, A, of a Caucasian; B, of a Negro; C, of an adult Orang-Utan, showing the differences in shape of the bones. The palate of the Negro represents a type transitional between that of the Caucasian and that of the Orang. _mx_, Maxilla; _pl_, palatine; _p.mx_, premaxilla. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) In his teeth Man differs by the small exaggeration of the canines, which hardly, if at all, differ in the two sexes. There is also a complete absence of a diastema. The teeth are also on the whole weaker than in the Anthropoids, though _Hylobates_ is very human in this particular. [Illustration] FIG. 285.--Human Larynx in frontal section. _cr_, Cricoid cartilage; _sn_, sinus of Morgagni; _t.c_, first tracheal cartilage; _th_, thyroid cartilage. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.) There is a tendency in Man towards the disappearance of the upper outer incisors, and more markedly still of the wisdom teeth, which appear very late, and are often imperfect. In a large number of cases the tooth does not appear at all. In the larynx there is no great development of the great throat pouches of the Anthropoids. The minute diverticula of that organ, known to human anatomists as the ventricles of Morgagni, alone remain to testify to a former howling apparatus in the ancestors of Man. * * * * * {590} {591} INDEX Every reference is to the page: words in italics are names of genera or species; figures in thick type refer to an illustration; f. = and in following page or pages; n. = note. {592} Aard Vark, 187 Aard Wolf, 413 _Abderites_, 148 _Aceratherium_, 258; _A. incisivum_, 259 n.; _A. platycephalum_, molar teeth of, 51; _A. tridactylum_, 259 _Achaenodon_, 279 _Acodon_, 480 _Acomys_, 472; _A. cahirinus_, 473 _Aconaemys_, 488 _Acrobates_, 142 _Adapis_, 553 _Addax_, 315; _A. nasomaculata_, 315 Aeluroidea, 390 _Aeluropus_, 444; _Ae. melanoleucus_, 444 _Aelurus_, 431 _Aepyceros_, 311; _Ae. melampus_, 311 _Aepyprymnus_, 137; _Ae. rufescens_, 137 _Aëthurus_, 463; _A. glirinus_, 463 Agouti, 495 _Agriochoerus_, 331; skeleton of, 332; _A. latifrons_, 332 Ai, 171 _Alactaga_, 486; _A. decumana_, 486; _A. jaculus_, 486 _Alcelaphus_, 308 _Alces machlis_, 297, 298 Alimentary canal, 61 _Allodon_, 99 Allotheria, 105 _Alouatta_, 558 Alpaca, 286 Ambergris, 364 _Amblotherium_, 99 Amblydactyla, 206 Amblypoda, 205 f. _Amblyrhiza_, 506 _Ammodorcas_, 313; _A. clarkei_, 313 _Amorphochilus_, 531 _Amphicyon_, 423; _A. giganteus_, 424 _Amphilestes_, 99, 100 {593} _Amphimeryx_, 330 _Amphiproviverra_, 160 _Amphitherium_, 99; _A. prevostii_, 100 _Amphitragulus_, 301 Anaptomorphidae, 552 _Anaptomorphus_, 552; _A. homunculus_, 552 _Anchippodus_, 507 _Anchitherium_, 248; _A. aureliense_, 249; _A. equinum_, 249 _Ancodus_, 329; _A. brachyrhynchus_, 329; _A. velaunus_, 329 Ancylopoda, 211 f. _Ancylotherium_, 211 Angwantibo, 547 _Anisodon_, 211 Ankle, 43 _Anoa_, 317; _A. depressicornis_, 317 Anomaluridae, 462 _Anomalurus_, 462; A. peli, 463 Anoplotheriidae, 332 _Anoplotherium_, 333 Ant-eater, 166 _Antechinomys_, 153; _A. lanigera_, 153 Antelopes, 307 f. _Anthops_, 527; _A. ornatus_, 527 _Anthracotherium_, 328 Anthropoid Apes, 570 f. Anthropoidea, 554 f. _Anthropopithecus_, 580; _A. calvus_, 580; _A. troglodytes_, 579 _Anthropops_, 570 _Antidorcas_, 312; _A. euchore_, 312 _Antilocapra americana_, 306 Antilocapridae, 306 _Antilope_, 311; _A. cervicapra_, 311 Antlers; _see_ Horns _Antrozous_, 529 _Anurosorex_, 518, 519 _Aodon dalei_, 369 _Aonyx_, 441 Apar, 177 {594} Apes, 554 f. _Aphelops_, 260 _Archaelurus_, 401 Archaeoceti, 384 Arctic region, mammals of, 81 _Arctictis_, 407; _A. binturong_, 407 _Arctocebus_, 547 Arctogaea, 85 _Arctogale_, 408; _A. leucotis_, 408; _A. stigmatica_, 408 Arctoidea, 424 _Arctomys_, 465; _A. bobac_, 466; _A. caudatus_, 465; _A. marmotta_, 466; _A. monax_, 466 _Arctonyx_, 432; _A. collaris_, 432 _Arctotherium_, 445 _Argyrocetus_, 383; _A. patagonicus_, 384 Armadillo, 177 Arteries, 66 Artiodactyla, 209 _Artionyx_, 211; five-toed, 271; extinct; forms of, 328 _Arviacanthis_, 473 _Arvicola_, 477 Ass, Wild, 242 _Astrapotherium_, 210, 216 _Ateles_, 557; _A. ater_, 558 _Atelodus_, 254 Atheriogaea, 85 _Atherura_, 499; _A. africana_, 501; _A. fasciculata_, 501 _Auchenia_, 286 _Aulacodus_, 489 Aurochs, 318, 321 _Avahis_, 539; _A. laniger_, 539 Aye-aye, 548; legends relating to, 550 _Babirusa_, 277; _B. alfurus_, 278 Baboon, 566 Badger, 432 _Balaena_, 358; _B. australis_, 359; _B. biscayensis_, 360; _B. glacialis_, 359; _B. mysticetus_, 359; bones of hind-limbs of, 353; cervical vertebrae of, 352; sternum of, 352 Balaenidae, 358 _Balaenoptera_, 355; _B. australis_, 356; _B. borealis_, 356; sternum of, 33; _B. musculus_, 356; sternum of, 352; _B. patachonica_, 356; _B. rostrata_, 356; _B. sibbaldii_, 356 Balaenopteridae, 355 Baleen, 354 Bandicoot, 156 Banteng, 317, 318 _Bassaricyon_, 428; _B. alleni_, _428_; _B. gabbii_, 428 _Bassariscus_, 428; _B. astutus_, 429 Bat, 521 f.; wings of, 522 _Bathyergus_, 481 _Batomys_, 473, 474; _B. granti_, 473 _Bdeogale_, 410 {595} Bear, 442; Grizzly, 442; Himalayan, 442; Malayan, 443; Polar, 443; Sloth-, 443 Beatrix Antelope, 314 Beaver, 467 Behemoth, equivalent to Mammoth, 228 Beisa, 315 Beluga, 372 _Berardius_, 368; _B. arnouxi_, 368; _B. vegae_, 369 _Bettongia_, 137; _B. lesueuri_, 138 Bezoar stones, 287, 325 _Bibos frontalis_, 317, 318 Binturong, 407 _Bison_, 318; _B. americanus_, 319; _B. europaeus_, 318 Blaaubok, 314 _Blarina_, 518 _Blarinomys_, 480 Blessbok, 309 Boar, Wild, of Europe, 275, 276 Body cavity, 69 _Bolodon_, 99 _Boneia_, 526 Bontebok, 309 _Bos_, 317; _B. alleni_, 319; _B. antiquus_, 319; _B. bonasus_, 318; _B. depressicornis_, 320; _B. ferox_, 319; _B. frontalis_, 318; _B. gaurus_, 317; _B. grunniens_, 320; _B. latifrons_, 319; _B. mindorensis_, 320; _B. primigenius_, 321; _B. sondaicus_, 318; _B. taurus_, 320 _Boselaphus_, 316; _B. tragocamelus_, 316 Bovidae, 307 _Brachymeryx_, 331 Brachyodont, 48 _Brachytarsomys_, 480 _Brachyuromys_, 480 _Brachyurus_, 560; _B. calvus_, 560; _B. melanocephalus_, 561; _B. rubicundus_, 560 Bradypodidae, 170 _Bradypus_, 170; _B. tridactylus_, 171; skull of, 171; skeleton of, 172 Brain, 75 of Dog, 76; of Rabbit, 77; of Echidna, 110, 117; of Wallaby, 118 _Bramatherium_, 306 _Brontops_, 264 _Brontotherium_, 264 Bruta, 161 _Bubalis_, 308; _B. caama_, 308 Buffalo, 321 Bunodont, 272 Bush Dog, 414 Cachalot, 363; ferocity of, 365; food of, 365 _Cadurcotherium_, 264 _Caenolestes_, 146; _C. obscurus_, 146 _Caenopus_, 262 Caenotheriidae, 329 _Caenotherium_, 329 {596} _Calamodon_, 192; _C. simplex_, 192 _Callignathus_, 367 _Callinycteris_, 526 _Callithrix_, 559; _C. gigot_, 560 _Caloprymnus_, 138; _C. campestris_, 138 Camel, 285 Camelidae, 285; ancestry of, 289 _Camelus_, 285; _C. bactrianus_, 285, 286; _C. dromedarius_, 285 Canidae, 413 Canine teeth, 49 _Canis_, 416; _C. aegyptiacus_, 419; _C. antarcticus_, 418; _C. anthus_, 420; _C. aureus_, 420; _C. azarae_, 418; _C. cancrivorus_, 414; _C. chama_, 418; _C. chanco_, 421; _C. dingo_, 421, 422; _C. familiaris_, 422; _C. ferus_, 422; _C. hodophylax_, 418; _C. jubatus_, 414; _C. lagopus_, 419; _C. laniger_, 421; _C. lateralis_, 420; _C. latrans_, 417; _C. lupus_, 420; _C. magellanicus_, 418; _C. mesomela_s, 420; _C. mikii_, 422; _C. niger_, 418; _C. pallipes_, 418; _C. parvidens_, 415; _C. primaevus_, 423; _C. rudis_, 418; _C. urostictus_, 415; _C. variegatus_, 420; _C. velox_, 418; _C. virginianus_, 418; _C. vulpes_, 419; _C. zerda_, 417; _Cannabateomys_, 488; _C. amblyonyx_, 488 _Caperea_, 358 _Capra_, 324 _C. aegagrus_, 325; _C. falconeri_, 325; _C. ibex_, 325; _C. jemlaica_, 324; _C. pyrenaica_, 325; _C. sinaitica_, 325 _Capreolus_, 295; _C. capraea_, 295 _Capromys_, 489, 490; _C. melanurus_, 490; _C. pilorides_, 490 Capuchin Monkey, 557 Capybara, 491 Cardinal vein, 68 _Cariacus_, 295; _C. chilensis_, 296; _C. macrotis_, 295; _C. rufus_, 296 Carnivora, 386 f.; C. Fissipedia, 387 f.; C. Pinnipedia, 446 f. _Carpomys_, 473; _C. melanurus_, 473; _C. phaeurus_, 473 _Carterodon_, 489 _Castor_, 467; _C. canadensis_, 468; _C. fiber, 468_ Castoridae, 467 _Castoroides_, 506 Cat, Domestic, 10, 14, 392, 400; -tribe, 390; coloration of, 392; Wild, 399 Catarrhines, 555, 562 _Cavia_, 493; _C. porcellus_, 493 Caviidae, 491 Cavy, 493; Patagonian, 492 Cebidae, 557 _Cebus_, 557 _Celaenomys_, 474; _C. silaceus_, 474 Cenoplacentalia, 103 {597} _Centetes_, 511; _C. ecaudatus_, 511; skull of, 512 Centetidae, 511 _Cephalogale_, 423 _Cephalophus_, 309 _Cephalorhynchus_, 380 _Cephalotes_, 526 _Ceratorhinus_, 254, 257 _Cercocebus_, 564 _Cercolabes_, 498; _C. villosus_, 42, 499; _C. insidiosus_, 498 Cercolabidae, 497 _Cercoleptes_, 429; _C. caudivolvula_, 430 _Cercomys_, 489 Cercopithecidae, 562 _Cercopithecus_, 565; _C. diana_, 565; _C. lalandii_, 565; _C. moloneyi_, 565; _C. stairsi_, 566; _C. talapoin_, 565 _Cervicapra_, 311; _C. isabellina_, 18 Cervidae, 291 _Cervulus_, 295 _Cervus_, 293; _C. dama_, 293; _C. davidianus_, 293; _C. duvauceli_, 291; _C. elaphus_, 293; _C. luehdorffi_, 294; _C. sedgwicki_, 301; _C. sika_, 291 Cetacea, 339 f.; primitive position of, 120 _Chaenohyus, 280_ _Chaetomys_, 499 _Chalicotherium_, 211 _Chalinolobus_, 530 Chamois, 326 Cheetah, 400 Chestnuts of Horse, 240 Chevrotain, 282 Chillingham Cattle, 321 _Chilomys_, 480 _Chimarrogale_, 518, 519 Chimpanzee, 576; brain of, 577; species of, 579 _Chinchilla_, 496; _C. lanigera_, 496 Chinchillidae, 496 _Chirogale_, 543; _C. coquereli_, 544 Chiromyidae, 548 _Chiromys_, 548; _C. madagascariensis_, 548 _Chironectes_, 156 _Chiropodomys_, 473 Chiroptera, 521 f. Chiru, 311 _Chiruromys_, 472 _Chlamydophorus_, 173, 176 _Choeropotamus_, 280 _Choeropsis_, 273 _Choeropus_, 158; _C. castanotis_, 158; manus of, 157 _Choloepus_, 170; _C. didactylus_, 170; _C. hoffmanni_, 171; scapula of, 164 Chriacidae, 552 _Chriacus_, 552 _Chrotomys_, 474; _C. whiteheadi_, 474 Chrysochloridae, 514 _Chrysochloris_, 514; _C. trevelyani_, 515 _Chrysothrix_, 559; _C. sciurea_, 559 {598} Civet Cat, 406 Clavicle, 38 Claws, on tip of tail of Lion and Leopard, 41; _see also_ Nails Coaitas, 557 _Coassus_, 296 Coati, 430 _Cobus_, 310; _C. ellipsiprymnus_, 310; _C. maria_, 311; _C. unctuosus_, 310 _Coelogenys_, 493; _C. paca_, 493; _C. taczanowskii_, 494 _Coelops_, 527; _C. frithii_, 527 _Coendou_, 498 _Cogia_; see _Kogia_ _Colobus_, 567 Condylarthra, 202 f. _Condylura_, 518 _Conepatus_, 439 _Conilurus_, 473 _Connochaetes_, 309; _C. albogulatus_, 309; _C. gnu_, 309; _C. taurinus_, 309 _Conoryctes_, 193 Conoryctidae, 193 Coracoid, 38 _Cormura_, 531 Corpus callosum, 77, 125 _Coryphodon_, 207; _C. eocaenus_, 207; _C. radians_, skeleton of, 208 Cotton Rats, 479 Coypu; see _Myopotamus_ _Crateromys_, 474 _Craurothrix_, 473 Creodonta, 449, 455 f. _Cricetomys_, 472 _Cricetus_, 479; _C. frumentarius_, 479 _Crocidura_, 518 _Crocuta_, 411; _C. maculata_, 412 _Crossarchus_, 410 _Crossopus_, 518; _C. fodiens_, 519 Crumen, of Antelopes, 13; of Deer, 299 _Crunomys_, 474; _C. fallax_, 474 _Cryptophractus_, 178 _Cryptoprocta_, 404; _C. ferox_, 405 Ctenodactylidae, 490 _Ctenodactylus_, 490; _C. gundi_, 490 _Ctenomys_, 488 _Cuniculus_, 478; _C. torquatus_, 478 _Cuscus_, 140 _Cyclopidius_, 331; _C. simus_, 331 _Cycloturus_, 167; _C. didactylus_, bones of manus of, 169 _Cynaelurus_, 400; _C. brachygnatha_, 401; _C. jubatus_, 400; _C. lanigera_, 401 _Cynictis_, 410; _C. penicillata_, 410 _Cynocephalus_, 566; _C. anubis_, 566; _C. hamadryas_, 566; _C. maimon_, 566; _C. mormon_, 566; _C. porcarius_, 566; _C. thoth_, 566 _Cynodesmus_, 424 _Cynodictis_, 423 _Cynogale_, 409 _Cynomys_, 465; _C. ludovicianus_, 465 {599} _Cynopithecus niger_, 566, 567 _Cynopterus_, 526 _Cyon_, 416; _C. dukkunensis_, 416; _C. primaevus_, 416 _Cystophora_, 453; _C. cristata_, 453 _Dacrytherium_, 333 _Dactylomys_, 488; _D. dactylinus_, 488 _Dactylopsila trivirgata_, 141 _Daedicurus_, 185 _Damaliscus_, 309 _Daphaenus_, 424 _Dasymys_, 472 Dasypodidae, 173 _Dasyprocta_, 494; _D. aguti_, 495 Dasyproctidae, 493 _Dasypus_, 173; _D. minutus_, 178; _D. sexcinctus_, skull of, 174; pelvis of, 176; _D. villosus_, 178; manus of, 175 Dasyure, 151 Dasyuridae, 149 _Dasyuroides_, 154; _D. byrnei_, 154 _Dasyurus_, 151; skull of, _152_; _D. geoffroyi_, 152; _D. hallucatus_, 153; _D. maculatus_, 152; _D. ursinus_, 18; _D. viverrinus_, 152 Deer, 11, 291 f. _Delphinapterus_, 372; _D. kingii_, 373; _D. leucas_, 373 Delphinidae, 372 _Delphinus_, 377; _D. delphis_, 377; _D. longirostris_, 377; _D. roseiventris_, 377 _Dendrohyrax_, 234 _Dendrolagus_, 135; _D. bennetti_, 136; _D. inustus_, 136 _Dendromys_, 472, 476; _D. mesomelas_, 476 _Deomys_, 476; _D. ferrugineus_, 476 Dermal plates, in Armadillos, 173; in Whales, 342 Dermoptera, 520 Desman, 518 _Desmatippus_, 248 _Desmodus_, 532; _D. rufus_, 532 _Diabolus_, 151 Diaphragm, 69 _Diceratherium_, 259 _Dichobune_, 333 _Dichodon_, 330 _Diclidurus_, 531 _Dicotyles_, 279; _D. tajaçu_, 278 Dicotylidae, 278 _Dicroceras_, 301 Didelphyidae, 155 _Didelphys_, 155; _D. crassicaudata_, 156; _D. dimidiata_, 13; _D. virginiana_, 155 _Dinictis_, 401 _Dinoceras_, 210 Dinocerata, 210 Dinomyidae, 495 _Dinomys_, 495; _D. branickii_, 496 Dinotheriidae, 231 {600} _Dinotherium_, 231; _D. giganteum_, skull of, 231 _Diphylla_, 532 Diphyodonty, definition of, 51 _Diplobune_, 333 _Diplomesodon_, 519 Dipodidae, 484 _Dipodomys_, 484; _D. merriami_, 484 _Diprotodon_, 146; _D. australis_, 147 Diprotodontia, 128 f. _Dipus_, 485; _D. aegyptius_, 485; pes of, 485; _D. hirtipes_, 484 _Distaechurus_, 141 Distribution, geographical, 78; in the past 83 Dogs, 413; Raccoon-like, 415 _Dolichotis_, 493; _D. patachonica_, 492 Dolphin, 372 _Dorcatherium_; see _Hyomoschus_ _Dorcopsis_, 135; _D. luctuosa_, 135, 136; _D. macleani_, 136; _D. muelleri_, 136 _Dorcotragus_, 313; _D. megalotis_, 313 Dormouse, 470 Doroucouli, 560 _Dremotherium_, 301 _Dromatherium_, 98 _Dromicia_, 141; _D. nana_, 141 _Dromiciops_, 156 _Dryolestes_, 99 _Dryopithecus_, 585 Duck-billed Platypus; _see_ Platypus and _Ornithorhynchus_ Dugong, 336; skeleton of, 336 Duplicidentata, 502 f. _Dymecodon_, 518 _Echidna_, 110; egg of, 72; _E. aculeata_, 111; skull of, 108; shoulder girdle of, 109; brain of, 110; _E. hystrix_ (= _E. aculeata_), 15; shoulder girdle of, 37 Echidnidae, 110 _Echinomys_, 488 _Echinops_, 512 _Echiothrix_, 473 Edentata, 161 f. Eland, 316 _Elaphodus_, 294; _E. cephalophus_, 294; _E. michianus_, 294 _Elasmognathus_, 251 _Elasmotherium_, 259 Elephant, 217; observations of Pliny and Aristotle upon, 225 Elephantidae, 217 _Elephas_, 218; _E. africanus_, 221, 222; skull of, 218; _E. antiquus_, 229; _E. falconeri_, 229; _E. indicus_, 221, 223, 224; foot of, 198; _E. melitensis_, 229; _E. meridionalis_, 229; _E. planifrons_, 229; _E. primigenius_, 226; _E. priscus_, 226 _Eligmodontia_, 480 _Eliomys_, 471 _Eliurus_, 480 {601} Elk, 297 _Ellobius_, 479 _Elotherium uintense_, 279 _Emballonura_, 530 Emballonuridae, 530 _Enhydridon_, 440 _Enhydris_, 439 _Enhydrocyon_, 423 _Eohippus_, 248 _Eonycteris_, 526; _E. spelaea_, 526 Epanorthidae, 145 _Epanorthus_, 148 Epicondylar foramina, 39 Epipubes of Monotremes and Marsupials, 116 Episternum, 33, 34, 35 _Epomophorus_, 525 Equidae, 237 _Equus_, 239; _E. africanus_, 243; _E. asinus_, 243; _E. boehmi_, 245; _E. burchelli_, 244, 245; _E. caballus_, 239; _E. grevyi_, 244; _E. hemionus_, 242; _E. hemippus_, 242; _E. onager_, 242; _E. przewalskii_, 241; _E. quagga_, 244; _E. sivalensis_, 246; _E. somalicus_, 244; _E. stenonis_, 246; _E. taeniopus_, 243; _E. zebra_, 244 _Erethizon_, 498 Ergot, of Horse, 240 _Ericulus_, 512; _E. setosus_, 512 Erinaceidae, 509 _Erinaceus_, 510; _E. europaeus_, 510 Ermine, 436 _Eschatia_, 290 _Esthonyx_, 507 _Eubalaena_, 358 _Euchoreutes_, 485 _Eupetaurus_, 467; _E. cinereus_, 467 _Euphyseter_, 367 _Eupleres_, 403; _E. goudotii_, 403 _Euprotogonia_, 204; _E. puercensis_, 204 _Eurhinodelphis_, 383 _Eusmilus_, 402 _Eutatus_, 179 Eutheria, 116; earliest forms of, 102 _Evotomys_, 479 Fallow Deer, 293 Felidae, 390 _Felis_, 391; _F. baileyi_, 397; _F. caffra_, 400; _F. canadensis_, 397; _F. catus_, 399; _F. concolor_, 399; _F. eyra_, 399; _F. leo_, 39;3 _F. lynx_, 397; _F. maniculata_, 400; _F. nebulosa_, 396; _F. onca_, 398; _F. pardalis_, 398, 399; _F. pardina, 397_; _F. pardus, 395_; _F. rufa, 397_; _F. tigris_, 394; _F. uncia_ 396; _F. viverrina_, 397 _Feresia_, 377 _Fiber_, 477; _F. osoyoosensis_, 478; _F. zibethicus_, 478 Flying Fox, 524; skeleton of, 523 Flying Squirrel, 466 {602} Fore-limb, 39 Fossa, 405 _Fossa_, 407; _F. daubentoni_, 407 Fossil mammals, 96 Fox, 419; Arctic, 419 Fur Seals, 451 _Furia_, 531 _Galago_, 543; _G. crassicaudatus_, 543; _G. garnetti_, 543; _G. senegalensis_, 543 Galeopithecidae, 520 _Galeopithecus_, 521; _G. volans_, 520 _Galera_, 434 _Galeriscus_, 434 _Galictis_, 433; G. barbara, 433 _Galidia_, 404; _G. elegans_, 404 _Galidictis_, 404; _G. vittata_, 404 Ganodonta, 190 f. Gaur, 317 Gayal, 318 _Gazella_, 312; _G. loderi_, 312 _Gelada_, 566 _Gelocus_, 283 Gemsbok, 315 Genet, 406 _Genetta_, 406; _G. vulgaris_, 406 _Geogale_, 513; _G. aurita_, 513 Geomyidae, 483 _Geomys_, 483 _Georhychus_, 481 _Gerbillus_, 475; _G. aegyptius_, 475; _G. pyramidum_, 475 Gibbon, 570 _Giraffa_, 301; _G. attica_, 305; _G. australis_, 303; _G. camelopardalis_, 302; _G. sivalensis_, 305 Giraffidae, 301 Glands, of skin, 12; of Lemurs, 12, 537; of Marsupials, 13; of Skunk, 13, 439; on feet of Rhinoceros, 13, 254; temporal,of Elephant, 12; musk, 13, 300; mammary, 16 _Glauconycteris_, 530 Gliridae, 470 _Globicephalus_, 374; _G. brachypterus_, 375; _G. indicus_, 375; _G. melas_, 375; _hand of_, 345; _G. scammoni_, 375 _Glossophaga_, 531 _Glossotherium_, 180 Glutton, 435 _Glyptodon_, 184; _G. clavipes_, skeleton of, 184 Glyptodontidae, 184 Gnu, 309 Goats, species of, 324 _Golunda_, 473 _Gomphotherium sternbergi_, foot of, 197 Goral, 327 Gorilla, 572, 573; brain of, 575; habits of, 576 _Gorilla_, 572; _G. gorilla_, 572 Grampus, 375 {603} _Grampus_, 375; _G. griseus_, 375 _Graphiurus_, 471 Gravigrada, 179 Greenland Whale, 358 _Grisonia_, 433; _G. allamandi_, 434; _G. vittata_, 434 Ground Sloths, 179 _Grypotherium_, 182 Grysbok, 310 Guinea-pig, 493 _Gulo_, 435; _G. luscus_, 435 _Gymnobelideus_, 141 _Gymnura_, 509; _G. rafflesii_, 509 _Gymnuromys_, 480 _Habrocoma_, 487; _H. bennetti_, 487 Hair, structure of, 6; sensory, 10; tuft of elongated, on wrist, 10; of Whales, 341 _Halichoerus_, 452; _H. grypus_, 452 _Halicore_, 336; _H. australis_, skeleton of, 336; _H. dugong_, 337; _H. indicus_, 33 _Halitherium_, 335 _Hallomys_, 480 Hamster, 479 _Hapale_, 556; _H. pygmaea_, 556 _Hapalemur_, 541; _H. griseus_, 541; arm of, 537; _H. olivaceus_, 541; _H. simus_, 541 Hapalidae, 556 _Hapalomys_, 473 _Hapalotis_, 473 _Haploceros montanus_, 326 _Haplodon_, 469; _H. major_, 469; _H. rufus_, 469 Haplodontidae, 469 Hare, 504; Cape Jumping, 486; -Kangaroo, 134; Variable, 504 Harnessed Antelopes, 315 _Harpyia_, 526 _Harpyionycteris_, 526 Hartebeest, 309 Heart, 65; of Monotremata, 66 Hedgehog, 510 _Helaletes_, 250 _Helictis_, 438; _H. subaurantiaca_, 438 _Heliphobius_, 481 _Helladotherium_, 306; _H. duvernoyi_, 306 _Helogale_, 410 _Hemicentetes_, 512 _Hemigale_, 408; _H. hardwicki_, 408; _H. hosei_, 408 _Hemigalidia_, 404 _Hemiganus_, 191; _H. otariidens_, 191 _Herpestes_, 409; _H. albicauda_, 409, 410; _H. ichneumon_, 409; _H. urva_, 409 _Heterocephalus_, 481; _H. glaber_, 481; _H. phillipsii_, 481 Heterodont, 47 Heteromyidae, 484 _Heteromys_, 484 _Hexaprotodon_, 274 {604} Hind-limb, 42 _Hipparion_, 250 Hippopotamidae, 273 _Hippopotamus_, 273; _H. amphibius_, 273, 274 _Hipposiderus_, 527 _Hippotigris_, 246 _Hippotragus_, 314; _H. equinus_, 314; _H. leucophaeus_, 314; _H. niger_, 313 f. _Hodomys_, 480 _Holochilus_, 480 _Holomeniscus_, 290 _Homacodon_, 280; _H. vagans_, 280 _Homalodontotherium_, 212, 216 Hominidae, 585 _Homo_, 585; skull of, 586; foot of, 587; palate of, 589; _H. sapiens_, 585 _Homocamelus_, 290 Homodont, 47 _Homunculus_, 570 Hoolock, 571 _Hoplophoneus_, 402 Horns, 200, 307 Horse, 239; Wild, 240; striping of, 240; Domestic, 241; ancestry of, 247 Howling Monkeys, 558 Humpback Whale, 356 _Hunterius_, 358 Hunting Dog, 416 Hutia, 490 _Hyaena_, 411; _H. crocuta_, 412; _H. spelaea_, 413; _H. striata_, 412 _Hyaenarctos_, 445 _Hyaenictis_, 413 Hyaenidae, 411 _Hyaenodon_, 455 Hybrid Oxen, 317 _Hydraspotherium_, 306 _Hydrochoerus_, 492; _H. capybara_, 491 _Hydromys_, 474; _H. chrysogaster_, 474 _Hydropotes_, 296; _H. inermis_, 296, 297 _Hylobates_, 570; _H. agilis_, 571; _H. hainanus_, 571; _H. hoolock_, 571 _Hylomys_, 509; _H. suillus_, 509 _Hyomoschus_, 283; _H. aquaticus_, 283 _Hyopotamus_, 329 _Hyotherium_, 280 _Hyperoodon_, 23, 41, 370; _H. planifrons_, 371; _H. rostratum_, 371 _Hypogeomys_, 480 Hypselodont, 48 Hypsiprymninae, 131 _Hypsiprymnodon_, 138; _H. moschatus_, 138 Hypsiprymnodonitinae, 138 _Hyrachyus_, 262; _H. agrarius_, 262 _Hyracodon_, 146, 262; _H. nebrascensis_, 260 _Hyracodontotherium_, 333 Hyracoidea, 232 f. _Hyracops_, 203 _Hyracotherium_, 247 {605} _Hyrax_, 232; _H. capensis_, 233; manus of, 198 Hystricidae, 499 Hystricomorpha, 487 _Hystrix_, 499; _H. cristata_, 499, 500 Ibex, 325 Ichneumon, 409 _Ichthyomys_, 480; _I. hydrobates_, 480; _I. stolzmanni_, 480 _Icticyon_, 414; _I. venaticus_, 414 _Ictonyx_, 438 _Idiurus_, 463; _I. macrotis_, 463; _I. zenkeri_, 463 Incisor teeth, 48 _Indris_, 538; _I. brevicaudata_, 538 _Indrodon_, 552; _I. malaris_, 552 _Inia_, 381; _I. geoffrensis_, 382 _Iniopsis caucasica_, 383 Insectivora, 508 f. Intercentra, 24 Intestine, 62; large and small, 64 _Isectolophus_, 250 _Isomys_, 473 Ivory, of Elephant, 227 Jackal, 420 Jaguar, 398 Jerboa, 484 Jerboa Rat, 473 Kanchil, 283 Kangaroo, 132; Tree-, 136 _Kerivoula_, 529; _K. picta_, 529 Kiang, 242 Kidney, 68 Killer Whale, 341, 375 Kinkajou, 430 Klipspringer, 310 Koala, 142, 143 _Kogia_, 366; _K. breviceps_, 367; _K. floweri_, 367; _K. pottsi_, 367; _K. simus_, 367 Kudu, 316 _Lagenorhynchus_, 378; _L. acutus_, 378; _L. albirostris_, 378 _Lagidium_, 496; _L. cuvieri_, 496 Lagomyidae, 505 _Lagomys_, 505; _L. ladacensis_, 505; _L. roylei_, 505 _Lagorchestes_, 134; _L. conspicillatus_, 134; _L. leporoides_, 135 _Lagostomus_, 496; _L. trichodactylus_, 496, 497 _Lagostrophus_, 137; _L. fasciatus_, 137 _Lagothrix_, 557; _L. humboldti_, 557 _Lagotis_, 496 _Lama_, 286; _L. huanacos_, 286, 287; _L. vicugna_, 286 Langur, 568 _Latax_, 439 _Leggada_, 472 {606} Lemming, 478 _Lemur_, 541; _L. catta_, 542; _N. leucomystax_, 542; _L. macaco_, 542; _L. nigerrimus_, 542; _L. rufipes_, 542; _L. varius_, 12, 542 Lemur, Gentle, 540 Lemuridae, 538 Lemuroidea, 534 Leopard, 395; Snow, 396; Hunting, 400 _Lepilemur_, 540; _L. mustelinus_, 540 Leporidae, 502 _Leptarctus_, 431; _L. primaevus_, 431 _Leptauchenia_, 331 _Leptomeryx_, 284 _Leptonyx_, 453; _L. weddelli_, 453 _Lepus_, 502; _L. americanus_, 504; _L. crawshayi_, 504; _L. cuniculus_, 502; brain of, 77; _L. europaeus_, 504; _L. timidus_, 504; _L. whytei_, 504 _Lestodon_, 183 _Limacomys_, 476 _Limnofelis_, 456 _Limnogale_, 512; _L. mergulus_, 513 _Linsang_, 406 Lion, 393 _Liponyx_, 526 _Listriodon_, 279 _Lithocranius_, 313 Litopterna, 267 Liver, 64 _Loncheres_, 489; _L. guianae_, 489 _Lophiodon_, 250 Lophiodontidae, 247 _Lophiomys_, 476; _L. imhausi_, 476 Lophodont teeth, definition of, 51 _Lophotragus michianus_, 294 n. _Lophuromys_, 472 _Loris_, 23, 547; _L. gracilis_, 547 Lungs, 69 _Lutra_, 440; _L. vulgaris_, 441 _Lycaon_, 416; _L. anglicus_, 416; _L. pictus_, 416 _Lycyaena_, 413 _Lyncodon_, 437; _L. luganensis_, 437 Lynx, 397 Lytta, a rod formed of connective tissue within the tongue, 416 _Macacus_, 563; _M. cynomolgus_, 564; _M. inuus_, 563; _M. leoninus_, 564; _M. nemestrinus_, 564; _M. priscus_, 569; _M. rhesus_, 564; _M. silenus_, 564; _M. sinicus_, 564; _M. speciosus_, 564; _M. tcheliensis_, 563, 564 Machaerodontidae, 401 _Machaerodus_, 402; _M. palmidens_, 402 _Macleayius_, 358 _Macrauchenia_, 267 Macraucheniidae, 267 _Macroglossus_, 526 Macropodidae, 129 Macropodinae, 131, 132 {607} _Macropus_, 132; _M. brunii_, 133; _M. giganteus_, 132; _M. irma_, 133; _M. rufus_, 132 _Macrorhinus_, 453; _M. leoninus_, 454 Macroscelidae, 515 _Macroscelides_, 515 _Macrotherium_, 211 _Malacomys_, 472 _Malacothrix_, 476 Mammals, position in Vertebrate series, 1; characters of, 3; coloration of, 10, 11; Reptilian ancestors of, 90; earliest known forms, 96 Mammoth, 226 Man, 585 Manatee, 335 _Manatus_, 335; _M. inunguis_, 336 Mandrill, 566 Mangabeys, 564 Manidae, 188 _Manis_, 188; _M. gigantea_, 190; _M. macrura_, 25; _M. tricuspis_, 31 _Manteoceras_, 267 Marine Mammals; _see_ Sirenia, Cetacea _Marmosa_, 156 Marmoset, 556 Marmot, 465; Prairie-, 465 Marsupial Mole, 159 Marsupials, 122; imperfectly born young of, 124 Marsupium or Pouch, 14; of Monotremata, 15; of Marsupials, 17; rudiments of, in higher Mammals, 23, 18 Marten, 435 _Massoutiera_, 490 _Mastacomys_, 473 _Mastodon_, 230 Meerkat, 410, 411 Megachiroptera, 524 f. _Megaderma_, 528; _M. lyra_, 528 Megaladapididae, 554 _Megaladapis insignis_, 554; _M. madagascariensis_, 554 _Megaloglossus_, 526 _Megalomys_, 480 Megalonychidae, 183 _Megalonyx_, 183 _Megamys_, 506 _Meganeuron kreffti_, 366 Megaptera, 356; _M. capensis_, 357; _M. indica_, 357; _M. lalandii_, 357; _M. longimana_, 357 _Megatherium_, 183 _Meles_, 432; _M. anakuma_, 432 n.; _M. taxus_, 432 _Mellivora_, 437; _M. capensis_, 438 _Melonycteris_, 526 _Melursus_, 443; _M. labiatus_, 443 _Meniscoessus_, 101 _Meniscotherium_, 203 _Menodus_, 264 _Mephitis_, 439 {608} _Meriones_, 475 Mermaids, 337 _Merychyus_, 331 _Merycochoerus_, 330 _Merycopotamus_, 329; _M. nanus_, 329 _Mesohippus_, 248 _Mesomys_, 489 _Mesonyx_, 456 _Mesopithecus pentelici_, 569 Mesoplacentalia, 103 _Mesoplodon_, 369; _M. bidens_, 369; _M. europaeus_, 369; _M. hectori_, 369; _M. layardi_, 369; _M. stejnegeri_, 369 _Mesoreodon_, 330 _Metamynodon_, 264; _M. planifrons_, skeleton of, 263 Metatheria, 116 _Microbiotherium_, 160 _Microcebus_, 544; _M. smithii_, 564 Microchiroptera, 526 f. _Microdipodops_, 484 _Microgale_, 512; _M. longicaudata_, 25 _Microlestes_, 98; _M. antiquus_, 98 _Microtus_, 477; _M. agrestis_, 477; _M. amphibius_, 477; _M. glareolus_, 477 _Midas_, 556; _M. bicolor_, 557; _M. leoninus_, 556; _M. nigricollis_, 556; _M. rosalia_, 556 Mimicry, in _Bassaricyon_, 428; in _Tupaia_, 511 _Minopterus_, 529; _M. scheibersi_, 529 Mioclaenidae, 205 _Mioclaenus_, 205 _Miohippus_, 248 _Miopithecus_, 565 _Mixocebus_, 540; _M. caniceps_, 540 Molar teeth, 51 Mole, 517; sternum of, 31; fore-foot of, 40; Golden, 515 Mole Rat, 481 _Molossus_, 531 _Monachus_, 453; _M. albiventer_, 453; _M. tropicalis_, 453 Mongoose, 409 Monkeys, 554 f. _Monodon_, 373; _M. monoceros_, 373 Monophyodonty, definition of, 53 Monotremata, 105 f. Moose, 297, 298 _Moropus_, 211 Morse, 451 Moschinae, 299 _Moschus_, 299; _M. moschiferus_, 299, 300 Mouflon, 324; Cyprus, 322 Mouse, 472; Pharaoh's, 409 Multituberculata, 98 Multituberculy, definition of, 59 Muntjac, 295 Muridae, 471 _Mus_, 471; _M. decumanus_, 472; _M. musculus_, 472; _M. minutus_, 472; _M. rattus_, 472 {609} _Muscardinus_, 470; _M. avellanarius_, 470 Musk, 300; Deer, 12, 13, 299; Kangaroo, 138; Ox, 327 Musquash, 477 _Mustela_, 435; _M. foina_, 435; _M. martes_, 435; _M. putorius_ (= _Putorius foetidus_), 436; _M. zibellina_, 435 Mustelidae, 431 _Mycetes_, 34, 558 _Mydaus_, 433; _M. meliceps_, 433 _Mylodon_, 179; _M. robustus_, 179; skeleton of, 180 Mylodontidae, 179 _Myocastor_, 489 _Myodes_, 478; _M. lemmus_, 478 _Myogale_, 518 Myomorpha, 469 _Myopotamus_, 489 _Myoscalops_, 481 _Myosorex_, 518 _Myoxus_, 470; _M. glis_, 470 _Myrmecobius_, 154; _M. fasciatus_, 155 _Myrmecophaga_, 166; _M. jubata_, 166; skull of, 167, 168; hand of, 169; vertebrae of, 163 Myrmecophagidae, 166 Mystacoceti, 353 f. _Myxopoda_, 529 Nail-tailed Wallaby, 134 Nails, 14 _Nandinia_, 408 _Nannosciurus_, 464 Narwhal, 373; "horn" of, 49 _Nasalis_, 569 _Nasua_, 430; _N. nasica_, 431; _N. rufa_, 430, 431 _Natalus_, 529 Native, Bear, 142; Cat, 152 _Necrodasypus_, 164 n. _Necrogymnura_, 510 _Nectogale_, 518; _N. elegans_, 520 _Nectomys_, 480 _Nelomys_, 488 _Nelsonia_, 480 _Nemorrhaedus_, 326; _N. crispus_, 326; _N. goral_, 327 _Neobalaena_, 361; _N. marginata_, 362 _Neofiber_, 478; _N. alleni_, 478 Neogaea, 85 _Neomeris_, 374; _N. phocaenoides_, 374 _Neomylodon listai_, 181 _Neotoma_, 480 _Neotragus pygmaeus_, 310 _Nesodon_, 215 _Nesokia_, 472 _Nesonycteris_, 526 _Nesopithecus_, 553; _N. australis_, 553 New Zealand, absence of terrestrial mammals from, 85 Nilgai, 316 _Nimravus_, 401; _N. gomphodus_, 401 {610} _Noctilio_, 530; _N. leporinus_, 530 Nomarthra, 186 f. _Nothocyon_, 415 _Notiomys_, 480 _Notiosorex_, 518 Notogaea, 85 _Notopteris_, 526 _Notoryctes typhlops_, 159 Notoryctidae, 158 _Nototherium_, 148; _N. mitchelli_, 148; skull of, 148 _Nyctereutes_, 414; _N. procyonides_, 415 Nycteridae, 527 _Nycteris_, 528; _N. javanica_, 528 _Nycticebus_, 545; _N. tardigradus_, 546; foot of, 537 _Nycticejus_, 530 _Nyctinomus_, 531 _Nyctipithecus_, 560 _Nyctophilus_, 529 _Ocapia johnstoni_, 305 Oceanic islands, mammalian fauna of, 81 Ocelot, 398, 399 _Ochotona_, 505 _Octodon_, 487; _O. degus_, 487 Octodontidae, 487 _Odobaenus_, 451 Odontoceti, 362 f.; fossil forms of, 383 _Ogmorhinus_, 453 Okapi, 305 _Ommatophoca_, 453; _O. rossi_, 453 _Onohippidium_, 247 n. _Onychodectes_, 193; _O. tissonensis_, 193 _Onychogale_, 134 _Onychomys_, 479 _Opolemur_, 544 Opossum, 155; Thick-tailed, 156; Virginian, 155 Orang Utan, 580, 581, 582, 583, 587, 589 _Orca_, 375; _O. gladiator_, 341, 375 _Orcella_, 376; _O. brevirostris_, 376; _O. fluminalis_, 376 _Oreinomys_, 475 _Oreodon_, 330 Oreodontidae, 330 _Oreopithecus bambolii_, 569 _Oreotragus saltator_, 310 _Orias_, 316; _O. canna_, 316; _O. livingstonii_, 316 Ornithodelphia, 106 Ornithorhynchidae, 112 _Ornithorhynchus_, 112; _O. anatinus_, 112; shoulder girdle of, 34; skeleton of, 114 _Orohippus_, 248 Orycteropodidae, 187 _Orycteropus_, 187; teeth of, 188; _O. aethiopicus_, 188; _O. capensis_, 187; _O. gaudryi_, 188 _Oryx_, 314; _O. beatrix_, 314; _O. beisa_, 315; _O. leucoryx_, 314 _Oryzomys_, 480 {611} _Oryzoryctes_, 513 _Otaria_, 451; _O. gillespiei_, 451; _O. hookeri_, 451; _O. jubata_, 448; _O. nigrescens_, 451; _O. pusilla_, 450; _O. ursina_, 451 Otariidae, 450 _Otocyon_, 415; _O. megalotis_, 415 _Otomys_, 475; _O. unisulcatus_, 475 _Otonycteris_, 529 Otter, 441; Sea, 439 Ouakari Monkey, 560; Red-faced, 560 _Oulodon grayi_, 380 Ounce, 396 _Ourebia_, 310 Ova, 71; of Monotremes, 72 Ovaries, 70 _Ovibos moschatus_, 327 Oviduct, 73; of Marsupials, 74 _Ovis_, 321; _O. blanfordi_, 323; _O. burrhel_, 322; _O. montana_, 322; _O. musimon_, 324; _O. nahura_, 324; _O. ophion_, 322; _O. poli_, 321; _O. tragelaphus_, 323; _O. vignei_, 321 Oxen, 317 _Oxymycterus_, 480 Paca, 493 _Pachynolophus_, 248 _Pachyrucos_, 213 _Pachyuromys_, 475 _Palaeochoerus_, 280 _Palaeoerinaceus_, 510 _Palaeonictis_, molar teeth of, 56 _Palaeosyops_, 266 _Palaeotragus_, 306 Palate, 61 Palm Civet, 407 Pancreas, 64 Panda, 431 _Pangolin_, 188 Pangolin gigantesque, 211 _Panochthus_, 185 Panther, 395 _Pantholops_, 311 _Pantolambda_, 206; _P. bathmodon_, 207; skull of, 206 Pantolestidae, 328 _Paradoxurus_, 407; _P. grayi_, 407; _P. niger_, 407 _Patriofelis_, 449, 456 Peccary, 278 Pecora, 290 f. _Pectinator_, 490; _P. spekii_, 491 Pectoral girdle, 35 _Pedetes_, 486; _P. caffer_, 486 Pedetidae, 486 _Pelea_, 311; _P. capreolus_, 311 _Peltephilus_, 186 Peludo, 177 Pelvis, 41 _Peraceras_, 262 _Peragale_, 156; _P. lagotis_, 157 _Perameles_, 158 {612} Peramelidae, 156 _Peramus_, 99 _Peramys_, 156 _Perascalops_, 518 _Periptychus_, 204; _P. rhabdodon_, 205 Perissodactyla, 235 f. _Perodicticus_, 547 _Perodipus_, 484 _Perognathus_, 484 _Peromyscus_, 479 _Petauroides_, 142 _Petaurus_, 141; _P. breviceps_, 142 _Petrodromus_, 516; _P. tetradactylus_, 516 _Petrogale_, 134; _P. penicillata_, 134; _P. xanthopus_, 134 _Petromys_, 488 _Phacochoerus_, 277; _P. aethiopicus_, 277; _P. africanus_, 277 _Phalanger_, 140; _P. maculatus_, 140 Phalanger, 138; Flying, 141; Striped, 141; Ring-tailed, 141 Phalangeridae, 138 _Phalangista vulpina_, 140 _Phascolarctos cinereus_, 142, 143 _Phascologale_, 153; _P. virginia_, 153 _Phascolomys_, 144; skull of, 145; _P. latifrons_, 145; _P. mitchelli_, 145; _P. ursinus_, 145; _P. wombat_, 144 _Phascolonus_, 148 _Phascolotherium_, 99; _P. bucklandi_, 99 _Phatagin_, 188 _Phenacodus_, 202; _P. primaevus_, skeleton of, 196; molar teeth of, 56 _Phenacomys_, 479 _Phlaeomys_, 473 _Phoca_, 452; _P. groenlandica_, 452; _P. hispidia_, 452; _P. vitulina_, 452; skeleton of, 447 _Phocaena_, 374; _P. communis_, 374; _P. dallii_, 374; _P. spinipennis_, 374; _P. tuberculifera_, 342 Phocidae, 452 _Pholidotus_, 188 _Phyllorhina_, 527 Phyllostomatidae, 531 _Phyllotis_, 480 _Physeter_, 363; _P. macrocephalus_, 363; _P. tursio_, 366 Physeteridae, 362 _Physodon_, 383 Pichy-ciego, 176 Pig, 275; sternum of, 32; foot of, 199; solid-hoofed, 270 Pika, 505 Pinnipedia, 446 f. _Pithecanthropus erectus_, 584 _Pithechirus_, 473 _Pithecia_, 562; _P. albinasa_, 561; _P. cheiropotes_, 562; _P. satanas_, 562 Placenta, 125 _Plagiaulax_, 99 _Plagiodontia_, 489 {613} _Platacanthomys_, 471; _P. lasiurus_, 471 _Platanista_, 380; _P. gangetica_ 381 Platanistidae, 380 _Platycercomys_, 486 Platypus, 113 Platyrrhines, 555, 556 _Plecotus_, 529; _P. auritus_, 529 _Plesiomeryx_, 329 _Pliopithecus_, 585 _Poebrotherium_, 288; _P. labiatum_, foot of, 197; _P. wilsoni_, skull of, 288 _Poecilogale_, 437; _P. albinucha_, 437 _Poephagus grunniens_; see _Bos grunniens_ _Pogonodon_, 401 _Poiana_, 407 Polecat, 436 _Polycladus_, 301 Polyprotodontia, 149 f. _Pontoporia_, 382; _P. blainvillii_, 382 _Porcula salvania_, 276 Porcupine, 499, 500; Tree, 498; Brush-tailed, 501 Porpoise, 374 _Potamochoerus_, 278 _Potamogale_, 513; _P. velox_, 513 Potamogalidae, 513 Potoroinae, 131, 137 _Potorous_, 138 Potto, 547 Pouch; _see_ Marsupium Prairie-dog, 465 _Praopus_, 178 Prepollex, 41 Primates, 533 f. _Priodon_, 173, 179; _P. giganteus_, hand of 175 _Prionodon_, 406; _P. pardicolor_, 406 _Priscodelphinus_, 384 _Proaelurus_, 401 Proboscidea, 216 f. _Procamelus_, 289; _P. angustidens_, 290; _P. occidentalis_, foot of, 197 _Procavia_, 232 _Procyon_, 427; _P. cancrivorus_, 427; _P. lotor_, 427; _P. nigripes_, 427 Procyonidae, 426 _Prodelphinus_, 377 _Proechidna_, 111; _P. bruijnii_, 111; _P. nigroaculeata_, 111 Pronghorn, 306 _Propalaehoplophorus_, 185 _Propithecus_, 539; _P. coquereli_, 540; _P. verreauxi_, 540 _Prorastoma_, 336; _P. veronense_, 337 _Prosqualodon_, 384 _Proteles_, 413; _P. cristata_, 413 _Protelotherium_, 280 _Prothylacinus_, 160 _Protoceras_, 284 Protoceratidae, 284 _Protochriacus_, 553 _Protogonia_, 204 {614} Protohippus, 249 _Protolabis_, 289 _Protoreodon_, 332 Protorotheriidae, 268 _Protorotherium_, 268 _Protoselene_, 205 Prototheria, 105 f. _Protylopus_, 287; _P. petersoni_, feet of, 197 _Protypotherium_, 213 _Psammomys_, 475 _Pseudamphicyon_, 424 _Pseudochirus_, 141 _Pseudorca_, 376; _P. crassidens_, 376; _P. meridionalis_, 376 _Pseudorhynchocyon_, 516 _Psittacotherium_, 191; _P. multifragum_, 191 _Pteralopex_, 526; _P. atrata_, 526 _Pteromys_, 466; _P. alborufus_, 466; _P. petaurista_, 466 _Pteroneura brasiliensis_, 441 Pteropodidae, 524 _Pteropus_, 524; _P. edulis_, 524; _P. fuscus_, skull of, 524; _P. nicobaricus_, 526; _P. poliocephalus_, 525 _Ptilocercus_, 511; _P. lowi_, 511 _Ptilodus_, 101 _Pudua_, 296 Puma, 399 _Putorius_, 435; _P. brasiliensis_, 437; _P. erminea_, 436; _P. foetidus_ (= _Mustela putorius_), 436; _P. hibernicus_, 437; _P. vulgaris_, 437 Pygmy, Hog, 276; Right Whale, 361 _Pyrotherium_, 232 Quagga, 244, 246 Rabbit, 502; skull of, 503; oviduct of, 73; brain of, 77 Raccoon, 427 _Rangifer tarandus_, 298, 299 _Raphiceros_, 310 Rasse, 406 Rat, 472; -Kangaroo, 137 Ratel, 437, 438 Red Deer, 293 Reed Buck, 311 Reindeer, 292, 298, 299 _Reithrodon_, 480 _Reithrodontomys_, 480 _Reithrosciurus macrotis_, 464 Reproductive organs, 70 Respiratory organs; _see_ Lungs _Rhachianectes_, 357; _Rh. glaucus_, 357 _Rhinoceros_, 254; _Rh. bicornis_, 257, 258; _Rh. indicus_ (= _Rh. unicornis_), 255; femur of, 43; _Rh. lasiotis_, 257; _Rh. schleiermacheri_, 258; _Rh. simus_, 257; _Rh. sondaicus_, 256; _Rh. sumatrensis_, 256; hand of, 199; _Rh. tichorhinus_, 259 {615} Rhinoceros, White, 257; Black, 257 Rhinocerotidae, 253 _Rhinogale_, 410 n. Rhinolophidae, 527 _Rhinolophus_, 527; _Rh. ferrum equinum_, 527; _Rh. hipposiderus_, 527 _Rhinonycteris_, 527 _Rhinopithecus_, 569 _Rhinopoma_, 530 _Rhipidomys_, 480 _Rhizomys_, 482; _Rh. badius_, 483; _Rh. pruinosus_, 482; _Rh. sumatrensis_, 482 _Rhynchocyon_, 516; _Rh. chrysopygus_, 516 _Rhynchogale_, 410 _Rhynchomys_, 474; _Rh. soricioides_, 474 _Rhynchonycteris_, 531 _Rhytina_, 338 Ribs, 29; single-headed, of Whales and Monotremes, 30 Risso's Dolphin, 375 River Hog, Red, 278 Roan Antelope, 314 Rodentia, 458 f.; brain of, 461; teeth of, 459 Roe Deer, 295 _Romerolagus_, 504 Rorqual, 355 Ruminantia, 280 f.; stomach of, 281 f. _Rupicapra_, 326 Sable, 435; Antelope, 313 _Saccopteryx_, 531 _Saccostomus_, 472 Sacrum, 24 _Sagmatias_, 376 _Saiga_, 311; _S. tartarica_, 311 Saki monkey, 562 Salivary glands, 64 _Samotherium_, 305; _S. boissieri_, 306 _Sarcophilus ursinus_, 151; skull of, 149 Scales, 9; of Anomaluridae, 463; of Manidae, 188 _Scalops_, 518 _Scapasius_, 518 _Scapteromys_, 480 _Scaptonyx_, 518 Scapula, 36; of Whales, 37 _Scelidotherium_, 180 _Schizodon_, 488 _Schizotherium_, 211 Sciuridae, 463 _Sciuropterus_, 467; _S. volucella_, 467 _Sciurus_, 463; _S. castaneiventris_, 464; _S. laticaudatus_, 511; _S. maximus_, 464 _Scleropleura_, 179; _S. bruneti_, 179 _Scotophilus_, 529 _Scotozous_, 530; _S. dormeri_, 530 Seal, 452; Bladder-nosed, 454; compared with Zeuglodonts, 385; Elephant, 454; Eared, 450; hooded, 453 Sea-Lion, 450; see _Otaria_ {616} Sealskin, 9 Sea Serpent, 368 Selenodont, 272 Selenodontia, 280 _Semnopithecus_, 568; _S. entellus_, 568; _S. schistaceus_, 569 Sewellel, 469 Sheep, Barbary, Blanford's, and other species of, 321 f. Shoulder girdle, 35; of _Ornithorhynchus_, 34; of _Echidna_, 37 Shrew, 518; Elephant-, 515 Siamang, 571 Sibbald's Rorqual, 2, 356 _Sigmodon_, 479 _Simia satyrus_, 580, 581; skeleton of, 582; skull of, 583; nest of, 583 Simiidae, 570 _Simocyon_, 423 Simplicidentata, 462 f. Sing-sing Antelope, 310 _Siphneus_, 479 Sirenia, 333 f. _Sivatherium_, 306 Size, of Mammals, 2; progressive secular increase in, 103; of Whales, 342 Skull, 25; of Human embryo, 27; of adult, 586; of Dog, 25, 29; comparison of, with that of Anomodontia, 28 Skunk, 439 Sloth, 170; Ground-, 180 _Smilodon_, 402; _S. neogaeus_, 402 _Sminthopsis_, 153; _S. virginiae_, 153 _Sminthus_, 486 _Smutsia_, 188 _Solenodon_, 514; _S. cubanus_, 514 Solenodontidae, 513 _Sorex_, 518; _S. alpinus_, 519; _S. minutus_, 519; _S. vulgaris_, 519 Soricidae, 518 _Soriculus_, 518 _Sotalia_, 378; _S. gadamu_, 379; _S. guianensis_, 378; _S. lentiginosa_, 379; _S. pallida_, 382; _S. sinensis_, 378; _S. teüszii_, 378 Souslik, 464 Spalacidae, 482 _Spalacopus_, 487; _S. poeppigi_, 487 _Spalacotherium_, 99 _Spalax_, 482; _S. typhlus_, 482 Sparassodonta, 160 Speke's Antelope, 315 f. _Speothos_, 423 Sperm Whale, 363 Spermaceti, 363 _Spermophilus_, 464; _S. tredecimlineatus_, 465 _Sphingurus_, 498; _S. prehensilis_, 498 f. Spider Monkey, 558 Spiny Anteater; see _Echidna_ Springbok, 312 _Squalodon_, 384 {617} Squalodontidae, 384 Squamata, 188 Squirrel, 463; Pygmy, 464; Ground, 464; Flying, 466 _Steatomys_, 473, 476 _Stegodon_, 229; _S. ganesa_, 229 Steinbok, 310 Steller's Sea-cow, 338 _Steno_, 379; _S. perniger_, 379 _Stenodelphis_, 382 _Stenoplesictis_, 441 _Stenops_, 545 _Stenorhynchus_, 453 _Stentor_, 558 _Stereognathus_, 99 Sternum, 31; of Whales, 32, 33, 352; of Dugong, 33 Stoat, 436 Stomach, 62; of various mammals, 63; of Whales, 347 _Strepsiceros_, 316; _S. imberbis_, 316; _S. kudu_, 316 _Stylacodon_, 99 _Stylinodon_, 193; _S. cylindrifer_, 193; _S. mirus_, 193 Stylinodontidae, 191 Sublingua, 61 Suidae, 275 _Suricata_, 410; _S. tetradactyla_, 411 _Sus_, 275; _S. barbatus_, 276; _S. erymanthius_, 279; _S. salvania_, 276; _S. scrofa_, 275; _S. sennaariensis_, 275; _S. verrucosus_, 276; _S. vittatus_, 276 _Synaptomys_, 479 _Synetheres_, 498 _Synotus_, 529; _S. barbastellus_, 522, 529 _Systemodon_, 250 _Tachyoryctes_, 483 _Talpa_, 517; _T. europaea_, 517 Talpidae, 516 _Tamandua_, 167; sternum of, 168 Tamarin, 556 _Tamias_, 464 _Taphozous_, 531 Tapir, 11 Tapiridae, 250 _Tapirus_, 250; _T. bairdi_, 251; _T. dowi_, 251; _T. ecuadorensis_, 251 n.; _T. indicus_, 252; _T. leucogenys_, 251 n.; _T. roulini_, 251; _T. terrestris_, 251 Tarsiidae, 550 Tarsipedinae, 140, 145 _Tarsipes_, 145 _Tarsius_, 550; _T. spectrum_,foot of, 551 Tasmanian, Devil, 151; Wolf, 150 _Tatusia_, 173; _T. novemcincta_, 178 _Taurotragus oryx_, 316 n. _Taxidea_, 438 Tayra, 433 Teeth, 43; minute structure of, 44; development of, 52; brachyodont (with short roots), 48; {618} bunodont, 272; diphyodont, 51; heterodont, 47; homodont, 47; hypselodont (with long roots), 48; lophodont, 51; monophyodont, 53; selenodont, 272 Teledu, 433 _Teleoceras_, 259 n.; _T. fossiger_, 261 _Telmatotherium_, 267; _T. cornutum_, 267 Temperature of Monotremata, 112 Tenrec, 511 Testes, 75 _Tetraceros_, 310 _Tetraprotodon_, 274 _Thalassarctos_, 443 _Theropithecus_, 566 _Thoatherium_, 268 _Thomomys_, 483 _Thrinacodus_, 489; _T. albicauda_, 489 _Thrynomys_, 489; _T. swindernianus_, 489 _Thylacinus_, 150; _T. cynocephalus_, skull of, 150 Thylacoleo, 147; _T. carnifex_, skull of, 147 _Thyroptera_, 529 Tiger, 394 Tillodontia, 506 f. _Tillotherium_, 507; _T. fodiens_, 507; skull of, 507 _Tinoceras_, 210 _Titanops_, 264 Titanotheriidae, 264 _Titanotherium_, 264; _T. coloradense_, 264; _T. elatum_, 265; _T. heloceras_, 264; _T. platyceras_, 265, 266; _T. ramosum_, 266; _T. trigonoceras_, 265 Tolypeutes, 173; T. tricinctus, 176, 177 _Tomitherium_, 552 Tongue, 61 _Toxodon_, 214 Toxodontia, 214 f. _Tragelaphus_, 315; _T. gratus_, 316; _T. spekii_, 315; _T. sulvaticus_, 316 Tragulidae, 282 Tragulina, 281 _Tragulus_, 282; _T. meminna_, 282; _T. napu_, 283; _T. stanleyanus_, 283 Tree- Porcupines, 498; Kangaroos, 136 _Triaenops_, 527 Trichechidae, 451 _Trichechus_, 451 _Trichomys_, 488 _Trichosurus_, 140; _T. vulpecula_, 140 _Trichys_, 501; _T. lipura_, 501 _Triclis_, 149; _T. oscillans_, 149 _Triconodon_, 99 Trituberculata, 99 Trituberculy, definition of, 56 _Tritylodon_, 98 _Troglodytes_, 576; _T. aubryi_, 579; _T. kooloo-kamba_, 579; _T. savagei_, 576 {619} _Trogontherium_, 469 Tubulidentata, 186 Tuco-tuco, 488 _Tupaia_, 511; _T. belangeri_, 511; _T. tana_, 511 Tupaiidae, 511 _Tursio_, 379; _T. borealis_, 380: _T. peronii_, 380 _Tursiops_, 379; _T. abusalam_, 379; _T. tursio_, 379 Tusks, 49 _Tylomys_, 480 Tylopoda, 285 f. _Typhlomys_, 471 Typotheria, 212 f. _Typotherium_, 213 _Uintacyon_, 424 _Uintatherium_, 210 Unau, 170, 171 Ungulata, 195 f. Urinary organs, 68 Uromys, 473 _Uropsilus_, 518 _Urotrichus_, 518 Ursidae, 442 Urson, 498 _Ursus_, 442; _U. arctos_, 442; _U. fossilis_, 442; _U. malayanus_, 443; _U. ornatus_, 443; _U. pruinosus_, 443; _U. spelaeus_, 442, 444; _U. tibetanus_, 442 Urus, 321 Vampire, 532 _Vampyrus_, 531; _V. spectrum_, 531 _Vandeleuria_, 473 Vansire, 404 Veins, 67; anterior abdominal, in _Echidna_, 68 Vena cava, double in Elephants, 68 Vertebrae, 19; cervical, 21, 22; dorsal, 20, 23; lumbar, 20, 23; caudal, 24 _Vespertilio_, 529; _V. murinus_, 529 Vespertilionidae, 528 _Vesperugo_, 528; _V. discolor_, 528; _V. leisleri_, 528; _V. noctula_, 528; _V. pipistrellus_, 528; _V. serotinus_, 528 Vicuna, 286 _Vishnutherium_, 306 _Viverra_, 405; _V. civetta_, 406 _Viverricula_, 406 Viverridae, 403 Vizcacha, 497 Vole, 477 Vulpine Phalanger, 140 Wallaby, 129; skeleton of, 130; Nail-tailed, 134 Walrus, 451 Wapiti, 292 Wart Hog, 277 Waterbuck, 310 {620} Water Chevrotain, 283 Weasel, 437 Whalebone, 354 Whalebone Whales, 354 Whales, 339; hunting of, 360 White Whale, 372 Wild Boar of Europe, 276 Wild Cat of Europe, 399 Wisent, 318 Wolf, 420 Wombat, 144; skull of, 145 Wrist, 40; tactile hairs of, 10 Xenarthra, 166 f. _Xenomys_, 480 _Xenurus_, 173, 178; _X. unicinctus_, 178 _Xeromys_, 474 _Xerus_, 464 _Xiphodon_, 329 {621} Xiphodontidae, 329 Xiphodontotherium, 330 Yak, 320 Yapock, 156 _Zaglossus_, 111 n. _Zamicrus_, 184 _Zapus_, 486 _Zarrhachis_, 384 Zebra, 244; Burchell's, 245; Common, 244; Grevy's, 244 _Zenkerella_, 463 n. _Zeuglodon_, 384 Zeuglodontidae, 384 _Ziphius_, 367, 370; _Z. cavirostris_, 370; _Z. novae zelandiae_, 370 Zoological regions, 84 Zorilla, 438 * * * * * {622} {623} THE CAMBRIDGE NATURAL HISTORY Edited by Sir S. F. HARMER, K.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.S., and A. E. SHIPLEY, G.B.E., M.A., F.R.S. In Ten Volumes. Fully Illustrated. Medium 8vo. 21s. net each. _FIELD._--"The Cambridge Natural History series of volumes is one of very great value to all students of biological science. The books are not intended for popular reading, but for utilisation by those who are desirous of making themselves thoroughly acquainted with the branches of zoology of which they treat." VOLUME I. PROTOZOA, by MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc.; PORIFERA (SPONGES), by IGERNA B. J. SOLLAS, B.Sc; COELENTERATA AND CTENOPHORA, by S. J. HICKSON, M.A., F.R.S.; ECHINODERMATA, by E. W. MACBRIDE, M.A, F.R.S. _FIELD._--"The book can be in the strongest manner recommended to those for whose benefit it has been written. We know of no work from which a more truly scientific account of the Protozoa, Echinodermata, and other lower forms of animal life could be gained." VOLUME II. FLATWORMS AND MESOZOA, by F. W. GAMBLE, D.Sc.; NEMERTINES, by Miss L. 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THOMPSON, C.B., M.A. {624} VOLUME V. PERIPATUS, by ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S.; MYRIAPODS, by F. G. SINCLAIR, M.A.; INSECTS, Part I., INTRODUCTION, APTERA, ORTHOPTERA, NEUROPTERA, AND A PORTION OF HYMENOPTERA (SESSILIVENTRES AND PARASITICA), by DAVID SHARP, M.A., M.B., F.R.S. _Prof. RAPHAEL MELDOLA, F.R.S., F.C.S., in his Presidential Address to the Entomological Society of London, said_:--"The authors of this volume are certainly to be congratulated upon having furnished such a valuable contribution to our literature. When its successor appears, and I will venture to express the hope that this will be at no very distant period, we shall be in possession of a treatise on the natural history of insects which, from the point of view of the general reader, will compare most favourably with any similar work that has been published in the English language." VOLUME VI. HYMENOPTERA (_continued_) (TUBULIFERA AND ACULEATA), COLEOPTERA, STREPSIPTERA, LEPIDOPTERA, DIPTERA, APHANIPTERA, THYSANOPTERA, HEMIPTERA, ANOPLURA, by DAVID SHARP, M.A., M.B., F.R.S. _SATURDAY REVIEW._--"Dr. Sharp's treatment is altogether worthy of the series and of his own high scientific reputation.... Certainly this is a book that should be in every entomologist's library." VOLUME VII. HEMICHORDATA, by Sir S. F. HARMER, K.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.S.; ASCIDIANS AND AMPHIOXUS, by W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.; FISHES (EXCLUSIVE OF THE SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF TELEOSTEI), by T. W. BRIDGE, Sc.D., F.R.S.; FISHES (SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF TELEOSTEI), by G. A. BOULENGER, F.R.S. _ATHENÆUM._--"All who take a serious interest in the advance of ichthyology will find this a fascinating book." VOLUME VIII. AMPHIBIA AND REPTILES, by HANS GADOW, M.A., F.R.S. _NATURE._--"In concluding the review we would express the opinion that by this handsome volume a very important addition to science has been made; that the beautiful illustrations, together with the clear and charming accounts of the life-histories which it contains, will do much to popularise the study of a rather neglected section of zoology; and that lovers of Reptiles, of which there are more than one generally thinks, will feel that the new knowledge imparted to them emanates from one who is thoroughly in sympathy with their enthusiasm." VOLUME IX. BIRDS, by A. H. EVANS, M.A. _IBIS._--"Mr. Evans has produced a book full of concentrated essence of information on birds, especially as regards their outer structure and habits, and one that we can cordially recommend as a work of reference to all students of ornithology." VOLUME X. MAMMALIA, by FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. _NATURE._--"Cannot fail to be of very high value to all students of the Mammalia, especially from the standpoints of morphology and palæontology." LONDON: MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD. * * * * * NOTES [1] The degeneration of the hind-limb in Whales and Sirenia forbids the use of this character as a distinctive one on the principles advocated by the selection of the above list. But it would be absurd to leave out hair. [2] "Über die Haare der Säugethiere," _Morph. Jahrb._ xxi. 1894, p. 312. [3] "Bemerkungen über den Ursprung der Haare," _Anat. Anz._ 1893, p. 413. [4] See for this matter, p. 90. Dr. Bonavia has recently advanced (_Studies in Evolution_, London, 1895) the somewhat fantastic view that the pigment-patches of Carnivorous and other mammals are a reminiscence of an earlier scaly condition. There is no direct evidence that the primitive mammals were scaly, nor are the Monotremata or Marsupials furnished with any more traces of such a condition than are other mammals; and they are the most lowly organised of existing Mammalia. [5] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1887, p. 527. [6] "Über Marsupialrudimente bei Placentaliern," _Morph. Jahrb._ xx. 1893, p. 276. [7] See Haacke, "On the Marsupial Ovum, the Mammary Pouch, etc., of the Echidna," _Proc. Roy. Soc._ 1885, p. 72; and "Über die Entstehung der Säugetiere," _Biol. Centralbl._ viii. 1889, p. 8. [8] See Gegenbaur's _Elements of Comp. Anat._ Transl. by Bell, 1878, p. 421. [9] "Über die Beziehungen zwischen Mammartasche u. Marsupium," _Morph. Jahrb._ xvii. 1891, p. 483. [10] _Catalogue of Marsupials in British Museum_, 1886. [11] Its independence from the epistropheus is emphasised in Monotremes and some Marsupials by its late fusion with that vertebra. [12] Intercentra are but rarely met with anterior to the caudal series. Mr. Parsons has, however, recorded their occurrence in the lumbar vertebrae of _Atherura_. [13] _Tufts College Studies_, No. 6, 1900. [14] Cf. the Armadillo _Peltephilus_, p. 186. [15] Gegenbaur, _Vergl. Anat. Wirbelth._ Leipzig, 1898, p. 404. [16] Ehler's _Zool. Miscellen_, i. 1894. [17] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1865, p. 567. [18] _Vergl. Anat. der Wirbelth._ Leipzig, 1898, p. 497. [19] To this category are perhaps to be referred cartilaginous pieces occurring in the Rabbit, _Mus_ and _Sorex_ (see Fig. 29 above). [20] "On the Coracoid of the Terrestrial Vertebrates," _P.Z.S._ 1893, p. 585. [21] Horny matter is apt to be formed upon extremities; instances which are well known are the "claws" upon the tail of the Lion and Leopard and the Kangaroo _Onychogale_. For an account of the first see _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1832, p. 146. [22] Cf. Tomes, _A Manual of Dental Anatomy_, 5th ed. London, 1898. [23] _Materials for the Study of Variation_, London, 1894. [24] _Morph. Jahrb._ xix. 1892, p. 502. [25] It would be of the greatest interest in relation to this and many other problems to ascertain the precise meaning of the monophyodont dentition of _Ornithorhynchus_. [26] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1899, p. 922. [27] Mr. M. Woodward, however (_P.Z.S._ 1893, p. 467), is disposed to think that in some Macropodidae at any rate the supposed tooth of the second set really belongs to the milk dentition, arising late between Pm_{3} and Pm_{4}. [28] See for a summary, Osborn, _American Nat._ Dec. 1897, p. 993. [29] _e.g._ the "protoloph," "metaloph," etc. (see Fig. 36, p. 51), of the modern Ungulate form of tooth. [30] "On the Primitive Type of the Plexodont Molars of Mammals," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1899, p. 555. [31] _Jen. Zeitschr._ ii. 1866, p. 365. [32] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1883, p. 8. [33] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1894, p. 715. [34] Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1895, p. 136. [35] _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xxiv. 1884, p. 9. [36] _S.B. Jen. Gesells._ 1885, p. 1. [37] _Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin._ viii. 1885, p. 354. [38] _Phil. Trans._ clxxviii. 1887, p. 463. [39] Robinson, _Studies Biol. Lab. Owens Coll._ ii. 1890, p. 35. [40] Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1900, p. 667. [41] Wallace, _The Geographical Distribution of Animals_, 1876. Heilprin, _The Distribution of Animals_, Internat. Scientific Series, 1887. Beddard, _A Text-book of Zoogeography_, Cambridge Natural Science Manuals, 1895. Lydekker, _Geographical History of Mammals_, Cambridge Geographical Series, 1896. W. L. and P. L. Sclater, _The Geography of Mammals_, Kegan Paul and Co. 1899. [42] This term is sometimes used in a wider sense; cf. vol. viii. p. 74. [43] A series of papers in the _Phil. Trans._ for 1888-96, of which a useful abstract by Professor Osborn was published in the _American Naturalist_, 1898, p. 309; see also _Cambr. Nat. Hist._ viii. 1901, p. 303. [44] Cf. vol. viii. p. 82. [45] It may be necessary to exclude the Whales from the comparison. [46] _Dental Anatomy_, 5th ed. 1898, p. 304. [47] "On the Fossil Mammalia from the Stonesfield Slate," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xxxv. 1894, p. 407. [48] This groove has been found in the existing _Myrmecobius_, see p. 154. [49] _Trans. New York Acad. Sci._ xiii. 1894, p. 234. [50] Gegenbaur, _Zur Kenntniss der Mammarorgane der Monotremen_, Leipzig, 1886. [51] _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xxiv. 1884, p. 124. [52] Beddard, _Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb._ viii. 1885, p. 354. [53] See _Phil. Trans._ clxxviii. 1887, where the literature of the subject is fully cited. [54] Muscular insertions and attachments do not, however, altogether support the comparison. [55] _Journ. Anat. Phys._ 1899, p. 309. [56] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1864, p. 18. [57] _Myrmecophaga aculeata_ was the name given by Shaw. [58] _Zaglossus_ has apparently priority as a name; but _Proechidna_ is better known. [59] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1892, p. 545. [60] _Quart. J. Micr. Sci._ xxix. 1888, p. 353. [61] _Proc. Roy. Soc._ xlvi. 1889, p. 127. See also Stewart, _Quart. J. Micr. Sci._ xxxiii. 1892, p. 229. [62] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1880, p. 649. [63] Moreover, the "corpus callosum and the anterior commissure ... in ... _Erinaceus_ and _Dasypus_ are almost Monotreme-like." [64] See Wilson and Hill, _Quart. J. Micr. Sci._ xxxix. 1899, p. 427. [65] In _Dendrolagus_ at any rate. See _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1895, p. 132. [66] _Anat. Anz._ i. 1886, p. 338; and see Weber, _ibid._ ii. 1887, p. 42. [67] Works dealing exclusively with the Marsupials are: Lydekker, in Allen's _Naturalists' Library_, 1894; Aflalo, _Natural History of Australia_, Macmillan and Co. 1896; Waterhouse, _Natural History of Mammalia_, i. London, 1848; Oldfield Thomas, _British Museum Catalogue of Marsupialia and Monotremata_, 1888. [68] "The Cerebral Commissures in the Marsupialia and Monotremata," _Journ. Anat. Phys._ xxvii. 1893, p. 69. [69] When there are more than two, _two_ are especially developed. See Figs. 76, 77 (pp. 149, 150). [70] See for a further discussion of this subject the zoogeographical handbooks of Mr. Lydekker and myself, quoted on p. 78 (footnote). [71] To this may be added Mr. Thomas' observation that the family of American Opossums is "very closely allied to the Dasyuridae, from which, were it not for its isolated geographical position, it would be very doubtfully separable." [72] Except in the South American Diprotodonts. [73] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1893, p. 450. [74] _Ibid._ 1876, p. 165. [75] _Journal of the Rt. Hon. Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., K.B., P.R.S._, edited by Sir Joseph Hooker, London, 1896. [76] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1896, p. 683. [77] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1875, p. 48. [78] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1852, p. 103. [79] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1895, p. 131. [80] _Ibid._ 1884, p. 387. [81] _Ibid._ 1884, p. 407. [82] _Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales_, i. 1877, p. 34. [83] "On some Points in the Anatomy of the Koala," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881, p. 180. [84] Thomas, "On _Caenolestes_, a still existing survivor of the Epanorthidae of Ameghino, and the representative of a new family of recent Marsupials," _P.Z.S._ 1895, p. 870. [85] Stirling and Zietz, _Mem. Roy. Soc. South Australia_, i.; see also a notice in _Nature_, January 18, 1900. [86] Quite recently (_Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W._ 1898, p. 1) the carnivorous character of _Thylacoleo_ has been reasserted by Mr. Broom. [87] _Horn Scientific Expedition_, pt. ii. _Zoology_, 1896, p. 36. [88] Leche found five, and Waterhouse stated eight to be the number. [89] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1887, p. 527. See also Leche, _Biol. Fören. Förhandl._ 1891, p. 136, and literature quoted. [90] Traces of horny pads, like those of the Duck-bill, have been asserted to exist in this animal. This is exceedingly interesting when regarded in conjunction with its multituberculate molars. [91] See for an account of this animal, Professor Stirling's Memoir in _Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Australia_, 1891, p. 154, and Gadow, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1892, p. 361. [92] The male, according to Professor Spencer, has a rudimentary pouch. [93] Pectoral and abdominal in the Armadillo _Tatusia_. [94] A rather problematical Armadillo, _Necrodasypus_, has been recorded from French strata. It consists of a few scutes only. [95] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 358. [96] _Trans. Linn. Soc._ (2) vii. 1898, p. 277. [97] _i.e._ large olfactory lobes. [98] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1899, p. 1014. [99] See for anatomy Owen, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ iv. 1862, p. 117, and Forbes, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 287. [100] For the skull of Edentates generally see Parker, _Phil. Trans._ clxxvi. 1885, pt. i. p. 121. [101] The colour fades in captivity owing to the disappearance of the algae. [102] In a letter addressed to Dr. Gray, quoted by the latter in a revision of the Sloths, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1871, p. 428. [103] This name is written "_Prionodos_" by Gray, which might lead to a confusion with the Carnivore _Prionodon_. [104] For the anatomy of several forms, see Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1878, p. 222, who quotes other memoirs. [105] Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1886, p. 419. [106] Milne-Edwards, _Nouv. Arch. Mus._ vii. 1871, p. 177. [107] See especially Lydekker, _An. Mus. La Plata, Pal. Arg._ iii. 1894. [108] Dr. Moreno and Mr. A. Smith Woodward in _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1899, p. 144; _Wiss. Ergeb. Schwed. Exped. Magellansländ._ ii. 1899, p. 149. [109] _Proc. Roy. Soc._ xlvii. 1890, p. 246. [110] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1893, p. 239, and 1896, p. 296. [111] "Revision of the Manidae in the Leyden Museum," _Notes Leyd. Mus._ iv. 1882, p. 193. [112] Weber, _Zool. Ergebnisse einer Reise in Niederl. Ost Indien_, 1892. See also Römer, in _Jen. Zeitschr._ xxxi. 1896, p. 604, and Reh, _ibid._ xxx. 1895, p. 137. [113] See Wortman, "The Ganodonta and their Relationship to the Edentata," _Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ ix. 1897, p. 59. [114] This creature is, however, sometimes referred to the neighbourhood of the Rodents. [115] _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ ix. 1897, p. 321. [116] "Notes on some Specimens of Antlers of the Fallow Deer, etc.," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1894, p. 485. [117] _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ x. 1898, p. 159. [118] Marsh, _Amer. Journ. Sci._ xliii. 1892, p. 447. [119] See W. D. Matthew, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ ix. 1897, p. 303. [120] Or perhaps rather to the primitive Ungulates Condylarthra. It is especially compared with _Periptychus_ of that group. [121] The scapula of _P. bathmodon_ is unknown. [122] For the structure of this genus and of _Coryphodon_, see Osborn, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ x. 1898, p. 169. [123] Osborn, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ x. 1898, p. 81. [124] Gadow, _A Classification of Vertebrata, Recent and Extinct_, London, 1898. [125] See Osborn, _American Naturalist_, February 1893, p. 118. [126] It is not absolutely clear whether both or only one genus ranged into America. Different opinions have been expressed. [127] It must be remembered, however, that there is a suggestion of a prehensile character in the hand of _Phenacodus_ (see p. 203). [128] Cope, _American Naturalist_, xxxi. 1897, p. 485. [129] _American Nat._ February 1900, p. 89. [130] It must be borne in mind that the teeth increase in complexity, those first pushed up having the fewest plates. The first has only four transverse plates. [131] Forbes, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1879, p. 420. [132] See Krueg, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._ xxxiii. 1881, p. 652, and Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1893, p. 311. [133] So convinced are some persons of the untameable character of the African Elephant, that it has even been suggested that the animals with which Hannibal crossed the Alps were not _E. africanus_, but a now extinct species! [134] _Wild Beasts and their Ways_, London, 1890. [135] See _Natural History of the Ancients_, by Rev. M. G. Watkins, London, 1896. [136] _Bull. Soc. Nat. d'Acclimat._ xlv. 1898, p. 41. [137] _Trans. Zool. Soc._ ix. 1874, p. 1. [138] See Busk in _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vi. 1868, p. 227. [139] There are, however, three milk forerunners of the premolars, of which one has no successor. [140] Lydekker, _An. Mus. La Plata, Pal. Arg._ iii. 1894. [141] M. F. Woodward "On the Milk Dentition of _Procavia (Hyrax) capensis_, etc," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1892, p. 38. [142] "On the Species of the Hyracoidea," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1892, p. 50. [143] Sir W. H. Flower, _The Horse_, London, 1890. [144] See Ewart, _The Penicuik Experiments_, Constable and Co., 1899. [145] _The Horse_, London, 1890. [146] Cuyer and Alix, _Le Cheval_, Paris, 1886. [147] Lubbock, _Prehistoric Times_, London, 1865. [148] J. Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe_, London, 1881. [149] _Horses, Asses, and Zebras_, London, 1895. [150] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 540. [151] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1895, p. 688. [152] See Pocock, _Ann. Nat. Hist._ (6) xx. 1897, p. 33. [153] "Das Quagga," _Zool. Garten_, 1893, p. 289. [154] Of this Horse, remains have been lately discovered (see Lönnberg, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1900, p. 379) in the cave which produced the remains of _Glossotherium_. A piece of skin covered with Fox-red hair, possibly spotted with paler areas, is believed to be a relic of _Onohippidium_. [155] _Trans. American Phil. Soc._ xviii. 1896, p. 55. [156] _T. leucogenys_ and _T. ecuadorensis_ are probably not distinct, the latter being in reality _T. terrestris_, the former _T. roulini_. [157] See Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1889, p. 252, and other papers there cited, for the anatomy of the Tapir. [158] _Natural Science_, vi. 1895, p. 161. [159] Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1873, p. 92; _ibid._ 1877, p. 707. Beddard and Treves, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xii. 1887, p. 183. [160] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1876, p. 443. [161] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1894, p. 329. See also Mr. Selous' paper in _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881, p. 275. [162] P. L. Sclater, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1893, p. 514. [163] Quite recently, however, a species, _A. incisivum_, preserved at Darmstadt, has been found by Professor Osborn to possess a slight rugosity upon the frontal bones, which probably indicates the presence of a rudimentary horn, and the same author is apparently inclined to place in _Aceratherium_ the horned _Teleoceras_ (see p. 261). [164] Osborn, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ x. 1898, p. 51. [165] See Osborn, _Mem. American Mus. Nat. Hist._ vol. i. pt. iii. 1898. [166] Scott, in Gegenbaur's _Festschrift_, ii. 1896, p. 351. [167] Remains of the genus have been met with in the Balkans. [168] See especially Osborn and Wortman, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vii. 1895, p. 333, and Osborn, _ibid._ viii. 1896, p. 157. [169] See Osborn, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vii. 1895, p. 82. [170] _N. Acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Car._ xxvii. 1885, p. 238. [171] See Bateson, _Materials for the Study of Variation_, London, 1894, p. 387. [172] See, however, p. 196, for a discussion as to which _is_ the more primitive arrangement. [173] _Titanotherium_ (see p. 266) is exceptional. [174] Bones of _Hippopotamus_, however, indicate the very recent occurrence of that animal in Madagascar. [175] "On the Pygmy Hippopotamus of Liberia," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1887, p. 612. [176] Tomes, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1850, p. 160. [177] There is, however, some doubt about the first premolars. [178] Dr. Garson has investigated its anatomy, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1883, p. 413, and states that its differences from _Sus_ are "unimportant and few." [179] "On the Species of _Potamochoerus_," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1897, p. 359. [180] Marsh, _Amer. Journ. Sci._ xlvii. 1894, p. 407. [181] Osborn, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vii. 1895, p. 102. [182] Marsh, _Amer. Journ. Sci._ xlviii. 1894, p. 262. [183] For the structure of _Tragulus_, see Milne-Edwards, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ (5) ii. 1864, p. 49. [184] Marsh, _Amer. Journ. Sci._ 1897, p. 165. [185] This is the winter dress. In the summer both camels lose their long rough hair. [186] See Wortman, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ x. 1898, p. 93. [187] "Osteology of _Poebrotherium_," _Journ. Morph._ v. 1891, p. 1. [188] Unless _Protoceras_ (see p. 284) was furnished with horns. [189] Sir Victor Brooke, "On the Classification of the Cervidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1878, p. 883. [190] It has been occasionally recorded in an Axis Deer, and in another species, _Cariacus superciliaris_. [191] It is not every one that admits so many genera. I follow Sir Victor Brooke. [192] Garrod, "On the Chinese Deer named _Lophotragus michianus_ by Mr. Swinhoe," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1876, p. 757. [193] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1877, p. 789. [194] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 636. [195] Sir W. Flower "On the Structure and Affinities of the Musk Deer (_Moschus moschiferus_)," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1875, p. 159; Garrod, _loc. cit._ 1877, p. 287; and F. Jeffrey Bell, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1876, p. 182. [196] For the viscera, see Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1877, p. 5, etc.; and _ibid._ p. 289, etc. [197] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1897, p. 273. [198] _Wild Beasts and their Ways_, 1890, p. 151. [199] See also Sclater, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1901, ii. p. 3. [200] Forsyth Major. _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1891, p. 315. [201] "On the Shedding of the Horns in the Prongbuck," see Bartlett, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1865, p. 718; Canfield, _ibid._ 1866, p. 105; Murie, _ibid._ 1870, p. 334; and Forbes, _ibid._ 1880, p. 540. [202] The distinction between the two families has been called "fanciful." It may be admitted that it is not great. [203] _The Book of Antelopes_, London, Porter, 1894-1900. [204] They are straight in the young. [205] W. L. Sclater, _The Fauna of South Africa, Mammals, i._ 1900. [206] _Taurotragus oryx_ has unfortunately been discovered to be the correct name for the Eland. [207] A. D. Bartlett, "On some Hybrid Bovine Animals bred in the Society's Gardens," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 399. [208] See _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1890, p. 592. [209] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1899, p 64. [210] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1900, p. 142. [211] The name _Trigonolestes_ has to be substituted for _Pantolestes_. [212] _Trans. American Phil. Soc._ xviii. 1896, p. 125. [213] For complete osteology see Wortman, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vii. 1895, p. 145. [214] In _Halicore_; probably also in _Manatus_. See Turner, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb._ xxxv. 1889, p. 641. [215] Kükenthal has discovered a thick coating of rudimentary hairs in the foetus of the Manatee, thus showing that it is the descendant of an animal furry like a Seal. [216] "On the Manatee," in _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. viii. 1872, p. 127. [217] Hartlaub, "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Manatus-Arten," _Zool. Jahrb._ 1886, p. 1. [218] Beddard, "Notes upon the Anatomy of a Manatee (_Manatus inunguis_)," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1897, p. 47. [219] See Kükenthal in Semon's "Zoolog. Forschungen," _Denkschr. Jen._ 1897; Langkavel, "Der Dugong," _Zool. Garten_, 1896, p. 337. [220] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1892, p. 77. [221] See van Beneden and Gervais, _Ostéographie des Cétacés_; and for a more general account Beddard, _A Book of Whales_, London, Murray, 1900. [222] _Vergleichend-anatomische Untersuchungen an Walthiere_, Jena, 1889-93. [223] "And at his gills draws in, and at his trunk spouts out, a sea," wrote Milton, and think many others. [224] These have been recorded by Professor Howes in the Porpoise. [225] For details and literature see Jungklaus; _Jen. Zeitschr_. xxxii. 1898, p. 1. [226] In _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1886, p. 243. [227] Perrin, "Notes on the Anatomy of _B. rostrata_," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1870, p. 805. [228] von Haast, "Notes on a Skeleton of _Balaenoptera australis_," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1883, p. 592. [229] _Ostéographie des Cétacés_, Paris, 1880, p. 130. [230] _Marine Mammals of the North-West Coast of North America_, 1874. [231] Cf. Scammon, _loc. cit._ [232] The name that has priority seems to be _glacialis_. [233] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881, p. 969. [234] _Actes Linn. Soc. Bordeaux_, 1881. [235] For osteology see Hector, _Trans. New Zeal. Inst._ vii. 1876, p. 251; and Beddard, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xv. 1901, p. 87. [236] _Journ. de l'Anat._ xxvi. 1890, p. 270. [237] _The Cruise of the Cachalot_, London, 1900. [238] See Pouchet, "Contribution a l'histoire du spermaceti," _Bergens Museums Aarbog for 1893_, No. I. [239] Yule, _Travels of Marco Polo_, ii. London, 1874, p. 231. [240] See Flower, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ viii. 1872, p. 203. [241] _Bihang Svensk. Akad. Handl._ viii. 1883. [242] Flower, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ x. 1878, p. 415; and H. O. Forbes, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1893, p. 216. [243] _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xii. 1889, p. 241. [244] _Ann. Sci. Nat._ (7), xiii. 1892, p. 259. [245] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, pp. 722, 726. [246] _Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus._ No. 36, 1889, p. 7. [247] See an essay on the hunting of this Whale, by S. H. C. Müller, in _Fish and Fisheries_, Edinburgh (Blackwood), 1883. [248] Grampus being a contraction of _grand poisson_ is an obvious name to apply to any Whale. [249] See _Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux_, 1881; and for another figure, also coloured, Flower, in _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xi. 1880, pl. i. [250] _Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus._ No. 36, 1889. [251] _Zool. Jahrb. Syst. Theil_, vi. 1892, p. 442. [252] _Anatomical Researches Yunnan Exp._ 1878, p. 417. [253] _Flower, Trans. Zool. Soc._ vi. 1867, p. 106; and Burmeister, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1867, p. 484. [254] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1892, p. 558. [255] Thompson, _Studies Mus. Dundee_, i. 1890; and _C. R. Congrès de Zoologie_, 1889, p. 225. [256] Lydekker, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1892, p. 560. [257] For a general account of the osteology, see Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1869, p. 4; and for muscular anatomy, Windle and Parsons, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1897, p. 370, and 1898, p. 152. [258] See St. G. Mivart "On the Aeluroidea," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 135: and _The Cat_, London, J. Murray, 1881. [259] "On the Pupils of the Felidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1894, p. 481. [260] "Observations ... on the Seal's Eye," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1893, p. 719. [261] It is noteworthy that in the Tiger some of the stripes have pale centres and are thus like spots pulled out, while there are also small black spots. [262] _Natural Science_, vi. 1895, p. 89. [263] For an account of this and of other mammals which occur in Central America, see Alston in Messrs. Godman and Salvin's _Biologia Centrali-Americana_, 1879-1882. [264] But Mr. Belt says that the "Tigre" never attacks man unless it be provoked. [265] See E. Hamilton, _The Wild Cat of Europe_, London, Porter, 1896; and M. G. Watkins, _Gleanings from the Natural History of the Ancients_, London, Elliot Stock, 1896. [266] The retractility is most marked in the Linsangs. [267] Beddard in _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1895, p. 430. [268] Where it has probably been introduced. [269] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1873, p. 196. [270] Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1872, p. 683. [271] See also vol. viii. p. 591. [272] The original name was _Rhinogale_. [273] That it is an abnormality has been recently stated. [274] For the anatomy of Hyaenas see Morrison Watson in _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1877, p. 369; 1878, p. 416; and 1879, p. 79. [275] Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1869, p. 457. [276] For a general account of the Canidae see Mivart, _A Monograph of the Canidae_, London, 1890. [277] Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1879, p. 766. [278] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1880, p. 70. [279] The relationship between the Canidae and the Procyonidae must not be lost sight of in considering this point of external likeness. [280] _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ xii. 1900, p. 109. [281] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1890, p. 98. [282] Temminck, its original describer, placed it in the genus _Hyaena_. [283] See Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1878, p. 373. [284] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1899, p. 533. [285] See Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1900, p. 661, for anatomy. [286] Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1898, p. 129. [287] It is a curious fact that a native name for the creature is "Pottos" (cf. of course _Potto_); and indeed the generic name _Potos_ seems to have the priority over _Cercoleptes_. [288] "_Narica_" is generally written, after Linnaeus. But this was, according to Mr. Alston, probably an error for _nasica_. [289] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1870, p. 752. [290] See Wortman, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vi. 1894, p. 229. [291] As a small point of likeness between this Mustelid and the Procyonidae may be mentioned the colours of the face. _M. anakuma_ is particularly Raccoon-like. [292] See _Trans. Zool. Soc._ ii. 1841, p. 201. [293] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1894, p. 306. [294] I found fifteen. [295] _Ann. Nat. Hist._ (6) xiii. 1893, p. 522. [296] See Matschie, _SB. Ges. Naturf. Berlin_, 1895, p. 171. [297] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1879, p. 305. [298] Lydekker, "Note on the Structure and Habits of the Sea-Otter (_Latax lutris_)," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1895, p. 421; and _ibid._ 1896, p. 235. [299] See an article by Mr. Lydekker in _Knowledge_, April 1898, from which many of the above facts have been taken. [300] "Preliminary Notes on the Characters and Synonymy of the different Species of Otter," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1889, p. 190. [301] Even apparently in the same species. [302] The number of premolars is reduced in the Polar Bear. [303] "The Blue Bear of Thibet," etc., _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1897, p. 412. [304] _Nouv. Arch. Mus._ vii. 1872, _Bull._ p. 92; and _Recherches pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des Mammifères_, 1868-1874, p. 321. This genus has quite recently (Lankester, _Trans. Linn. Soc._ viii. 1901, p. 163) been definitely referred to the Procyonidae. [305] For the genera of Pinnipedia see Mivart, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1885, p. 484. [306] Murie, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ viii. 1874, p. 501. [307] _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vi. 1894, p. 129. [308] P. 456 below. [309] See especially Allen, _North American Pinnipedes_, 1880. [310] Murie, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vii. 1894, p. 411. [311] Cf. the Dugong, p. 336. [312] Kükenthal, _Jen. Zeitschr._ xxviii. 1894, p. 76. [313] Cunningham, "Sexual Dimorphism in the Animal Kingdom," London, 1900; see also Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881, p. 145. [314] _Journ. Ac. Sci. Philadelphia_, ix. 1886, p. 175. [315] See especially Tullberg, "Ueber das System der Nagethiere," _Act. Ak. Upsala_, 1899; and Alston, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1875, p. 61; and for nomenclature, Thomas, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1896, p. 1012; and Palmer, _Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington_; xi. 1897, p. 241. [316] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 252. [317] _Phil. Trans._ 1850, pt. ii. p. 529. [318] Seen, however, in _Chaetomys_. [319] See Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1892, p. 596, and Gervais, _Journ. Zool._ i. 1872, p. 450. [320] "Observations sur le genre _Anomalurus_," _Nouv. Arch. Mus._ (2), vi. 1883, p. 277. [321] "On the Habits of the Flying Squirrels of the genus _Anomalurus_," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1894, p. 243. [322] W. E. de Winton, "On a New Genus and Species of Rodents," etc., _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1898, p. 450. Apparently just at the time of the publication of this paper Matschie described the same animal as _Zenkerella_. [323] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1893, p. 179. [324] Flower and Lydekker. [325] Thomas, _J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal_, lvii. 1888, p. 256. [326] E. T. Newton, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xiii. 1892, p. 165. [327] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1896, p. 1016. [328] Reuvens, "Die Myoxidae oder Schläfer," Leyden, 1890, allows but one genus, _Myoxus_, the other genera adopted here being termed subgenera. [329] To which a sixth, the "Yellow-necked Mouse," _Mus flavicollis_, may perhaps be added. [330] For anatomy see Windle, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1887, p. 53. [331] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1889, p. 247. [332] _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xiv. 1898, p. 377. [333] _Nouv. Arch. Mus._ iii. 1867, p. 81. [334] _Popular Natural History of Animals_, London, 1898. [335] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1863, p. 95. [336] See O. Thomas, "On some Mammals from Central Peru," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1893, p. 333. [337] "Notes on the Rodent genus _Heterocephalus_," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1885, p. 845. [338] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1885, p. 611. [339] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1890, p. 610. [340] Parsons, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1898, p. 858. [341] Very probably this form should be rather, as it is by Thomas, referred to the neighbourhood of _Pectinator_, which would clear up the geographical anomaly. [342] _Notes Leyd. Mus._ 1891, p. 105. [343] Günther, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1879, p. 144. [344] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1873, p. 786. [345] _Loc. cit._ (on p. 458), p. 123. [346] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1892, p. 520. [347] See Dobson, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 233. [348] Peters, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vii. 1871, p. 397. [349] "Field Notes on the Mammals of Uruguay," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1894, p. 297. [350] Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1891, p. 236. [351] These are stated by Tullberg to be absent. I have found them, but they are very small bones, not more than half an inch long. [352] There is a faint development of these ridges, but behind the palatine foramina in _Dasyprocta aguti_. [353] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1885, p. 161. [354] Or absent? [355] _In the Guiana Forest_, London, 1894. [356] _MB. Ak. Berlin_, 1873, p. 551. [357] An account of the three genera is to be found in _Trans. Zool. Soc._ i, 1833, p. 35, by Mr. E. T. Bennett. [358] Hudson, "On the Habits of the Vizcacha," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1872, p. 822. [359] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1894, pp. 251, 680. [360] _Nat. Science_, vi. 1895, p. 94. [361] See Parsons. _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1894, p. 675. [362] Günther, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1876, p. 739, and 1889, p. 75; and Cederblom, _Zool. Jahrb. Syst. Abth._ xi. 1897-98, p. 497. [363] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881, p. 624. [364] _Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington_, x. 1896, p. 169. [365] See especially Dobson, _A Monograph of the Insectivora_, London, 1886-90. [366] Even in the Otter-like _Potamogale_ the upper jaw, though broad and flat, projects considerably beyond the lower. [367] "Bemerkungen über die Genealogie der Erinaceen." In _Festschrift f. Liljeborg_, 1896. See also Anderson, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ viii. 1874, p. 453. [368] Dobson, "Notes on the Anatomy of the Erinaceidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881, p. 389. [369] See _Natural Science_, xiii. 1898, p. 156. [370] _Manuel d'Hist. Nat._ French trans. by Artaud, 1803. [371] "Notes on the Visceral Anatomy of the Tupaia of Burmah," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1879, p. 301. [372] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1848, p. 23. [373] I quote Woodward, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1896, for this dentition. The fourth molar of the lower jaw is not always present. It comes late, and only _old_ animals possess it. [374] Mivart in _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1871, p. 58. [375] Thomas, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1892, p. 500. [376] Allman states the canines to be absent. I follow Flower and Lydekker. [377] See Allman in _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vi. 1869, p. 1. [378] The generic name of _Chalcochloris_ was proposed by Dr. Mivart for these. [379] See Peters, _Reise nach Mosambique_, 1852, for external characters and anatomy. [380] "Mammals collected by Dr. Emin Pasha," in _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1890, p. 446. [381] Ritsema Bos, _Biol. Centralbl._ xviii. 1898, p. 63. [382] "A Synopsis of the Genera of the Family Soricidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1890, p. 49. [383] Leche, "Über Galeopithecus," _K. Svensk. Ak. Handl._ 1886. [384] See Dobson, _Ann. Nat. Hist._ (5) xiv. 1884, p. 153. [385] Dobson, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1875, p. 370. [386] _Ibid._ p. 381. [387] Dobson, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1875, p. 546. [388] _Ibid._ 1876, p. 701. [389] For a general account of the Primates, see Forbes in _Allen's Naturalists' Library_, London, 1894. [390] See Dr. Mivart's papers in _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1864, -65, -66, -67, and -73 for osteology and teeth. [391] Murie and Mivart, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vii. 1869, p. 1. [392] _Trans. Zool. Soc._ v. 1863, p. 103. [393] _Hist. Nat. de Madagascar, Mamm._ 1875. [394] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1895, p. 142. [395] _Trans. Zool. Soc._ v. 1863, p. 33. [396] _Verh. Ak. Amsterdam_, xxvii. 1890, Art. 2. [397] "On some Points in the Structure of _Hapalemur griseus_" _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 301. [398] Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1900, p. 661. [399] On the Arm Glands of the Lemurs, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1887, p. 369. [400] So at least the formula has been given; but it is very possible that the supposed second incisor is really, judging from the other Lemurs, a canine. [401] The Malagasy, however, must be vague in definition, or their interpreters not well grounded in the rudiments of the language; for Sonnerat states that Indri signifies "homme des bois." [402] Syn. _Microrhynchus_. [403] Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 391, and 1891, p. 449; and Jentink, _Notes Leyd. Mus._ 1885, p. 33. [404] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1899, p. 554. [405] _Royal Natural History_, London, 1894, p. 211. [406] See _Novitates Zoologicae_, vol. i. 1894, p. 2. [407] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1900, p. 321. [408] "On the Angwantibo," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1864, p. 314. [409] _Verh. Ak. Amsterdam_, xxvii. 1890. [410] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 639; see also Rev. G. A. Shaw, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1883, p. 44, 2nd Art. [411] For a survey of the position of _Tarsius_, see Earle, _Amer. Naturalist_, xxxi. 1897, p. 569; and _Nat. Science_, x. 1897, p. 309. [412] See Schlosser, _Beiträge Pal. Osterr. Hung._ 1888; also Osborn and Earle, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vii. 1895, p. 16. [413] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1899, p. 987. [414] _Phil. Trans._ clxxxv. B, 1894, p. 15. [415] It seems to be possible that this great Lemur was extant so lately as 1658, when a creature possibly answering to it was described by de Flacourt. [416] "Notes on _Callithrix gigot_," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 6. [417] Forbes, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1880, p. 639. [418] "On a new African Monkey of the genus _Cercopithecus_, with a List of the known Species," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1893, p. 243; see also p. 441. [419] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1879, p. 451. [420] See the books quoted on p. 576 (footnote). [421] It is not so ranked by everybody. [422] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1899, p. 296. [423] For accounts of the habits of the Gorilla, compiled from various sources, see Hartmann's "Anthropoid Apes," _International Scient. Ser._ London, 1885; H. O. Forbes, "Monkeys," in Allen's _Naturalists' Series_, London, 1894; and Huxley, "Man's Place in Nature," vol. vii. of _Collected Essays_, London, 1894. [424] "Man's Place in Nature," vol. vii. of _Collected Essays_, London, 1894. [425] Hartmann's "Anthropoid Apes," in _International Sci. Ser._ London, 1885. [426] _Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat._ Paris, ii. 1866. [427] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1899, p. 296. [428] See also Duckworth, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1898, p. 989. [429] For the structure of this Ape see Beddard, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xiii. 1893, p. 177; and for experiments on her intelligence, Romanes, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1889, p. 316. [430] For the external appearance of the Orang see Hermes, _Zeitschr. f. Ethn._ 1876, a paper which has coloured plates. [431] _Pithecanthropus erectus. Eine menschenähnliche Uebergangsform aus Java_, Batavia, 1894. See also Ernst Haeckel, _The Last Link_ (with notes by H. Gadow), London, 1898; Manouvrier, _Amer. Journ. Sci._ 1897, p. 213 (extracts); and Klaatsch, _Zoolog. Centralbl._ vi. 1899, p. 217. [432] See especially Wiedersheim, _The Structure of Man_, transl. by Howes, London, 1895. [433] Cunningham, "Cunningham Memoirs," No. II. _Royal Irish Acad._ 1886. * * * * * Corrections made to printed original. Page 10, in 'a uniform cause of coloration':--"a uniform", printed as "an uniform" in original. Page 31, in 'some species of Manis':--"species", printed as "specis" in original. Page 181, in 'a cow encrusted with pebbles':--"pebbles", printed as "peebles" in original. Page 185, in 'an unusually massive pelvis':--"unusually", printed as "unusally" in original. Page 344, in 'as, for instance':--"instance", printed as "intsance" in original. 
43272	----	Transcribers Notes: Italics words are denoted by _underscores_. Bold words are denoted by =equals=. Whole and fractional parts are displayed as 7-3/4. Greek text has been transliterated and are denoted by ~tildes~. Male and Female symbols are represented by [M] and [F] respectively. UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Vol. 4, pp. 1-466, plates 1-41, 31 figures in text December 27, 1951 AMERICAN WEASELS BY E. RAYMOND HALL UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson Vol. 4, pp. 1-466, plates 1-41, 31 figures in text December 27, 1951 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1951 23-3758 [Illustration: PLATE 1. Coloration of head and foreparts in ten subspecies of long-tailed weasel, _Mustela frenata_. All figures are of males, approximately × 1/2. In regions of heavy rainfall (see figs. 2 and 3) there is an increase in pigmentation and extent of blackish color backward over the neck and a decrease in extent of the white facial markings. In regions progressively more arid (see figs. 3 to 7) there is a decrease in pigmentation and extent of blackish color and an increase in extent of the white facial markings. As shown by rearing mammals from humid regions in arid regions, and _vice versa_, the color is not visibly altered in one or a few generations; the color is an hereditary character. Beginning with the southernmost subspecies (fig. 1) and continuing northward to the northern subspecies (fig. 10) there is a darkening, next a lightening, and finally a darkening closely conforming to amounts of precipitation in the geographic regions concerned. A fuller discussion of this correlation is given on page 51.] [Illustration: FIG. 1. Map showing localities of capture of specimens depicted in plate 1.] American Weasels BY E. RAYMOND HALL CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 7 PALEONTOLOGICAL HISTORY 10 SKELETON AND DENTITION 12 DISPARITY IN NUMBERS OF MALES AND FEMALES 19 MATERIALS, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND METHODS 21 VARIATION 24 Variation with Age 24 Secondary Sexual Variation 26 Individual Variation 28 Seasonal Variation 30 Variation in Coloration and Molt 30 Variations of Taxonomic Worth 44 DISTRIBUTION AND SPECIATION 54 HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION 69 Chronological List (annotated) of Specific and Subspecific Names Applied to American Weasels 71 CHECK-LIST OF AMERICAN SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF THE GENUS MUSTELA 81 ARTIFICIAL KEY TO AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS MUSTELA 83 DIAGNOSIS OF THE GENUS 83 EXPLANATION OF SYSTEMATIC TREATMENT 84 SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES 87 _Mustela erminea_ 87 _Mustela rixosa_ 168 _Mustela frenata_ 193 _Mustela africana_ 406 EXPLANATION OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS 417 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS 418 LITERATURE CITED 442 INDEX 461 American Weasels By E. RAYMOND HALL INTRODUCTION The weasel's agility and speed take it in and out of retreats, over obstacles and across open places in amazingly rapid fashion and are responsible for the animal's actions being described as "quick as a flash." The common long-tailed weasel of the United States measures approximately a foot and a half in length, of which the tail comprises a third; but the round, slender body is scarcely more than an inch and a half in diameter. Brown above and whitish below in summer dress, the animal is sleek as well as lithe and graceful. It is easy to understand, therefore, why the Bavarian name _Schönthierlein_ (pretty little creature) and the Italian name _donnola_ (little lady) were bestowed upon it. The Spanish name is _comadreja_ (godmother). In the winter, in temperate and northern regions, the coat becomes pure white except for the black tail-tip. In this dress the correct name for the animal is ermine, a mammal whose fur is known to all and justly esteemed, especially for its luster in artificial light, where it is scarcely excelled in enhancing the beauty of gems and their feminine wearers. In relation to its weight, the weasel is thought to be unsurpassed, and perhaps it is unequalled among mammals, in the effectiveness with which it exercises its carnivorous heritage; it kills with speed and strength a wide variety of animals including many much larger than itself; and it has been known to attack even man himself when he stood between the weasel and its intended prey. In structure and temperament it is so highly specialized for offense that, when opportunity affords, it sometimes kills, for storage in its larder, far more than enough to meet its immediate needs. After speaking of this tendency, Elliott Coues (1877:129) has said: "A glance at the physiognomy of the weasels would suffice to betray their character. The teeth are almost of the highest known raptorial character; the jaws are worked by enormous masses of muscles covering all the side of the skull. The forehead is low and the nose is sharp; the eyes are small, penetrating, cunning, and glitter with an angry green light. There is something peculiar, moreover, in the way that this fierce face surmounts a body extraordinarily wiry, lithe, and muscular. It ends in a remarkable long and slender neck in such a way that it may be held at right angle with the axis of the latter. When the creature is glancing around, with the neck stretched up, and flat triangular head bent forward, swaying from one side to the other, we catch the likeness in a moment--it is the image of a serpent." Although Coues' colorful description more closely links the weasel with the symbol of evil than pleases me, his description does emphasize the raptorial character of the weasel. Even though most weasels are intractable as pets, they have a value to man, as, for instance, when he is plagued by mice. In a field where mice and other small rodents are so abundant as to damage cultivated crops, the weasel is the farmer's best friend. A weasel may inhabit one den until the rodents thereabouts are almost exterminated in an area two or three hundred yards across; in this way the weasel acts as a control, locally, as well as a check more widely, on the increase in size of populations of kinds of rodents upon which it preys. The smaller species are mousers of remarkable efficiency and can, if necessary, follow a mouse to the end of the mouse's burrow. The slender body allows the weasel to pass through any burrow or hole into which it can thrust its head. This ability in an organism as highly specialized for killing other animals as is the weasel, has earned for it a bad name in connection with poultry yards. Authentic instances are recorded in which a weasel, gaining entrance through a knot-hole to a coop of young chickens, killed several dozen of the fowls. In other instances, however, weasels have lived under buildings close by a poultry yard without even molesting the birds in the slightest; in the latter instances the weasels probably were present because there was an abundant supply of rats and mice. At least three poultry raisers (see page 214) have encouraged weasels to live in their poultry yards feeling that the good they do by destroying rats outweighs the damage caused by the occasional weasel which turns to the fowls; the idea is that the individual weasel can be eliminated if he becomes destructive. Although tending to be nocturnal, weasels are almost as active by day as by night. Their young, numbering 4 to 9, are born in a nest in a burrow and as with other members of the Order Carnivora, are blind, and incapable of looking after themselves at the time of birth. In _Mustela frenata_ of Montana, breeding occurs in July and August, and the young are born in the following April and May. Wright (1948A:342) showed that the gestation period could not have been less than 337 days in one individual and that it averaged 279 (205-337) days in 18 instances. Findings of the same author (1942B:109) showed that the embryos are implanted only 21 to 28 days before the young are born. In the preceding part of the "long gestation period, the embryos lie dormant in the uterus as un-implanted blastocysts. The young female weasel [of _M. frenata_] mates when 3 or 4 months old." Consequently, in the spring, all females of this species may produce young (Wright, 1942A:348). The circumboreal species _Mustela erminea_ likewise has been shown to have a delayed implantation of the ova. Each of these two species, _M. frenata_ and _M. erminea_, has only one litter per year; but the weasel, _Mustela nivalis_, of the Old World seems to lack the delayed implantation, in this respect resembling the ferret (subgenus _Putorius_) as it does also in its ability to have more than one litter per year (see Deanesly, 1944). The manner of reproduction in the South American species _M. africana_ and the circumboreal species _M. rixosa_ at this writing is unknown. The genus _Mustela_ includes the true weasels, the ferrets and minks. The ferrets commonly are treated as a subgenus, _Putorius_, along with the Old World polecat. The minks usually are accorded subgeneric distinction under the name _Lutreola_, and the true weasels comprise the subgenus _Mustela_, the three subgenera together, along with some other subgenera which are mostly monotypic, comprising the genus _Mustela_. Considered in this way, the group of true weasels, subgenus _Mustela_, has a geographic range roughly coextensive with that of the genus _Mustela_. This range includes Asia and Europe, Northern Africa, North America and northern South America. Java has its weasel. Australia and nearly all the oceanic islands lack weasels, and the animals are absent from roughly the southern half of Africa and the southern half of South America. Other small mustelids, weasellike in shape and with corresponding habits and dentition, take the place of true _Mustela_ in the southern half of Africa and in the corresponding part of South America. In America the subgenus _Mustela_ occurs from the northernmost land in Arctic America southward to Lake Titicaca in the Andes of South America, a distance of approximately 6900 miles. _Felis_, I think, is the only other genus of land mammals in the western hemisphere that has a geographic range as extensive from north to south. _Felis_ does not range so far north but does range farther south. The one species, _Mustela frenata_, ranges from Lake Titicaca northward to about 57° N in British Columbia or for approximately 5000 miles in a north to south direction and from within the Alpine Arctic Life-zone through the Tropical Life-zone. In North America, weasels occur in almost every type of habitat, being absent only in the extremely desert terrain of western Arizona and western Sonora and in adjoining parts of California and Baja California. Even this area, along the Colorado River, may support some weasels; evidence suggesting that it does so is given in the account of _Mustela frenata neomexicana_. PALEONTOLOGICAL HISTORY The paleontological record fails to show the precise ancestry of _Mustela_. The genus has been found in deposits of Pleistocene age, but, so far as I can ascertain, not in deposits of earlier times. The Pleistocene remains are not specifically distinct from Recent (living) species, and in only a few instances (see _M. f. latirostra_ and _M. e. angustidens_) are they even subspecifically distinct from the Recent weasel living in the same area today. It is true that fossil remains from deposits of several stages of the Tertiary beds have in the past been identified in the literature as _Mustela_, but most of these identifications were made many years ago when the generic name _Mustela_ was used in a far broader and more inclusive sense than it is today and much of the fossil material was so fragmentary that the generic identity could not be ascertained, at least at that time. Because the generic identity could not be ascertained, the fossil material was tentatively assigned to the genus _Mustela_, the "typical" genus of the family Mustelidae instead of to some other more specialized or less well-known genus of the family. To satisfy my curiosity about these species of "_Mustela_" of a geological age earlier than the Pleistocene I have personally studied nearly all of the original specimens from North America and have found each to be of some genus other than _Mustela_. Also, such study as I have been able to make of the Old World fossils themselves that have been referred to the genus _Mustela_ up to 1938, and my study of the illustrations and descriptions of the others from there lead to the same conclusion; that is to say, none that is true _Mustela_ is known up to now from deposits older than the Pleistocene. When, in 1930 (pp. 146-147), I wrote about the taxonomic position of three American genera of fossils (known only from lower jaws), each of which had been previously referred to the genus _Mustela_, I said that they pertained "to that section of the weasel family (Mustelidae) which comprises the polecats, true weasels, ferrets, minks and martens. The fossil specimens . . . are smaller than any other later Tertiary members of the group yet described, and are more primitive than any of the above mentioned Recent relatives. Of the three extinct genera . . . _Miomustela_ [Lower Pliocene or Upper Miocene of the Lower Madison Valley, Montana] is the most primitive and _Martinogale_ [Pliocene, 18 mi. SE Goodland, Sherman County, Kansas] is the most advanced. This view rests largely on the character of M_{=1} which in _Miomustela_ has a deeply basined, short, narrow talonid with a thick, high metaconid situated partly posterior to the protoconid. In _Martinogale_ the talonid is incipiently trenchant, long, broad, and it has a lesser developed metaconid which is situated more anterior [ly]. _Pliogale_ [Lower Pliocene, Humboldt County, Nevada] is intermediate in this respect. "These three forms are of special interest as possible ancestors of the subgenus _Mustela_, true weasels. No members of this subgenus, nor related forms which can with any degree of certainty be regarded as directly ancestral to them, have yet been described from Miocene or Pliocene deposits. _Palaeogale_ of the Old World and _Bunaelurus_ of North America, each of Oligocene age, have been placed by Schlosser (1888, p. 116) and Matthew (1902, p. 137) as members of the primitive group of mustelids ancestral to _Mustela_. This course seems logical; and with no truly intermediate links between these forms of the Oligocene on the one hand, and _Mustela_ which first appears in the Pleistocene, on the other, more definite statements about ancestral positions of the small Oligocene forms can hardly be made. The deciding considerations for authors who placed _Palaeogale_ and _Bunaelurus_ as ancestral to _Mustela_ were the absence of a metaconid on M_{1} and the trenchant talonid of that tooth. These characters are found also in _Mustela_. On the other hand certain structures in the basicranial region of _Palaeogale_ and more especially of _Bunaelurus_ indicate that these genera possibly are not close to the ancestral form of Mustela . . . _Martinogale_ may stand near the ancestral form of _Mustela_ and . . . _Pliogale_ may be ancestral to _Martinogale_. _Pliogale_, in turn, may have had an ancestor similar to _Miomustela_. If this should prove to be the case, _Palaeogale_ and _Bunaelurus_ might be regarded as an independent branch which displays merely a parallelism to _Mustela_ in the loss of the metaconid on M_{1} and the development of a trenchant talonid on that tooth. The writer would make it clear that he does not hold such to be the case. The ancestral relation of _Martinogale_ to _Mustela_ is presented merely to show the possibility, and not the special probability, of such an origin for _Mustela_. Knowledge of the tympanic bullae and other structures of the basicranial region would go far toward answering the question and until these structures are known [in mustelids of the Later Tertiary,] some uncertainty will remain." At the present writing I can add to the above statement only a few facts. The discovery of better material of _Bunaelurus_ than was available to previous workers led Simpson (1946), correctly I think, to synonymize _Bunaelurus_ with _Palaeogale_. Simpson figures the cranial foramina in _Palaeogale_. The differences, between _Palaeogale_ and _Mustela_, in cranial foramina, possibly are only the result of the elongation of the tympanic bullae. The bullae of the subgenus _Mustela_ are seen to be much elongated posteriorly if comparison is made with the bullae of earlier mustelids. Consequently, it might be concluded that there is nothing in the arrangement of the cranial foramina which would preclude the derivation of _Mustela_ from _Palaeogale_. However, the anterior situation of the carotid foramen--well forward along the medial margin of the tympanic bulla--is a character typical of other mustelids and the posterior location of this foramen in _Palaeogale_ might indicate that it was not ancestral to _Mustela_. SKELETON AND DENTITION The outstanding features of a weasel's skeleton are its length and slenderness. Whereas the length of the vertebral column measured from the atlas (the first cervical vertebra) to the last sacral vertebra is 175 per cent of the length of the hind leg (as measured from the head of the femur to the tip of the longest claw), the corresponding percentage is only 116 in the raccoon. Stated in another way, the vertebral column and the hind leg are of approximately equal length in a raccoon, but in a weasel the vertebral column is one and three-fourths times as long as the hind leg. VERTEBRAE The vertebral column consists of 7 cervicals, and ordinarily 14 thoracics, 6 lumbars, 3 sacrals and, depending on the species, 11 to 23 caudals. For the three species of which skeletons were examined, variations from the normal number of vertebrae are noted in the following table: TABLE I Data on vertebrae in three species of the subgenus Mustela (Numerals in parentheses indicate number of specimens) ===================+=========+=========+========= |_Mustela_|_Mustela_|_Mustela_ |_erminea_| _rixosa_|_frenata_ -------------------+---------+---------+--------- Number of cervical | (75) | (12) | (65) vertebrae | 7 | 7 | 7 -------------------+---------+---------+--------- Number of thoracic | (71) | (12) | (54) vertebrae | 14 | 14 | 14 +---------+---------+--------- | (4) | | (13) | 15 | | 15 -------------------+---------+---------+--------- The dorsal vertebra| (18) | (12) | (40) constituting the | 11th | 11th | 11th anticlinal +---------+---------+--------- | (7) | | (27) | 12th | | 12th -------------------+---------+---------+--------- Number of lumbar | (2) | | (11) vertebrae | 5 | | 5 +---------+---------+--------- | (73) | (12) | (54) | 6 | 6 | 6 -------------------+---------+---------+--------- Number of sacral | (9) | | (3) vertebrae | 2 | | 2 +---------+---------+--------- | (65) | (10) | (67) | 3 | 3 | 3 +---------+---------+--------- | (1) | (2) | | 4 | 4 | -------------------+---------+---------+--------- Number of | (73) | (12) | (57) pseudosacral | 0 | 0 | 0 vertebrae +---------+---------+--------- | (2) | | (6) | 1 | | 1 -------------------+---------+---------+--------- | | (1) | | | 11 | +---------+---------+--------- | | (3) | | | 14 | +---------+---------+--------- | (2) | (7) | | 15 | 15 | +---------+---------+--------- | (3) | (1) | | 16 | 16 | +---------+---------+--------- | (9) | | | 17 | | +---------+---------+--------- Number of caudal | (28) | | vertebrae | 18 | | +---------+---------+--------- | (11) | | (6) | 19 | | 19 +---------+---------+--------- | | | (14) | | | 20 +---------+---------+--------- | | | (14) | | | 21 +---------+---------+--------- | | | (7) | | | 22 +---------+---------+--------- | | | (1) | | | 23 -------------------+---------+---------+--------- Variation according to the species is evident in the number of caudal vertebrae, but in the other categories of vertebrae no consistent difference in number according to species was found in the material examined. Apparently there is also some geographic variation in the number of caudal vertebrae within a species. For example, the one skeleton seen of _Mustela rixosa eskimo_ (no. 219036, U. S. Nat. Mus., from St. Michaels, Alaska) has only 11 caudal vertebrae, whereas in the 11 _Mustela rixosa rixosa_ from Roseau County, Minnesota, the usual number is 15 with extremes of 14 and 16. Similarly specimens of _Mustela frenata_ from Idaho and California almost always have 1 or 2 more caudal vertebrae than do individuals of the shorter-tailed subspecies of the same species from eastern Kansas. Of the vertebrae, only the cervicals, of which there are 7, were found to be constant in number. In _M. erminea_, two of the seven individuals in which the anticlinal vertebra was the 12th (instead of the 11th) had 15 instead of the customary 14 thoracic vertebrae. In _M. frenata_, seven of the twenty-seven individuals in which the anticlinal vertebra was the 12th (instead of the 11th) had 15 instead of 14 thoracic vertebrae. The one _M. erminea_ with a pseudosacral vertebra had only two instead of the customary 3 sacral vertebrae but the same individual had 15 thoracic vertebrae. Of the six _M. frenata_ with a pseudosacral vertebra, two animals had only two instead of three sacral vertebrae. Conceivably, therefore, the pseudosacral vertebra in each of the three instances mentioned may represent merely an unfused sacral vertebra, instead of a true pseudosacral as occurs in four individuals of _M. frenata_. TEETH In American weasels, for example in _Mustela frenata_, the permanent dentition normally is I 3 C 1 P 3 M 1 -, -, -, -, -, -, -, - or 34 teeth in all. In most respects the i 3 c 1 p 3 m 2 dentition is typical for post-Tertiary mustelids but in several parts is highly specialized for a diet of flesh, the degree of this specialization being second only to that of the cats, family Felidae. The outstanding specialization is in the first lower molar, in which, as in the cats, the internal cusp (metaconid) is completely suppressed and the heel (talonid) forms an elevated blade for cutting food rather than a basin for crushing it. In one sense the tooth is simplified since it owes its distinctive form to a reduction in number of parts; nevertheless, the distinctive form of the lower molar clearly is correlated with a diet of flesh, and the tooth is correctly to be thought of as the lower blade of a pair of shears; the upper blade is the fourth upper premolar. The reduction in size of the second (last) lower molar and small size of the inner lobe of the one remaining upper molar probably are additional modifications for a diet of flesh. The absence of the last two upper molars and last molar in the lower jaw would be expected in any mammal as highly specialized for a diet of flesh as is the weasel, but these teeth are absent also in other Quaternary members of the family Mustelidae, many of which are substantially less specialized for a diet of flesh than is the weasel. Therefore, in the weasel, it is reasonable to regard the absence of these teeth more as a heritage than as an indication of a special adaptation. The absence of a first premolar above and below, as in the weasel, is to be expected in any carnivore that has the first lower molar and fourth upper premolar highly specialized for shearing, but the loss of these premolars and the small size of the second premolars may be as much the result of a slight shortening of the face as it is a result of a lengthening of the third and especially the fourth premolars. The lengthening of these more posteriorly-situated teeth would appear to be an adaptation to a diet of flesh. The cause of the lengthening of the mentioned teeth and the reason for the absence of the first premolars probably will be unknown until the fossil record is more complete. The teeth of American species vary little except in size. The absence of P2 in _Mustela africana_ is the only difference of a qualitative (presence or absence) nature that was detected. Also, the Central American subspecies of _Mustela frenata_ exhibit a tendency to early loss of P2 and thus foreshadow the condition typical of _M. africana_. As a whole the dentition of the weasel exhibits a high degree of specialization for a diet of flesh and this specialization is fully as evident in the deciduous dentition as in the permanent dentition. The deciduous, or milk, dentition, of _Mustela frenata_, as known from immature specimens of _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_ and _Mustela frenata frenata_ available for this study, is comprised of canines, one on each side above and below, and 3 cheek teeth on each side above and below. See figures 2-9. The upper cheek teeth from anterior to posterior are: a minute peglike tooth in general similar to the first premolar of the permanent dentition; a shearing tooth in general similar to P4 of the permanent dentition; and an anteroposteriorly compressed tooth in general similar to M1 of the permanent dentition. In the lower jaw, behind the canine, there is first a minute peglike tooth, second a two-rooted tooth similar in general outline to a permanent third premolar, and finally a shearing tooth corresponding in function to m1 of the permanent dentition. No postnatal specimens which show deciduous incisors have been examined. Selected, outstanding differences between the permanent teeth and the deciduous teeth are as follows: In the deciduous teeth the canine above has on the posterior face a well-defined ridge extending from the tip to the cingulum. This ridge is absent or at most faintly indicated in the permanent tooth. The lower deciduous canine, in cross section is seen to have a marked indentation on the anteromedial border in the region of the cingulum; this indentation is lacking in the permanent tooth. The anterior one of the deciduous cheek teeth, both above and below, is single rooted and its crown-surface is only about one-fifteenth as much as that of the anterior premolar of the permanent dentition. The second deciduous cheek tooth below has two roots, usually fused, and differs from p4 of the permanent dentition in having the tip of the principal cusp more recurved, in having the anterior basal cusp better developed and the posterior heel less well developed. The second deciduous cheek tooth above corresponds in function and general plan of construction to P4 of the permanent dentition but differs from that tooth in the more pronounced protostyle, longer tritocone, more posteriorly located deuterocone and as noted by Leche (1915:322) separation of the protocone and tritocone by a notch. The third upper deciduous tooth has a single cusp internally and two cusps laterally. Thus it reverses the relation of parts seen in M1 where the internal moiety is larger than the lateral or buccal moiety. The third deciduous tooth below differs from m1 in very much shorter talonid and separation of the paraconid from the protoconid by a deeper notch. All the features in which the last two deciduous teeth, both above and below, are described as differing from their functional counterparts in the permanent dentition, are features found in the permanent teeth of primitive fossil mustelids and certain fossil and Recent viverrids. Even so, taking into account Leche's (1915) work, which shows that the milk teeth of some carnivores have structures lacking in the corresponding permanent teeth of the same individual animal and also in the teeth of genera that seem to be ancestral, a person suspects that some of the structural features mentioned above are not inheritances of ancestral conditions but rather specializations of the milk dentition. [Illustration: FIGS. 2-9. Views of permanent and deciduous teeth of _Mustela frenata nigriauris_. Incisors not shown. In each instance teeth are of the left side. Permanent dentition × 3. No. 32421, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., [M], adult; Berkeley, Alameda County, California; obtained October 4, 1921, by D. D. McLean. Deciduous dentition × 5. No. 132158, U. S. Nat. Mus., [M], juvenile; Stanford University, Santa Clara County, California; obtained May 7, 1898, by W. K. Fisher. Figs. 2-3. Lateral views of upper teeth, of adult and juvenile respectively. Figs. 4-5. Occlusolingual views of upper teeth of adult and juvenile respectively. Figs. 6-7. Lateral views of lower teeth of adult and juvenile respectively. Figs. 8-9. Occlusolingual views of lower teeth of adult and juvenile respectively.] In other deciduous teeth there is clearer evidence of more specialization for a diet of flesh in the deciduous teeth than in the permanent teeth. For example, the upper carnassial of the milk dentition is even more highly sectorial than is the permanent tooth and strikingly like that of some of the cats. The lower tooth that is effective in the shearing action bears no more trace of the metaconid than does the permanent first lower molar. These features of the deciduous dentition suggest that it is more specialized for a diet of flesh than is the permanent dentition. If this be the fact, it may seem especially remarkable because the commonly employed term "milk teeth" suggests that the animal makes but little or no use of these teeth in the short time that they are in place. Accordingly, the student may credit the form of these teeth more to some indirect effects of inheritance than to natural selection acting directly upon the teeth. But, after all, natural selection probably is responsible for the form of these teeth as is indicated by the observations of Hamilton (1933:318-325). He found that these milk teeth are used for eating solid food as soon as the principal shearing teeth are in place. This is three weeks after birth and before all of the deciduous teeth have broken through the gums. These shearing teeth are used for almost two months before being replaced by the permanent teeth and it is, therefore, evident that natural selection could operate to fully as great a degree in determining the form of the deciduous teeth as it may with the permanent teeth. Hamilton (1933:325-326) found that the permanent dentition was complete at 75 days after birth in captive specimens of _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_. In the same subspecies, he noted 28 days after birth that the canines and carnassial teeth [second deciduous cheek tooth above and third below] had erupted through the gums. Animals 45 days old, Hamilton found, were losing the milk dentition, and had the gums broken through by several of the permanent cheek teeth. Study of the cleaned skulls available of juveniles indicates that the deciduous teeth which persist longest are, on each side of the mouth, the second cheek tooth above and the third cheek tooth below. These teeth persist until after the permanent P4 and m1 have come into use. These permanent teeth are situated immediately behind their functional counterparts of the milk dentition. P3 and p4 are the teeth of the permanent dentition which ultimately push out the last milk teeth to be lost. Accordingly, in the permanent dentition, P4 and M1 appear before P3 does, and m1 and m2 make their appearance before p4. DISPARITY IN NUMBERS OF MALES AND FEMALES (IN ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS) The question has frequently been asked why twice as many male as female weasels are captured. This is the proportion in research collections, as may be seen from table no. 2, and I am convinced that the specimens in these collections are saved in approximately the same proportion as that in which they are caught. Although it might be assumed, upon first consideration, that there are twice as many males as females in nature, selective factors enter into the catch. For example, because a male weasel is approximately twice as heavy as a female, it may be necessary for him, in a given length of time, to travel twice as far as the female to obtain the required amount of food with the result that a given number of traps or snares will catch twice as many males as females. Indeed, Glover (1943B:8) shows that, on the average, in _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_ in Pennsylvania, the male actually does travel slightly more than twice as far as the female (704 feet versus 346 feet). From table no. 2, it may be seen that in most winter months the ratio is 3 males to one female. This ratio is reasonable enough, in view of what has been said, if it is considered also that the lighter weight of the female permits her safely to step on the pans of traps that would be sprung by heavier males. If in the breeding season, which is April through August in _M. frenata_, the female is passive and if the male is restlessly searching for her, he may thus increase still more his chances of being caught in traps set for weasels. My own studies of live weasels in nature indicate that in the season when females are attending young which are half grown, or larger, the adult male weasels live singly in dens of their own, separate and apart from the females and their young (Hamilton, 1933:328, records adult males living with the female and her young, but possibly this was when the young were less than half grown). Perhaps these males at that time travel no farther than is necessary to obtain food for themselves. Females, at this time, forage not only to meet their own needs, but for food to supply their young as well. At this time, in May and June, as may be seen from table no. 2, almost as many adult females as adult males _are_ caught. The reason why only relatively more females than in other months, instead of actually more females than males, are caught at this time probably is that the adult males also are extraordinarily active at this time because they are in breeding condition. Perhaps the explanation in part is to be found in the lesser weight of the female (approximately half of the male's weight) which, as indicated above, permits her to step on the pan of a steel trap without springing it whereas the heavier male does spring the trap and as a consequence is caught. Hamilton (1933:299-300), who mentions this selective factor, found an equal number of males and females in the three newly born litters that came under his observation. TABLE 2 Specimens of _Mustela frenata_ (north of the range of _M. f. frenata_) arranged by sex and under each sex by age KEY: A: adult [M] B: [M] ad., % of total adults C: subadult [M] D: young [M] E: juvenal [M] F: total number of [M] G: [M] % of total H: adult [F] I: [F] ad., % of total adults J: subadult [F] K: young [F] L: juvenal [F] M: total number of [F] N: [F], % of total O: total number of [M] and [F] P: total number of adults, [M] and [F] /-----------Male---------\/--------Female--------\ ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- | A | B | C | D | E| F | G| H | I| J| K | L| M | N| O | P ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- May | 29| 55| 4| 14| 7| 54|59| 24|45| 1| 9| 3| 37|41| 91| 53 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- June | 42| 53| 14| 40| 8| 97|59| 38|47| 4| 25| 2| 69|41| 166| 80 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- July | 59| 70| 18| 55| 2|130|59| 25|30| 5| 58| 2| 90|41| 220| 84 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- August | 40| 77| 23| 55|..|113|74| 12|23| 2| 25|..| 39|26| 152| 52 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- September| 15| 79| 25| 12| 1| 51|75| 4|21| 4| 9|..| 17|25| 68| 19 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- October | 11| 58| 46| 7|..| 43|66| 8|42|13| 1|..| 22|34| 65| 19 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- November | 41| 70| 48| 1|..| 88|73| 18|30|12| 2| 1| 33|27| 121| 59 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- December | 59| 69| 43| 1|..|108|73| 26|31|15|...|..| 41|27| 149| 85 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- January | 80| 69| 32| 2| 1|126|72| 36|31|14|...|..| 50|28| 176|116 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- February | 45| 66| 19| 5|..| 82|73| 23|34| 4| 3|..| 30|27| 112| 68 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- March | 38| 72| 2|...|..| 57|70| 15|28| 8| 1|..| 24|30| 81| 53 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- April | 30| 67| 2| 4| 3| 39|67| 15|33|..| 2| 2| 19|33| 58| 45 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- Totals |489| 67|281|196|22|988|68|244|33|82|135|10|471|32|1,459|733 ---------+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+-----+--- I suppose that in nature there are approximately equal numbers of male and female weasels and further suppose that the selective factors which cause more males than females to be caught are the greater distances traveled by the males and their greater weight. MATERIALS, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND METHODS At a late stage in the preparation of this manuscript a total of 5,457 specimens had been examined. For the most part these were conventional study-specimens; that is to say, they were stuffed skins with the skulls separate and each was accompanied by the customary data as to locality of capture, date of capture, name of collector, external measurements and sex recorded on the labels by the collectors. Skulls unaccompanied by skins, nevertheless, comprised a large share of the total and a small proportion was made up of skins unaccompanied by skulls, mounted specimens, skeletons, and entire animals preserved in liquid. It was the recognition of this need for specimens from extensive areas from which no specimens previously had been collected that influenced me, approximately a year after the study was begun, to allot for it a long span of time. The procedure adopted, in general, was to study the weasels of one species from a given geographic area in so far as the material warranted, then lay this aside until additional critical material could be obtained, and finally, some months or a year later, complete the account. In this fashion the manuscript of the American weasels received my attention in each of the past twenty-five years (September, 1926 to date of publication). This is a confession of fact rather than a recommendation of procedure. This type of procedure unduly delays the diffusion of knowledge and for a variety of reasons justifiably annoys other students of the subject. Nevertheless, many gaps have been filled that otherwise would have remained open. Although specimens to solve several problems still remain to be collected and studied, it seems that a point of diminishing returns has now been reached, which, in fairness to all concerned, calls for publication of the results so far obtained. For assistance in the entire undertaking, I am more indebted to Miss Annie M. Alexander than to any other one person; she provided the means by which specimens from critical areas were obtained, made it possible to examine the European collections, and assisted in other ways. The late Professor Joseph Grinnell and Mr. Charles D. Bunker, among others, gave truly valuable encouragement and assistance. Collections containing weasels which were examined in the study here reported upon were as follows: Acad. Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia American Mus. Nat. History Baylor University Berlin Zoological Museum Boston Society of Natural History Brigham Young University British Museum of Natural History California Academy of Sciences Carnegie Museum Charleston Museum Coe College Collection of J. Arnold Collection of Stanley C. Arthur Collection of Rollin H. Baker Collection of William Bebb Collection of R. H. Coleman Collection of Ian McTaggart-Cowan Collection of Stuart Criddle Collection of John Cushing Collection of Walter W. Dalquest Collection of William B. Davis Collection of J. M. Edson Collection of Ralph Ellis Collection of John Fitzgerald, Jr. Collection of Mr. Green Collection of Ross Hardy Collection of Donald V. Hemphill Collection of L. M. Huey Collection of R. W. Jackson Collection of Stanley G. Jewett Collection of E. J. Koestner Collection of J. E. Law Collection of A. H. Miller Collection of Lloye H. Miller Collection of R. D. Moore Collection of J. A. Munro Collection of O. J. Murie Collection of Robert T. Orr Collection of Arthur Peake Collection of Kenneth Racey Collection of William B. Richardson Collection Rocky Mt. Spotted Fever Lab. Collection of Victor B. Scheffer Collection of William T. Shaw Collection of O. P. Silliman Collection of W. E. Snyder Collection of Frank Stephens Collection of T. C. Stephens Collection of D. D. Stone Collection of Myron H. Swenk Collection of Joe and Dean Thiriot Collection of John Tyler Collection of Jack C vonBloeker Collection of Alex Walker Collection of Edward R. Warren Colorado Museum of Natural History Charles R. Conner Museum Cornell University Donald R. Dickey Collection Field Museum of Natural History Florida State Museum Fresno State Junior College Humboldt State Teachers College Illinois Natural History Survey Iowa State College Iowa Wesleyan College Kansas State Agric. College Leland Stanford Junior University Leningrad Academy of Science Los Angeles Mus. Hist. Art and Sci. Louisiana State University Mt. Rainier Nat'l Park Collection Museum of Comparative Zoölogy Mus. Polonais d'Hist. Nat., Warsaw Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Univ. California Museum of Zoölogy, Univ. Michigan National Museum of Canada Naturhistoriska Ricksmuseum, Sweden Neuchatel University Museum New York State Museum Ohio State Museum Oklahoma Agric. and Mech. College Ottawa University, Kansas Paris Museum Provincial Museum of British Columbia Royal Ontario Museum of Zoölogy San Diego Society of Natural History State Hist. and Nat. Hist. Soc. Colo. State Normal School, Cheney, Wash. Texas Cooperative Research Collection United States National Museum University of Arkansas Univ. California Mus. Palaeo. University of Idaho Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. History University of Minnesota University of Notre Dame University of Oklahoma University of Oregon University of South Dakota University of Utah Univ. Washington Museum of Zoölogy University of Wisconsin Univ. Zool. Mus., Copenhagen The largest single collection is in the United States National Museum, where the specimens of the National Museum proper and the United States Biological Surveys Collection, together, provide essential materials including a large share of the holotypes. Specimens in all of the North American collections including Canada and México have been made available, by loan, and in 1937 materials were examined in the principal collections of northern and central Europe. After the materials in North American collections were assembled, special effort, with considerable success, was made in each of several winters, to obtain specimens from areas not previously represented in collections. To the many persons who were in charge of the collections consulted, to those who at my request sought critical specimens, and to those who assisted in various stages of assembling data and in preparation of the manuscript, I am grateful indeed. Likewise, I am deeply appreciative of the grants-in-aid received from the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the University of California Chapter of Sigma Xi, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation and the Kansas University Endowment Association. I am mindful also of an obligation to those who appropriated funds, by legislative action, for research use by The University of California and The University of Kansas. For assistance with the illustrations I am indebted to the late Major Allan Brooks for Plate 1, to Mrs. Mary Blos for figures 25-31, to Miss Ann Murray for figures 11-13, to Mr. W. C. Matthews for all the photographs, to Mrs. Freda L. Abernathy for figures 2-9, 18-22, 24, and for retouching all the photographs except the following which were retouched by Mrs. Virginia Unruh: figs. _d_ of plates 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 16, 17; figs. _i_ of plates 5, 6, 7; figs, _h_, _j_, _k_ of plate 7; figs. _f_ and _g_ of plates 12 and 13; and figs. _c_ and _d_ of plate 14. To Mrs. Unruh I am further indebted for figures 1, 16, 17 and 23 and for much terminal assistance with preparing most of the illustrations for the engraver. The methods of study, after specimens were assembled, included first comparisons of specimens of like age and sex from each of several localities to ascertain the constant features by which full species were distinguishable, one from the other. For example, it was found that in every individual from Trout Lake, Washington, of the species here designated _Mustela erminea_, the postglenoidal length of the skull amounted to more than 47 per cent of the condylobasal length whereas it was less than 47 per cent in all individuals here designated as _Mustela frenata_, from the same locality. Testing of specimens from other localities by means of this and other selected characters permitted the outlining of the geographic ranges of the full "species-groups." By comparing specimens of other nominal species and by examining specimens from localities geographically intermediate between the nominal species, I found intergradation and therefore arranged the nominal species as subspecies of a single species. Intergradation here is understood to be the result of crossbreeding in nature between two kinds of animals in the area where the geographic ranges of the two kinds meet. Presence of intergradation between two kinds of weasels was basis for according them subspecific rank. Absence of intergradation in nature at every place where the geographic ranges of two kinds met or overlapped, and absence of intergradation by way of some other kind, or chain of kinds, was basis for according each of the two kinds full specific rank. By thus applying the test of intergradation, or lack of it, I found that there were four full species of weasels, of the subgenus _Mustela_, in all of the Americas. Next, the specimens of one species were arranged in trays in a geographic sequence. The specimens from any one locality were segregated by sex and under one sex from one place were arranged from oldest to youngest, that is to say by age. The four series with the largest numbers of individuals of a given age were selected. Seventeen cranial measurements and three external measurements were recorded for each individual of each of these four series. For each measurement, the coefficient of variation, standard deviation and probable error were computed. The four samples subjected to such analysis were a series of adult males, one of adult females, one of subadult males and one of subadult females. Also, studies of each sex were made to ascertain seasonal changes in pelage. After data were obtained on ontogenetic (age) variation, secondary sexual variation, seasonal variation, and degree of individual variation by studying specimens in the manner described above, tests were made for subspecific (geographic) variation by comparing series of specimens of like sex, age and season, from different localities. For each one of several geographically variable features noted, a map was prepared for animals of each sex. When all the data thus obtained were codified, subspecific ranges were, in a sense automatically, obtained. On the resulting map showing geographic ranges of subspecies for a species, a type locality was accurately plotted for each name that had been applied to the species, and names then were applied in accordance with the international rules of zoölogical nomenclature. VARIATION Variation with Age The kind of variation which results from increasing age has been dealt with extensively for the skull (of the Old World _Mustela erminea_) by Hensel (1881) and for the external features and to some extent for the skull by Hamilton (1933) in the North American forms _M. erminea cicognanii_ and _M. frenata noveboracensis_. The young of both _erminea_ and _frenata_ are hairless and blind at birth. In _M. frenata noveboracensis_, the eyes open on approximately the 37th day. When 2 to 4 months old, the tail is pointed at the tip. This is because the terminal hair of the tail, including the black tip, is short and lies flat on the tail. In subadults and adults the hair on the terminal part of the tail is as long as that on the basal part, and the tail appears to be of uniform diameter all the way out to the end. In the western subspecies of _M. frenata_, and in its tropical subspecies, animals so young as to have pointed tails commonly have the underparts of the body more intensely colored than do adults. The young may have salmon-colored instead of yellowish fur on the underparts. Otherwise, in animals that have attained approximately adult proportions--which appears to be at approximately 6 months of age in males--there are no variations which are ascribable to increasing age in the color-pattern or pelage that cause the systematist to confuse species or subspecies. Of the several parts of the skull in juvenal animals, the braincase and width of the posterior part of the palate are most nearly of the size attained in the adult, the facial part of the skull at birth is the least developed, and the interorbital region is, in relation to its ultimate adult size, intermediate in stage of development. The permanent teeth are acquired when the animal is approximately eleven weeks old. Four age groups, based on characters of the dentition and skull, have been recognized. They are: Juvenile.--One or more deciduous (milk) teeth present. Birth to three months of age. Young.--Sutures widely open between the maxillae and nasals and between the premaxillae and nasals. Three to seven and a half months of age. Subadult.--Sutures between maxillae and nasals visible but indistinct. Seven and a half to ten months of age. Adult.--Bones of rostrum coalesced with no traces of sutures visible to the naked eye. More than ten months old. The skull as a whole increases in size until the animal is two-thirds of the way through the stage designated as young. After this time the width of the rostrum, as measured across the hamular processes of the lacrimals, increases until approximately a third of the way through adulthood. The interorbital breadth decreases from late subadulthood to adulthood and even in adults there appears to be a slight decrease in this part of the skull with increasing age. The average zoölogist will readily distinguish skulls of juveniles and young from adults but usually fails to distinguish subadults from adults. Nevertheless, subadults must be distinguished from adults if geographic variation is to be measured accurately. The reason for this is that such differences in the form (not size) of the skull as result from increasing age equal and often exceed the differences of a geographic sort which serve for distinguishing subspecies that have adjoining geographic ranges. All sutures in the skull, except those between the tympanic bulla and the braincase, and those on the dorsal face of the rostrum, are obliterated while the animal is a subadult. Most kinds of mammals retain sutures throughout life or until the animals are well into adulthood. Therefore, skulls of weasels offer fewer features for estimating age than do those of most mammals and the skulls of weasels that are subadults or older are more difficult to classify accurately as to age than are the skulls of most other mammals. More reliance on shape of entire skull and less reliance on extent and shape of any individual bone is necessary in estimating the age of a weasel. Wright (1947:344) shows that the weight of the baculum (os penis) is a certain means of differentiating adults from males of lesser age. When approximately eleven months old, _Mustela frenata oribasus_ of western Montana molts from the white winter coat into the brown summer coat. At that time spermatogenesis starts for the first time and the weight of the baculum increases from less than 30 milligrams to more than 52 milligrams. In the autumn and early winter, most of the specimens are subadults. Ordinarily the few adults obtained in these seasons can easily be segregated from the subadults because ontogenetic development in the twelve additional months of life of each of the older animals has obliterated the sutures on the rostrum, heightened (vertically) and lengthened (anteriorly) the sagittal crest, widened the rostrum, and produced still other changes in form that are revealed by direct comparison of specimens of the two ages. Secondary Sexual Variation The secondary sexual variation, which has been detected, is in size of the animal, relative length of the tail and shape of the skull. The female is the smaller. In the small _Mustela rixosa_ and apparently in _Mustela africana_ the secondary sexual difference in size is relatively slight. In _Mustela frenata_ and _Mustela erminea_, males are approximately twice as heavy as females, the degree of difference very definitely depending upon the subspecies. For example, in _M. e. richardsonii_ the recorded weights are 175 and 69 grams as opposed to 81 and 54 grams in _M. e. cicognanii_. In general, within one species the greatest difference in size of males and females is in those subspecies in which the animals are of large size. The secondary sexual variation in size is much more than the individual variation in either sex. The same is not true of secondary sexual difference in length of the tail (relative to the length of the head and body), which in eighteen subspecies of _M. erminea_ is from 1 to 7 per cent longer in males than in females. In two subspecies, _M. e. haidarum_ and _M. e. olympica_, the tail is a fraction of a per cent the longer in females if we may rely upon the few specimens for which collectors' measurements are available. In both _M. erminea_ and _M. frenata_ the skull of the female is approximately 45 per cent lighter than that of the male, or put in the opposite way, the skull of the male is 83 per cent heavier than the skull of the female. The difference in this respect varies greatly depending on the subspecies. For example, the skull of the male is 127 per cent heavier than that of the female in _M. e. richardsonii_ but only 33 per cent heavier in _M. e. anguinae_. In _Mustela frenata_, the subspecies _noveboracensis_ shows most sexual dimorphism in weight of skull (3.6 and 1.7 grams) and _olivacea_ the least (5.3 and 3.8 grams). In general, the difference in this respect is less in subspecies the individuals of which are of small size. Therefore, as might be expected, the secondary sexual variation in weight of the skull is less in _M. rixosa_, individuals of which are of small size, than in _M. erminea_ or than in _M. frenata_, in general of larger size. Nevertheless, in _M. africana_, in which the individuals are of large size, there appears to be less sexual dimorphism in weight of the skull than in _M. frenata_ or than in _M. erminea_, although it should be remarked that there are too few data for _M. africana_ to allow of forming a trustworthy conclusion concerning the amount of secondary sexual variation in that species. The secondary sexual variation in shape of the skull consists of a slenderness in the female. In relation to the basilar length the spread of the zygomatic arches is more in males and, except in the one subspecies _M. f. altifrontalis_, the rostrum is broader. Also the interorbital region is relatively broader in males of most subspecies. In most subspecies of both _M. frenata_ and _M. erminea_ the tympanic bullae are relatively (to the basilar length) longer in females. The maximum sexual dimorphism occurs in _M. erminea arctica_ and the minimum dimorphism in _M. e. haidarum_, _M. e. anguinae_ and _M. e. muricus_. Taking into account all of the subspecies of each of the North American species, the shape of the skull differs most in _M. erminea_ and least in _M. frenata_. In the latter species the greatest difference in shape of the skull, as was true also of its weight, is in the subspecies _M. f. noveboracensis_. In these two subspecies, _M. f. noveboracensis_ and _M. e. arctica_, in addition to the secondary sexual variation already mentioned in the skull, females have the braincase smoother and more rounded, the postorbital-, mastoid-, and lacrimal-processes relatively smaller, and the ventral face of the tympanic bulla at its anterior margin more nearly flush with the floor of the braincase. In the weasels, subgenus _Mustela_, the disparity in size of the two sexes is almost or quite as much as in any other fissiped carnivore. It is because of this large degree of difference that the skulls of the two sexes are described separately in the following systematic accounts. The need for such treatment was recognized by Reinhold Hensel (1881:127) more than sixty years ago when he wrote in the introduction to his "Craniologische Studien," of _Mustela_, as follows: ". . . die Geschlechtsdifferenzen am Schädel vieler Säugethiere . . . so gross sind, dass man diese wie Schädel verschiedener species behandeln muss, während in anderen Ordnungen (Rosores, Edentaten) die Schädel solche Unterschiede nichtzeigen." In the past, failure to appreciate the large amount of secondary sexual variation has resulted in erroneous deductions as regards characters of certain geographic races and has been the cause of some nomenclatural confusion, as for example, in _Mustela frenata macrura_, where the female was named as a separate species (_Mustela jelskii_). Individual Variation Individual variation is here considered to be the variation in one species which can occur between offspring of a single pair of parents, after variation ascribable to differences in age, sex, and season is excluded. Individual variation, therefore, is a term here used in a composite sense; it includes variations which probably represent different genetic strains within certain populations and variations induced within one generation by environmental factors. In skulls of weasels, the individual variation in size is more than it is in relative proportions. Hensel (_op. cit._) has stressed that weasels, like other carnivores, produced "dwarfed" individuals more than do herbivorous mammals. I cannot vouch for the accuracy of this view, but can say that individual variation is not greater than in some other fissiped carnivores. Impressions to the contrary probably result largely from failure to recognize age-variation. When skulls of a large series from any one locality are arranged first by sex, and under each sex according to probable age on the basis of extension anteriorly of the sagittal crest and of degree of postorbital constriction, individual variation is seen to be less than a cursory examination, even of only one sex, would suggest. Study of a large series of one age of one sex of one species from one locality shows that some parts, of the skull for example, vary more than other parts. In illustration, among 22 male topotypes of _Mustela frenata washingtoni_ the least interorbital breadth varied 25 per cent (9.0 mm. to 12 mm.) whereas the length of the tooth-rows varied only 13.3 per cent (15.6 mm. to 18.0 mm.). In color the individual variation definitely is more in areas of intergradation between subspecies than in other areas. Details of one such instance of intergradation are given in the account of _Mustela frenata spadix_. Statements to the effect that there is much individual variation in the color of weasels, were made mostly fifty years or so ago by writers who had but few specimens from widely separated localities. Where marked climatic differences exist between localities only a few miles apart, marked differences occur in coloration of the weasels from the different localities. Much of what formerly was mistaken for individual variation now proves to be geographic variation. Individual variation actually is of slight amount in comparison with that in mammals generally. Differences in size and relative proportions of parts usually are correlated with geographic differences in color. The color does fade slightly in the period between molts. Also as a result of the seasonal color change, in autumn along the upper margin of the Austral Life-zone, some individuals become white whereas others become white on only the underparts, the upper parts changing only to lighter brown. Probably it would be correct to say that this variation was a combination of seasonal and individual variation rather than either one alone. As might be supposed, individual variation is not the same in all species or subspecies. For example, p2 is always absent in _Mustela africana_ and always present in certain subspecies of _M. frenata_. In some other subspecies of _M. frenata_, p2 is absent approximately as often as present. In the writer's experience, when only a few specimens are available for comparison, individual variation is more difficult to distinguish from specific and subspecific (geographic) variation than is age-variation or secondary sexual variation. Among the larger series of specimens examined, only one instance of what might be called a mutation in the old sense of a large, sudden change, was detected. That was the loss of the second lower molar in many (less than a third) of the specimens from Newfoundland. The six instances of abnormal coloration described on pages 41 to 43, might be regarded as mutations of large magnitude but no evidence was found of repetition of an abnormality in any one population. Otherwise, in every instance where plotted, the manifestations of a variation arranged themselves about the mean in such a way as to form a smooth, unimodal curve. Seasonal Variation When subspecific and specific variations are the objectives of study, seasonal variation must be understood, in order to be excluded from consideration, in the same way that variations ascribable to age, sex and individualism must be understood in order to be excluded from consideration. In weasels, change in color of the pelage is the seasonal variation most important for the systematist to understand. Other seasonal variations in the pelage are hairiness versus nakedness of the pads of the feet, length of the pelage on the body, and possibly the density of the pelage on the body. In the northern half of North America, roughly speaking, seasonal change in color is so pronounced (white in winter and brown in summer) as to be easily recognized. South of this area, in the Austral and Sonoran life-zones, the color of the winter pelage differs only slightly from that of the summer pelage. In these more southern latitudes the winter pelage in almost all subspecies is of lighter color than the summer pelage and has a smoky suffusion. With material of the two seasons in hand for comparison, close attention to the variation will permit the systematist to recognize the difference in shade of brown as seasonal variation and not geographic or specific variation. Farther south still, in the Tropical Life-zone, seasonal difference in color was not detected in the material studied. Seasonal change in color is discussed in the section immediately following. Variation in Coloration and Molt In all American weasels (subgenus _Mustela_) the color, at least in summer, is brown with more or less white or whitish on the underparts. In one species, _Mustela africana_, there is a longitudinal stripe of brown on the middle of the light-colored underparts; this stripe is absent in each of the other three American species. Two species, _M. erminea_ and _M. frenata_, always have a black tip on the tail. Of the other two species, _M. africana_ lacks the black tip and _M. rixosa_ may or may not have a few black hairs in the tip of its tail. White or light yellowish facial markings occur in subspecies of _M. frenata_ from the southwestern United Stated to Central America. Subspecies having the most extensive light-colored facial markings have the remainder of the upper part of the head black. In weasels without light facial markings the upper parts of the head all are brown. In the two species, _M. erminea_ and _M. frenata_, the extent to which the light color of the underparts extends down the insides of the legs and out on the underside of the tail, or the absence of light color on these parts, is a matter of geographic variation. The same can be said for _M. rixosa_ except that first its tail is unicolored and second individual variation as well as geographic variation accounts for the color pattern on the underparts and legs in animals from the southeastern part of the range of the species. The most remarkable feature of the coloration of weasels is the winter whitening. This occurs in the northern part of North America in each of the three species of weasels found on that continent. The black tip of the tail in _M. erminea_ and _M. frenata_ remains black in winter. If an individual of _M. rixosa_ has black hairs on the tip of its tail in summer, there are thought to be black hairs there also in winter. Otherwise the winter pelage is all white in northern areas in each of the three species. In this white winter coat the animal is known as ermine. The underlying cause seems to be protective coloration. At any rate, weasels are always white in winter if they are from areas where snow lies on the ground all winter, every winter, or almost every winter; and they are always brown if from areas where there is never, or rarely, snow in winter. The changes in color are effected by molt, one in autumn and one in spring. Animals that are brown in winter undergo the same two molts as do those that are white in winter. The capacity to acquire a white coat or a brown coat in winter is an hereditary matter just as one man grows red hair and another grows black hair. In the weasels, however, all individuals in the north turn white in winter and if one that was born there is kept through successive winters in the warmer south where there is no snow, he will still turn white each winter. A weasel born in a southern area, where all are brown in winter, molts into a brown (not white) winter coat even when kept in a cold, snowy, northern area where native weasels of the same species all turn white. Obviously, therefore, neither snow nor temperature is an immediate cause and, as we have said, the color in winter is a matter of heredity. The time of the molt, we now know, is determined by the amount of light. When nights grow longer and days shorter, a point is reached at which the lesser light received through the eyes causes the pituitary gland to cease producing a gonadotropic hormone. Directly or indirectly, the lack of this hormone stimulates molt and, probably enzyme action, or the lack of it, causes the melanoblasts of the cells in the hair follicle to be without pigment. Hence the hair grown from a follicle under such conditions lacks pigment (melanin) and is white. In spring, as the days grow longer and the nights shorter, the increasing amount of light received day by day through the eyes stimulates the pituitary gland to produce the gonadotropic hormone which directly or indirectly, stimulates molt and, probably by enzyme action, the melanoblasts are caused to be present in cells of the hair follicle and the melanoblasts provide granules of melanin pigment which are incorporated in cells of the growing hair. These granules of pigment give the hair its color. Evidence in support of this hypothesis is given below. Along the Pacific Coast from British Columbia southward, _M. erminea_ (see fig. 25 on page 95) is brown in winter. This is an area where snow rarely falls and the temperature in winter ordinarily is above freezing. In the remaining part of the American range of this species the temperature in winter is below freezing much of the time and snow remains throughout the winter or for long periods. In this colder part of the animal's range, only white coats occur in winter. _M. frenata_ likewise has a white coat in winter in the part of its geographic range where snow and freezing temperatures prevail throughout most of the winter and a brown coat in warmer, snowless areas to the southward and along the Pacific Coast. The third species, _M. rixosa_, exhibits a corresponding correlation between coat color and climate. On the Asiatic continent, several species, including _M. erminea_, provide parallel correlations and nowhere are there any exceptions for the subgenus _Mustela_. These data are an important part of the material on which we have based the induction that the underlying cause of seasonal change in color is a need for protective coloration. As regards molt, most naturalists who have written upon the subject regard it as responsible for the change from the white winter coat to the brown summer coat. However, the change from brown summer coat to white winter coat has been thought by several writers to be effected by change in coloration of the individual hairs. Among those holding this opinion there may be cited Bell (1874:197) in reference to _Mustela erminea_, and Coues (1877:123) in reference to American specimens to which he applied the same name. More lately Hadwen (1929) has taken this same view, and Gunn (1932) also discusses the possibility of the hairs changing color. Bachman (1839:228-232), Macgillivary (1843?:158), Audubon and Bachman (1851 (vol. 2):62), Schwalbe (1893:538), Pearson _et al._ (1913:447), Miller (1930, 1931A), Hamilton (1933:300) and Rothschild (1942), among others, have been inclined to the opinion, or positively affirm, that the color change in autumn is the result of a molt. The papers cited above contain, in turn, references to many other printed accounts dealing with this question. To my mind, it has not so far been demonstrated that the change in color of weasels in autumn is accomplished without a molt. Also so far as I am aware, no explanation has been given of how the pigment may disappear from the hair of weasels. Metchnikoff's (1901:156) idea that the senile whitening of the hair in man is accomplished by phagocytes which remove the pigment granules would hardly seem to explain the relatively sudden and complete autumnal change occurring in weasels. Anyhow, Danforth (1925:108), and some other students have thought that the action of these phagocytes was at most a factor of slight importance in the whitening of hair. Whatever be the complete answer to the question of how the weasel changes color in autumn, at least one specimen of long-tailed weasel, which is in process of color change in autumn, presents clear evidence of molt of the overhairs. This specimen of _M. f. longicauda_ is no. 188408, U. S. Nat. Mus., taken on November 12, 1897, at Rapid City, South Dakota. Other specimens of _M. erminea_ which were taken in autumn similarly show molt to be in progress. For these and other reasons, I am inclined to the opinion that the autumnal change in color, like the one in spring, is effected by molt. During the period of the autumnal color change, Noback (1935:27) had a captive _M. f. noveboracensis_ and, each morning, found clumps of brown hair on the floor of its cage; this was strong indication that molt was responsible for the color change in this instance. However, I freely admit that the evidence does not _prove_ that the change from brown to white can be accomplished _only_ by molt; in the present state of knowledge it would be unscientific to deny that the change were possible of accomplishment by other means. Also, it is true that the fifteen specimens before me of _Mustela frenata_, subspecies included, in process of change from brown to white, with the exception of the one from Rapid City, South Dakota, if taken individually, do not, in macroscopic examination, show definite molt lines or other absolutely convincing evidence of molt. However, these same specimens, insofar as examined microscopically, do show overhairs all white, or overhairs pigmented throughout. The lighter color of the proximal parts of the overhairs in itself should not be accepted as evidence of color change, for in the fresh summer pelage, the same condition exists. Also, careful macroscopic examination suffices to show that in the transitional pelage of autumn, the brown overhairs generally are longer than the intermixed white overhairs. Whether the underfur behaves in exactly the same way as the overhair, I have not myself definitely ascertained, but I assume that the underfur is molted twice each year, at least in the northern populations of _Mustela frenata_ and in the other species of more northern distribution. Schwalbe's (1893) work, including sectioning of the skin and study of the hair follicles, led him to conclude that the underfur was molted twice each year in _Mustela erminea_. In _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_, _M. f. nevadensis_, and _M. f. nigriauris_, measurements taken on adult males show the overhairs to be longer in the winter pelage than in the summer pelage of specimens from the same locality. For example, in _M. f. nigriauris_ from Berkeley, California, the overhairs of the summer coat (July and August) average 8 millimeters in length on the hinder back and 7 mm. on the belly, but average 9.5 mm. and 8 mm. respectively in January-taken specimens possessing the full winter coat. At Ann Arbor, Michigan, in the summer coat, the longest hairs on the hinder back average approximately 12 mm., and those on the belly, 9.5 mm., against 13 mm. and 9.5 mm. respectively in winter. Although general observations initially led me to believe that the black, terminal hairs of the tip of the tail are longer in the winter pelage than in the summer pelage, actual measurements fail to show a difference in length. The change from one coat to the other in the long-tailed weasel has been described among others by Miller (1930, 1931A), Hamilton (1933) and Glover (1942) on the basis of captive specimens. In a general way, the progress of the molt in their specimens agrees with that which I have been able to make out from examination of skins taken in the wild. There is, however, this difference: Their specimens show a more spotted pattern when in process of hair-change than do specimens taken in the wild. Probably the more or less unnatural conditions under which these captive animals lived modified the normal progress of molt. In wild-taken specimens of the species _Mustela frenata_, subspecies included, the spring molt begins on the mid-dorsal line and proceeds laterally, producing, at almost any given time, a relatively sharp molt line separating the white winter hair from the incoming brown summer coat. However, in autumn the change takes place first on the belly, then on the sides, and finally makes its appearance over all the upper parts at about the same time, with the result that the upper parts have a salt-and-pepper appearance without at this time any sharply defined molt lines. In general, the molt pattern can be said to be reversed in the two seasons; in spring, it begins on the back and in autumn, on the belly. The difference in spring and autumn color pattern is better illustrated on plate 39 than by additional description. Swanson and Fryklund (1935:123) have observed that the "spring molt proceeds differently" than the fall one in _Mustela rixosa_, and Barrett-Hamilton (1903:309) in commenting on the European hare (and the stoat?) remarks, "In spring the moult, and with it the brown colour, progresses in exactly the opposite order . . ." as compared with the white color of autumn, which that particular writer thought resulted from removal of pigment from the hairs rather than from molt. The tail, excepting the black tip, lags in the molt in many instances, with the result that, especially in spring, it may retain a few white hairs as late as does the belly. In autumn it is less tardy and so far as I have observed, becomes white at about the same time that the general area of the back changes color. On the tail, the black tip itself, as clearly shown in more than a score of specimens, is molted at approximately the same time in autumn as is the pelage of the body. However, the long black hairs, which appear in, say, November, appear to increase in length until January. In spring, the long black hairs of the tip of the tail seem not to be shed at the same time as the rest of the winter pelage, but remain approximately six weeks longer and then are replaced by long black hairs of the summer coat. At any rate, this is the picture presented by a half dozen specimens of _M. f. nevadensis_ and _M. f. longicauda_ which do show a spring molt to be in progress on the black tip of the tail. Schwalbe similarly (1893:536-537) has suggested that the black tip of the tail in _Mustela erminea_ in spring is not molted until about two months after the pelage on the rest of the body is changed. Schwalbe (_loc. cit._) thinks also that in _M. erminea_ studied by him, the black tip of the tail in autumn is replaced approximately one month in advance of the pelage on the rest of the body. As indicated above, my specimens of _Mustela frenata_, subspecies _longicauda_ and _nevadensis_, do not show this discrepancy in autumn. I have considered the possibility that the black tip of the tail, in some species of _Mustela_, is molted only once while the remainder of the coat was undergoing two molts. My inconclusive data lend but little support to this possibility. The difference in pattern of color between specimens taken in autumn and spring is known to some fur-trappers of my acquaintance who have suggested that molt occurs in spring, whereas the individual hairs change color in autumn. Reference to plate 39 will show how gross comparisons might lead one to this erroneous explanation of the color change. As to time of molt: In eight subspecies of _Mustela frenata_, namely, _noveboracensis_, _occisor_, _primulina_, _spadix_, _longicauda_, _arizonensis_, _nevadensis_ and _effera_, material is available to indicate that the autumnal molt begins in October and is completed in November, and that the spring molt occurs in March or April. A condensed list of specimens providing basis for this statement is as follows: _M. f. noveboracensis_: 26 specimens in transitional pelage taken in autumn and 14 taken in spring; _M. f. occisor_: One topotype has acquired one-fifth of the winter pelage on October 22, 1896; _M. f. primulina_: 2 in November, one in March, and 2 in April are in process of change; _M. f. spadix_: 6 autumnal specimens and one in April show pelage change; _M. f. longicauda_: 7 autumnal specimens and one in April show pelage change; _M. f. arizonensis_: 12 specimens in autumn and 3 in spring are in process of molt; _M. f. effera_: One November-taken male has acquired four-fifths of the winter coat and another taken on April 21 at Fort Rock, Oregon, is half finished with the spring molt. It may be added that no marked difference in time of either autumnal or spring molt is apparent as between the more northern and more southern localities from which the mentioned specimens come. With more complete material I would expect to find a difference in this regard. The material of the other, more southern, subspecies of _Mustela frenata_ has not been adequate to show the time of molting or the number of molts which occur in one year. Animals in the northern part of the range of _Mustela frenata_ acquire a white winter coat, whereas those in the southern part acquire a brown winter coat, and in an intervening area the winter coat may be either brown or white. By plotting on a map the localities of capture of all specimens examined in the winter coat, it was possible to outline this intervening area as shown in figure 10 on page 37. However, Dearborn (1932:36) shows that in Michigan some animals have a brown coat in winter at places farther north than figure 10 shows to be the case. Hamilton's (1933-306) map for New York shows the same to be true in that state. Accordingly, the boundaries of the area shown in figure 10, in which both brown and white long-tailed weasels occur in winter, are known to be only approximate; with full information available the belt would be represented as wider. [Illustration: FIG. 10. Map showing the region (in black) where both the brown and white winter pelage is found in the long-tailed weasel, _Mustela frenata_.] Hamilton (1933:302) has pointed out that "Where half of the weasels remain brown, these brown winter specimens are always males." The results of my own examination of specimens not studied by Hamilton, in a general way provide confirmatory data. More exactly, my examination reveals that at the most northern localities where brown specimens occur, only males are in this coat. In explanation, it may be said that in plotting on a map localities of capture of specimens in the winter coat, thirteen places were found where both sexes were represented and where both brown and white winter coats were found. With the two sexes, it is theoretically possible to have nine different combinations of coat color. With males all brown, there might occur females (1) all brown, (2) all white, or (3) some brown and some white. In addition to these three combinations, we might have three more by finding the mentioned types of female coat color repeated where all males are white, and three more, or nine in all, by substituting a population of males some of which were brown and some of which were white. Seven of these possible combinations actually were found. The two combinations not found were all white males with all brown females, and all white males with females both brown and white. In the three instances where the males all were brown and the females all were white, the localities of capture were in the northern part of the variable area. This indicates that where the brown winter coat occurs at northern localities, the brown individuals are all males. Farther south, of course, the females, too, acquire the brown winter coat. Stated in another way, there is a broad belt across North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific in which males of _Mustela frenata_ at any one locality may be either brown or white in winter. Inside this broad belt there is a narrower one, approximately half as wide, in which females at any one locality may be either brown or white. In support of the idea that color of the winter coat is an hereditary matter and that it is not dependent on temperature, the following evidence derived from my transplanting specimens of _Mustela frenata_ supports the idea that color of the winter pelage is dependent on heredity and not on temperature or snowfall. A male captured on June 24, 1937, in the brown summer coat in Salt Lake City, Utah, was received by me at Berkeley, California, five days later and kept in captivity almost six months. On November 17, 1937, half the pelage was white and on December 27, 1937, when next examined, the animal was in the full, white, winter coat as it was on January 25, 1938, when it died. Native weasels all turn white in winter in Salt Lake City, but in Berkeley native weasels always are brown in winter. A juvenile or young animal, a male, captured in May, 1936, at Lafayette, Contra Costa County, California, was kept there until August 13, 1936, when transferred to Calneva at the north end of Lake Tahoe, California. The weasel was kept at Calneva until its death on December 23, 1937. In both the winter of 1936-'37 and in that of 1937-'38, the winter coat was brown as in animals from its place of origin (Contra Costa County) and unlike weasels of the Tahoe region nearly all of which turn white in winter. Two females, each approximately two months old, captured on May 1, 1936, at James Landing, 4 miles northwest of San Pablo, Contra Costa County, California, were kept in Berkeley, California, until August 13, 1936, when they were transferred to the mouth of Blackwood Creek, on the west side of Lake Tahoe, California. On October 25, 1936, both weasels escaped. On December 25, 1936, the headless body of one of these was found approximately 300 yards south of the mouth of Blackwood Creek. The animal had been dead at most a few days when found and was in the brown winter coat. At the place of its origin all weasels are brown in winter but at the mouth of Blackwood Creek only 2 of 60 weasels caught there in the winter coat were brown; the other 58 were white. The headless weasel was identified, as one of the two formerly in captivity, by means of certain short toes, the ends of which had been clipped off when the animal was a captive. No trace of the second female was found. A female of unknown age, in white winter pelage, captured 4 miles southeast of Tahoe City, California, and kept there until April 3, 1937, on which date it was brought to Berkeley, California, molted to brown in the spring. The first signs of the brown coat were noted on April 14. On May 24 or 25 she gave birth to 4 young which lived less than ten days. In the following winter this animal acquired a white coat. As previously noted, weasels native to the Berkeley area, where this female was kept, have brown coats in winter. The weasels were in every instance kept in cages out-of-doors. The sides of the cages were open to the elements. A nest box in each cage provided shelter. All were of the species _Mustela frenata_. The significant results, it seemed to me, were that the winter coat was the kind found in the area where the weasel originated instead of the kind found in weasels native to the areas in which the specimens were held in captivity. That the time of molt is determined by the amount of light has clearly been shown by Bissonnette (1944:223) for American weasels of the two species _Mustela erminea_ and _M. frenata_. In his words (_op. cit._:246) "Reducing the daily periods of light induced molting and regrowth of new fur. . . . In the Bonaparte weasels [_Mustela erminea_], white replaced brown. . . . Increasing daily light-periods caused molting and change to dark brown. . . . Incomplete molts in both directions (toward white or toward brown) were produced as a result of early reversal of increase or decrease of daily light-time. . . . That this stimulus is received through the eyes and acts through the anterior pituitary gland is indicated by Bissonnette's [1935:159] studies on ferrets, a nearly related animal. That the thyroids and sex-glands are not essential is at least suggested . . . by Lyman's (1942) study on the varying hare [_Lepus americanus_]." It can be added that Lyman (1943:451) demonstrated in _Lepus americanus_ that the effect of light is received through the eyes. He demonstrated this by masking the animals. To Wright (1942B:109) who studied the two American weasels, _M. erminea_ and _M. frenata_, it seemed likely that the pituitary produced or released gonadotropic hormone at about the time of the spring molt and that this molt and the spring changes in the reproductive tracts of the weasels might be caused by a stimulus from a common source. Later, Wright (1950:130) injected a gonadotropic hormone into long-tailed weasels which had recently acquired their white winter pelage and thereby caused them to lose the white pelage and acquire the brown pelage. It is Lyman (1943:450) who says, in relation to _Lepus americanus_, "When in the physiologically white condition, the melanoblasts of the regenerating guard-and pile-hair follicles contain no melanin-forming enzyme (dopa-oxidase), which may be the reason for the lack of pigment." Schwalbe (1893) by sectioning the skin and microscopically examining the hair-follicles of _M. erminea_ learned that the basal cells producing hairs lacked pigment granules in autumn when the European ermine (_M. erminea_) was acquiring its white winter coat and that the cells contained granules of pigment in spring when, as we know, the granules are incorporated in the growing hair and give it its color. The above material, then, is basis for the account on pages 31 and 32 of what causes the weasel of northern areas to have a white coat in winter. The discerning student will instantly perceive that although some parts of the account on pages 31 and 32 are precisely accurate, other parts are the result of inferences which need to be proved. More careful work of the kind that Schwalbe (1893) and Wright (1942B) did is needed. The account on pages 31 and 32 is merely the best that can be given with the information now available. Many writers have commented on the yellowish color, sometimes with a greenish tinge, found on the fur of weasels in the white winter coat. The stain is more often found on the tail and hinder-parts of the body than elsewhere. Possibly, partly on this account, some have ascribed this color to the smearing of the fur with urine. Still others have thought it resulted from the smearing of the fur with secretions from the anal scent glands. Schumacher (1928) takes this point of view, and while it may be that he has not proved his point, still his conclusions fit the known facts and seem sound to me. Schumacher points out that the same soiling of the fur is present in summer as well as in winter, but that on the summer pelage the stain can be detected only on the light-colored underparts. It is from this point of view that he criticizes the systematic worth of white versus yellowish-white underparts in the summer pelage of geographic races of _Mustela erminea_ and _Mustela nivalis_. Although in the long-tailed weasels (_Mustela frenata_) the underparts of all the races are pigmented with some form of red, orange or yellow, it seems probable to me that the additional color resulting from the soiling effect of this glandular secretion explains the greater variation, found at a single locality, in the color of underparts than of upper parts in the summer pelage. I have neither seen nor heard of a black weasel in any part of the New World or of the Old World. I have found only one albino among American specimens. It is an adult female, no. 121424, American Museum of Natural History, of _Mustela erminea richardsonii_, taken on August 30, 1935, at Hot Springs, Northwest Territory. This place, I am told by G. G. Goodwin who obtained the animal, is on the "Nahanni River where the rugged mountain ridges rise abruptly from the low mud flat lands, latitude 61, longitude 125." The shortness and coarseness of the hair corresponds to that of the summer pelage and not winter pelage. The pelage is everywhere white, even the tip of the tail. True, all except the nape and top and sides of the head has a faint yellowish-green tinge which has been supposed to result from staining by secretion of the anal scent glands but there is no pigment in the hair as in erythristic specimens. From the Old World, Farurick (1873:17) has recorded what he regards as an albino of _Mustela vulgaris_ since it had no black hairs on the tip of its tail. Flintoff (1935:228, 229) records what may have been an albino _Mustela vulgaris_ from Yorkshire and an albino _M. erminea_ from an unstated locality. Jäckel (1873:459) mentions specimens of _Mustela erminea_ and _Mustela vulgaris_, which were partly "albinistic" or "erythristic." Among the American specimens of _M. erminea_ I have not recorded any which appeared to be either partly or wholly erythristic or only partly albinistic. Among the 1550 skins of _M. frenata_ which were in summer pelage or brown winter pelage, five, described below, show marked abnormalities in color. Two of these five are partly albinistic. One is an adult male, no. 223880, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Billy's Island, Okefinokee Swamp, Georgia, which has the nose as well as the area between the eyes white. Also there is a tuft of white hairs at the anterodorsal margin of each ear, scattering white hairs suggesting a postorbital bar on each side of the head, and a patch of white hairs on the mid-dorsal line behind the ears. Markings of this kind are not abnormal in _M. f. peninsulae_, the subspecies adjoining on the south, except for the white nose which clearly is an instance of partial albinism. The second specimen is a subadult male, of _M. f. noveboracensis_, no. 177679, U. S. Nat. Mus., in process of acquiring the brown winter coat, taken on November 27, 1911, at Gaylordsville, Connecticut. It has white markings on the nose, on the right side of the neck, on the right hind foot and right forefoot, and on the tip of the tail. The white area of the nose on the left side extends back to the eye, but on the right side barely encircles the nose-pad. On the right side of the neck, all that area between the foreleg and ear is white from the mid-dorsal line (including 7 or 8 millimeters to the left of the mid-dorsal line) down to the throat, which is white as it is also in normal individuals. The toes of the right hind foot are more extensively white than in normal specimens of _noveboracensis_, and all of the right forefoot as well as the wrist is white. The tail is of striking appearance because of its tricolor pattern. The proximal part is of the normal brown color. The black terminal part commences proximally at the usual place, but the distal 11 millimeters of the fleshy part of the tail bear only pure white hairs producing a terminal white pencil 35 millimeters long. The three other specimens abnormally colored are erythristic individuals. An adult male of _M. f. latirostra_, no. 7574, coll. D. R. Dickey, taken on April 14, 1918, at Covina, Los Angeles County, California, has the color of the upper parts greatly restricted, and, in addition, has spots and blotches of the color of the underparts distributed over the back and rump. A spot of this same color occurs above each ear. Incidentally, this and other subspecies of _Mustela frenata_ from the Pacific Coast of North America obviously have the factor for erythrism operating over a larger part of the body than it does in _M. erminea_ or than in _M. f. noveboracensis_, where the underparts sometimes are white. In _M. f. latirostra_ and in other subspecies from the Pacific Coast the light color of the underparts always is tinged with this reddish color. Another erythristic specimen is a young male of _M. f. nevadensis_, no. 23493, U. S. Nat. Mus., taken on August 6, 1890, at Birch Creek, Idaho. It has all of each foreleg, the axillary regions, and a saddle-shaped area over the shoulders of the same buff-yellow color as the underparts. The third erythristic specimen is a subadult female, of _M. f. oregonensis_, no. 47149, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., taken on December 20, 1930, at Carlotta, Humboldt County, California. This specimen appears to be white and initially was thought to be merely an individual in the white winter coat. Closer examination, however, shows that it has a light wash of ochraceous or faint reddish color. Also, other specimens taken in winter at Carlotta show that weasels there do not acquire a white winter coat. The only normally brown area is approximately three millimeters in diameter at the anterodorsal margin of the pinna of the right ear. The tip of the tail is black as in a normal specimen. The specimen in question is actually pure white only on top of the head from a short distance behind the ears on over the forehead nearly to the eyes, and on the inside of the ears. In a normally colored animal this area is the dark area of the head. In this freak, the other parts of the head, which, in individuals of normal coloration are the white or light orange facial markings, have the reddish cast of the remainder of the body, although the color is less intense than on the back. The collector noted that the specimen had eyes of normal color. A possible explanation for the coloration of this specimen is that this species has three factors for color, one for the black tail tip, one for the reddish color, and a third, missing in the specimen in question, for the blackish brown. For some more exact knowledge concerning this erythristic type of coloration, we are indebted to Pitt (1921:99), who describes a population of polecats, _Mustela putorius_, in Cardiganshire, England, in which this erythristic variation is maintained in a state of nature. In ferrets, _Mustela furo_, Pitt (_op. cit._:114) notes that ". . . erythrism is certainly dependent on a Mendelian factor, being dominant to albinism and recessive to the black-brown coloration. Both in the ferret and polecat, erythrism seems to be correlated with increased size, and certainly in the ferret is usually accompanied by a quick temper and general increase in vitality." Variations of Taxonomic Worth Variations of taxonomic worth usually are referred to as characters. For example, shortness of the tympanic bulla is a character, and the opposite condition, long tympanic bulla, is another character. Specific variations, that is to say specific characters, are provided by the color-pattern, length of tail, number of premolar teeth, shape of the tympanic bullae, and length of the braincase in relation to the length of the tooth-bearing parts of the skull. Subspecific characters are provided by color-pattern, color itself, size as measured by weight of the animal, and its linear measurements, size of the skull, and size and shape of parts of the skull. The characters distinguishing subspecies from one another are not of a different nature from those distinguishing species from one another. Given any one of the above structural features, say, dorsal outline of the skull, several characters may be provided by it. For example, weasels of the species _Mustela frenata_ have the dorsal outline of the skull convex in southern Louisiana, straight in Missouri and concave in North Dakota, thus providing three characters. This is geographic variation. These variations, characters in zoölogical parlance, when plotted on maps, reveal the geographic occurrence of, say, the convex shape of the skull. In combination with other characters, for example, dark color and short tail, basis is provided for recognizing a subspecies, in this instance _Mustela frenata arthuri_ of Louisiana. Because the change from convex to flat skull takes place geographically at about the same place (in eastern Texas) as does the change from short tail to long tail, and the change from dark color to light color, it is easy to draw a line there marking the western geographic limit of occurrence of the _M. f. arthuri_. This same line marks also the eastern margin of the geographic range of the subspecies _Mustela frenata frenata_, the subspecies next adjacent to the westward. On this line and for several miles to either side of it weasels show varying combinations of these three characters or an intermediate condition as regards one or more of the characters, or both. For example, from a locality in eastern Texas a weasel may have (1) a facial pattern exactly intermediate between that of the unicolored face of _arthuri_ and that of the bicolored face of _frenata_, (2) the long tail of _frenata_ and (3) the convex skull of _arthuri_. In the sum of its characters this specimen is exactly intermediate between typical _arthuri_ and typical _frenata_. Another specimen from the same place may differ from the first specimen only in having the tail slightly shorter. The total "score" for the two specimens is, therefore, by a very slight margin in favor of _arthuri_. Let us suppose that we obtain a third specimen from the same place and that it has the face marked like that of _arthuri_ but the tail fully as long, and the skull as lacking in dorsal convexity, as in _frenata_. Now the score is definitely for _frenata_. For convenience of handling, the population is referred to _frenata_, providing that the average of specimens from a nearby locality to the westward is not in favor of _arthuri_. In event the average of specimens from a locality next adjacent to the westward is in favor of _M. f. arthuri_, the total evidence from the two localities may be weighed together and appropriate decision as to subspecific status of weasels from the area is made according to what the average is for the area as a whole. The three individual animals of an intermediate sort are ordinarily termed _intergrades_. This implies that their characters are the result of mixed parentage--perhaps a female of _M. f. arthuri_ and a male of _M. f. frenata_ but probably each parent itself was an intergrade and the offspring, of which we examined three, owe their characters to reproductive processes operating in obedience to Mendelian laws of inheritance. The two kinds of animals, _Mustela frenata arthuri_ and _Mustela frenata frenata_, are identified as subspecies because of the intergradation between them. If at this and all other places where the geographic ranges of _arthuri_ and _frenata_ met there was no crossbreeding (no intergrades), the two kinds would be treated as distinct species. Intergradation, and the lack of it, are accepted as the criteria of subspecies and species, respectively. These criteria suffice for animals, in this instance weasels, which have a continuous geographic distribution. Some kinds of weasels are confined to islands, as for example the islands off the coast of Alaska and British Columbia. Because weasels are land animals, crossbreeding in nature between the weasels of two islands is, of course, impossible. A modified test (used in the study here reported upon) in deciding on specific versus subspecific status in these instances can be made as follows: On the adjacent mainland, ascertain the degree of difference between two subspecies whose geographic ranges meet (for example, _M. e. richardsonii_ and _M. e. alascensis_). Next ascertain the degree of difference between the insular kind of animal and the kind on the mainland. If the degree of difference is greater when the insular kind is compared than when only the kinds of the mainland are compared, the insular kind is to be regarded as a species. If the degree of difference is no greater between the insular kind and the mainland kind than it is between the two adjacent mainland kinds, the insular kind is to be regarded as a subspecies. In short, for insular kinds, the criterion is degree of difference, with the limitation of geographic adjacency, rather than intergradation. The geographic variation (subspecific characters) found could be spoken of as two kinds: First, there is the variation which is expressed in a general trend for a long distance, producing, in general, a cline of even slope; and second, that of inconstant trend in any one direction. In his "The Rabbits of North America" Nelson (1909:34-35) has commented on the latter type of variation as follows: "While studying series of specimens from all parts of the vast range occupied by the geographic races of such species as _Sylvilagus floridanus_ and _S. auduboni_, I have been impressed with evidences of fluctuation of both external and skull characters. These fluctuations are somewhat wavelike in character and rise to central points of extreme development and then sink away to intermediate borders beyond which new waves rise. Where the waves of differentiation are pronounced they mark recognizable geographic races. Within the area covered by the larger or geographically broader waves of differentiation (recognized as of subspecific value), smaller waves of differentiation are included, which may represent local variations in intensity of characters of the subspecies, or these characters may diminish and the variation tend in other directions, sometimes even closely reproducing the characters of another subspecies occupying a distinct area." In _Mustela frenata_, much of the geographic variation at first inspection appears to be of this nature. Closer scrutiny, however, reveals that the repetition, at geographic intervals, of several features of color and structure are closely correlated with environmental features which are repeated only at these same places. In _Mustela erminea_, much of the variation is of the first kind, namely, that which can be expressed as long clines of relatively even slope. As several authors have said, zoölogical classification based on this kind of variation is like dividing the spectrum and depends largely upon the standards set, for, theoretically, the possibilities of subdivision are unlimited. Actually, however, none of the clines has an even slope and the possibilities for subdivision therefore are limited. Also, when several features are used, instead of only one feature, the classification is more satisfactory even if the basis is more complex. Some features of structure which provide subspecific characters are mentioned below. Total length, of males, ranges from 598 to 360 mm. in _M. frenata_ and from 336 to 228 mm. in _M. erminea_. There is no cline of sustained slope in _M. frenata_ but in _M. erminea_ there is a progressive decrease in total length from north to south. Length of tail varies from as little as a half to as much as seven-tenths of the length of the head and body in _M. frenata_, the subspecies _neomexicana_ having the long tail and the two subspecies _arthuri_ and _primulina_ having short tails. The geographic ranges of _primulina_ and _neomexicana_ are contiguous. In _M. erminea_ there is likewise no variation of a clinal nature in length of tail and furthermore the variation is much less than in _M. frenata_. In length of hind foot, which in males varies from 49 mm. in northern populations of _M. erminea_ to 28 mm. in southern populations, the same cline is seen as in the total length of animals of this species. In _M. frenata_, however, there are several decreases and increases along any straight line which can be drawn through the geographic range of the species. The range of variation in males is 41 mm. (_M. f. arizonensis_) to 59 mm. (_M. f. macrophonius_). Weight of the entire animal is an excellent measure of size but weights are unavailable for many subspecies. In _M. frenata_, the two subspecies _texensis_ and _macrophonius_ probably are the heaviest and _effera_, _arizonensis_ and _helleri_ probably are the lightest. Geographically the variation in weight behaves in approximately the same way as does the measurement of total length. In _M. erminea_ the variation in weight of males is from 206 grams in northern animals to 58 grams in southernmost populations, there being a relatively constant gradient geographically. Degree of hairiness of the foot-soles in _M. frenata_ clearly is linked with the temperature; in regions of high average temperature the hairiness is least and in regions of low average temperature it is most. The decrease in hairiness is accomplished in two ways, namely, smaller breadth and decreased length of individual hairs and decrease in number of hairs on a given area of dermal surface. This correlation holds throughout the entire north to south range of the species. Corresponding differences are found on the same latitude where topographic diversity in an east to west direction produces northern conditions at high altitudes and southern conditions at low altitudes. The conclusion seems unavoidable that climate, directly or indirectly, determines the degree of hairiness. Less careful observations were made on the hairiness of the soles of the feet in other species but it is clear that the northern species _M. erminea_ has the most hair on the foot-soles and that _M. africana_, the tropical weasel, has the least. In this regard, _M. frenata_ is intermediate as it is also in geographic position. [Illustration: FIGS. 11-15. Dorsal views of adult skulls of each sex of five subspecies of the ermine, _Mustela erminea_, to show secondary sexual variation and geographic variation in size of the skull. Males on the left and females on the right. All × 1. Note especially the geographic variation in decreasing size of the skull from north to south in each sex, and that the secondary sexual variation in size of skull is less in ermines with small skulls than in those with large skulls.] [Illustration: FIG. 16. Map showing the localities where the skulls, represented in figures 11-15, were obtained.] The maximum length of facial and carpal vibrissae is attained in _M. erminea_ in the far north. In weasels from north of the Arctic Circle the longest facial vibrissae extend posteriorly beyond the posterior border of the ear. In the tropical weasel, _M. africana_, the facial vibrissae do not extend posteriorly beyond the ear and the carpal vibrissae are not so long as the distance between their bases and the apical pad of the first digit. The correlation of long vibrissae with low temperature, is mentioned here merely because length and density of pelage were under consideration. The most obvious and most exact correlation between change in climate and change in the animal is furnished by color. This is well shown in the one species, _Mustela frenata_, to which the following remarks apply unless indication is given to the contrary. The color of the upper parts varies from bay (blackish brown) in _M. f. panamensis_ to buckthorn brown (light brown) in _M. f. neomexicana_. The color of the head varies from solid brown (white chin excepted) to contrasting black and white markings. Dark color of the upper parts is associated with a large area of this color; the enlargement of this area is at the expense of the area of light color on the underparts. In the weasels of darkest color the upper parts occupy four-fifths of the circumference of the body (as measured in the anterior lumbar region) but in the lightest-colored weasels the upper parts comprise only two-thirds of the total circumference. In these light-colored animals the color of the underparts extends onto the underside of the tail and down the insides of the legs and over the feet whereas in the animals with the darkest upper parts the entire tail, feet, and legs below the knees ordinarily are of the same dark color as the upper parts. The length of the black tip on the tail varies inversely with the length of the tail, probably because the lightest-colored weasel has the longest tail. In some subspecies the black brush is almost half as long as the tail-vertebrae but in others is less than a fourth as long as the tail-vertebrae. The extent of the color of the head, as well as the intensity of the color there, varies markedly and is correlated with climatic conditions. The extent and intensity of this dark color is greater in weasels inhabiting regions of heavy rainfall than in those inhabiting regions of sparse rainfall. Considering the geographic range of each subspecies of _Mustela frenata_, that of _M. f. panamensis_ has the maximum of rainfall. Reference to the colored plate (1) will show that in _M. f. panamensis_ (2) the black of the head is extended over all of the upper parts. _M. f. macrura_ (1) of Perú, to the southward, is from an area of lesser rainfall and is correspondingly lighter colored. Returning to _panamensis_ (2) as a starting point and proceeding northward to the range of _nicaraguae_ (3), which also has lesser rainfall, thence another step northward to Guatamala, which has still less rainfall, the weasel there, _M. f. goldmani_ (4) has the black extending posteriorly only to the shoulders. _M. f. leucoparia_ (5) from Michoacán, and _M. f. frenata_ (6) from Tamaulipas are from progressively more northern and also progressively drier regions. In _M. f. frenata_ (6) the dark color extends posteriorly only to the ears and is blackish rather than black. In _M. f. neomexicana_ (7) of the extremely arid parts of Durango, Arizona, and New Mexico the dark marking of the head is confined to a brown spot on the nose. Its geographic range is the most arid of those of all of the subspecies. The contrast between _neomexicana_ (7) and _panamensis_ (2) illustrates the great range of geographic variation in color which occurs in the one species. Continuing from the geographic range of _neomexicana_ (specimen from Safford, Arizona) northwesterly 480 miles to Riverside, California (see 8, _latirostra_), 430 miles north to Point Reyes, California (see 9, _munda_), and finally 570 miles north to Tillamook, Oregon (see 10, _altifrontalis_), each place with more rainfall than the one farther south, another correlation of increasingly dark coloration with increasing amount of rainfall is illustrated. This geographic variation, it should be remembered, is all within one species. It is the more significant still when we remember that the same correlation, with never an exception, occurs at hundreds of places within the geographic range of the species. A particular feature of climate, namely rainfall, and possibly therefore humidity, is concerned in this correlation. The same correlation, heavy rainfall and dark color, is shown also in the other species of North American weasels. The conclusion is unavoidable that climate, directly or indirectly, determines or influences the color of weasels. The light facial markings appear in American weasels in two separate geographic areas. One is the southwestern United States, México and northern Central America. The second area is in the same latitude, in Florida and adjoining parts of Georgia and Alabama. In the western weasels the markings are white south of latitude 32° N. North of this latitude, the facial markings, if at all extensive, usually are of the same yellowish color as the underparts of the body. Weasels of southern California and its interior valley usually have these yellowish instead of white facial markings. The light facial markings, in this instance, white markings, attain their maximum extent in _M. f. leucoparia_ of the southwestern margin of the tableland of México, at latitude 19° N. A gradual decrease in area of the light facial markings occurs both to the north and south; they disappear at 10° N in _M. f. costaricensis_ and at 35° N at approximately the southern limits of range of _M. f. arizonensis_ and _M. f. nevadensis_. In the mild climate of California the light (yellowish) facial markings are found at still higher latitudes. These light facial markings crop up as vestiginal remnants, consisting of a few white hairs, in some individuals of nearly all races of weasels. In certain parts of the skull there are trends, in size and shape, which continue for long distances geographically. In other words, clines can be recognized. Changes in size and shape in some other parts of the skull are wavelike; change toward narrower rostrum, for example, is not progressive in a given geographic direction for any great distance. Length of the upper tooth-rows and zygomatic breadth, when expressed as percentages of the basilar length, and also the actual length of individual teeth vary geographically in the same wavelike fashion as does the width of the rostrum. Size of the skull, on the other hand, shows a sustained trend for a long distance; it becomes progressively smaller from the southern United States southward to Columbia, South America. This clinal variation can be demonstrated by plotting on a graph, the basilar length, the zygomatic breadth, or the weight of the skull. Beginning at Mérida, Venezuela, and proceeding southward to increasing elevations in the mountains of South America, there is a reversal of the direction of the variation in this cline; weight of skull, for example, increases to the southward from Mérida for a considerable distance. A cline of decreasing width of the postorbital constriction of the skull is evident from Panamá north into Texas. Variations in the tympanic bullae provide many characters useful in distinguishing weasels from different localities. Most of these characters have to do with degree of inflation of the bullae. Indirectly correlated with degree of inflation is first the extent of removal of the anterior margin of the bulla from the glenoid fossa and foramen ovale, and second the form (convex, flat, or concave) of the part of the squamosal bone between the foramen ovale and the anterior margin of the tympanic bulla. As one proceeds southward from, say, southwestern Kansas through the geographic range of the species _Mustela frenata_, there is a progressive deflation of the bulla, an increase in length of the space between its anterior margin and the foramen ovale, and the floor of the braincase in front of the bulla changes from ventrally concave to ventrally convex. (See figs. _e_ and _h_ of pl. 24 and figs, _e_ and _f_ of pl. 27.) One extreme of this variation in bulla is shown in _Mustela frenata neomexicana_ (fig. _e_ of pl. 24), in which the anterior margin of the bulla (viewed from the ventral side) rises vertically from the floor of the braincase to form a 90-degree angle. The other extreme, the uninflated bulla, is in _Mustela frenata panamensis_ (fig. _e_ of pl. 27), in which the anterior margin of the bulla is not raised above the floor of the braincase. This variation is remarkable because it occurs within a single species. Otherwise, in the family Mustelidae, differences in the tympanic bullae as great as that between the two subspecies _M. f. neomexicana_ and _M. f. panamensis_, occur only between genera. The need for caution in inferring the limits of variation for a particular structure in one species or genus, on the basis of variation in another group, is therefore obvious. Speaking now of full species, the most inflated tympanic bullae in American weasels are in _Mustela frenata_, and more restrictedly in those subspecies of it which occur in the temperate region. Subspecies of _M. frenata_ in Central and South America, as already noted, have less inflated bullae. The tropical weasel, _Mustela africana_, of the Amazon drainage of South America has the bullae still less inflated (see fig. _i_ of pl. 39 and fig. _f_ of pl. 40). The bullae are less inflated even than in the mink, subgenus _Lutreola_. In _M. africana_ the cleidomastoideus, omotrachelian, levator scapulae, and rhomboideus profundus muscles take origin from a fossa on the mastoid bone, whereas in the forms with greatly inflated bullae these muscles take origin from a raised ridge or tubercle. Using _Mustela frenata_ of the temperate region as a starting point and proceeding northward, a reduction in inflation of the tympanic bulla is seen also in that direction in that _Mustela erminea_ has less inflated bullae. The bullae are less inflated in southern than in far northern (arctic) populations of _Mustela erminea_. In _erminea_ the lesser inflation is real enough but at the same time there appears to be less inflation than actually exists, for the squamosal floor of the braincase is "pushed down." This places the anterior end of the tympanic bulla farther in the braincase than it otherwise would be. Although the anterior end of the bulla is flattened to the extent that it resembles the sharp edge of a splitting-wedge, inspection of the lateral and medial edges shows that in its central part the bulla is more inflated than it is in the weasels of Central and South America. For reasons set forth later, _M. erminea_ is judged to resemble the ancestral stem form more closely than does any one of the other three American species of weasels. If this judgment is correct, the shape of the tympanic bullae of the American weasels may be explained as follows: In the subspecies of _Mustela frenata_ of the temperate regions of North America the bullae have most nearly been pushed out of the braincase and at the same time have undergone some enlargement. The subspecies of this same species in Central and South America represent an earlier stage in the evolution of American weasels and retain less inflated bullae--less inflated even than those of the southern subspecies of _erminea_. _M. africana_ probably separated from the stem form at a still earlier time if we may judge by the lesser inflation of its tympanic bullae. There are other reasons for thinking that _africana_ separated from the stem form earlier than _M. frenata_ did. During the time that elapsed since the separation of _M. frenata_ from the stem form, the tympanic bullae of _M. erminea_ probably increased slightly in size, as probably also did the brain but without shoving the auditory complex forward from its former position. DISTRIBUTION AND SPECIATION Weasels of the subgenus _Mustela_ are known from the Pleistocene but not from deposits laid down at an earlier time (see page 10). The Pleistocene weasels from Rancho La Brea of southern California and from Potter Creek Cave and Samwel Cave, both of northern California, are subspecifically indistinguishable from the weasels living in those same localities today. The other notable occurrence of weasels in the Pleistocene is in the Conard Fissure of Arkansas. Brown (1908:181, 182, pl. 17) names two kinds from the Fissure. One is an extinct subspecies (_Mustela frenata gracilis_) possibly of the species which occurs in the same region today and the other, _Mustela erminea? angustidens_, is an extinct subspecies of a species which occurs only farther north today. _M. erminea_ came south, probably in front of one of the ice sheets, as did several other species of American mammals, now of more northern distribution, that left their remains in Conard Fissure. _Mustela rixosa_ is not recorded as a fossil in America although it is known from the "Diluvial" deposits of the Old World; see Woldrich (1884:1000), who employs the name "_Foetorius minutus_ n. sp.," and see also Zimmerman (1943:295-296). The ermine, _Mustela erminea_, is the most generalized of the full species. For example, the number of teeth is as large as in any other species and greater than in certain species. The teeth are sharp-pointed, uncrowded, and individually less specialized than in any other American weasel. M1 has the inner half, or lobe, of approximately the same size as the outer lobe instead of much larger than the outer lobe (the outer lobe is the larger in several other species). The tympanic bullae are less inflated and less protruded from the braincase. The skull is rounded, and has no marked crests and ridges whereas the skulls of the other species are more pronouncedly modeled and sculptured. Therefore, it is possible to think of these other species as derived from _M. erminea_. A derivation in the reverse direction would be more difficult. From the foot soles of an ermine, or a weasel closely resembling an ermine, the more complex soles of _Mustela africana_ could have been derived by a decrease in hairiness, although it would be necessary to suppose that the thenar pad has been retained in _africana_ and has been lost in the living _erminea_. The alternate possibility, namely, that the thenar pad was a relatively recent acquisition in the _africana_ line seems less probable. The tail of _erminea_ is of "average" length and in size of entire animal _erminea_ is intermediate between the other American weasels. Structurally, _Mustela erminea_ appears to be nearest the stem form from which all of the living weasels ascended. Its present holarctic distribution is in harmony with the view that it is a direct descendant from the stem form because the stem forms of most of the known kinds of mustelids appear to have lived in the holarctic region. To be sure, _Mustela erminea_ is regarded as having undergone some progressive change in structure, but less than the other weasels, in the period of time when the weasels were evolving from the stem form. The least weasel, _Mustela rixosa_, seems to be an ancient type and to judge from the size and proportions of its parts, was differentiated from the _erminea_ stem at a time earlier than were the other American Recent species of weasels. In size, in reduction of the tail, and in proportions of the skull, _M. rixosa_ is, in each instance, the most aberrant of all the weasels, _Mustela nivalis_ of Europe and western Asia included. This aberrancy results from the retention of certain primitive features, in the teeth and basicranial region, and from specialization in proportions of the skull. The skull is long, deep, and narrow. These proportions probably are adaptations permitting the animal to follow the smaller kinds of mice into their burrows. In most of that part of North America where _erminea_ and _rixosa_ occur together, _erminea_ is a much larger animal and takes as prey almost all kinds of land vertebrates that it is powerful enough to kill. These include varying hares and ptarmigans. The least weasel, _rixosa_, can hardly manage such large prey and lives on the smaller rodents. _Mustela rixosa_ may eat numbers of insects (see page 176 beyond),--a kind of food which _Mustela erminea_ is not known to eat. Apparently the two species are able to live in the same areas because each eats a somewhat different kind of food than does the other and hence they do not compete to the point where one is crowded out by the other. This is the case in the latitudes where the two species of weasels are of different bodily size, but in the southernmost latitudes where these two species occur, _erminea_ becomes almost as small as _rixosa_ and only one of the species, to the exclusion of the other, occurs in a given area. All through the Rocky Mountains, south of Montana and in the territory west of these mountains all the way to the Pacific Coast, only the small subspecies of _erminea_ is to be found. In the Alleghenies of the eastern United States only _rixosa_ occurs. In New England where _erminea_ approaches the size of _rixosa_, the latter is unknown. Probably this exclusiveness results from competition for food, although competition for dens, safe breeding places and other requirements of life may be involved. The species _erminea_ invaded the western United States and in the process of invasion probably developed there the small size appropriate to permit _erminea_ to live in that latitude before it could do the same thing in the Appalachian region. Later than _erminea_, the least weasel, _Mustela rixosa_, which was small to begin with, also spread southward from the holarctic region, stopped short in the western United States at the northern boundary of the area in which _erminea_ was of small size, but in the Appalachian region of the eastern United States continued on southward to the limits of temperature tolerant for it because _erminea_ had not yet penetrated into that region and no other small carnivore was there to offer competition. The long-tailed weasel, _Mustela frenata_, occurs mostly south of the regions inhabited by the ermine, and mostly south of the region inhabited by the least weasel which appears to live as well with _frenata_ as with _erminea_. It is true that _erminea_ and _frenata_ occur in the same region, but this is a relatively narrow belt across the United States; and from within it a person cannot go far either north or south without reaching a region in which only one of the two species occurs. Exception has to be made for the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, where _erminea_ is of exceptionally small size. In these mountains and in the boreal mountainous parts of the intervening region of the United States, _erminea_ and the large-sized _frenata_ occur together over a wide area. Presumably the two occupy different ecologic niches, much as _rixosa_ and _frenata_ probably do where they occur together. Most of the geographic range of the long-tailed weasel, _M. frenata_, is in the temperate region. Structurally, this species is the most advanced of the American weasels. Its dentition is the most highly specialized for cutting. M1 is relatively small and the inner lobe is slightly larger than the outer lobe. The skull, throughout, is more modeled than in the other species; the rostrum, the lower jaws and the teeth--all parts of the offensive equipment--are well developed relative to the corresponding structures in other weasels; the basicranial region exhibits an advanced stage of development in that the tympanic bullae show the maximum degree of inflation. Also, they are thrust far out of the braincase, thereby providing more room for the relatively larger brain which is protected by a more solidly built braincase than in _erminea_. Several subspecies of _Mustela frenata_ occur in the tropics, that is to say, south of the Mexican tableland and on the coastal plain to the east of it. Each is structurally more primitive than subspecies of the temperate region. As compared with _Mustela frenata frenata_ of the temperate Mexican tableland the size in these tropical subspecies is smaller; the tail is shorter; the braincase and entire skull are less modeled; the postorbital breadth is more; the teeth are smaller; the deuterocone of P4 is not so far anterior to the protocone; the tympanic bullae are less inflated, are farther removed from the foramen ovale, and a larger proportion of each bulla is contained within the braincase. These features serve to set off from northern races of _frenata_ all those subspecies of _frenata_ which occur from southern México southward to the northern and western limits of the Amazon drainage of South America. The Amazon Basin is inhabited by another species, _Mustela africana_, having more primitive characters. In the species _frenata_, the explanation for this abrupt change in characters between the animals of the temperate highlands and those of the tropical lowlands may be this: In the early Pleistocene, after the emergence of much or all of Central America took place, weasels distributed themselves over the Isthmus and into South America. These weasels were more generalized in structure than those now inhabiting the uplands of México. Failure of this stock of weasels often to cross some still-persisting water barrier, or failure of this stock to cross some water barrier that was widened or reformed because of a rise in sea level in some one of the interglacial periods of the Pleistocene cut the _frenata_ stock into two or more parts. After the land connection was established or re-established and when the necessary precedent plants and rodents again had established themselves, the two groups of weasels, one from the northern tableland of México, and the other from the southern area of tropical complexion, met. The weasels of the _frenata_ stock that reinvaded the area from the north probably did so by following along the chain of high volcanic cones and narrow uplifts. If and when a subsequent inundation occurred in some part of Central America, weasels were stranded on the adjacent mountains--converted into islands--only the higher parts of which were above water. _Mustela frenata costaricensis_ and _Mustela frenata goldmani_ may be examples of a northern stock of weasel that pushed southward in the highlands and became stranded for a short time. Following the latest emergence of land to provide a continuous highway between the two continents, weasels from the south and the insular populations, as for example, _M. f. costaricensis_, were the first to invade the low tropical areas most recently under water. When the Pleistocene history of Central America is better known, the facts will provide a useful means of testing the hypothesis that has been outlined immediately above. As explained above, fossil specimens of _M. frenata_ from deposits of the last half of Pleistocene time show that no appreciable change occurred in some areas, for example, in the vicinity of Hawver Cave and Samwel Cave of California, and that but slight change occurred in other areas, for example, in southern California (fossils from Rancho La Brea) and probably in the central United States (fossil from Conard Fissure). It is possible to imagine, therefore, that the two groups of weasels, one occurring southward only as far as the highlands of Central America and the other occurring in northern South America, had not differentiated sufficiently in the period of their isolation to prevent crossbreeding when they last came into contact. If the separation of the two groups had been maintained for a longer period, the two groups, tropical weasels and austral weasels, probably would have been so different when the two met as to prevent crossbreeding and they would have constituted two full species instead of only one. _Mustela africana_ is the most primitive of the American weasels. Some of the most important structural features that mark it as such are in the basicranial region. The tympanic bullae are less inflated than in other weasels, are pointed anteriorly and posteriorly, and do not have the lateral margins carried outward to the outer margins of the braincase. The mastoid sinus is not involved, by inflation or marked modification in the production of the auditory complex. Between the alisphenoid and the squamosal there is a clear demarcation posteriorly from a point directly lateral to the foramen ovale. This demarcation permits a transverse rounding of the alisphenoid to form a longitudinal ridge between the anterior margin of each bulla and the base of the pterygoid of the same side. Nevertheless, there is no such specialization of this primitive, structural feature such as occurs in some African and Asiatic mustelids in which the tympano-pterygoid part of the alisphenoid fuses with the tip of the hamulus of the pterygoid. However, the tympano-pterygoid eminence has not been obliterated in _M. africana_ as it has in the other American weasels. Another primitive feature in the basicranial region of _M. africana_ is the tendency toward separation of the paroccipital processes from the tympanic bullae. The thenar pad of the foot probably is an inheritance from a primitive ancestor since the pad is present in the viverrids and in a majority of mustelids judged to be more primitive than _Mustela_. Some specializations are obvious in _Mustela africana_. One is the reduction in number of premolars; p2 is absent whereas it is normally present in the other weasels; P2 has one instead of two roots; and, in relation to the other teeth, m2 is smaller. The shortness of the preorbital part of the skull in relation to the length of the skull as a whole may reflect the mentioned reduction of the premolars or retention of a primitive shape of skull, or both. Also, certain features which denote immaturity in other weasels are retained in adults of this species, as for example, sutures on the dorsal face of the preorbital region of the skull. [Illustration: FIGS. 17-22. Views of the feet of American weasels (subgenus _Mustela_) to show differences in number and arrangement of the pads and variation in degree of hairiness of the soles. × 1-1/2 In each figure, left-forefoot on left, and left hind foot on right. FIG. 17. _M. rixosa rixosa_, Halifax, N.S.; juv., [F], 7425 U.S.N.M. Fig. 18. _M. erminea richardsonii_, Ft. Chimo; ad. [F], 14866 U.S.N.M. Fig. 19. _M. frenata noveboracensis_, Mich., July 7, 1913; ad. [M], 44689 M.Z. Fig. 20. _M. f. frenata_, Brownsville, June 1, 1892; yg. [M], 34043 U.S.N.M. Fig. 21. _M. frenata panamensis_, Panamá, February 17, 1911; sad. [F], type. Fig. 22. _M. a. africana_, Pará, Brazil, Sept., 1908; yg. [M], 37475 A.M.N.H. Figs. 17, 18 and 19. Drawn from specimens preserved in alcohol. Figs. 20, 21 and 22. Drawn from relaxed feet of dried skins.] _Mustela africana_, all characters considered, is the most aberrant of the American weasels. That is to say, greater difference prevails between _M. africana_ and any other American weasel than exists between any other two American weasels. The distinctive cranial and dental characters, excepting the reduction in number of premolars, are of a primitive nature. For example, the relatively wide postorbital region, the large braincase that is inflated anteriorly, and the flattened tympanic bullae are points of resemblance to the holarctic _Mustela erminea_, the species which is regarded as most closely resembling the stem form. Also, the mentioned characters in adults of _M. africana_ resemble ontogenic stages passed through by other weasels. Consequently, it is thought that _M. africana_ crossed the filter-barrier from North America to South America, remained isolated from the original stock for a length of time sufficient to permit _africana_ to differentiate from North American weasels and _vice versa_ to such a degree that crossbreeding with the _frenata_ stock was prevented when _frenata_, at a later time, pushed southward over the, then zoölogically less-effective, water barrier, or continental bridge if it was by this time in existence. [Illustration: FIG. 23. Diagram indicating probable relationships of the species of American weasels.] The four full species of American weasels may well be thought of as having the same stem form of which _erminea_ is the most nearly direct descendant. Geographic and climatic changes may have operated to isolate, and then to foster morphologic differentiation of, first _rixosa_ in Eurasia, next _africana_, third the _tropicalis_ section of _M. frenata_, and finally _M. frenata_ itself, leaving _M. erminea_ as a modern version, somewhat altered to be sure, of the stem form. Some of these ideas are expressed in figure 16. The climate is different in the ranges of the several species and the climate has changed through time in the ranges of at least many subspecies. Natural selection of morphological features best adapted to a particular kind of climate probably has altered some species more than others. _M. erminea_ in almost every one of its characteristics is generalized and potentially progressive whereas _africana_ retains more characters which are truly primitive along with a few which are specializations. _M. africana_ is potentially the least progressive of any of the American weasels. The most specialized weasels are the North American races of _Mustela frenata_. A progressive series of increasing specialization is comprised in (1) _M. africana_, (2) the _M. tropicalis_ (Central American, lowland) section of _M. frenata_, and (3) the races of _M. frenata_ in North America. Considering now features of the environment which have obviously influenced the distribution and speciation of weasels, water barriers are important. Bering Strait, Carquinez Strait (along with San Francisco Bay) which opens through the Golden Gate, and the channels between the islands of southeastern Alaska, have contributed to the formation of subspecies. The difference is really slight on the two sides of Bering Strait and San Francisco Bay and is slightly more on two sides of each of several of the channels between the islands of southeastern Alaska. The differences between the weasels on the two sides of one of these water barriers supposedly result from the preservation in animals on one side, or on one island, of small mutations, which would be swamped by crossbreeding if the water barrier were not present. The effect of this isolation is easily seen if ermines from the Queen Charlotte Islands are compared with those of the opposite mainland. The degree of morphological difference is great. Isolationwise, the Queen Charlotte Islands are the seaward end of a chain, beginning with Admiralty Island in southeastern Alaska, and are farther from the mainland, zoölogically, than the distance in actual miles across the water channel would suggest. Between any two islands that are geographically consecutive, however, and between the mainland and the first island of the chain, the difference in the ermines is small. In other places, water barriers of equal or greater width have contributed little if anything to the differentiation from one another of weasels on the two sides of the water barrier. The strait between eastern Canada and Newfoundland is an example. The absence of water, or scarcity of it to a degree that closely approaches absence, in any large area appears to prevent weasels from living there. At any rate, the one sizeable region of North America from which weasels are unknown is the desert of the southwestern United States and adjoining part of northwestern México. More precisely, in western Arizona, the Mohave Desert and the desert of northwestern Sonora, collectors of mammals have repeatedly sought small carnivores without ever finding any weasels. Degree of moisture is closely correlated with color in weasels. Humidity and cloudiness as well as actual precipitation seem to be involved. Even if we take into account average annual rainfall alone, the darkest-colored weasels are found in the areas of heaviest rainfall and the lightest-colored weasels in areas of lightest rainfall (extreme type of desert where no weasels occur being excepted). In any large region where there is a geographic gradient in rainfall, the transition from light to dark color almost exactly parallels the increase in amount of rainfall. Within a given species the same color reappears in widely separated areas that have the same amount and seasonal distribution of rainfall. This correlation is repeated so often that one can almost certainly say that heavy rainfall, or the associated phenomena of high humidity and cloudiness, acting separately or together, causes an increase in intensity of color. Relative extent of the color of the upper parts and underparts and presence and absence of light facial markings seem also to be correlated, in a more general way, with differences in rainfall. A fuller discussion of the nature and amount of the variation in color is given on page 51. Temperature seems not to be an important factor in directly limiting the distribution of weasels, since _M. frenata_ occurs from the hottest to some of the coldest parts of the Americas. Do _M. erminea_ and _M. rixosa_ range no farther south, than they do at present, because high temperatures constitute a barrier? No evidence is known to me which provides an answer, one way or the other, to this question. Granting that temperature is unimportant in limiting the distribution of weasels, it seems to cause geographic variation. Increase in mean annual temperature is correlated with decreased size in _M. erminea_ and with increased size in _M. rixosa_. Temperature, it seems, causes the hair to vary; the pelage is harsher and sparser in weasels from tropical regions than in those from boreal regions. Difference in number of hairs is especially well shown on the soles of the feet. In the weasels from the far north, the pads are concealed by hair and in the weasels from the tropical regions the soles are mostly bare. Also, the hair on the soles of the feet is longer in northern than in southern weasels. Furthermore there is seasonal change in length of the hair on the soles of the feet; at a given locality in southern Canada the hair of the white winter coat is so long on the soles of the feet as to obscure completely the palmar and plantar pads whereas the hair of the brown summer coat is shorter and leaves these pads boldly exposed to view. This seasonal change, as would be expected, is most marked in animals of northern regions and is not perceptible in those from the tropics; it is correlated with increase in seasonal change as the distance from the equator increases. Temperature and moisture acting together may cause extensive white facial markings, that neither alone would cause. In _Mustela frenata_ these markings occur where there is heavy rainfall and high mean annual temperature. Where there is heavy rainfall and a low mean annual temperature they do not occur and where there is high mean annual temperature and light rainfall the markings are not pure white but are of the same color as the underparts. Plate I and the description of color on page 51 may be consulted in this connection. Extremely high mean annual temperature together with extremely heavy rainfall may inhibit the development of light facial markings. _M. f. meridana_, _panamensis_ and _costaricensis_ are cases in point. In either direction, north or south, from the territory inhabited by these three subspecies a similar combination of temperature and rainfall is found and similar light facial markings appear there. Considering the delicate response of structure to climate, a person naturally questions whether or not natural selection accounts for all of the differences between subspecies. To show that natural selection determines the color of _Mustela frenata_, it would be necessary to assume that climate, color, and utility of color are positively correlated. Although climate (rainfall) and color are correlated in such a manner that three subspecies of weasel in places as far apart as New England, Perú, and the state of Washington are colored alike, other features of the three environments are unlike. Kinds of animals which the weasel catches for food, and flora in which the weasel finds concealment, are dissimiliar. If natural selection alone determined the color, some difference in color would be expected between the weasel which needed to be obliteratively colored, that is camouflaged, the better to catch a _Phyllotis_ in Perú and the weasel in Washington which needed nature's aid in catching _Microtus_. _Mustela frenata goldmani_ of the highlands of southern México, which is known to attack the huge pocket gophers, _Orthogeomys_ and _Cratogeomys_, has a weaker dental armature than _Mustela frenata texensis_ which does not have to overcome prey so formidable as does _goldmani_. Equally formidable enemies endanger _M. f. goldmani_ and _texensis_. Examples of this nature could be multiplied. Without actually proving anything concerning selection, these examples give reason for us to suppose that some characters are not determined by natural selection. Another question upon which data obtained from a study of _Mustela_ has some bearing, is this: Where the geographic ranges of two subspecies meet, why does not the swamping effect of crossbreeding cause one subspecies to disappear? Although swamping may have occurred in some instances, it does not occur in the majority of instances. Witness the long-continued existence of the living subspecies _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ of which skulls are available from Pleistocene deposits. Therefore, its distinctive characters, cranially at least, have been maintained for a long time. Furthermore, these characters are maintained over a large geographic region more than a thousand miles across. On the eastern margin of its range, at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, _M. f. nevadensis_ intergrades in a relatively narrow belt with the lighter-colored, longer-tailed and cranially different _Mustela frenata longicauda_, which has a geographic range almost equally extensive. _M. f. longicauda_ also is uniform in its characters over a large area but at approximately 400 miles east of the base of the Rocky Mountains, it begins to intergrade with the darker-colored, shorter-tailed and cranially different _Mustela frenata primulina_ and does so over a belt of 100 miles or more in width. At any given locality within this wide belt of intergradation the range of individual variation ordinarily does not exceed that in animals from a given locality well within the geographic range of _M. f. longicauda_. In the narrow belt of intergradation along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, the range of individual variation at several places is greater than in animals from a given locality well within the geographic range of _M. f. longicauda_ or for that matter from well within the geographic range of _M. f. nevadensis_. Considering the dominance and recessiveness of genes and the genetic mechanism in general by which characteristics of offspring are inherited from their parents, it would seem that _M. f. longicauda_ and for that matter _M. f. nevadensis_ and _M. f. primulina_ would lose their distinctive characteristics because of the crossbreeding that is every year going on between _longicauda_ and _nevadensis_ on the one hand and between _longicauda_ and _primulina_ on the other hand. Sumner (1932:84) suggests that homogeneity is prevented by population pressure. Applying his suggestion to the species _Mustela frenata_ we could say that the subspecies _longicauda_ pressing westward meets strong pressure from the subspecies _nevadensis_ pressing eastward and that the width of the zone of intergradation between the two subspecies varies inversely with the strength of the population pressure from the two sides. Sumner recognizes that according to his hypothesis the two contiguous races would remain distinct only so long as there was a preponderance of centrifugal movement from both of the centers of dispersal. Sumner (_op. cit._:85) recognizes that an abrupt change of environmental conditions could account in part for the boundaries of the ranges of the two subspecies and finally that his hypothesis does not certainly answer the question of why crossbreeding does not result in homogeneity between two subspecies with contiguous geographic ranges. The hypothesis of harmoniously stabilized complexes of genes was offered by Timofeeff-Ressovsky (1940:124) to explain why the swamping effect of crossbreeding does not obliterate subspecies. The hypothesis takes into account that any one of several characters of a subspecies may be caused by several genes. Some characters of this kind may be favored by natural selection more than others. In the belt of intergradation between two subspecies, where two of these favored characters meet, a "biological tension" as Huxley (1939:415) terms it "will result, which will produce _partial discontinuity_ between the two groups. Each group will evolve a gene-complex which is not only broadly adapted to the external environment of the central area of its range, but is also harmoniously stabilized, in adaptation to the internal genetic environment, by the selection of modifiers." Crosses, that is to say intergrades, between the two subspecies will lack this stabilization and will therefore be at a selective disadvantage. The zone of intergradation will therefore remain narrow; intermediates are constantly being brought into existence there by crossing but are as constantly being extinguished by selection. These two hypotheses are the best that geneticists yet have offered. Neither has been tested and both, as originally proposed, would hardly apply everywhere because there are some contradictions. I can offer no better explanation--in fact no original one as good--but would emphasize that under similar climate, weasels remain constant in character, or at most do not vary beyond certain limits. Crossing at the margins of ranges of two subspecies does not result in homogeneity of weasels. There is, therefore, some stabilizing influence, or influences, that maintain, and even develop, structural characteristics of weasels in opposition to the contrary tendency of crossing. That this influence not only maintains uniform characters over areas of large extent, but also permitted their development over large geographic areas, must logically be supposed, for otherwise, considering the swamping effect of crossing, such variations would not have made their appearance in more than a few individuals. Also, if the races had been formed in response to some kind of physiological differentiation, or other non-climatic cause, the characters of the population in the belt of intergradation probably would disappear in a short time. In any event the close correlation between degree of change in weasels and degree of change in climate, at once makes one suspect that climate has been the deciding factor. Finally, when one recalls that in certain parts of the animal, certain characters invariably appear under similar climates and never under dissimilar climates, the evidence is almost conclusive that, given long enough time, the animals vary in response to climate. The variations (characters) may be induced indirectly, but are no less exactly reproduced than if they can be shown to be induced directly. In considering how the species and subspecies of American weasels were formed and in attempting to account for some of the individual characters, it is profitable to view the facts in the light of some of the theories of species-formation--theories that are accessory to that of organic descent and that are concerned with the _modus operandi_ of organic descent. In any group of closely related species some of them, by the laws of chance, are almost certain to be more primitive than others. _Mustela_ is no exception and the more primitive species closely match, in several characters, ontogenetic stages passed through by more advanced species. Jaeckel's (1902) theory of metakinesis, therefore, is to be considered since it postulates that many cases of epistasis occur; that is to say, that many sexually adult animals are arrested in development in early otogenetic stages and undergo no further development. Although this theory is appealing upon initial consideration, it is less so when we recall that in _Mustela_ there is a direct correlation of increasingly primitive structure with decreasing latitude as one proceeds from the steppe of North America southward to the equator. It follows that the conditions seen in _Mustela_ can be explained even better than by metakinesis, by assuming that the several species have differentiated from a stem form at different times, have developed at different rates, have developed in different directions and that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. The theory of Age and Area (see Willis, 1922) holds that the species of widest distribution are, on the average, the oldest, and that the species which are distributed over small areas are, in general, of recent origin. So far as the weasels are concerned, little support is given to this theory. The same can be said of any one of the teological theories, including the orthogenesis of post-Darwinian writers. All of these imply a determinate line of variation controlled by the inherent qualities of the organism. The idea that the several species of _Mustela_ result from mutations of large degree and sudden appearance is contrary to the evidence accumulated. In fact the evidence rather clearly indicates that the mutations which may have occurred were of small degree and in most instances owe their preservation to natural selection. The data obtained by the study of weasels accords almost exactly with the theory of species-forming embodied in Matthew's (1915) "Climate and Evolution." Although the essential features of this theory were made out from a study of families and orders and therefore would not be expected to apply to members of only a genus or subgenus, the facts known about the present distribution of American _Mustela_, nevertheless, are strikingly in accord with the ideas advanced by Matthew. In the first place, climate is an important factor in the evolution of the weasels. In the second place, the line of migration seems to have been outward from the holarctic region. In the third place, the geographic changes necessary to explain the present distribution of the species of _Mustela_ are not extensive and do not affect the permanency of oceans as defined by the continental shelf. These three statements are, almost verbatim, those made in the first three of the five points of Matthew's (1915:172-173) thesis. The remaining two points of Matthew's thesis have to do with generalizations based on evidence obtained from sources outside the scope of the present study. Furthermore, the relative degrees of specialization of the different species and subspecies in relation to their geographic distribution are in accord with the ideas elaborated by Matthew. For instance, the most primitive species is farthest south from the probable center of dispersal, the holarctic region. Also the full species become progressively more primitive as one proceeds southward from the holarctic, or at least from the northern half of the nearctic, region. Although, in view of the known geological changes that have occurred in the Caribbean region, we cannot say that the more primitive species owe their positions entirely to having been pushed farther south from the center of dispersal by actual and _continuous_ contact and competition with the more advanced species, this seems to have been the case in a general way. At any rate the more primitive kinds seem to have been prevented from pushing northward by the more advanced kinds which developed there and the latter have actually pushed southward. Additionally and in review: There is strong indication that the American species of weasels were formed by gradual and slow change. Much of this change probably is the result of natural selection operating on fortuitous variations of a minor nature, but, also, particular features of the environment, especially climate, and more especially amount of rainfall, seem to compel variations that differentiate subspecies and that characterize full species--compel some of them without the direct operation of natural selection, or at least compel them within limits so wide that natural selection exerts no exact control. HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION In the earlier accounts of American weasels, from the time of Linnaeus and before, up until 1890, names then in use for European weasels frequently were applied also to those in North America. For the next 50 years, and almost without exception after 1896, the American weasels were regarded as specifically distinct from those in the Old World. In this 50-year period many new names were proposed, usually as full species, although now that material from more localities has been brought together and studied, geographic intergradation is evident between many of the named kinds and most of these names now therefore take only subspecific rank. In 1933 Glover M. Allen showed that _Mustela rixosa_ occurred also in the Old World, and in 1943 I emphasized that a second American species, _Mustela erminea_, was circumpolar in distribution. In neither _rixosa_, nor _erminea_, however, were the subspecies the same in the two continents. To this general outline of the nomenclature, exception must be made for weasels of the southwestern United States, México and Central America, and South America, because as early as 1813 a distinctive name was given to one of these and weasels from the three areas mentioned were, so far as I know, never given names of Old World kinds. The first paper that could be regarded as revisionary in nature was "Remarks on the species of the genus Mustela" by the zoölogist and world-traveler, Charles L. Bonaparte, in Charlesworth's Magazine of Natural History, for 1838. In that paper three new names, _Mustela cicognanii_, _M. richardsonii_ and _M. longicauda_, all still valid, were proposed for American weasels. Audubon and Bachman in their "Quadrupeds of North America," which appeared in parts from 1845 to 1853, recognized 5 species. Actually they were dealing with only 3 taxonomically valid kinds. For one of these, _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_, they were misled by the difference in size between males and females, and in the males by the presence of a brown coat in some and a white coat in others. The male that was white in winter they regarded as _Putorius ermineus_ of the Old World; the male that was brown in winter they designated by their earlier proposed name _P. fuscus_, and the female they named _P. agilis_. The ermine, subspecies _M. erminea cicognanii_, they called _P. pusillus_. Their fifth name, _P. frenatus_, included at least some animals that today are assigned to the subspecies _M. frenata frenata_. Each of three and perhaps four of the five names employed by Audubon and Bachman embraced individuals of more than one species and in that sense the names were composite. Only five years later, in 1858, Professor Spencer Fullerton Baird's great work, "The Mammals of North America," made it clear that no American weasel was identical (in the modern subspecific sense) with any Old World weasel, and he applied most of his names in a correct zoölogical sense. It is true that he thought that the female weasel of the eastern United States was specifically different from the male, misapplied to it the name _richardsonii_, and did not correctly allocate every one of the few poor specimens available to him of the little ermine (_M. e. streatori_) of the Pacific Coast; but he did recognize that the least weasel was a distinct kind and his treatment in general was excellent. After Baird came a period of great confusion in which most writers did no better than had Audubon and Bachman, ordinarily confusing the two sexes as different species, and, in 1877 in his "Fur-bearing Animals," Elliot Coues went rather to the other extreme and allowed only 4 kinds to all of the Americas, regarding two of these, for purposes of zoölogical nomenclature, as identical with the European species. But, in 1896 Outram Bangs published "A Review of the Weasels of Eastern North America" in which he correctly recognized eight kinds. Although some of these were treated by him as full species, whereas the material accumulated since 1896 has shown that subspecific status is in order, his names, still in use, were correctly applied in every instance, save probably one. This was his use of _Putorius richardsonii_ for the animal now known as _M. e. arctica_. Unlike the earlier, excellent treatment by Baird, this accurate one by Bangs was heeded and followed by subsequent writers. For example, Dr. C. Hart Merriam in the same year, 1896, accepted Bangs' conclusions except for correcting the application of the name _richardsonii_. The principal contributions of Merriam's paper "Synopsis of the Weasels of North America" were first, the wider geographic scope and second, the naming as new of several kinds outside the geographic area studied by Bangs. Otherwise the work was not up to Dr. Merriam's usual standard and the internal evidence of haste in its preparation and the superficial study of some of the material at his disposal explain why the weasels of North America since that time have been but little better understood than in 1896. Baird and Bangs, then, unquestionably did the best systematic work on the American weasels. In 1916 Dr. Joseph A. Allen published a valuable paper on the South American weasels. The material available to him was inadequate and prevented a thoroughly satisfactory treatment. There are too few specimens even today to permit of a thorough treatment of the South American weasels in the present paper; nevertheless the material today is more nearly adequate than it was in 1916 and it is hoped that the systematic arrangement is correspondingly improved. Chronological List (annotated) of Specific and Subspecific Names Applied to American Weasels At least eighty-seven specific and subspecific names have been proposed for American weasels. Of these sixty-nine are now regarded as valid designations of recognizable subspecies. The average is 1.2 names per subspecies. Some names in the following chronological list were a second time applied wholly or in part to some other kind of weasel. In general, mention of the second or any other later application is omitted from the following list but two usages of _agilis_ (1844 and 1853) and of _americana_ (1865) are recorded. 1734. =javonica= (_Mustela_) Seba, Locupletissimi Rerum naturalium Thesauri ..., 1:77, 78, pl. 48, fig. 4. The weasel to which this name was applied was said to have come from Java. Since no animal answering to the description has again been found in Java, and because specimens from Central America or possibly some from northern India, may do so, it is conceivable that Seba was the first to distinguish by name an American weasel from those in the Old World. My attempts to locate the specimen concerned in places where it might have been preserved along with some of the other specimens thought to have belonged to Seba have been fruitless. Since it is impossible positively to link Seba's description with any known weasel, no further use is made of the name _javonica_ in the present account. 1772. =erminea= (_Mustela_) Forster [= _Mustela erminea richardsonii_], Philos. Trans., London, 1772:373. Forster's use of the name is one of the earliest applications of it to American animals. The name dates from Linnaeus, Syst. Naturae, (10th ed.) 1:46, 1758, with type locality in Europe. In the subspecific sense the name applies to the ermine which occurs over most of the Scandinavian Peninsula, if Miller (1912:387) be followed in regarding the type locality as Upsala, Sweden. If, instead, Cabrera (1913A:394-396) be followed in regarding the type locality as in Switzerland, the name, in the subspecific sense, will apply to the ermine of continental Europe. As the earliest available name applied to the circumpolar species concerned, it is used now as the name of the species in the New World as well as in the Old World. From the time of Forster until approximately 1890 the name _erminea_ by many, but not by all, authors was applied to the American weasels in the belief that they were zoölogically indistinguishable from those in the Old World. From 1896 to 1943 the name was not used by American authors at all because the ermine of America was in 1896 treated nomenclaturally by Merriam as specifically distinct from the animal in the Old World. Since 1943 _erminea_ has been used in the specific sense for American animals in recognition of the circumpolar distribution of the species. Some of the early allocations of American specimens to _erminea_ probably resulted in a composite use of the name in that one or another subspecies of the American species _Mustela frenata_ may also have been included with individuals truly of the species _erminea_. 1772. =nivalis= (_Mustela_), Forster, Philos. Trans., London, 1772:373. This is one of the early applications of this name to American weasels of small size, made in the belief that they were taxonomically the same in America and Europe. Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. (12th ed.) 1:69, 1766 is the authority for the name [_Mustela_] _nivalis_, and the Province of Vesterbotten, Sweden, is regarded as the type locality. The name is in use today for the common weasel of Europe and parts of Asia. Animals of the species _nivalis_ are intermediate in size between _Mustela erminea_ and _Mustela rixosa_. The name as used for American animals by some authors who wrote later than Forster did, probably was composite in that these authors may have applied the name to the small weasels of North America and thus may have intended it to apply not only to _Mustela erminea cicognanii_ but also to females of _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_, and conceivably to both sexes of _Mustela rixosa_ of any American subspecies. 1813. =Brasiliensis= (_Mustela_) Sevastianoff, Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg, 4:356-363, table (= plate) 4. This name was proposed for a weasel brought to St. Petersburg by Capt. Krusenstern on his return from a voyage around the world. The animal was said to have come from Brazil, but to judge from the description, came instead from México, Central America, or west of the Andes in South America, and was based on some one of the subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Although the name was in use for more than 60 years it was shown by Merriam (1896:27) to be unavailable because it was preoccupied by _Mustela brasiliensis_, a name earlier used by Gmelin (Syst. Nat., ed. 13, p. 93, 1788) for a South American otter. 1815. =vulgaris= (_Mustela_), Ord, Guthrie's Geography as reprinted by Rhoads in 1894, vol. 2, p. 291. This use by Ord is one of the earliest applications of this name to American weasels, in the belief that the smaller weasels of North America and Europe were zoölogically the same; [_Mustela_] _vulgaris_ seems originally to have been proposed in 1777 by Erxleben on p. 471 of vol. 1 of his Syst. Regni Anim., for the weasel of the temperate part of Europe and to be a synonym of _Mustela nivalis_ Linnaeus (1766). Probably the name as used by Ord was composite in the sense that he may have intended it to apply to females of _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_ as well as to one or both sexes of _Mustela erminea cicognanii_ and, if he ever saw them, to the two sexes of _Mustela rixosa_ (one or several subspecies). 1818. =africana= (_Mustela_) Desmarest [= _Mustela africana africana_], Nouv. Diction, d. Hist. Nat., 19:376. In 1808 E. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire visited Portugal and was given several African primates and the specimen of _Mustela_ named by Desmarest in 1818 who wrongly supposed that it, like most of the primates, came originally from Africa. After the name had been misapplied for 95 years Angel Cabrera showed that it pertained instead to the tropical weasel of Brazil. Of distinctive names applied to American weasels today, this is the one first proposed. 1832. =frenata= (_Mustela_) Lichtenstein [= _Mustela frenata frenata_], Darstellung neuer oder wenig bekannter Säugethiere, pl. 42 and corresponding text unpaged. This name is the first one available for the long-tailed weasel and therefore applies to the species as a whole. 1838. =Cicognanii= (_Mustela_) Bonaparte [= _Mustela erminea cicognanii_], Charlesworth's Mag. Nat. Hist., 2:38. The name erroneously spelled _Cigognanii_ was correctly spelled on page 39. For a detailed consideration of this name see the account of the subspecies _cicognanii_ on page 120. 1838. =Richardsonii= (_Mustela_) Bonaparte [= _Mustela erminea richardsonii_], Charlesworth's Mag. Nat. Hist., 2:39. Until 1896 the name sometimes was applied to the subspecies now known as _M. e. arctica_ and sometimes to part of the subspecies now designated as _M. e. cicognanii_ under the principal treatment of which see (page 120) for a detailed account of the basis of the name _=richardsonii=_, and the reasons for regarding Fort Franklin as the type locality. 1838. =longicauda= (_Mustela_) Bonaparte [= _=Mustela frenata longicauda=_], Charlesworth's Mag. Nat. Hist., 2:39. The type locality appears to be Carlton House, Saskatchewan, and the name always seems to have been applied to the long-tailed weasel of the Great Plains, although in some earlier accounts the name was used in a more inclusive sense to refer also to animals now of subspecies closely allied to _longicauda_. As with the two preceding names, a detailed consideration of the basis for, and application of, this name is given on pages 120-123 in the account of _Mustela erminea cicognanii_. 1840. =Noveboracensis= (_Putorius_) Emmons [= _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_], Quadrupeds of Mass., p. 45. This name was credited by Emmons to De Kay who in the same year published it in his report on the "Zoology of New York" but without a description and De Kay's name is a _nomen nudum_. Emmons' was the first use of the name accompanied by a recognizable description and therefore the name must date from Emmons although this obviously was not his intent since he credited the name to De Kay. 1842. =fuscus= (_Putorius_) Audubon and Bachman [= _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_], Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 8: (pt. 2) 288. 1842. =pusilla= (_Mustela_) De Kay [= _Mustela erminea cicognanii_], Nat. Hist. of New York, Zool., Pt. 1, Mammalia, p. 34. This name was proposed for small weasels of 12 to 13 inches in length of which the tail amounted to a fourth of the same and although obviously applying in considerable part to the earlier named _M. e. cicognanii_ seems to have included some individuals of the also earlier named _M. f. noveboracensis_. 1843. =xanthogenys= (_Mustela_) Gray [= _Mustela frenata xanthogenys_], Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 11:118, February, 1843, was applied to all of the long-tailed weasels of California that had light-colored facial markings. Merriam in 1896 suggested that San Diego was the type locality and in 1899 Bangs proposed the name _mundus_ for the California weasel north of San Francisco Bay thus restricting the application of the name _xanthogenys_. In 1936 Hall further restricted the application of the name and applied it to the long-tailed weasel of the big interior valley of California, pointing out that the name was correctly applied to this weasel of the big interior valley or possibly instead to the race named _munda_. 1844. =agilis= (_Mustela_) Tschudi [= _Mustela frenata agilis_], Untersuch. ü. die Fauna Peruana, p. 110, is a name applied today to the race of weasel of the Temperate Zone of the western Andes and intermountain valleys of Perú. 1851. =nigripes= (_Putorius_) Audubon and Bachman [= _Mustela nigripes_], Quadr. N. Amer., 2:297, 1851, applies to the black-footed ferret of North America. 1853. =agilis= (_Putorius_) Audubon and Bachman [= _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_], Viv. Quadrupeds N. Amer., 3:184, pl. 140. This name was proposed for the female in the mistaken belief that it was specifically distinct from the larger male for which several names already were available. Also Tschudi in 1844 had already used the name _Mustela agilis_ for a South American weasel. 1864. =aureoventris= (_Mustela_) Gray [= _Mustela frenata aureoventris_], Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1864:55, pl. 8, February 9, 1864, is the name applicable to the dark-colored weasel of the Pacific coastal region of Ecuador and Columbia. 1865. =americana= (_Mustela erminea_ Var. 3) Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1865:111. The larger individuals of American weasels of both _Mustela erminea_ and _Mustela frenata_ from the Atlantic Coast to as far west as Carlton House, Saskatchewan, were lumped under this name because Gray desired more information than he then had before recognizing as different from one another several species proposed for America up to the time concerned. The name is unavailable because it is preoccupied by _Mustela americana_ Turton (1806) the name for the American marten. 1865. =americana= (_Mustela vulgaris_ Var.) Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1865:113. Under this name the smaller weasels of the northern and northeastern part of North America were lumped by Gray but the name is preoccupied and can be ignored. 1874. =affinis= (_Mustela_) Gray [= _Mustela frenata affinis_], Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 14 (ser. 4):375, 1874, from New Granada [= Colombia], had the type locality restricted to Bogotá, Colombia, by Allen in 1916, and is applied to the long-tailed weasel of the tropical and temperate zones of the eastern Andes of Colombia. 1874. =macrura= (_Mustela_) Taczanowski [= _Mustela frenata macrura_], Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, for 1874, p. 311, pl. 48, May 19, 1874, applies to the long-tailed weasel of central Perú and northern Ecuador. 1877. =culbertsoni= (_Putorius_) Coues [= _Mustela frenata longicauda_], Fur-bearing animals ..., p. 136, 1877, is based on specimens from Fort Laramie, Wyoming. In the past the name has been regarded as a _nomen nudum_ but there is some reason for regarding it as having nomenclatural status. In either event it is here arranged as pertaining to the long-tailed weasel of the Great Plains which takes the prior name _longicauda_. See the account of _longicauda_ for a more detailed account of the name _culbertsoni_. 1877. =aequatorialis= (_Putorius_ (_Gale_) _brasiliensis_) Coues [= _Mustela frenata aureoventris_], Fur-bearing animals ..., p. 142. Proposed "merely as a substitute for Gray's [supposedly] preoccupied name," _aureoventris_. 1881. =stolzmanni= (_Mustela_) Taczanowski [= _Mustela africana stolzmanni_], Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, for 1881, p. 835, November 15, 1881, is applied to the tropical weasel of the Upper Amazon Basin. 1881. =jelskii= (_Mustela_) Taczanowski [= _Mustela frenata macrura_], Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, for 1881, p. 647, May 17, 1881, was proposed for the female in the mistaken opinion that it was specifically distinct from the larger male which the same author previously had named _macrura_. 1891. =arizonensis= (_Putorius_) Mearns [= _Mustela frenata arizonensis_], Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:234, June 5, 1891, until 1936 was applied to long-tailed weasels of most of the western United States west of the Great Plains but by restriction since 1936 has been applied only to the animals in parts of Arizona and New Mexico. 1894. =peninsulae= (_Putorius_) Rhoads [= _Mustela frenata peninsulae_], Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1894:152, June 19, 1894, applies to the weasel of central and southern Florida. 1896. =alascensis= (_Putorius richardsonii_) Merriam [= _Mustela erminea alascensis_], N. Amer. Fauna, 11:12, June 30, 1896, with type locality at Juneau, Alaska, has been used for the ermine of southeastern Alaska ever since it was proposed. In 1944 separate subspecific rank was accorded ermines on several of the islands of southeastern Alaska which proportionately restricted the range assigned to _alascensis_. 1896. =streatori= (_Putorius_) Merriam [= _Mustela erminea streatori_], N. Amer. Fauna, 11:13, June 30, 1896, applies to the ermine of the Pacific Coast from Puget Sound, Washington, south nearly to the Golden Gate of California. 1896. =arcticus= (_Putorius_) Merriam [= _Mustela erminea arctica_], N. Amer. Fauna, 11:15, June 30, 1896. Ever since it was proposed, this name has been applied to the subspecies of ermine of Alaska and the northern parts of Canada. 1896. =kadiacensis= ([_Putorius arcticus_]) Merriam [= _Mustela erminea kadiacensis_], N. Amer. Fauna, 11:16, June 30, 1896, is a valid name applied to the ermine of Kodiak Island, Alaska. 1896. =washingtoni= (_Putorius_) Merriam [= _Mustela frenata washingtoni_], N. Amer. Fauna 11:18, June 30, 1896, applies to the long-tailed weasel of the southern Cascades of Washington and the northern Cascades of Oregon. 1896. =saturatus= (_Putorius_) Merriam [= _Mustela frenata saturata_], N. Amer. Fauna, 11:21, June 30, 1896, was little used until 1936 but applies to long-tailed weasel of limited region in northern California and southern Oregon. 1896. =alleni= (_Putorius_) Merriam [= _Mustela frenata alleni_], N. Amer. Fauna, 11:24, June 30, 1896, applies to weasel of Black Hills region. 1896. =oregonensis= (_Putorius xanthogenys_) Merriam [= _Mustela frenata oregonensis_], N. Amer. Fauna, 11:25, June 30, 1896, applies to long-tailed weasel of parts of western Oregon and northern California. 1896. =goldmani= (_Putorius frenatus_) Merriam [= _Mustela frenata goldmani_], N. Amer. Fauna, 11:28, June 30, 1896, applies to the long-tailed weasel of Chiapas, and parts of Guatemala and Salvador. 1896. =leucoparia= (_Putorius frenatus_) Merriam [= _Mustela frenata leucoparia_], N. Amer. Fauna, 11:29, June 30, 1896, applies to the long-tailed weasel of Michoacán and Nayarit. 1896. =tropicalis= (_Putorius_) Merriam [= _Mustela frenata tropicalis_], N. Amer. Fauna, 11:30, June 30, 1896, applies to the long-tailed weasel of the Tropical Life-zone of Veracruz. 1896. =spadix= (_Putorius longicaudus_) Bangs [= _Mustela frenata spadix_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:8, February 25, 1896, applies to the long-tailed weasel of Minnesota and adjoining areas. 1896. =rixosus= (_Putorius_) Bangs [= _Mustela rixosa rixosa_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:21, February 25, 1896, applies to the least weasel of Saskatchewan and adjoining areas and as the first available name for the species has been used as the specific name for the species in America since 1896. 1897. =paraensis= (_Putorius (Mustela) braziliensis_) Goeldi [= _Mustela africana africana_], Zool. Jahrb., abt. f. systematik, geogr. u. biol., 10:560, pl. 21, September 15, 1897, a synonym for the weasel of the lower Amazon area. 1898. =neomexicanus= (_Putorius frenatus_) Barber and Cockerell [= _Mustela frenata neomexicana_], Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 188, May 3, 1898, applies to the long-tailed weasel of New Mexico, Arizona, Durango and adjoining areas. 1898. =haidarum= (_Putorius_) Preble [= _Mustela erminea haidarum_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:169, August 10, 1898, applies to the ermine of the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia. 1899. =notius= (_Putorius noveboracensis_) Bangs [= _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_], Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:53, June 9, 1899, was applied to the long-tailed weasel of the Carolinas until 1936 since which time it has been regarded as a synonym of _noveboracensis_. 1899. =occisor= (_Putorius_) Bangs [= _Mustela frenata occisor_], Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:54, June 9, 1899, applies to the long-tailed weasel of central and northern Maine. Until 1936, occisor was ordinarily used as the name of a full species but since then has been arranged as a subspecific name under _Mustela frenata_. 1899. =mundus= (_Putorius xanthogenys_) Bangs [= _Mustela frenata munda_], Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:56, June 9, 1899, is now applied, and generally has been since 1899, to the long-tailed weasel of the coastal district of California north of San Francisco Bay. 1899. =muricus= (_Putorius (Arctogale)_) Bangs [= _Mustela erminea muricus_], Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:71, July 31, 1899, applies to the diminutive ermine, often erroneously designated least weasel, of the western United States. 1899. =oribasus= (_Putorius (Arctogale) longicauda_) Bangs [= _Mustela frenata oribasus_], Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:81, December 27, 1899, applies to the long-tailed weasel of the Rocky Mountains northward from Yellowstone National Park. 1900. =eskimo= (_Putorius rixosus_) Stone [= _Mustela rixosa eskimo_], Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1900:44, March 24, 1900, is applied to the least weasel of Alaska and adjacent parts of boreal North America. 1901. =allegheniensis= (_Putorius_) Rhoads [= _Mustela rixosa allegheniensis_], Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1900:75, March 25, 1901, applies to the least weasel of the eastern United States. 1902. =perdus= (_Putorius tropicalis_) Merriam [= _Mustela frenata perda_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:67, March 22, 1902, applies to the long-tailed weasel of the Lower Tropical Life-zone from southern Veracruz into Guatemala. 1903. =microtis= (_Putorius_) Allen [= _Mustela erminea richardsonii_], Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 19:563, October 10, 1903, is a name applied to an individual ermine of small size from Shesley, British Columbia, which Allen thought was specifically distinct from the ermine of the Hudsonian Life-zone and adjacent territory. Now the name is arranged as a synonym of _richardsonii_. 1904. =audax= (_Putorius_) Barrett-Hamilton [= _Mustela erminea arctica_], Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, 13:392, May, 1904. In the original description the type locality, Discovery Bay, was erroneously stated to be in Greenland and the name _audax_ until 1945 was applied to the kind of weasel occurring in northern Greenland whereas the type specimen was taken instead in northern Ellesmere Island and because the weasel there is subspecifically indistinguishable from ermines from farther west, _audax_ is a synonym of _Putorius arcticus_. 1904. =imperii= (_Putorius arcticus_) Barrett-Hamilton [= _Mustela erminea richardsonii_], Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, 13:392, May, 1904, based on an animal from Fort Simpson, Mackenzie, Canada, proves to be inseparable from _richardsonii_ which has priority. 1904. =polaris= (_Putorius arcticus_) Barrett-Hamilton [= _Mustela erminea polaris_], Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, 13:393, May, 1904, is the name used for the ermine of eastern Greenland and since 1945 has been used for the weasel of Greenland as a whole. 1905. =macrophonius= (_Putorius_) Elliott [= _Mustela frenata macrophonius_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 18:235, December 9, 1905, applies to the long-tailed weasel of the mountains along the eastern border of Veracruz. 1906. =leptus= (_Putorius streatori_) Merriam [= _Mustela erminea murica_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 16:76, May 29, 1903, until 1945 was applied to the diminutive ermine of the Rocky Mountains from Wyoming south to northern New Mexico but proves to be a synonym of _muricus_ with type locality in the Sierra Nevada of California. 1908. =angustidens= (_Putorius cicognanii_) Brown [= _Mustela erminea angustidens_], Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 9(pt. 4):181, pl. 17, is applied to an extinct subspecies known from fossil remains of Pleistocene age from northern Arkansas. 1908. =gracilis= (_Putorius_) Brown [= _Mustela frenata gracilis_], Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 9(pt. 4):182, 1908, applies to a Pleistocene weasel known from a single skull from northern Arkansas. 1912. =costaricensis= (_Mustela_) Goldman [= _Mustela frenata costaricensis_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 25:9, January 23, 1912, applies to the long-tailed weasel of Costa Rica. 1913. =primulina= (_Mustela_) Jackson [= _Mustela frenata primulina_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:123, May 21, 1913, applies to the long-tailed weasel of the central part of the United States in eastern Kansas and adjoining areas. 1913. =campestris= (_Mustela_) Jackson [= _Mustela rixosa campestris_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:124, May 21, 1913, applies to the least weasel of the Great Plains region. 1913. =olivacea= (_Mustela peninsulae_) Howell [= _Mustela frenata olivacea_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:139, May 21, 1913, applies to the long-tailed weasel of the southeastern United States excepting most of Florida. 1914. =meridana= (_Mustela_) Hollister [= _Mustela frenata meridana_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:143, July 10, 1914, applies to the long-tailed weasel of northern South America. 1916. =nicaraguae= (_Mustela tropicalis_) Allen [= _Mustela frenata nicaraguae_], Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:100, April 28, 1916, applies to the long-tailed weasel of Nicaragua. 1927. =arthuri= (_Mustela noveboracensis_) Hall [= _Mustela frenata arthuri_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 40:193, December 2, 1927, applies to the long-tailed weasel of Louisiana and adjoining areas. 1932. =semplei= (_Mustela arctica_) Sutton and Hamilton [= _Mustela erminea semplei_], Ann. Carnegie Mus., 21(2):79, February 13, 1932, originally was applied to the ermine of Southampton Island but after 1945 was applied also to the ermine of Baffin Island, Melville Peninsula and the west side of Hudsons Bay as far south as Eskimo Point. 1932. =panamensis= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 45:139, September 9, 1932, applies to the long-tailed weasel of Panamá. 1932. =anguinae= (_Mustela cicognanii_) Hall [= _Mustela erminea anguinae_], Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 38:417, November 8, 1932, applies to the ermine of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. 1935. =labiata= (_Mustela arctica_) Degerbøl [= _Mustela erminea semplei_], Rept. 5th Thule Exped., 1921-1924, vol. 2, no. 4, p. 25, 1935. When Degerbøl wrote his description and proposed this name he was unaware that Sutton and Hamilton had three years before based a new name on weasels from Southampton Island. Because the two names apply to the same subspecies, Degerbøl's name, _labiata_, must fall as a synonym of _semplei_ which has priority. 1935. =helleri= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 48:143, August 22, 1935, applies to the long-tailed weasel of eastern Perú. 1936. =nevadensis= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, publ. no. 473, p. 91, November 20, 1945, applies to the long-tailed weasel of the western United States. For many years, animals of this subspecies were referred to _longicauda_ and from 1891 until 1936 to _arizonensis_. 1936. =effera= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, publ. no. 473, p. 93, November 20, 1945, applies to the long-tailed weasel of the Blue Mountains region. From 1891 until 1936 this animal was referred to under the name _arizonensis_. 1936. =altifrontalis= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, publ. no. 473, p. 94, November 20, 1936, applies to the long-tailed weasel of the humid coastal district from Puget Sound southward into Oregon. 1936. =nigriauris= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, publ. no. 473, p. 95, November 20, 1936, applies to the long-tailed weasel of the coastal district of California from San Francisco Bay southward to Point Concepcion. Previous to 1936, _xanthogenys_ was the name applied to this race of weasel. 1936. =latirostra= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, publ. no. 473, p. 96, November 20, 1936, applies to the long-tailed weasel of southern California which previously had borne the name _xanthogenys_. 1936. =pulchra= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, publ. no. 473, p. 98, November 20, 1936, is applied to the long-tailed weasel of the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley of California. 1936. =inyoensis= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, publ. no. 473, p. 99, November 20, 1936, is applied to the long-tailed weasel of Owens Valley, California. 1936. =texensis= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, publ. no. 473, p. 99, November 20, 1936, applies to the long-tailed weasel of central Texas which previously had been assigned to the subspecies _frenata_. 1936. =perotae= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, publ. no. 473, p. 100, November 20, 1936, applies to long-tailed weasel of the mountains along the Puebla-México boundary. 1938. =boliviensis= (_Mustela frenata_) Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 51:67, May 18, 1938, applies to the southernmost known long-tailed weasel which is in the Lake Titicaca region in Perú and Bolivia. 1944. =salva= (_Mustela erminea_) Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 57:35, June 28, 1944, applies to the ermine of Admiralty Island, southeastern Alaska. 1944. =initis= (_Mustela erminea_) Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 57:37, June 28, 1944, applies to the ermine of Baranof and Chichagof islands, southeastern Alaska. 1944. =celenda= (_Mustela erminea_) Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 57:38, June 28, 1944, applies to the ermine of Prince of Wales, Dall and Long islands, Alaska. 1944. =seclusa= (_Mustela erminea_) Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 57:39, June 28, 1944, applies to the ermine of Suemez Island, southeastern Alaska. 1945. =invicta= (_Mustela erminea_) Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:75, February 27, 1945, applies to the ermine of the Rocky Mountains for several hundred miles both north and south of the United States-Canadian boundary. 1945. =fallenda= (_Mustela erminea_) Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:79, February 27, 1945, applies to the ermine of the coastal mainland in southern British Columbia and northern Washington. 1945. =olympica= (_Mustela erminea_) Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:81, February 27, 1945, applies to the diminutive ermine of the Olympic Peninsula, state of Washington. 1945. =gulosa= (_Mustela erminea_) Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:84, February 27, 1945, applies to the diminutive ermine of the Cascades in Washington. 1945. =bangsi= (_Mustela erminea_) Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:176, July 19, 1945, is the name applied today to the ermine of the western Great Lakes region. In 1925 when this study was begun, the American weasels (subgenus _Mustela_ proper) were arranged as belonging to 47 kinds (including subspecies) of 29 full species. In the present account a total of 68 kinds, belonging to 4 full species are recognized in the subgenus _Mustela_. The increase in number of subspecies and the decrease in number of species are the nomenclatural results ordinarily obtained in this decade from a systematic study of a genus of American mammals. CHECK-LIST OF AMERICAN SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF THE GENUS MUSTELA Subgenus =MUSTELA= Linnaeus PAGE _Mustela erminea_ 87 _Mustela erminea arctica_ (Merriam) 96 _Mustela erminea polaris_ (Barrett-Hamilton) 103 _Mustela erminea semplei_ Sutton and Hamilton 105 _Mustela erminea kadiacensis_ (Merriam) 108 _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ Bonaparte 110 _Mustela erminea cicognanii_ Bonaparte 118 _Mustela erminea bangsi_ Hall 124 _Mustela erminea invicta_ Hall 128 _Mustela erminea alascensis_ (Merriam) 131 _Mustela erminea salva_ Hall 135 _Mustela erminea initis_ Hall 136 _Mustela erminea celenda_ Hall 139 _Mustela erminea seclusa_ Hall 141 _Mustela erminea haidarum_ (Preble) 142 _Mustela erminea anguinae_ Hall 145 _Mustela erminea fallenda_ Hall 148 _Mustela erminea olympica_ Hall 153 _Mustela erminea streatori_ (Merriam) 155 _Mustela erminea gulosa_ Hall 159 _Mustela erminea muricus_ (Bangs) 161 _Mustela erminea angustidens_ (Brown) 165 _Mustela rixosa_ 168 _Mustela rixosa eskimo_ Stone 181 _Mustela rixosa rixosa_ Bangs 184 _Mustela rixosa allegheniensis_ Rhoads 187 _Mustela rixosa campestris_ Jackson 190 _Mustela frenata_ 193 _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_ (Emmons) 222 _Mustela frenata occisor_ (Bangs) 230 _Mustela frenata primulina_ (Jackson) 232 _Mustela frenata arthuri_ Hall 241 _Mustela frenata olivacea_ Howell 244 _Mustela frenata peninsulae_ Rhoads 250 _Mustela frenata spadix_ (Bangs) 252 _Mustela frenata longicauda_ Bonaparte 262 _Mustela frenata oribasus_ (Bangs) 270 _Mustela frenata alleni_ (Merriam) 274 _Mustela frenata arizonensis_ (Mearns) 276 _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ Hall 280 _Mustela frenata effera_ Hall 291 _Mustela frenata washingtoni_ (Merriam) 294 _Mustela frenata saturata_ (Merriam) 297 _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_ Hall 300 _Mustela frenata oregonensis_ (Merriam) 304 _Mustela frenata munda_ (Bangs) 309 _Mustela frenata xanthogenys_ Gray 315 _Mustela frenata nigriauris_ Hall 319 _Mustela frenata latirostra_ Hall 323 _Mustela frenata pulchra_ Hall 328 _Mustela frenata inyoensis_ Hall 331 _Mustela frenata neomexicana_ (Barber and Cockerell) 333 _Mustela frenata texensis_ Hall 338 _Mustela frenata frenata_ Lichtenstein 341 _Mustela frenata leucoparia_ (Merriam) 347 _Mustela frenata perotae_ Hall 351 _Mustela frenata goldmani_ (Merriam) 355 _Mustela frenata macrophonius_ (Elliot) 360 _Mustela frenata tropicalis_ (Merriam) 363 _Mustela frenata perda_ (Merriam) 366 _Mustela frenata nicaraguae_ Allen 370 _Mustela frenata costaricensis_ Goldman 372 _Mustela frenata panamensis_ Hall 375 _Mustela frenata meridana_ Hollister 379 _Mustela frenata affinis_ Gray 384 _Mustela frenata aureoventris_ Gray 387 _Mustela frenata helleri_ Hall 391 _Mustela frenata agilis_ Tschudi 393 _Mustela frenata macrura_ Taczanowski 398 _Mustela frenata boliviensis_ Hall 402 _Mustela frenata gracilis_ (Brown) 404 Subgenus =Grammogale= Cabrera _Mustela africana_ 406 _Mustela africana africana_ Desmarest 409 _Mustela africana stolzmanni_ Taczanowski 413 Subgenus =Putorius= Cuvier (Black-footed Ferret--not treated in present work) _Mustela nigripes_ (Audubon and Bachman) Subgenus =Lutreola= Wagner (Minks--not treated in present work) _Mustela vison_ _Mustela vison vison_ Schreber _Mustela vison mink_ Peale and Beauvois _Mustela vison lutensis_ (Bangs) _Mustela vison evergladensis_ Hamilton _Mustela vison vulgivaga_ (Bangs) _Mustela vison letifera_ Hollister _Mustela vison lacustris_ (Preble) _Mustela vison energumenos_ (Bangs) _Mustela vison evagor_ Hall _Mustela vison aestuarina_ Grinnell _Mustela vison nesolestes_ (Heller) _Mustela vison melampelus_ (Elliot) _Mustela vison ingens_ (Osgood) _Mustela macrodon_ (Prentiss) ARTIFICIAL KEY TO AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS MUSTELA PAGE A Length of upper tooth-rows less than 20 mm. in males and 17.8 mm. in females. B Postglenoid length of skull more than 47 per cent of condylobasal length. C Tail without a black pencil and with at most a few black hairs at extreme tip; in both sexes mastoid breadth ordinarily exceeds breadth of braincase, _Mustela rixosa_, least weasel, p. 168 C' Tail with a black pencil; in females mastoid breadth ordinarily exceeded by breadth of braincase, _Mustela erminea_, ermine, p. 87 B' Postglenoid length of skull less than 47 per cent of condylobasal length. D Tail with distinct black tip; midventral line white, yellowish, orange, not same color as upper parts; p2 present; thenar pad on forefoot absent, _Mustela frenata_, long-tailed weasel, p. 193 D' Tail without black tip; midventral line same color as upper parts; p2 absent; thenar pad on forefoot present, _Mustela africana_, tropical weasel, p. 406 A' Length of upper tooth-rows more than 20 mm. in males and 17.8 mm. in females. E Abdomen all white; face with blackish mask; m1 lacking even a trace of a metaconid; distance between upper canines more than width of basioccipital as measured between foramina situated midway along medial sides of tympanic bullae, _Mustela nigripes_, black-footed ferret. E' Abdomen dark brown, like back; face uniformly brown without blackish mask; m1 with incipient metaconid; distance between upper canines less than width of basioccipital as measured between foramina situated midway along medial sides of tympanic bullae, _Mustela vison_, mink, American mink. DIAGNOSIS OF THE GENUS Genus =Mustela= Linnaeus Weasels, Ferrets, Polecats, Minks _Genotype._--_Mustela erminea_ Linnaeus. _Diagnosis._--Legs short; body relatively long; adults 190 mm. to 700 mm. in total length; skull ranging in basilar length from 16 to 70 mm.; facial angle slight; tympanic bullae greatly inflated (moderately in _Lutreola_), cancellous, and with paroccipital processes closely appressed to bullae; palate behind upper molars; dental formula: I 3 C 1 P 2-3 M 1 -, -; -, -; -, ---; -, -; inner moiety of M1 larger than outer; P4 i 3 c 1 p 3-2 m 2 with simple deuterocone; in m1 inner moiety of M1 larger than outer; P4 with simple deuterocone; in m1 trigonid longer than talonid, metaconid absent (incipiently developed in _Lutreola_), and talonid trenchant. For many years prior to 1911, the name _Mustela_ was applied to martens, and _Putorius_ was regarded as the first available generic name for the weasels. In 1911 Thomas (1911:139) showed that _M. erminea_ (_Mustela_ of Gesner) by tautonymy was the type of _Mustela_ and subsequently the generic name _Mustela_ has been used for the true weasels which include the American weasels to which we now apply the specific names _erminea_, _rixosa_ and _frenata_. The mink, _Mustela (Lutreola) vison_, and the black-footed ferret, _Mustela (Putorius) nigripes_, since 1911 also have been referred by most American authors to the genus _Mustela_, the names _Lutreola_ and _Putorius_ being regarded by these authors as having no more than subgeneric status. European writers, on the other hand, accord greater taxonomic weight to the zoölogical differences between ferrets and weasels and, therefore, accord full generic rank to _Putorius_. Consequently, for the black-footed ferret, Europeans today write _Putorius nigripes_ and Americans write _Mustela nigripes_. For the same reasons, the name of the mink is written by some European zoölogists _Lutreola vison_ and by American zoölogists _Mustela vison_. EXPLANATION OF SYSTEMATIC TREATMENT For each full species there will be found under the account of it the following information: Type, statement of geographic range, selected characters for ready recognition, other characters of the species, a summary of geographic variation, and information on habits, in the order mentioned. For each subspecies, information is presented in the following order: earliest available zoölogical name, synonyms, type, geographic range, zoölogical characters for ready recognition, description (mentioning size, certain external features including color, the skull and teeth) historical material when warranted, remarks which may elaborate on points made in preceding paragraphs, and other information thought to be useful, and finally a list of specimens examined. In explanation of certain of these categories it should be said that in the synonymy no attempt is made to list every published reference to the subspecies concerned. It is aimed, however, to include at least one citation to each name-combination that has been applied, to the subspecies concerned, along with other especially important references. Mere records of occurrence are not regarded as especially important and citations to them ordinarily are omitted in the synonymy. No comma is placed between the zoölogical name and the name of the author who coined and first used the name in accordance with the rules of zoölogical nomenclature. Otherwise a comma is interposed between the zoölogical name and the name of the user (author). When the accepted (earliest available) name of a subspecies at the head of any one of the following accounts is combined with a generic name different from that with which it originally was placed, the authority for the name is set in parentheses. The same rule is followed with the name of a full species when it is written without any subspecific name following. Parentheses in such situations, therefore, denote that for the terminal part of the scientific name there has been a change in generic name with which the terminal part of the scientific name is here associated. In the paragraph headed "characters for ready recognition," only a few characters, namely, those regarded as most useful for identification when the student has limited time, are mentioned. Other features useful for distinguishing the kind of animal in question from its near relatives are to be found in the description and comparisons. In the description, external measurements, unless otherwise indicated, are those recorded by the collector on the label attached to the skin. Total length is the distance from the tip of the pad on the nose to the tip of the fleshy part of the tail when the relaxed animal is laid out straight, not stretched. This measurement does not include the hairs that project beyond the end of the fleshy part of the tail. Length of tail is the distance from the base of the tail, when it is bent at right angles to the long axis of the body, to the tip of the fleshy part of the tail excluding the hairs that project beyond the fleshy part of the tail. Length of tail and length of tail-vertebrae are synonymous. Length of hind foot is measured from the proximal end of the calcaneum to the tip of the longest claw. Capitalized color terms, unless otherwise indicated, refer to Ridgway's (1912) _Color Standards and Color Nomenclature_. Some use is made of color terms taken from Oberthür and Dauthenay (1905) because those authors show a much larger number of shades between dark brown and black than does Ridgway (1912). The colors of the upper parts of most weasels are some shade or other of dark brown. Color terms that do not have the initial letter capitalized do not refer to any one standard and consequently are used in a general sense. Relative extents of the color of the upper parts and underparts are computed from measurements of the circumference of the body at the place where the color of the underparts is narrowest. Ordinarily this place is in the lumbar region rather than in the thoracic region. An explanation of how cranial measurements were taken is given on page 417. In designating teeth, capital letters are used for teeth in the upper jaw and lower case letters are used for teeth in the lower jaw. For example: I2 denotes the second incisor tooth in the upper jaw and i2 denotes the second incisor tooth in the lower jaw; C1 and c1 refer to the canine tooth of the upper jaw and lower jaw, respectively; P3 and p3 refer to the third premolar of the upper jaw and lower jaw, respectively, bearing in mind that the first (anterior) premolar is absent in the lower jaw and upper jaw of weasels (see fig. 31 on page 416), as also, in some kinds of weasels, is the second premolar; M1 and m1 refer to the first molar of the upper jaw and lower jaw respectively. In describing the skull and teeth the two sexes are treated separately because differences in shape as well as size are the rule. Unless otherwise indicated, the skulls on which descriptions are based are of adults. Weights of skulls include the weight of the lower jaws. In general, every second subspecies is described. For a subspecies geographically next adjacent to the one described, only the differences between the two are enumerated. This method of description indicates also likenesses and is more economical of words than some other methods of description. Also, by use of this method, cross reference is reduced to one other subspecies. Following this formal description, there is a comparison of the cranial and dental characters with those of geographically adjacent subspecies. In the paragraph headed "Remarks" the two words "character" and "structure" frequently appear. The word structure here is used to mean some part of an animal, as for example, a hair, a muscle, a bone, or an internal organ. A structure is not a system, as for example, the digestive system or osseous system. A character is some weight, linear dimension, volume, shape, color, or other perceptible attribute of a structure, of a system, or of an entire organism. In recording the localities of capture of specimens examined, effort has been made to be exactly as precise as the locality data on the labels of the specimens permit. The word "County" is written out in full when the name of the county is written on the label of each specimen listed from that county. When one specimen, or more, here assigned to a given county lacks the name of the county on the label, then the abbreviation "_Co_." is used. The surprising frequency with which the same place name is repeated in a given state or province makes it desirable for the collector to write the name of the county, or corresponding minor political subdivision, on labels of study specimens at the time they are prepared. SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES =MUSTELA ERMINEA= Linnaeus Ermine (Synonymy under subspecies) _Type._--_Mustela erminea_ Linnaeus, Systema Naturae, 10th ed., p. 46, 1758. _Range._--From the British Isles and Atlantic Coast of Europe across Eurasia and North America including Greenland, from the northernmost land, south, in North America, to the lower margin of the Canadian Life-zone; geographically south to Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, northeastern Ohio, southern Michigan, Wisconsin, northern Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, in the Rocky Mountains to northern New Mexico, in the Sierra Nevada to Mono County, California, and on the Pacific Coast to the Golden Gate. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela rixosa_ in presence of black pencil on tail, tail-vertebrae more than a fourth of length of head and body, and in regions where the two species occur together, basilar length of skull more than 32.5 in males and more than 31.0 in females; from _Mustela frenata_, in regions where the two species occur together, by tail less than 44 per cent of length of head and body and by postglenoidal length of skull more than 46 per cent of condylobasal length in males and more than 48 per cent in females. _Characters of the species._--Size medium to small (total length 225 to 340 mm. in males and 190 to 290 mm. in females); tail 30 to 45 per cent of length of head and body, with distinct black pencil; caudal vertebrae 16 to 19; skull with long braincase and short precranial portion; postglenoidal length, when expressed as a percentage of the condylobasal length, more than 48 in females and ordinarily more than 46 in males; upper parts brown; underparts whitish, ordinarily continuous from chin to inguinal region but in subspecies in the humid region along the Pacific Coast interrupted in some individuals by brown of upper parts encircling body in the abdominal region. The soles of the feet in each of the subspecies are densely haired in winter and have only a relatively small area of the foot-pads exposed in summer, the intervening areas being well haired even at that season. The uniformity throughout the species as regards hairiness of the foot-soles and also the character of the vibrissae makes it unnecessary to describe these features in the accounts of the subspecies of _erminea_. _Geographic variation._--In the Old World 16 or more subspecies are currently recognized and there are 20 in North America. The features in which geographic variation is especially prominent are: First, size, as expressed by external measurements and weight, second, color pattern, depending on the extent, in relation to one another, of the dark-colored upper parts and light-colored underparts, and third, breadth and depth of the rostral region of the skull. Except in size, the variation in the skull is less than in _M. frenata_. Likewise in tone and shade of upper parts and hue or tint of underparts, _erminea_ is less variable than _frenata_ and has the face all of one color without the contrasting color-pattern of the face and head seen in many subspecies of _frenata_. _M. erminea_ exceeds _frenata_ as regards variation of the size of the area occupied by the light-colored underparts. At one extreme is the subspecies _arctica_ in which the area of the light color extends well up on the sides of the body, down the insides of the legs, over the feet and far out on the lower side of the tail whereas at the other extreme are the races _streatori_ and _olympica_ in which the light-colored underparts are restricted to two areas, one on the chin, throat and chest, and the other on the inguinal region. These areas may or may not be connected by a thin line of white color along the midline of the underparts. In size of animal, _erminea_ probably exhibits the maximum variation among American species of weasels; an average-sized male of the race _arctica_ weighs 4 times as much as one of the race _muricus_, and in the species _frenata_ I doubt that the difference is quite as great between individuals of the smallest race, _effera_, on the one hand, and either of the largest races, _texensis_ or _macrophonius_, on the other hand although actual weights are not available for these races of _frenata_. As elsewhere indicated, the small-sized individuals of _M. erminea_ are of the southern races and the large-sized individuals are of the northern races. This decrease in size southward occurs both in Asia and in America. _Natural history._--habitat and numbers.--Along the International Boundary east of the Turtle Mountains, Soper (1946:136) found this species present only in timbered areas and absent from many untimbered areas. Of the same species to the westward he comments "so far as I know at present, there is no evidence to show that any short-tailed weasels inhabit a broad strip of treeless territory immediately north of the International Boundary in Canada from southwestern Alberta to southeastern Saskatchewan." The same author (1942) reports that in the general area of Wood Buffalo Park, Northwest Territory, south of Great Slave Lake, the ermine is uncommon on pine-grown sand ridge and rolling upland and common in lower spruce-aspen parklands, stream-side coniferous belts, and grassy, semi-wooded swamplands. Nine ermines per square mile is the number that Soper (1919:46-47) estimated at Edmonton on the basis of the numbers that he trapped there in the winters of 1912-13 and 1913-14 and on the basis of the tracks of remaining ermines. From corresponding data he estimated the population in the winter of 1913 on the Hay River, north of Jasper Park, to be nine per square mile. In each of these instances he estimated ten weasels per square mile but he inclined to the view that one-tenth of the animals involved in his counts were long-tailed weasels (_Mustela frenata_). Osgood (1909B:30) and his field companion in the period July 31 to September 3, 1903, took a series of 42 specimens within a radius of 500 yards of their camp at the head of Seward Creek, Alaska, all caught in four traps, in one month. Of the 42 specimens, 28 are males and 14 are females. Fluctuations of a multiannual nature are marked in this species. Bailey (1929:156) observes that in Sherburne County, Minnesota, when meadow mice are abundant for two or three years these weasels become abundant but that when the mice are scarce the weasels also become scarce. Manning (1943:56), on Southampton Island, noted "that the maximum and minimum points of the weasel cycle are much more sharply marked than those of the fox cycle and the increase and decrease are more rapid." How far an ermine will travel in a given length of time has seldom been recorded but Hamilton (1933:293), on March 20, 1932, "followed the track of a small weasel, presumably a male _cicognanii_, for four miles in the fresh snow," and Ingles (1942) observed a diminutive ermine of the subspecies _M. e. muricus_, at Woods Lake, California, 286 yards from its den. Behavior As regards locomotion, Soper (1919:46), in reference to _Mustela cicognanii_, presumably in Ontario, Canada, writes that in the bounding gait the hind feet register almost, if not exactly, in the front-foot impressions, with the right front and hind feet lagging slightly behind. "The distance normally is about 19 inches, representing a regular rate of travel. . . . In traversing open spaces they resort to long, graceful leaps upwards of six feet in length. . . . I measured a record . . . of 8 feet, 2 inches." Of _M. e. arctica_, Dice (1921:22) writes that when it runs "the tail is carried off the ground usually at an angle of about 45 degrees." Seton (1929 (2):598) states that "At Carberry [Manitoba] I have often seen this energetic little creature seeking for Mice in the deep, soft snow. Its actions are much like those of an Otter pursuing salmon. Sometimes it gallops along a log, or over an icy part of the drift; then plunges out of sight in a soft place, to reappear many yards away. . . ." Little is recorded concerning swimming but on this score Seton (1929 (2):602) does quote J. W. Curran, who in July, 1899, at Lake Couchiching, Ontario, watched an ermine pursue a chipmunk into the water and for 100 yards before giving up the chase and wheeling around and making for shore. In swimming "The Weasel, I think, showed more of his body, and seemed to exert himself more" than the chipmunk. As to voice, Dice (1921:22), at Tanana, Alaska, heard the ermine, when excited, bark somewhat like a mink but not so loud and Seton (1929 (2):606) quotes Manley Hardy to the effect that the species has a purring note. Sense of smell was used by an _M. e. muricus_ that Dixon (1931:72) watched as the ermine followed a three-fourths-grown pika. Concerning the ermine at Carberry, Manitoba, Seton (1929 (2):598-599) writes that "The smell of blood must be as far-reaching as it is attractive to these sanguinary little creatures. I have frequently hung new-killed Rabbits and partridges temporarily in trees, and, after an absence, in some cases of a few minutes only, have found an Ermine mauling the game, though there was no sign of such a visitor when the cache was made." Enemies George Measham, of Winnipeg, found sign in the snow indicating that a great snowy owl had killed an ermine and T. McIlwraith shot a bald eagle at Hamilton Bay which had the bleached skull of a weasel (probably of this species) clinging to the throat (Seton, 1929 (2):603). A. B. Howell (1943:98) likens mustelid mammals to domestic cats in their manner of crossing roads and thinks that mustelids loiter at the side of the road until the stimulus of the approaching car causes them to make a dash whereupon they are caught by the wheels and killed. Three of four weasels seen to cross the road were killed, one even having apparently crossed the road before turning back and being killed under the car. One weasel killed was _Mustela erminea cicognanii_. Dalquest (1948:190) in writing of this species in the state of Washington, says "I have seen only one abroad in the daytime. It dashed from a roadside thicket . . . and was crushed beneath the wheels of a car." Food The killing of prey is described by Hamilton (1933:332) as follows: "A rapid dash, and the bird or mouse is grabbed over the back of the skull, the fore legs encircle the animal as though hugging it, and the hind legs are brought up to scratch wildly at the captive. . . . If [the prey is] a large animal, as a rat, the weasel usually lies on its side, while the diminishing struggles of the rodent continue, but if a mouse or a small bird [is the object of attack], the weasel is apt to crouch over its prey. Little time is lost over the first [mouse] . . . if two mice are present [;] a strong bite through the brain case . . . [is] sufficient. If only one animal is present, the weasel dawdles over its kill some time after life has departed." Hamilton's (1933:333) study of the contents of the digestive tracts of bodies of ermines obtained from fur trappers and fur buyers in New York enabled him to publish the following "Frequency Indices of Mammal Genera in Fall and Winter Food of 191 Mustela cicognanii": _Microtus_, 35.7 per cent; mammals undetermined to genus but principally mice, 16.3; _Blarina_, 15.1; _Peromyscus_, 11.4; _Sylvilagus_, 9.0; _Sorex_, 4.9; _Rattus_, 4.4; _Tamias_, 3.6. Close correspondence is shown by the following data of Aldous and Manweiler (1942) for the ermine from Lake of the Woods, Minnesota: mice, 58.7 per cent by number and 54.5 by volume; shrews 22.5 and 21.8 per cent; birds, 2.7 and 5.0 per cent. Of the mice in stomachs, 40 per cent were microtines, 15 per cent were _Peromyscus_ and 45 per cent were unidentified as to kind. Fragments of a small fish were found in one stomach. Summed up, the dominant winter foods were mice and shrews. Trapping of the mammal populations was done to see what the available food was and it was found that the small mammals were eaten in direct ratio to their relative abundance. Snowshoe rabbits and red squirrels were not eaten. The Minnesotan data were from 60 stomachs and 53 intestinal tracts recovered from 129 weasels trapped by use of scent (not bait) mostly from January 1 to February 7, 1939, although a few were trapped in 1938. Analyses of contents from stomachs gave approximately the same results as those from intestines. In 1939 at Lake of the Woods, weasels were concentrated where food was abundant but no such concentration was noted in the following winter. Big short-tailed shrew (_Blarina brevicauda_).--In New York State, the ermine preys on _Blarina_ as shown by Hamilton's (1933:330) seeing one being carried by a male ermine on May 6, 1931, and another being carried by a female on May 13, 1932. The same author (1928:249) found the remains of a _Blarina_ in a small female from Malone, New York. Kirk (1921) observed, however, that the ermine (_M. e. cicognanii_) avoided the shrew, _Blarina_, caught in a trap and that _Blarina_ avoided the weasel caught in a trap. Chipmunk (genus _Tamias_).--Remains were found in a male ermine in New York on May 14, 1932 (Hamilton, 1933:330), and Seton (1929 (2):602) records a chipmunk at Lake Couchiching, Ontario, that was pursued into the water by an ermine. Deer mice (genus _Peromyscus_).--As shown by Hamilton (1933:33) and Aldous and Manweiler (1942), _Peromyscus_ was second only to microtines in numerical abundance among the food items of ermines in New York and Minnesota. _Peromyscus_ and microtine rodents were brought to a den of the diminutive _M. e. muricus_ in early August, in Fresno County, California, according to Ingles (1942). He observed that an Alpine chipmunk was active under and around the tree and that juncos reared young 40 feet from the den but that the chipmunk and juncos were unmolested by the ermines. Lemming (genus _Lemmus_).--One was recovered from a female ermine (with milk in her glands) at Laurier Pass, British Columbia (Sheldon, 1932:201). Red-backed mouse (genus _Clethrionomys_).--Criddle and Criddle (1925:146) record that on "May 31, 1921.--Saw a Bonaparte's weasel capture a Red-backed Vole after a long hunt during which the pursuer never once lost track of its victim." Meadow mice (genus _Microtus_).--As shown by the data of Hamilton (1933:333) and Aldous and Manweiler (1942) recorded above, _Microtus_ is the item of first importance in the diet of the ermine in New York and Minnesota. Criddle and Criddle (1925:146) write concerning the vicinity of Treesbank, Manitoba, that "October, 1918.--Following a severe outbreak of mice in 1916-17, Bonaparte's weasel increased enormously and very soon reduced the rodents to comparative rarity. This resulted in a scarcity of food for the weasels, which in their turn became greatly reduced in numbers." Old World rat (_Rattus_).--Bishop (1923) found two headless rats near a nest of this species in Albany, New York. Pika (_Ochotona_).--Dixon (1931:72) at Milner Pass, Colorado, on July 20, 1931, saw an ermine, of the subspecies _muricus_, following a three-fourths grown pika by scent and outrunning the pika. The pikas worked a relay system and the weasel abandoned the trail when the fourth pika became the object of the chase. Cottontail (genus _Sylvilagus_).--Hamilton (1933:33), as noted above, found remains of cottontail in the digestive tracts of ermine that had been trapped for fur in winter. Possibly these remains were bait that had been placed at traps. Snowshoe rabbit (_Lepus americanus_).--Morse (1939:210) in a study of predation on hares and grouse in the period of notable decimation of these two game species in 1935-1936 in the Cloquet Valley State Forest, in St. Louis County, Minnesota, found that "weasel predation on hares appeared to be of very low incidence or altogether lacking." Wild birds (Class Aves).--Aldous and Manweiler (1942), as noted above, found that the remains of birds constituted five per cent by volume of the food of the ermine in winter in Minnesota. Chicken (genus _Gallus_).--Criddle and Criddle (1925:145), who published relatively extensive data on the three species of weasels of Manitoba, write that: "We have no record of Bonaparte's weasel killing poultry, and we doubt whether it ever does so." However, Soper (1919:46) investigated the excited cackling of a hen brooding chicks at night and found a solitary ermine that had killed three chicks and that had the remainder under very active scrutiny. Leopard frog (_Rana pipiens_).--One frog was found in a male ermine on November 20, 1931, in New York by Hamilton (1933:300). Fish (Class Pisces).--Aldous and Manweiler (1942) found fragments of a small fish in one of 60 stomachs of ermine from Minnesota. Earthworm (Phylum Annelida).--Osgood (1936:64), presumably at Rutland, Vermont, observed a pair of weasels from 2:15 P.M. to 5:00 P.M., in a barn and saw the female in that time make many trips for food for her young. Only earthworms were brought. Fifty traps in an adjacent, swampy field caught only one bull frog and no mice indicating that mice had been eliminated from the foraging territory of the ermine. In handling food, Dice (1921:22) noted that the Alaskan ermine did not use the feet but only the mouth. Reproduction Litters of 4, 4, 7, 7, and 8, yielding an average of 6 young per litter have been recorded from the northeastern United States by Hamilton (1933:327). He (_op. cit._:321-325) described animals one day old from New York State as being flesh-colored, having the long neck of the adult and a fine growth of white hair two millimeters in length, on the dorsal surface of the neck, that foreshadows the mane or pompadour that is prominent from the 14th to the 21st day of life. Six animals, when one day old averaged 1.7 grams in weight, which was three per cent of the weight of an adult female and one and one half per cent of the weight of an adult male. At two weeks of age the heavy brown mane stood out in marked contrast to the rest of the scantily, white-furred animal. The eyes opened on the thirty-fifth day of life. [Illustration: FIG. 24. _Mustela erminea richardsonii_, adult female, Catalogue Number 14866, U. S. Nat. Mus., Fort Chimo, Ungava. × 1/2. Ventral view of body of a pregnant female to show details of mastology. Note the five pairs of mammae characteristic of weasels, and the uneven arrangement of mammae of the two sides which is also common among weasels.] [Illustration: FIG. 25. Map showing geographic ranges of the subspecies of _Mustela erminea_ in the New World.] For rearing their young, ermines live in burrows. Bishop (1923), in Albany, New York, found a burrow occupied by four young and a pair of adults. The burrow had many galleries and contained a nest constructed of rat fur, fine grass and fragments of leaves. At Woods Lake, Fresno County, California, in early August, Ingles observed (1942) some young and at least one adult at their den which was in a burrow beneath a hollow tree. The ermines used the hollow root and the hollow tree as well as the burrow beneath. Seton (1929 (2):591) quotes S. Eldon Percival, of Barretts Rapids, Ontario, as finding the living quarters of an ermine in unthreshed grain stacked in a barn and says (_op. cit._:590) that John Burroughs dug out a nest, composed of leaves and the fur of mice and moles, two or three handfuls in bulk, from a cavity the size of a hat, arched over with a fine network of tree roots. Four instances in which the male as well as the female was present at a den containing young are cited by Hamilton (1933:328) and he gives some evidence, although not at all conclusive, that "adults customarily pair, or at least run together, at times other than the breeding season." No other writers remark on this matter. I doubt that adult ermines are associated in pairs for most of the year but such may be the case. =Mustela erminea arctica= (Merriam) Ermine Plates 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11 and 41 _Putorius arcticus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:15, pl. 2, figs. 1, 1a, and pl. 5, figs. 6, 6a, June 30, 1896. _Putorius_ (_Gale_) _erminea_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 109, 1877 (part). _Putorius richardsonii_, Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:16, pl. 1, figs. 3, 3a, pl. 2, figs. 3, 3a, and pl. 3, figs. 6, 6a, February 25, 1896 (part). _Putorius cicognanii alascensis_, Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 19:43, October 6, 1900. _Putorius kadiacensis_, Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 21:69, September 26, 1901. _Putorius audax_ Barrett-Hamilton, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 13(ser. 7):392, May, 1904, type from Discovery Bay, Ellesmere Island. _Putorius alascensis_, Heller, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 5:345, March 5, 1910. _Mustela arctica arctica_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:97, December 31, 1912; Dice, Journ. Mamm., 2:22, February 10, 1921. _Mustela arctica_, Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 30:420, March 19, 1929. _Mustela erminea arctica_, Ognev, The mammals of U.S.S.R. and adjacent countries, 3:31, 1935; Hall, Proc. California Acad. Sci, 23:559, August 22, 1944; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:179, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 14062/23010, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Point Barrow, Alaska; July 16, 1883; obtained by John Murdock, original no. 1672. The skull has a fracture, on the dorsal surface, extending from the anterior nares to the interorbital constriction and another fracture on the left margin of the nasal bone. The middle of the left zygomatic arch is broken away. Otherwise the skull is complete. Right incisor one, above and below, are missing. Otherwise the teeth are present and entire. The skin is in the brown summer pelage, well made, in a good state of preservation, and shows no obvious signs of fading. _Range._--Arctic regions of Alaska and western Canada from the Pacific Ocean to Smith Sound; from the northern limit of land south approximately to a line from Skagway through Ft. Goodhope, north shore of Great Bear Lake, south shore of Clinton Colden Lake, north shore of Baker Lake, west end of Wagner Bay to south end of Committee Bay. See figure 25 on page 95. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. polaris_ in darker upper parts (Raw Umber rather than Buckthorn Brown) and less intensely colored underparts that are Sulphur Yellow, Colonial Buff or Primrose Yellow rather than Buff Yellow; from _M. e. semplei_, in males, in that hind foot more than 44 and basilar length more than 41 and in that females average larger, the skulls of females being only about 11 per cent heavier; from _M. e. kadiacensis_ in hind foot more than 33 in females, zygomatic breadth amounting to more, rather than less, than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen irrespective of sex; from _M. e. richardsonii_, _alascensis_, _salva_ and _initis_, both sexes so far as known, by proximal two-thirds of under side of tail colored same as underparts rather than same as upper parts, and by zygomatic breadth amounting to more, rather than less, than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. _Description.--Size._--Male: Six adults from Tanana, Alaska, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 336 (310-350); length of tail, 93 (84-105); length of hind foot, 49 (45-51). Female: Five adults, one each from Alatna River, mountains near Eagle, Kamarkak in Alaska, Arctic Red River and Baillie Island in Canada, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 285 (272-304); length of tail, 77 (68-95); length of hind foot, 39 (34-43). Weight of 5 subadult males from Tanana is 206 (163-248) grams; adults would be heavier. _Color._--Winter pelage all white except tip of tail. Summer pelage with upper parts uniform in color and Raw Umber or darker (16_n_) of Ridgway and about tones 2 to 3 of Chocolate of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 343, but in autumn some specimens have more light red than tones 2 or 3. Underparts Sulphur Yellow, Colonial Buff, or Primrose Yellow, often white on chin and insides of forelegs; color of underparts extends narrowly over upper lips, distally on posterior sides of forelegs onto antipalmar surface of forefeet, onto proximal two-thirds or three-fourths of underside of tail as length of tail is measured along tail-vertebrae, on medial sides of hind legs to a point between knee and ankle but reappears on antiplantar faces of toes and in some individuals is narrowly continuous onto toes; rim of ear in some specimens with short, white or pale hairs giving ears distinct whitish border; least width of color of underparts averaging, in adult males from Alaska, 65 (46-93) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in 5 males in winter pelage from Tanana averaging 84 (70-93) mm. which is 91 (75-107) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (based on 5 adult topotypes): See measurements and plates 2-4. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 3.5 (3.1-3.9) grams; basilar length 42.5 (41.8-43.3); length of tooth-rows more than length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes averaging more than a third of basilar length; interorbital breadth more than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth more than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. Female (based on 2 adult topotypes and 2 adults and 4 subadults from central Alaska): See measurements and plates 9-11. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.5 (1.2-2.0) grams; basilar length, 35.7 (34.5-37.0); length of tooth-rows more than length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum more than 30 per cent of basilar length; interorbital breadth more than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth more than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen (except in specimens from Ellesmere Island where two distances are approximately equal). Cranial differences from _Mustela erminea kaneii_ (which occurs on the Asiatic side of Bering Strait), in both males and females, are: larger size relatively as well as actually, broader except in mastoidal region where relatively (to basilar length) the width is less; preorbital part of skull broader as well as longer. From _kadiacensis_ differences in the skull of the male are: size less; 13 per cent heavier, relatively (to basilar length) narrower across interorbital region and zygomatic arches; tympanic bullae relatively as well as actually narrower. Judging by the single available adult female of _kadiacensis_, the skull of female _arctica_ is larger in all parts measured, a fourth heavier, has tympanic bullae of almost twice the volume and the interorbital and preorbital regions, relative to the braincase, are much reduced in whatever plane measured. Differences from _richardsonii_, additional to those noted above in the formal description of the skull, between the males, are: larger in all parts measured except length of tympanic bulla which is about the same; 42 per cent heavier; relative to basilar length, skull broader with preorbital part longer as well as broader; tympanic bullae more inflated posteriorly. The same differences prevail between females except that the skull is 36 per cent heavier and in _arctica_ the length of the bulla is actually more (although relative to the basilar length less) and its greater inflation posteriorly is hardly perceptible. Differences from _alascensis_, additional to those indicated in the formal descriptions of the skulls of the two, in males, are: larger in every part measured; 95 per cent heavier; relative to the basilar length, skull broader with preorbital part longer as well as broader; measured at a point opposite the foramen lacerum anterius, the width of the pterygoid space is more, rather than less, than 40 per cent of its length. Excepting this difference in width of interpterygoid space, the same differences prevail between females, those of _arctica_ being 56 per cent heavier. Comparison with _semplei_ is made in the account of that subspecies. Skull indistinguishable from that of _polaris_. _Remarks._--The person who studies specimens of this subspecies finds labels inscribed with the names of naturalists well known to all readers of literature on the Arctic. Sir John Franklin, R. McFarlane, R. Kennicott, E. W. Nelson and R. M. Anderson are names which appear commonly. Of Alaskan specimens prepared according to modern methods, a large share was obtained by O. J. Murie and L. R. Dice. The ermine was observed in the far north by early explorers and was mentioned in the literature, almost always under the name then used for the ermine of northern Europe and Asia. In 1896 Bangs misapplied to it the name _richardsonii_ but Merriam in the same year corrected the application of this name and proposed as new for this weasel the name _arctica_, the name in use today. For almost 50 years after Merriam and Bangs wrote about it, _arctica_ was treated, nominally at least, as a species distinct from its other relatives in both the Old-and New-World. The subspecific status of _arctica_ was emphasized in 1944 (555) by the present writer in reporting in detail upon the specimens, of _Mustela erminea_, from Eastern Asia which were made available on loan by Professor B. S. Vinogradov and the late Anatol I. Argyropulo of the Leningrad Academy of Sciences. Specimens of _Mustela erminea kaneii_ from the Asiatic side of Bering Strait and _Mustela erminea arctica_ from the American side are distinguishable by slight cranial characters but in coloration and external measurements I can detect no differences. Merriam's (1896:16) mention of more golden-colored upper parts and darker underparts in American specimens than in _erminea_ was the result of his comparison of Alaskan and northern European specimens. When Old World specimens from eastern Siberia, instead of from Europe, are used the differences mentioned by Merriam do not apply. Incidentally, many Siberian specimens have the white border, on the ear, which Merriam (_loc. cit._) noted as a distinguishing feature of _arctica_. When Merriam named _arctica_ he said (1896:15, 16) "_Putorius arcticus_ . . . has heretofore been confounded with _erminea_ or _richardsonii_. . . . It is interesting to find in this country an Arctic circumpolar weasel which, though specifically distinct, is strictly the American representative of the Old World _erminea_." Bearing in mind that Merriam's concept of species and subspecies (see Merriam, 1919:6) differed from that of nearly all modern systematists it is clear from his statement quoted above that he correctly understood the zoölogical relationship obtaining between the ermines of the Old and New Worlds. Ognev (1935:31) seems to have been the first to use the name combination _Mustela erminea arctica_ for Alaskan specimens. Thereby he expresses the view adopted here, namely that the American ermine is subspecifically but not specifically distinct from the Old World animal. Whether actual intergradation (crossbreeding) ever takes place across the narrow Bering Strait I do not know. I doubt that crossbreeding occurs but considering the Diomedes (islands), that might serve as a half way stopping point, and remembering Mr. Charles Brower's oral statement to me that he had seen tracks of ermine as far as 10 miles from the northern shore of Alaska out on the ice, the possibility must be granted of an occasional individual crossing from one side to the other of Bering Strait on the ice in winter or of being carried across when the ice broke up and drifted. If transfers of this kind occurred often one would expect ermines to occur also on Saint Lawrence Island where apparently they do not. The one skin (U. S. Nat. Mus. no. 259046) seen as labeled from there, my friend, Otto William Geist ascertained was imported as a skin with other furs from Siberia. Ognev (_op. cit._) who used the name combination _Mustela erminea arctica_ for Alaskan specimens, applied it also to animals from Kamchatka. At the same time he recognized the animal from the eastern mainland of Siberia (as opposed to the peninsula of Kamchatka) under the name _Mustela erminea orientalis_ Ognev 1928. Hall (1944:556) applied the earlier proposed name _Putorius kaneii_ Baird 1857, to the animal on the eastern mainland of Asia and proposed the new name _Mustela erminea digna_ for the ermine of Kamchatka. In comparing material of these two Asiatic races with topotypes and other specimens of _M. e. arctica_ from Alaska, it seemed to me that the degree of relationship, one with the other, was about the same. _M. e. digna_ has a slightly larger preorbital region than _M. e. kaneii_, and the skull is longer. In both of these particulars _digna_ approaches closer to _arctica_. _M. e. kaneii_ has longer tympanic bullae and a wider skull than _digna_ and therein approaches more towards _arctica_ than toward _digna_. As nearly as I can make out, _digna_ and _kaneii_ show a nearly equal degree of resemblance to _arctica_. Also the degree of difference between _digna_ and _kaneii_ is about the same as between either one of them and _arctica_. In view of the above considerations the ermines of the New and Old worlds are here regarded as only subspecifically distinct. In the original description of _Putorius audax_ (here regarded as inseparable from _Putorius arcticus_ Merriam) Barrett-Hamilton erroneously designated the type locality as "Discovery Bay, North Greenland" whereas he should have written Grinnell Land [= Ellesmere Island of modern terminology] in place of Greenland. As reference to Nares (1877 and 1878) will readily reveal, Discovery Bay is near 65° W and 81° 40´ N, across Robeson Channel, to the west, from Greenland. The label on the type specimen and the specimen register in the British Museum of Natural History each designates the locality for this specimen, the type of _audax_, as Discovery Bay without mention of Greenland. The published accounts of Feilden (1878) and Nares (1877 and 1878) state that specimens of ermine were obtained at Discovery Bay. Probably H. C. Hart is the collector of the specimen; he was the naturalist attached to H. M. S. Discovery which wintered at Discovery Bay while H. W. Feilden was the naturalist attached to H. M. S. Alert which wintered a few miles southeast of Cape Sheridan, also on the eastern coast of Ellesmere Island. It is true that from these ships a trip was made into Greenland and an ermine (only one individual it seems) was obtained there, but this individual was the type specimen of _Mustela erminea polaris_, in the account of which race something of the history of this specimen is given. With the material available--and it is not entirely adequate--I can detect no features by which animals from the type locality of _audax_ can be distinguished from typical _arctica_ which latter name has priority. Intergradation with _richardsonii_ probably occurs completely across the continent. Intergrades here referred to _arctica_ include those from Fort Goodhope. The one defective specimen from Lake Lebarge, Yukon, is not certainly identified as _arctica_ and how far west of Teslin Lake the boundary-line between _arctica_ and _richardsonii_ should be drawn remains to be ascertained. The one specimen available from Hinchenbrook Island, no. 912 Mus. Vert. Zoöl., an adult female, is doubtfully referred to _arctica_ because the damaged tympanic bullae appear to be no larger than in _alascensis_, and the size of the skull is more as in _alascensis_ although intermediate between that race and _arctica_. Shape of the skull is more as in _arctica_. Possibly more nearly adequate material would show the existence on Hinchenbrook Island of an insular race differing in about the same degree from _arctica_ of the mainland as does the insular _kadiacensis_. Nevertheless, the males from farther south at Cape Yakataga are in all respects _arctica_ and this argues against near relationship to _alascensis_ of the animal on Hinchenbrook Island. The three animals seen from Yakutat Bay are so young as not to display clearly the cranial characters of the subspecies but the extension of the color of the underparts onto the underside of the tail in them and also in the skin without corresponding skull from Glacier Bay, Alaska, is as in _arctica_, the race to which they are referred, and gives substantial basis for showing the geographic range of _arctica_ as extending this far south along the Pacific Coast. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 281, arranged alphabetically by Districts and from north to south in each District. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the collection of the United States National Museum. =Alaska.= Point Barrow, 22 (1[1], 1[2], 1[75], 4[1], 7[60], 6[74]); Flaxman Island, 3; Collinson Point, 1[77]; Salirochet River, 1[77]; Hulahula River, 1[2]; 69°20´ & 141°, 1; Rampart House, 1; Yukon River, mouth of Porcupine River, 18; Alatna River, 30 mi. from mouth, 1; Koyakuk Riv., 16 mi. below Bettles, 4; Shelton, 1[75]; Kruzamepa, 1[75]; Tanana, 6; Boulder Creek, Chena River, 3; Fort Reliance, 4; Yukon River, 20 miles above Circle, 2; Mts. near Eagle, 42 (1[60]); Snake River, Nome, 1[9]; Nulato, 3; No[e]wikakat Riv., 1; Kantishna, 3; Fairbanks, 5 (1 20 mi. E and 1 33 mi. E); Richardson, 1; N. Fk. Kuskokwim R. at base of Mt. Sischo, 1; N. Fk. Kuskokwim R. at Junction with McKinley Fk., 1; Nenana Riv., mouth of Maurice Cr., 1; Ober Cr., trib. of Jarvis Cr., Delta Riv. region, 1; head of Savage Riv., near Jennie Cr., 1; Wonder Lake, 1[74]; Bear Cr., 3; Unlakleet, 3; St. Michaels, 11; 125 mi. E and a little N of Knik, Cook Inlet, on S side Matanuska Range, 1[60]; Hope, Cook Inlet, 1; Iak Lake, 1[68]; head of Behring Riv., 1; Bethel, 2; Kenai Lake, 8; Kenai Peninsula, 13 (2[2]); He[i]nchenbrook Island, 1200 ft., 1[74]; Sunshine Point, Kaliekh River, Yakataga Dist., 1[8]; Cape Yakataga, 3[8]; Yakutat Bay, 3[74]; Seward, 7; Seldovia, 22 (4[2]); Homer, 1[2]; Cape Elizabeth, 18; Akchookuk Lake, 1; Lake Weelooluk, 1; Kokwok Riv., 80 mi. up, 4; Nushagak, 1; Nushagak Riv., 1; Kolukuk, 1; Egooshik River at mouth, 1; Glacier Bay, 1; Becharof Lake, between Portage Bay and Becharof Lake, 1; Ugashik Riv., 4; Chignik, 7; East base Frosty Peak, 1; Pavlov Bay, 1[100]; Mt. Pavlof, 1[75]; Unimak Island, 2 (1[75]). =District of Franklin.= Cape Sheridan, 1[2]; Discovery Bay, Ellesmere Island, 1[7] (type specimen of _Putorius audax_ Barrett-Hamilton); Axel Heiberg Island, 1[95]; Bache Peninsula, Ellesmere Island, 1[77]; Bedford Pims Island, 4[75]; Craig Harbor, 2[77]; Cape Kellett, Banks Island, 1[77]; Franklin Isthmus, 1[95]; King William Island, 2[95]. =District of Keewatin.= Ualiak, Ogden Bay, 2[95]. =District of Mackenzie.= Baillie Island, 1[75]; Franklin Bay, 1; Langton Bay, arm of Franklin Bay, 15 mi. S of, 1[2]; Cockburn Point, 69°N, 115°W, 2[77]; Dolphin and Union Strait, 1[77]; Bernard Harbor, 2[77]; Kent Peninsula, 4[95]; Horton Riv., near Fort Anderson, 1; Fort Anderson, 6; Anderson River, 3; Barry Island, Bathurst Inlet, 1[77]; Fort McPherson, 1; Peels River, 2; Arctic Red River, 8[75]; Fort Good Hope, 6; Clinton Colden, 1[2]. =Yukon.= Kamarkak, 1[77]; Herschel Island, 1[75]; Lapierres House, 2; Forty Mile, L. T. Coal Cr., 4[74]; head of Coal Cr., 1; Macmillan River, Forks, 1; 20 mi. W. Ft. Selkirk, 1; Slims River, near Kluane, 1[75]; head of Lake Lebarge, 1. =Mustela erminea polaris= (Barrett-Hamilton) Ermine _Putorius arcticus polaris_ Barrett-Hamilton, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 13 (ser. 7):393, May, 1904. _Mustela erminea_, Manniche, Meddelelser on Grønland, 45:80-85, 1 fig., 1910. _Mustela arctica polaris_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:97, December 31, 1912. _Mustela erminea polaris_, Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:179, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Probably female, skin only; no. 78. 6. 19. 11, Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.; Gap Valley, 7-1/4 miles northeast Cape Brevoort, 82° N, 59° 20´ W, Northwestern Greenland; June 15 or 16, 1876; obtained by Lewis A. Beaumont. The skin is in full, fresh summer pelage, fairly well stuffed except for the tail which is unstuffed; the whole is in a good state of preservation. _Range._--North coast, and east coast as far south as Turner Sound (between 69 and 70 degrees) of Greenland. See figure 25 on page 95. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. arctica_ in lighter upper parts (near [_j_] Buckthorn Brown rather than Raw Umber or darker) and more intensely-colored underparts that are Buff Yellow rather than Sulphur Yellow, Colonial Buff, or Primrose Yellow; from _M. e. semplei_ in color in same fashion as from _arctica_ and in larger size of skull. _Description._--_Size._--Male: One subadult and two adults (one ad. from Scøresby Sound and other two from Ymer Island) measure as follows, the average being given first: Total length, 318 (301, 320, 315); length of tail, 72 (69, 70, 73); length of hind foot, 46.5 (44, 46, 47). Female: No measurements taken in the flesh available but hind foot, measuring 33.5 in the dried state and therefore approximately 35 in life. _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea arctica_ except that upper parts in summer near (_j_) Buckthorn Brown and tone 4 of Dark Fawn of plate 307 to tone 1 of Raw Umber of plate 301 of Oberthür and Dauthenay. Underparts Buff-Yellow. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in 3 males, 66 (57-72) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same males averaging 71 (70-72) mm. which is 99 (99-104) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. The lighter-colored upper parts and more intensely yellow underparts are the distinguishing features of the subspecies _polaris_ in comparison with other races of American _M. erminea_. _Skull._--Male (based on 5 adults from eastern Greenland): See measurements. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight more (not recorded); basilar length, 41.3 (39.0-42.4); length of tooth-rows more than length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes averaging more than a third of basilar length; interorbital breadth more than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth more than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. Female (based on 2 adults, Turner Sund and Kap Hoeg): See measurements. As described in _Mustela erminea arctica_ except that basilar length 36.8 (35.9, 37.8), and length of tooth-rows not more than length of tympanic bulla. Skulls of females not in hand when this comparison is written; only the recorded measurements are available. To me the skull of _polaris_ is indistinguishable from that of _arctica_. Therefore the comparisons made of the skull of _arctica_ with those of other subspecies will apply also for _polaris_. _Remarks._--In view of the heretofore erroneous assignment of the type locality of _Mustela erminea audax_ to Greenland, pains were taken to verify the statement by Barrett-Hamilton (1904:393) relative to the type specimen of _polaris_. Taking pains thus seemed the more worthwhile because in the specimen register at the British Museum of Natural History, there is written to the right of catalogue numbers 78-6 = 19 nos. 1-11, "Discovery Bay Presented by Mr. Hart Arctic Collection." This refers to no. 78.6.19.1. There are no ditto marks below but by implication this data applies also to nos. 1-11, which include the holotype of _polaris_. A label attached to the specimen does however give the locality as "Hall Land" "N Greenland" and another label has on it "Ermine, procured by Mr. Beaumont Greenland Lat 89° Long W 59-20." The 89° is obviously a mistake (on the label or in my transcription of it) for 82°. Reference to Nares (1877:385) reveals that Lieutenant Lewis A. Beaumont, under date of June 15 and 16, 1876, wrote in his field journal as follows: "I shot an ermine." In the daily accounts of his journey from Discovery Bay on Grinnell Land [= Ellesmere Island], across Robeson Channel and along the north coast of Greenland to the west base of Mount Farragut near 50° 30´ W he mentions the ermine only this once. For several other kinds of animals, Beaumont mentions individuals seen or shot, often with the notation that this is the second, or third seen. This mention of a kind of animal whenever seen was in accordance with orders. On page 39 of the Discovery Report (_op. cit._, 1877) in "General orders to sledging parties" by Captain G. S. Nares, Commanding the Expedition, we find ". . . note daily: IV State the animals seen and those shot." Reference to the map facing page 358 of the (_op. cit._) report reveals that on the 15th and 16th, camps were made by Beaumont in Gap Valley, each 7-3/4 miles northeast of Cape Brevoort, one camp on either side of the 82° line, and separated from each other by a distance of only 2-1/4 air line miles or 4-1/2 miles march according to his journal. These several data, then, are the bases for designating the type locality of _M. e. polaris_, in the way that I have stated it at the beginning of this account of the subspecies. The light-colored upper parts and more intensely yellow underparts well differentiate this subspecies from _arctica_ or _semplei_. Intergradation is suggested by a skin, no. 1462, Copenhagen Zoological Museum, from Axel Heibergs Land, the color of the underparts of which agrees with that of specimens from Greenland. Also the color of the upper parts is decidedly nearer that of animals from Greenland than to that of specimens from Ponds Inlet, Tulican and Gifford River. No other specimens west or south of Greenland suggest intergradation. In Greenland itself, one adult, a female from Turner Sund, East Greenland, has the underparts no more yellowish than in some specimens from Melville Peninsula. This female is darker on the back than any one of the other 10 specimens from Greenland in summer pelage examined at the same time, but even so is not so dark colored as animals from Baffin Island or other islands to the west of Greenland. The final summation of information about this subspecies would have been more precise if I had been able to have actually in hand, at the time of writing, specimens preserved in the Copenhagen Zoological Museum. The war made it impractical to secure the loan of these as previously planned. Even so, the measurements and notes on color that I obtained from this material, in 1937, in Copenhagen, suffice to prove that the subspecies _polaris_ is well set off in color from the other American subspecies of _Mustela erminea_. The best material of this subspecies is in the University Zoological Museum at Copenhagen, Denmark. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 35, arranged by locality from the western end of the north coast of Greenland, eastward and then southward down the east coast. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the Universitetets Zoologisk Museum, Købnhavn, Danmark. Gap Valley, 7-1/4 mi. NE Cape Brevoort, 82 N, 59 20´ W, 1 (British Mus.); Dragon Point, 1; Danmarks Havn (Fjeldene ved Baadskjeret, 1; lille Fjeld, 1; Lyservig, 1; harefjeldets, 4; Rypefjeldet, 1; Baadskjeret, 1; Danmarkshavn, 3) 12; Christians Havn, 1 (not found on map); Shannon Island, 4; Germania Havn, 2; Claveringoen, 1; Carls Havn, 1; Myggbukta, 2 (British Mus.); Ymer[s] Island, 2 (Mus. Comp. Zool.); Kap Hoegh, Jamesonsland, 1 (Berlin Zool. Mus.); Scoresby Sund, 3; Turner Sund, 4. =Mustela erminea semplei= Sutton and Hamilton Ermine Plates 2, 3, 4, 9, 10 and 11 _Mustela arctica semplei_ Sutton and Hamilton, Ann. Carnegie Mus., 21:79, February 13, 1932. _Mustela arctica labiata_ Degerbøl, Rept. 5th Thule Exped., 2 (no. 4):25, 1935, type from Malugsitaq, Melville Peninsula, Canada. _Mustela erminea semplei_, Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:179, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, subadult, skull and skin; no. 6470, Carnegie Mus.; Coral Inlet, South Bay, Southampton Island, Canada; October 8, 1929; obtained by George Miksch Sutton, original no. 3M. The skull has two holes in it: one is immediately above the left canine, and the other (2 × 5.5 mm.) is 3 millimeters to the left of the median line at the juncture of the frontal and parietal bones. From this last mentioned hole a fracture extends back halfway to the lambdoidal crest. The tip of the left upper canine is broken off. Otherwise the skull is complete, and the teeth all are present and entire. The skin is well made and in fresh white winter pelage except for a trace of the old brown summer pelage on the back, on the tail, on the anterior borders of the ears, and in a spot 11 mm. long and 8 mm. wide on the nose. _Range._--Baffin and Southampton islands, Melville Peninsula and west side of Hudsons Bay as far south as Eskimo Point. See figure 25 on page 95. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. arctica_, in that, in males, hind foot less than 44 and basilar length less than 41 and in that females average smaller, their skulls being only about 10 per cent lighter; from _M. e. polaris_ in darker upper parts (Raw Umber rather than Buckthorn Brown) and less-intensely-colored underparts that are Sulphur Yellow, Colonial Buff or Primrose Yellow rather than Buff Yellow, and in lesser size in the same fashion as from _arctica_; from _M. e. richardsonii_, of both sexes, in that proximal two-thirds of under side of tail colored same as underparts rather than same as upper parts and by least interorbital breadth amounting to more, instead of less, than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Ten adults and subadults, from Southampton Island, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 282 (267-318); length of tail, 77 (59-87); length of hind foot, 40 (38-43). Female: Four subadults from Southampton Island yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 271 (256-288); length of tail, 71 (69-74); length of hind foot, 35 (33-38). _Color._--As described in _M. e. arctica_ except that least width of color of underparts averaging, in 7 males, 59 (45-81) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in 19 male topotypes averaging 72 (64-83) mm. which is 91 (75-122) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (based on 2 adults and 10 subadults from Southampton Island): See measurements and plates 2-4. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 2.0 (in one subadult) grams; basilar length, 37.5 (35.7-39.9); length of tooth-rows more than length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum more than a third of basilar length; interorbital breadth more than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth more than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. Female (based on 1 adult and 4 subadults from Southampton Island): See measurements and plates 9-11. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.35 (in one adult) grams; basilar length, 34.2; breadth of rostrum more than 30 per cent of basilar length; interorbital breadth more than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth more or less than (approximately same as) distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. In comparison with _richardsonii_, the skulls of males averaged smaller in every measurement taken except breadth of rostrum and interorbital breadth which are more, and zygomatic breadth and length of inner lobe of M1 which are approximately the same; skull about 20 per cent lighter; in relation to basilar length, preorbital region longer and broader in every part measured. Female averages larger, in every part measured; 23 per cent heavier; in relation to basilar length, every other measurement more. It is noteworthy that the skull of the male is smaller and the skull of the female larger than in _richardsonii_. Differences from _arctica_ are: Size less, in each sex; males about 40 per cent and females 10 per cent lighter; in males, skull more rounded in outline as viewed from above because zygomatic arches arise less abruptly from skull; in males tympanic bullae do not project so far ventrally from squamosal floor of braincase; with these exceptions, skull of _semplei_ can be said to be a smaller edition of that of _arctica_. From _polaris_, _semplei_ differs, cranially, in the same way as from _arctica_. _Remarks._--There is a slight increase in size of ermines toward the north which probably is the result of intergradation between _semplei_ and _arctica_. Specimens from the northern part of Baffin Island are larger than those from farther south. Specimens from the mainland west of Southampton Island may owe their smaller (than in _arctica_) size to intergradation with _richardsonii_ almost as much as to intergradation with _semplei_. Degerbøl's name _Mustela arctica labiata_ was applied to specimens, which to me are indistinguishable from topotypes of _Mustela arctica semplei_, which latter name has three years priority. Degerbøl (1935:34) states that Malugsitaq, Melville Peninsula, is the type locality. He did not designate a type specimen. Reference to his account (_op. cit._:26) shows that he lists five specimens from the type locality, or more precisely as "Malugsitaq, Lyon Inlet. 5 summer skins. [M] [M] June-July 1922. P. F., CN. 2262-2266." On labels attached to these specimens, "Lyon Inlet" is replaced with "Melville Peninsula." On July 28, 1937, Degerbøl and I together examined these specimens in his laboratory. Because no. 2262 is first mentioned I regard it as the type. It is a juvenal male, skull and skin, no. 2262 (20.5 1931.8), Univ. Zool. Mus. Copenhagen, obtained in June or July of 1922 by Peter Freuchen whose original number was / s 2324. The specimen is one of 5 males taken at the same locality by the same collector and they bear identical data as to date. They look to be of the same litter for all are roughly of the same size and each retains milk teeth. Additional females, with external measurements carefully taken, are much needed from Southampton Island, because the available females are insufficient to show the degree of sexual dimorphism. If the meager data available be accepted, the difference in size between the two sexes is less than in other subspecies. My own feeling is that a better sample of females would show the secondary sexual difference in size to be more than available data indicate. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 183, arranged from north to south by islands, or regions attached to the mainland, and from north to south in each region or island. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. =Baffin Island.= Pond[s] Inlet, 8; (5[77]); Tulukan (sometimes spelled Tulukat), 6; Cape Eglinton, 1[7]; Gifford River, 2; Clyde, 3[86]; head of Cumberland Sound, 1[91]; Pangnirtung, 2[77]; Kingnait Fiord, 1[91]; Kikkulin Island, Cumberland Sound, 1[7]; Blacklead Island, Cumberland Gulf, 1; merely Cumberland Gulf, 1[7]; merely east Baffin Island, 34[7]; Cape Dorset, 2[2]; SW coast of Baffin Island, 1[75]. =Melville Peninsula.= Iglulik, 3; Pingerqalik, 2; Kingadjuaq, Amitsog, 3; Rae Isthmus, 3; Lyons Inlet, 13(9[2]); M[N?] alugsitaq, Lyon Inlet, 5; Itibdjeriang, 2; Repulse Bay, 27 (22[2], 2[19]); Drichetts Cove, Hurd Channel, 1[2]; Gore Bay, 1; Haviland Bay, 1; Cleveland Harbor, Frozen Strait, 1. =Southampton Island and adjacent islands.= Danish Island, 11; Vansittart Island, 4. Southampton Island: Coral Inlet, 19 (1[77], 18[9]); Prairie Point, 1[9]; Munnimunnek Point, South Bay, 5[9]; Native Point, 1[9]; Ranger Rim, 1[9]; Koodloatok (not found on map), 1[77]; merely Southampton Island, 1[77]; Gore Bay, 1[2]; Fox Channel, 2[2]. =Mainland to west of Southampton Island.= Cape Fullerton, 3 (1[77], 2[2]); Chesterfield Inlet, 4 (1[77], 1[9]); Tavane, 1[77]; N of Wagner Inlet, 1; Eskimo Point, 1[86]. =Mustela erminea kadiacensis= (Merriam) Ermine Plates 2, 3, 4, 9, 10 and 11 [_Putorius arcticus_] subspecies _kadiacensis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:16, June 30, 1896. _Putorius kadiacensis_, Preble, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:169, August 10, 1898. _Mustela kadiacensis_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:97, December 31, 1912. _Mustela erminea kadiacensis_, Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:179, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, subadult, skull and skin; no. 65290, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Kodiak Island, Alaska; April 25, 1894; obtained by B. J. Bretherton, original no. 304. The skull lacks the basioccipital, part of the basiphenoid, the occipital region on the right side and the posterior part of the right tympanic bulla. The third, upper, left incisor is missing. Otherwise the teeth all are present and entire. The white, winter skin is only moderately well stuffed but in a good state of preservation. The spring coat is appearing along the back. This coat is visible at only two places unless the hair be parted when the new brown pelage, which is coming in, can be seen all along the midline of the back. _Range._--Kodiak Island, Alaska. See figure 25 on page 95. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. arctica_ in hind foot less than 33 in females and in zygomatic breadth amounting to less, instead of more, than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen irrespective of sex. _Description._--_Size._--Male: One adult and 3 subadults yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 341 (318-360); length of tail, 93 (86-102); length of hind foot, 47 (44-49). Female: An adult measures: Total length, 258; length of tail, 70; length of hind foot, 31. _Color._--As described in _M. e. arctica_, except that least width of color of underparts averaging 54 (40-83) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in 3 males in summer pelage averaging 80 (70-90) mm. which is 85 (69-96) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (based on 2 adults): See measurements and plates 2-4. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight 3.1 grams; basilar length, 42.6 (42.1-43.2); length of tooth-rows more than length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes averaging more than a third of basilar length; interorbital breadth more than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus. Female (based on one adult, no. 98042): See measurements and plates 9-11. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.2 grams; basilar length, 33.0; length of tooth-rows more than length of tympanic bulla. Comparison with _arctica_ has been made in the account of that subspecies. Although _richardsonii_ and _kadiacensis_ are described as having the zygomatic breadth less than the distance between the last upper molar and jugular foramen, the zygomatic breadth is considerably more in _kadiacensis_ than in _richardsonii_; consequently the two dimensions are more nearly equal than in _richardsonii_. Except for being slightly narrower, the skull of _kadiacensis_ is only a slightly smaller edition of that of _arctica_. _Remarks._--When naming the weasel from the mainland of Alaska as new, under the name _Putorius arcticus_, Merriam (1896:16) wrote: "A small form of _arcticus_ occurs on Kadiak Island. . . . It is probably worthy of recognition as subspecies _kadiacensis_." The informality of this description possibly was in part due to the describer's recognition of the fact that the degree of difference between _arcticus_ and the insular _kadiacensis_ was slight. Specimens collected after Merriam proposed the name for the weasel of Kodiak Island show the animal there to be less different from _arctica_ of the adjacent mainland than he thought; small size is the most pronounced distinction of _kadiacensis_ and Merriam's male type specimen is smaller than any of the five additional males saved from Kodiak Island since that time. Even so the differences fully warrant subspecific recognition, in my opinion, although _kadiacensis_ is not a strongly differentiated race. More adult females are needed to ascertain the norm of form and size for that sex. If the one female known is typical, the difference from _arctica_ is more pronounced in females than in males. The lesser size of _kadiacensis_ can hardly be credited entirely to the effect of insularity, for animals from the southern part of the mainland, on Kenai Peninsula for example, are smaller than those from central and northern Alaska and provide evidence of intergradation of a sort between _kadiacensis_ and _arctica_. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 9, all from Kodiak Island, Alaska, and unless otherwise indicated in the U. S. National Museum. Karluk, 1 (Stanford Univ.); Kodiak, 7; Kodiak Island, 1 (Field Mus. Nat. Hist.). =Mustela erminea richardsonii= Bonaparte Ermine Plates 2, 3, 4, 9, 10 and 11 _Mustela richardsonii_ Bonaparte, Charlesworth's Mag. Nat. Hist., 2:38, 1838. _Putorius cicognanii_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 161, 1858 (part). _Putorius richardsonii_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 164, 1858 (part-Halifax, N. S.). _Putorius_ (_Gale_) _erminea_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 109, 1877 (part). _Putorius richardsoni_, Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:16, February 25, 1896. _Putorius cicognani richardsoni_, Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:11, June 30, 1896. _Putorius (Arctogale) cicognanii cicognanii_, Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:18, February 28, 1899. _Putorius microtis_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 19:563, October 10, 1903. Type from Shesley, British Columbia. _Putorius arcticus imperii_ Barrett-Hamilton, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 13(ser. 7):392, May, 1904. Type from Fort Simpson, Mackenzie, Canada. _Putorius cicognanii richardsoni_, Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 27:231, October 26, 1908. _Mustela microtis_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912. _Mustela cicognanii mortigena_ Bangs, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoöl., 54:511, July, 1913. Type from Bay St. George, Newfoundland. _Mustela cicognanii_, Sheldon, Journ. Mamm., 13:201, August 9, 1932. _Mustela cicognanii richardsonii_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:95, December 31, 1912; Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:368, November 5, 1934. _Mustela cicognanii cicognanii_, Hall, Canadian Field-Nat., 52:108, October, 1938. _Mustela erminea richardsonii_, Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:77, February 27, 1945; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:180, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, age unknown, skin; no. 43.3.3.4, British Museum of Natural History; probably from Fort Franklin, Canada; presented to British Museum on or before March 3, 1843; may be the type. In September, 1937, when I searched in the British Museum for the skull, I found no trace of it nor mention of it in catalogues. The skin is in white, winter pelage, mounted on a pedestal. See under remarks for _Mustela e. cicognanii_ for reasons for and reasons against regarding this specimen as the holotype. _Range._--Hudsonian and Canadian life-zones of the greater part of Canada from the Atlantic to the Pacific. See figure 25 on page 95. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. arctica_, _polaris_, _semplei_ and _haidarum_, in both sexes, by proximal two-thirds of under side of tail colored same as upper parts rather than same as underparts, and interorbital breadth less, rather than not less, than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; from _M. e. bangsi_, in that, in both sexes, least width of color of underparts averages two-fifths rather than about a third of greatest width of color of upper parts, and in that skulls of males are a fourth heavier, basilar length averaging more than 40; from _M. e. cicognanii_, in both sexes, in that least width of color of underparts averages two-fifths instead of less than a third of greatest width of color of upper parts, in females by 20 per cent heavier skull (1.1 versus 0.92), in males by skull more, rather than less, than 1.9 grams, and basilar length more, instead of less, than 38; from _M. e. invicta_, in males, by skull more, instead of less, than 1.9 grams; mastoid breadth more, instead of less, than 19.9 mm.; depth of skull at anterior margin of braincase more, instead of less, than 12.4 mm.; in females, by same measurement of depth more, instead of less, than 10.1, and weight of skull averaging more, instead of less, than one gram; from _M. e. fallenda_ in both sexes upper lips white rather than brown, in males, hind foot more than 41, basilar length more than 38.3, in females hind foot more than 29, basilar length more than 31.4, and breadth of rostrum amounting to less, instead of more, than 30 per cent of basilar length; from _M. e. alascensis_ in males in that black tip of tail more than 43, total length more than 320, tympanic bullae more than 14 and longer than tooth-row rather than less than 14 mm. and sometimes shorter than tooth-row, females not individually distinguishable. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Four adults (Fort Franklin, Fort Simpson, Mts. W Fort Nelson, and Govt. Hay Camp, Wood Buffalo Park) yield average and respective measurements as follows: Total length, 331 average (340, 325, 330, 328); length of tail, 93 (102, 91, 93, 87); length of hind foot, 45 (48, 43, 45, 44). Weight of 4 adults from the Belcher Islands is 175 (135-180) grams. Of 10 subadults from Belcher Islands it is 119 (92-137) grams. Female: Three adults from Great Slave Lake (Willow River, Fairchild Point, and Fort Resolution) yield average and respective measurements as follows: Total length, 252 (237, 238, 282); length of tail, 69 (63, 60, 85); length of hind foot, 32 (31, 32, 34). Corresponding, average measurements for three adults from Glacier Lake are 240, 60, 32 and for 3 adults from the Athabasca Delta, 243, 65, 30. Weight of 8 subadults from the Belcher Islands is 69 (64-78) grams. Weight of adults would be more. _Color._--Winter pelage all white except tip of tail. Summer pelage with upper parts uniform in color and darker (16_n_) than Raw Umber, and about tones 3 to 4 of Chocolate of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 343. Underparts Sulphur Yellow, Colonial Buff, or Primrose Yellow, often nearly white on chin and insides of forelegs; color of underparts extends narrowly over upper lips, distally on posterior sides of forelegs onto antipalmar faces of toes and sometimes over most of antipalmar surfaces of forefeet, on medial sides of hind legs to a point between knee and ankle but reappears on antiplantar faces of toes and in some individuals is narrowly continuous onto toes. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in a series of 12 males from the Athabasca Lake Region, 40 (25-54) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail averaging 56 (45-63) mm. in 5 adult males from same region and thus 60 (48-70) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. From _arctica_, _polaris_, _semplei_ and _kadiacensis_, _richardsonii_ differs in: Color darker; ventral side of tail same color as upper parts; light-colored underparts a fifth narrower; black tip of tail by actual measurement a fifth shorter and averaging less than two-thirds rather than more than four-fifths of length of tail-vertebrae. From _cicognanii_, _richardsonii_ differs in that the underparts are a fourth wider and in some specimens more brightly colored. The width of the underparts is likewise a fourth more than in _bangsi_. In _invicta_ the underparts are not so brightly colored as in some specimens of _richardsonii_. From _fallenda_, _richardsonii_ differs in that the upper parts often are lighter colored, upper lips white rather than colored like upper parts, and underparts as wide again. In comparison with _alascensis_, the black tip of the tail averages three-fifths rather than a half of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (based on 6 adults from 3 miles south of Big Island, Great Slave Lake): See measurements and plates 2-4; weight, 2.5 (2.1-2.9) grams; basilar length, 40.9 (39.6-43.7); length of tooth-rows less than length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes less than a third of basilar length; interorbital breadth less than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth less than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. Female (based on 4 adults: from Willow River, 1; Fort Resolution, 1; Athabasca Delta, 2; and 2 subadults, one from 3 mi. S Big Island and one from 15 mi. above Smith Landing): See measurements and plates 9-11; weight, 1.1 (0.9-1.4) grams; basilar length, 33.1 (31.5-34.2); length of tooth-rows less than length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than 30 per cent of basilar length; interorbital breadth less than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth less than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. The skull of the female averages 56 per cent lighter than that of the male. Comparison of the skull with that of _arctica_, _polaris_, _semplei_, _kadiacensis_, _haidarum_, _cicognanii_, _bangsi_, _invicta_, _fallenda_, and _alascensis_ is made in the accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--_M. e. richardsonii_ has the most extensive geographic range of any American race of _erminea_, is centrally located with respect to the other races, is more abundantly represented by study specimens in zoölogical collections than any other race, and is a sort of average for the species as a whole in most structural features. Therefore _richardsonii_ is used as a standard of comparison and accordingly is more fully described than any one of the other races each of which by reference to _richardsonii_ is described in comparative fashion. This comparative description has the virtue of more clearly indicating differences between subspecies and also makes for brevity. John Richardson, Bernard R. Ross, and names of their companions, as written on the labels of the older specimens recall to the student's mind early explorations of the north country. Edward A. Preble obtained important specimens at several places and in recent years J. Kenneth Doutt and G. G. Goodwin have made the reviser's work easier by preparing specimens in series from areas not previously well represented. The nomenclatural history of this subspecies begins with references in the literature that identify the animal as the Old World species, _Mustela erminea_--an identification which the study here reported upon shows to have been correct in the specific, although not in the subspecific, sense. Richardson, for example, in his "Fauna Boreali-Americana" published in 1829 so identified the animal. In 1838, Bonaparte, basing his description on Richardson's account of 1829, proposed the new name _richardsonii_. Richardson himself, the following year in the "Zoology of Beechey's Voyage," accepted Bonaparte's name and it has been applied to the animal in the central part of the northern timber-belt of North America ever since, except as authors used the name _Mustela erminea_ in the belief that _richardsonii_ was not distinct from _erminea_. The north and south boundaries of the range assigned to _richardsonii_ varied according to the notions of the particular writer who was employing the name. Until Merriam in 1896 named _arctica_ as distinct, animals from the far north were generally included under the name _richardsonii_ along with populations to which the latter name now is applied. Because _richardsonii_ grades gradually into the smaller _cicognanii_ of more southern occurrence the boundary between the two has been set farther north by one writer and farther south by another, depending probably upon what the writer felt was the halfway point in size. This point of course depended upon the samples selected as typical of _richardsonii_ on the north and _cicognanii_ on the south. Because Bangs, in 1896, took as representative of _richardsonii_ the far northern and hence large-sized animals (now separated as _M. e. arctica_), his halfway point in size between them and the small _cicognanii_ of New England naturally fell farther north than it would have had he used as representative of _richardsonii_ specimens from places south of the range of _arctica_. In 1903 J. A. Allen proposed the name _Putorius microtis_ for a specimen from Shesley, northwestern British Columbia, a place approximately 50 miles northwest of Telegraph Creek. Considering the great disparity in size between this one specimen and the other larger specimens of normal size, from the general region, available to Allen at that time, it is not surprising that he thought two full species were represented. In 1943 when G. G. Goodwin called to my attention two males, as small as the type of _microtis_ and taken by him approximately 300 miles east of Shesley, in the valley between the Musqwa and Prophet rivers, I for a second time examined all available specimens and data with the possibility in mind that _microtis_ was a species or subspecies distinct from _M. e. richardsonii_, but again concluded that only one subspecies was involved because no character except size was found to distinguish the large from the small individuals of a given sex and there are, preserved from northern British Columbia, individuals of intermediate size. _Putorius microtis_ Allen seems to have been based on an individual of _M. e. richardsonii_ near the lower limit of size for that subspecies and _microtis_ is regarded as a synonym. Barrett-Hamilton in 1904 named the animal at "Fort Simpson, British Columbia" _Putorius arcticus imperii_. Preble (1908:232) pointed out that Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie undoubtedly was the place intended, and arranged _imperii_ as a synonym of _M. e. richardsonii_. The type specimen of _imperii_ was stated to have been received from B. M. Ross who is known to have collected specimens, including specimens of this species (now in U. S. Nat. Mus.), at Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie. I know of no Fort Simpson in British Columbia. If, as seems improbable, Port Simpson, British Columbia, was the place that Barrett-Hamilton intended to designate (where so far as I know Ross did not collect), the name _imperii_ still would seem to be a synonym of _richardsonii_ because _richardsonii_ seems to be the race of weasel at Port Simpson. In proposing the name _Putorius arcticus imperii_, Barrett-Hamilton stressed that the weasel, which he was naming, was a subspecies of _P. arcticus_, gave characters which applied perfectly to _richardsonii_ but made no reference to _richardsonii_. Barrett-Hamilton did not refer to _richardsonii_ possibly because he relied on Merriam's classification of 1896 wherein _richardsonii_ is treated as a species distinct from _arctica_. Merriam, it will be remembered, held that slight degree of morphological difference rather than intergradation was the criterion for subspecies. Although I have no record of having examined the type specimen of _imperii_ I have but little hesitancy in treating it as a synonym, and would have no hesitancy at all in so doing if the type was certainly known to have been obtained at Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie. The name _Mustela cicognanii mortigena_ Bangs, 1913, proposed for the ermine of Newfoundland, is placed as a synonym of _richardsonii_ only after repeated, detailed comparisons. In advance of study I supposed that the isolation of the ermine, in Newfoundland, had contributed to its differentiation, which, however, the original describer, Bangs, indicated was slight. Bangs was a careful worker and I am confident that the differences he described really existed between his specimens. Material more nearly adequate than he had from the mainland, shows the males, so far as my measurements and comparisons go, to be in nowise different from those in Newfoundland. Females in Newfoundland may have, on the average, slightly longer hind feet than on the opposite mainland but I am not certain that they do and even if there is a slight difference in this regard as suggested by available data, I think it insufficient basis, alone, for according subspecific status to the insular animal. The name _richardsonii_ was based by Bonaparte on Richardson's description which in turn was drawn from a specimen taken at Fort Franklin, that thus becomes the type locality. It is fortunate that Preble, in 1903, succeeded in taking specimens there because the place is near the belt of intergradation between _arctica_ and _richardsonii_. Of Preble's two adult males (see Preble, 1908:232) I have examined no. 133847, which is in transitional pelage and therefore gives no clue in so far as coloration is concerned, as to affinities with _arctica_ versus _richardsonii_. Specimens in the summer pelage are much to be desired from Fort Franklin. Regardless of what their coloration may be, specimen no. 133847, in external measurements and most certainly in cranial features is of the race to the south and not the race that Merriam named _arctica_. Because all specimens from localities to the south of Fort Franklin likewise differ from _arctica_ of the barren grounds, considerable additional confidence is felt in allocating the name _richardsonii_ to the animal which ranges from Fort Franklin southward rather than to the one, here designated _arctica_, that occurs to the northward of Fort Franklin. Although in most structural features _richardsonii_ is a sort of average for the American races of the species, it is the extreme in high degree of sexual dimorphism. The difference in size between the males and females is greater than in any other race except possibly _M. e. kadiacensis_ in which so little is known of the female that the difference between the two sexes cannot be accurately judged. It will aid in understanding the high degree of secondary sexual difference in _richardsonii_ to visualize two kinds of weasels distributed over the northern half of the continent, thinking now of the geographic area in America occupied by the whole species _Mustela erminea_ of which the subspecies _richardsonii_ is only a part. One of the two kinds of weasel is the male ermine and the other the female. The decrease in size of the male, as measured by the weight of the skull, is in the ratio of 7 in the north to 2 in the south. This decrease is gradual whereas the corresponding decrease from 3 to 1 in the female is not gradual; half of the decrease in the female occurs in the short north to south distance comprised in the belt of intergradation, along the northern boundary of _richardsonii_, between it and _arctica_. As a result _richardsonii_ is composed of females with medium sized skulls and males with relatively large skulls, the ratio by weight being approximately 5 to 2. The disproportion in races of ermines both to the north and to the south is less. Actually in the north (_arctica_) the approximate ratio by weight is 2-1/3:1; in _richardsonii_, 2-1/2:1; in the south (_muricus_), 1-2/5:1. Indicated in still another way in _richardsonii_ the skull of the female is 56 per cent lighter than that of the male and the skull of the male is 127 per cent heavier than that of the female. Intergradation with races whose ranges border on that of _richardsonii_ is complete. On the northern boundary of the range of _richardsonii_ along the western shore of Hudsons Bay for perhaps a hundred miles north of Eskimo Point, there are intergrades with _arctica_. As judged by their lesser size, individuals of this population are influenced by the _semplei_-stock. Otherwise, intergradation on the northern boundary, with _arctica_, is abrupt whereas intergradation at the south, between _richardsonii_ and _cicognanii_, is gradual. Intergradation is similarly gradual between _richardsonii_ on the one hand and _bangsi_ and _invicta_ on the other. By speaking of the intergradation as abrupt, it is intended, in this instance, to indicate that in a relatively narrow belt, between the geographic ranges of _arctica_ and _richardsonii_, ermines intermediate in color-pattern, shape of skull, and size, bridge the gap between the ermine of the tundra (_arctica_) and that in the forest belt (_richardsonii_). It may be added that the degree of difference between the two subspecies just mentioned is approximately twice as much as between _richardsonii_ and _cicognanii_. The intergradation between _cicognanii_ and _richardsonii_ is gradual. By gradual it is meant that the change from one kind to the other is achieved in a wider area where ermines from locality A do not differ appreciably from those taken at, say, locality B, 50 miles farther south, although ermines from A and those from a third locality, C, say, 130 miles south, clearly show differences indicative of geographic variation. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 1035, as follows. Arranged alphabetically by provinces and districts and from north to south in each province or district. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the United States National Museum. =Alberta.= 15 mi. above Smith Landing, 2; Fort Smith, 2 (1[77]); Smith Landing, 2; LaButte, Fitzgerald, 1[77]; Egg Lake, 15 mi. NW Ft. Chippewyan, 4 (2[75]); Lobstick Island, near Ft. Chippewyan, 1; Athabasca Delta, 9 mi. above mouth of main branch, 1; Athabasca Delta, Long Creek, 1 mi. W of main branch, 2; Ft. Chippewyan, 1; Peace Point, 1[75]; 18 mi. below Peace Point, 1; Embarass River, 7 (4[75]); Athabasca River, 1[2]; Ft. McMurray, 1; Athabasca River, Middle Rapid, 2; 60 mi. above Grand Rapids, 1; Boiler Rapid, 1; Entrance, 3[2]; St. Albert, 2. =British Columbia.= Fort Halket, 1; Shesley, 1[2]; Dorothy Lake, Mts. W of Ft. Nelson, 4000 ft., 3[2]; valley between Musqwa and Prophet rivers, 3800 ft., SW of Ft. Nelson, 2[2]; Sikanni Chief Riv., 1; Telegraph Creek, 7 (6[2]); head of Bad River, 2350 ft., on lake, 1; Six Mile, 5[74]; Tuchodi Lake, 2[2]; Iskoot River, 2[14]; Level Mtn., 1[2]; head of Tatletuey Lake, 12 mi. W Thudade Lake, 2; Robb Lake District, 5[2]; Ft. Grahame, 12 (2[77]); Sustut Mts., on trib. Sustu Riv., 25 mi. SE Thudade Lake, 2; Laurier Pass, 1; Omineca Mts., 1[85]; Point Creek and Clearwater River, 2; Kispiox Valley, 23 mi. N Hazelton, 5[74]; Hazelton, 3[77]; NW arm Tacla Lake, 7; N end Babine Lake, 1; Pt. Simpson, 1; Metlakatla, 1; Stuart Lake, 27; S Fk. Salmon Riv., 1[77]; mouth Salmon Riv., 1[77]; Vanderhoof, 4[77]; Wistaria P. O., near Burns Lake, 1[77]; Kruger Lake, 9[74]; Indianpoint Lake, 23[74]; Quesnel, 1; Ahbau Lake, 3[74]; Isaacs Lake, 6[74]; Beaver Pass, 56[74]; Lightning Creek, 54[74]; LaFontaine, 16[74]; Barkerville, 1[74]; Barkerville District, 34[74]; Swift River, 27[74]; Cunningham Creek, 34[74]; Itcha Mts., 1[31]; Anahim Lake, 1[74]; Chezacut Lake, 8[31]; Kleena Kleene, 18[74]; 158 mi. House (Cariboo on labels), 3[60]; Rivers Inlet, 6 (5[94]; 1[77]); Horse Lake, 4[22]; Kingcome Inlet, 8[77]; Loughborough Inlet, 7[77]; McGillivary Creek, 1; Camel Back, Pemberton Meadows, 1[31]; Arrow Rapids, mainland opposite Stuart Island, 1[77]; Butte Inlet, 9[77]; Green Lake, 1[31]; Mt. Whistler, 1[86]; Alta Lake, 2 (1[31]; 1[21]); Mons, 1[31]. =Keewatin.= Foot of Baker Lake, 1. =Labrador.= Okak, 3[75]; Nain, 22 (11[75]; 11[60]); Hopedale, 24[75]; Kippokak Bay, 7[75]; Ailik, 1; Makkovik, 26[75]; Labrador, 55° N, 3; Hamilton Inlet, 2[75]; NW River Post, interior Labrador, 5[1]; Cartwright, 5; Paradise, 12; Sandwich Bay (Muddy Bay, 6; North River, 6), 12; Battle Harbor, 1[7]; St. Marys River, 3[7]; Black Bay, 16 (15[75]; 1[76]); Lanceau Loup, 17 (1[75]). =Mackenzie.= Ft. Franklin, 1[2]; Ft. Rae, 12; Fairchild Point, 6[9]; Fort Simpson, 10 (2[2]); Hot Springs (61°, 125°), 1[2]; Willow River, near Ft. Providence, 1; 35 mi. N Big Island, 7; Big Island, 9; 3 mi. S Big Island, 7; Ft. Resolution, 9; 100 mi. N Ft. Smith, 2; 75 mi. NW Ft. Smith, 1; Ft. Liard, 2; Sucker Creek, 4[77]; Govt. Hay Camp, Wood Buffalo Park, 2[77]. =Manitoba.= Egg Is., Rabbit Point, 1; Ft. Churchill, 1; Ft. York, W Hudsons Bay 57° N, 1[7]; Oxford House, 11; Gypsumville, 1[86]; Lake St. Martin. =New Brunswick.= _Restigouche County_: Bird Bait, north Camp, 6 mi. NE Nictau Lake, 2[59]; Red Brook, Tobique River, 1[59]. _Victoria County_: Trousers Lake, 3[2]. _Glouchester County_: Youghall, 1[77]; Miramichi Road, 15 mi. from Bathurst, 13[77]. _York County_: Scotch Lake, 2. =Newfoundland.= Nicholsville, 3[75]; Bay St. George, 48 (26[75]; 2[7]; 1[9]); Codroy, 9 (7[75]; 2[60]). =Nova Scotia.= _Victoria County_: Cape North, 2[77]. _Inverness County_: Fizzleton, 3[77]. _Richmond County_: St. Peters, 1[77]. _Pictou County_: Glengary, 1[4]. _Guysborough County_: East Roman Valley, 5[77]. _Kings County_: Wolfville, 5 (3[74], 2[77]); near Wolfville, 1[77]. _Halifax County_: Hammond Plains, 1. _Annapolis County_: Annapolis Royal, 1. _Digby County_: Digby, 3. No locality more definite than Nova Scotia, 3. =Ontario.= Severn River, 1[77]; R. C. Mission, Yellow Creek, near mouth of Albany, 2[86]; Ft. Albany, 4; Charlton Island, 1; Moose Factory, 10 (7[9]; 3[77]); Abitibi, 1[4]. =Quebec.= Fort Chimo, 10[77]; Ungava Forks, 1; Belcher Islands, Hudsons Bay (Tukarak Island, 29; Eskimo Harbor, 2; Innetalling Island, 1; S tip Gibson Peninsula, 2; Flaherty Island, 1), 35[9]; Cairn Island, Richmond Gulf, 2[9]; Manitounuk Sound, 4[9]; about 15 mi. S Great Whale River, 1[9]; Ft. George, 1[9]; Charlton Island, 1[9]; Waswonaby Post, 1[77]; Mistassinnay Post, 3[77]; Godbout, 36; Mt. Albert, 7 (4[78]; 3[2]); St. Anne River, 1500 ft., 1[77]; Ste. Anne des Monts, 3[2]; "Federal Mine," 1[77]; Berry Mountain Camp, 1[77]; Berry Mountain Brook, 1[2]; Cascapedia River (Middle Camp, 2; Tracadie, 2; Square Forks, 1), 5[2]. =Saskatchewan.= Poplar Point, Athabasca Lake, 1[75]; Fair Point, Athabasca Lake, 1[75]; Emma Lake, 1[74]; Harper Lake, 2[77]; Livelong, 3[55]; Fairholme, 2[74]; Touchwood Hills, 2[7]; Indian Head, 1[86]. =Yukon.= Hoole Canyon, 1; Teslin Lake (30 mi. N of, 1; Lake itself, 1; "near" the lake, 1; Mts. "near," 2; Snowden Mts., 2; Teslin Post, 2; Eagle Bay, 1; Morley Bay, 2; Nisutlin River, 1; Nisutlin Flats, 2; Wolf River, 1; Wolf Lake, 5), 21[77]. =Mustela erminea cicognanii= Bonaparte Ermine Plates 2, 3, 4, 9, 10 and 11 _Mustela cigognanii_ [_sic._] Bonaparte, Charlesworth's Mag. Nat. Hist., 2:37, 1838. _Putorius vulgaris_, Emmons, Quadrupeds of Massachusetts, p. 44, 1840. _Mustela pusilla_ DeKay, Zool. of New York, Pt. 1, Mammalia, p. 34, pl. 14, fig. 1, 1842. Type from New York State. _Putorius pusillus_, Audubon and Bachman, Vivip. Quadrupeds of N. Amer., 2:100, pl. 64, 1851 (pl. 1846) and erroneously labeled _Mustela fusea_, as pointed out on p. 102 of text. _Putorius cicognanii_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 161, 1858. _Putorius richardsoni cicognani_, Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10; 18, figs. 4, 4a of pls. 1 and 2, and pl. 3, figs. 2, 2a, February 25, 1896 (part). _Putorius cicognani_, Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:10, pl. 2, figs. 3, 3a, 4, 4a and pl. 5, figs. 2, 2a, June 30, 1896. _Mustela cicognanii cicognanii_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:95, December 31, 1912; Bishop, Journ. Mamm., 4:26, February 9, 1923. _Mustela cicognanii_, Jackson, Journ. Mamm., 3:15, February 8, 1922. _Mustela erminea cicognanii_, Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:77, February 27, 1945; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:180, July 19, 1945. _Type._--No type specimen designated; type locality, eastern United States. The restriction of the type locality from the general region of northeastern North America, as given by Merriam (1896:10) to the less inclusive area of the eastern United States as earlier given by Bangs (1896:18) is supported by Bonaparte's remarks in connection with the proposal of the name _cicognanii_. He says (1838:37-38) "During my stay in the United States, I only saw a small species of _Mustela_, very common throughout the Union . . . ." This animal constituted basis for the name _cicognanii_ which name, he points out, is bestowed in order that the Americans ". . . should have constantly under their eye, this very common little animal, as the perpetual memorial . . ." to the Italian Governmental representative ". . . who, for upwards of fourteen years had served, in diplomatic and commercial concerns, . . . two countries, . . . so different . . . as the Roman and the United States. . . ." Clearly he had in mind principally, if not exclusively, the animal of the United States. _Range._--Transition and higher life-zones of northeastern United States south to Connecticut, central Pennsylvania and extreme northeastern Ohio; in Quebec and Ontario westward from the latitude of central Maine to Lake Nipigon and Lake of the Woods. See figure 25 on page 95. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. richardsonii_ of both sexes, in that least width of color of underparts averages less than a third rather than two-fifths of greatest width of color of upper parts, in males skull less, instead of more, than 1.9 grams and basilar length less than 38, in females by 16 per cent lighter skull (0.92 versus 1.1 grams); from _M. e. bangsi_, in males hind foot less instead of more than 40, linear measurements of skull averaging 11 per cent less (depth of skull at plane of molars 10.0 versus 11.4), in females averaging smaller, hind foot 30 versus 32 and depth of skull at plane of molars 8.6 versus 9.1. _Description._--_Size._--Male. Seven adults and subadults from New York and Pennsylvania, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 266 (240-295); length of tail, 74 (66-80); length of hind foot, 36 (33-39). Hamilton (1933:294) gives the weight of 31 adults from New York as 81 (66-105) grams. Female: Twelve adults and subadults from Maine and the area south to central Pennsylvania, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 243 (225-260); length of tail, 63 (55-72); length of hind foot, 29.8 (26-32). Hamilton (1933:294) gives the weight of 15 adults from New York as 54 (45-71) grams. _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that underparts in summer Marguerite Yellow or even more whitish; least width of color of underparts averaging, in adult males from New York and Pennsylvania, 29 (27-32) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same series averaging 42 (30-51) mm. which is 57 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (illustrated by 4 adults in table of cranial measurements, which see): See plates 2-4. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.5 (1.2-1.7) grams; basilar length, 35.7 (33.8-37.6). Female (illustrated by adult and subadults recorded in table of cranial measurements, which see): See plates 9-11. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight of 2 subadults, 0.92 (0.86-0.98) grams; basilar length, 32.4 (31.4-33.3). The skull of the male, in linear measurements, is approximately 13 (12-16) per cent smaller and 40 per cent lighter than in _M. e. richardsonii_. In relation to the basilar length, the skull averages slightly narrower, slightly shallower as measured in the vertical plane touching the posterior borders of the last upper molars, and the preorbital part is slightly longer. In skulls of females of _cicognanii_, linear measurements average 3 (0-6) per cent less, the weight is 16 per cent less and the teeth are 5 per cent shorter. In relation to the basilar length, measurements of the skull are approximately the same or slightly less in _cicognanii_. In comparison with _bangsi_, the male sex in linear measurements of the skull and teeth averages 11 per cent less than in _bangsi_ from Aitkin, Minn., and 6 per cent less than in _bangsi_ from Elk River, but in relation to the basilar length the preorbital region is larger. The weight is approximately a fourth less. In females the measurements average less, some being the same, and in relation to the basilar length, the bullae are shorter and the skull is shallower. The weight is about the same. _Remarks._--In January, 1838, in Charlesworth's Magazine of Natural History, C. L. Bonaparte proposed for three kinds of American weasels the names _Mustela cicognanii_, _Mustela richardsonii_ and _Mustela longicauda_. In this paper Bonaparte indicates that he previously had written (for his Iconografia della Fauna Italica ...) an account of _Mustela cicognanii_ using this same name. Fasciola XXII of the Iconogr. d. Fauna Italica, presenting his account of _Mustela_, like the English paper was published in the year 1838. In his article in Charlesworth's Magazine, Bonaparte refers to his book published [used the past tense] in Rome but whether it actually appeared first I am unable to determine and hence am uncertain which of the two constitutes the original description. Reference to the Italian account suggests as basis for the name _M. cicognanii_, (1) specimens possibly seen in the United States by Bonaparte, or (2) Godman's published account of the animal. In the English publication, however, Bonaparte actually says that (1) he saw the small species in the Union [= United States]. Also, he (2) mentions his earlier written Italian account, (3) mentions that "all the [American?] naturalists" used the name _M. vulgaris_ for this animal, (4) incidentally mentions Godman's account, and (5) in naming two other American species cites accounts of them by Richardson. Also, Bonaparte in this English article makes clear that when he wrote [not necessarily published] his Italian paper he did not know of the existence of two of the three American species. In the register of mammals at the British Museum of Natural History, there appears: 43.3.3.3 Mustela longicauda _Bonap_ N amer presented by Dr. J. Richardson 4 Mustela Richardsonii Bonap " 5 " Cicognanii Bonap " To the right of these entries there appears, in three lines, the notation: "The three specimens examined by Prince Canino on which he established the three species." Every part of each of the above entries is in the hand writing of J. E. Gray, in charge of the collections from 1824 to 1840 and associated with them as Keeper until 1875. The three specimens are in good condition considering their age. The catalogue or register number shows, among other things, that they were entered in the register on March 3, 1843. Questions which might occur to anyone are: (1) Was there a type specimen of _Mustela Cicognanii_ Bonaparte? If so is it no. 43.3.3.5? (2) If there was no type specimen was there a type locality? If so what is it? Among other things that may have bearing on these questions, are these: Bonaparte in Charlesworth's Magazine appears to base the two names _Mustela Richardsonii_ and _Mustela longicauda_ on Richardson's published account of _Mustela erminea_. At any rate immediately following each of the two names, Bonaparte writes "Nob. (_M. erminea_ Rich. F. Bor. Amer.)." Bonaparte's other, first newly proposed name, _Mustela Cicognanii_, in Charlesworth's Magazine has following it only "Nob. North America," although in a paragraph above he did point out that this was the animal which all naturalists, at the time he was in America, considered as _M. vulgaris_. Turning to Richardson's account (Fauna Boreali Americana, ... Quadrupeds, pp. 45-47. 1829) one finds that he recognized two species, _M. vulgaris_ and _M. erminea_. Of the first he gives measurements "of an old female killed at Carlton House." Of the second species he distinguishes two varieties, the first represented by a specimen, of which he gives measurements, "killed at Fort Franklin, Great Bear Lake" and, the second variety "of a larger size, having a longer tail and longer fore-claws" he indicates the size of by giving measurements of a specimen taken "in the neighborhood of Carlton House." The last variety is clearly the basis of Bonaparte's _M. longicauda_. The specimen from which Richardson took his measurements I have been unable to locate [no. 43.3.3.3 in the British Museum, appears to be another specimen, although of the same subspecies and provided by Richardson]. The first variety of Richardson's _Mustela erminea_, clearly is the basis of Bonaparte's _M. Richardsonii_. The specimen from which Richardson took his measurements may well be no. 43.3.3.4 now preserved in the British Museum of Natural History, but I could not be certain about this. Richardson's _M. vulgaris_ is accompanied by measurements of a female which I have ascertained to my full satisfaction is the identical specimen now bearing catalogue number 43.3.3.5 said by Gray to be the specimen on which Bonaparte based his name _Mustela cicognanii_. Gray probably saw his guest, Bonaparte, at work on these weasels and Gray's own written indication perhaps should be accepted at its face value. I found only 4 Richardson specimens of North American weasel in the British Museum in 1937 and it is conceivable that Bonaparte, 100 years before, actually had at hand only one specimen each of two kinds and 2 specimens of the third. This I think is not an important consideration, though, for Gray says just which specimens did serve as basis for Bonaparte's names and there is only one specimen for each name according to Gray. But I wonder if a type specimen can be _made_ in this way? That is to say, after a name is published in a manner which makes it available, and if two or more specimens of the kind of animal involved, were, or may have been, available to the describer, can a person, even the author, himself, _make_ a type specimen by saying that one particular specimen is beyond doubt the specimen on which a given name was established even though no particular specimen was designated in the original description? I incline to the view that a specimen so designated would at most be only a lectotype, unless it were a cotype. However, if a holotype can be _made_ by action such as Gray took, then (1) is no. 43.3.3.3 the type specimen of _Mustela longicauda_ Bonaparte and, (2) is no. 43.3.3.4 the type specimen of _Mustela Richardsonii_ Bonaparte? Incidentally, _Mustela longicauda_ Bonaparte whether based on no. 43.3.3.3 or on Richardson's account will continue in its present application. The same is true of _Mustela richardsonii_. If the basis of _Mustela cicognanii_ Bonaparte [the diagnosis in the Iconografia d. Fauna Italica ... makes it clear that the name applies to the _short-tailed_ species] was a weasel from the eastern United States or a description of a weasel or weasels from there, the name will continue in its present application. If, instead, the name is based on no. 43.3.3.3 (from Carlton House, Saskatchewan) or on Richardson's account of _M. vulgaris_, the name will apply to a different subspecies (now called _richardsonii_ and _richardsonii_ will fall as a synonym of _cicognanii_) and the ermine of the eastern United States will take the next available name. Bonaparte probably named (in manuscript at least) _cicognanii_ before he ever saw the specimen in the British Museum. This is indicated by his statement in Charlesworth's Magazine (1838:37) that "I have _now_ [Italics mine] found two [other] American species. . . ." Whereas the names _richardsonii_ and _longicauda_ are based on Richardson, the name _cicognanii_, even if it dates from the account in Charlesworth's Magazine, appears to have a composite basis composed at the very least of (1) animals seen by Bonaparte in the United States, and (2) those called _vulgaris_ by some other authors. Conceivably the specimen no. 43.3.3.3 in the British Museum, was part of the basis. From the nature of the case it can be argued that there could be no type and that if someone should bring to light a specimen in, say, Philadelphia, bearing the notation "this is the specimen seen in the United States by Bonaparte" it would immediately become as important as the one in London. Any American weasel or weasels (then alive or preserved in a zoölogical collection) that Bonaparte saw in the United States probably were of the eastern United States. Bangs (1896:18-21), for one, previous to the present consideration of the name _cicognanii_, restricted it to the ermine of the eastern United States. Consequently, the name _cicognanii_, in the present account is applied to the ermine of the eastern United States. In my opinion there was and is no type. Almost certainly there was no type if the Fauna Italica appeared before the account in Charlesworth's Magazine did. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 172, arranged alphabetically by provinces and states, then (except where indication is given to the contrary) by counties from north to south within each state or province. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the U. S. National Museum. =Connecticut.= _Windham County_: S. Woodstock, Woodstock Lake, 1[2]. _Hartford County_: Windsor, 1[5]. _New London County_: Liberty Hill, 3[75]. =Maine.= _Aroostook County_: Quimby, 1[75]; Ashland 2[75]. _Piscataquis County_: tableland on top of Mt. Katahdin, 1; Chimney Pond, 3; T. 5, R. 13, 3[5]; "vicinity of Chesnucook," 1[5]; T. 4, R. 13, 1[5]; Moosehead Lake, 7[75]; Grenville, 10[75]; Barnard, 3 (1[86]). _Penobscot County_: South Twin Lake, 1[2]; Lincoln, 11 (7[1], 2[14], 2[50]). _Franklin County_: Seven Pond Township, 7[75]. _Oxford County_: Umbago Lake, 1[75]; Upton, 4[86]; Bethel, 1[75]. _Hancock County_: Bucksport, 17[75]; Naskeag, 1. _Lincoln County_: Booth Bay, 1[5]. =Massachusetts.= _Middlesex County_: Wilmington, 2; Burlington, 6 (1[75]); _Worcester County_: Cambridge, 5 (1[5], 3[75]); Sterling, 1[5]. _Plymouth County_: Middleboro, 7 (1[75]). =New Hampshire.= _Carroll County_: Ossipee, 5. _Rockingham County_: Greenland, 1[76]. _Cheshire County_: Dublin, 1. =New York.= _St. Lawrence County_: Ogdensburg, 1[74]. _Franklin County_: Malone, 1[58]. _Lewis County_: Locust Grove, 1. _Warren County_: Lake George, 1. _Montgomery County_: Amsterdam, 1. _Albany County_: Albany, 1[80]. _Rensselaer County_: Berlin, 2[2]; Schoharie, 1[2]. _Thompkins County_: Cascadilla Creek, Ithaca, 1[58]. _Allegany County_: Ford Brook, Wellsville, 1[58]. _Ontario County_: Phelps, 1[50]. _Cattaraugus County_: Cattaraugus, 1[5]. =Ontario= (localities locally north to south, then west to east). _Thunder Bay Dist._: Grand Bay, Lake Nipigon, 5[86]; Macdiarmid, 2[86]; Oscar, 2[14]; 20 mi. SW Fort Williams, 1[76]; Michipicoten Island, 3[104]. _Algoma Dist._: Michipicoten, 1; Franz, 1[74]; Pancake Bay, 2[77]. _Parry Sound Dist._: French River, Georgia Bay, 1[2]; Seguin Falls, Twp. Montieth, 1[86]. _Sudbury Dist._: Casselman, Rathbun Twp., 1[86]. _Nipissing Dist._: Smoky Falls, near Kapuskasing, 4[86]; Franks Bay, Lake Nipissing, 1[86]. _Haliburton County_: Gooderham, 1[60]. _Simcoe County_: Orillia, 1[2]; no locality more definite than county, 1[60]. _Carleton County_: Britannia, 5 mi. W Ottawa, 1[77]; Ottawa, 1[77]; Constant Bay, NE? of Ottawa, 1[77]. _Wellington County_: Mt. Forest, 2[75]; Guelph, 1[31]. _Addington County_: Buckshot Lake, Abinger Twp., 1[86]. _Fontenac County_: Clear Lake, Arden, 1[77]. =Pennsylvania= (by counties from west to east). _Crawford County_: North Shenango Township, Pymatuning Swamp, 2[9]; Linesville (3 mi. NW, 1; 3-1/2 mi. W, 2; 3 mi. W, 1; 2 mi. SW, 1; 7-1/2 mi. SW, 1) 6[9]. _Potter County_: Cherry Springs Farm, Abbott Township, 1; 3 mi. S Inez, South Fork Sinnamahoning Creek, 1[9]. _Sullivan County_: Lopez, 1[74]. _Lackawanna County_: Scranton, 1[1]. _Wayne County_: Waymart, 1. =Quebec= (west to east). _Labelle County_: Kamika [= Kiamika] Lake, 2[77]; Lacoste, 2[77]; Trout Lake, probably in this county, 2[77]. _Megantic County_: Black Lake, 1[77]. =Rhode Island.= _Newport County_: Middletown, 2[5]. =Vermont.= _Lamoille County_: Mt. Mansfield, 1. _Windsor County_: Barnard, 1[5]. =Mustela erminea bangsi= Hall Ermine Plates 2, 3, 4, 9, 10 and 11 _Mustela erminea bangsi_ Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:176, July 19, 1945. [_Putorius_] _cicognani_, Mearns, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:235, June 5, 1891. _Putorius richardsoni cicognani_, Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:18, February 25, 1896 (part). _Putorius cicognanii_, Cory, Mamm. Illinois and Wisconsin, p. 375, 1912. _Mustela cicognanii_, Aldous and Manweiler, Journ. Mamm., 23:250, August 13, 1942. _Mustela cicognanii cicognanii_, Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 49:169, January 8, 1927; Leraas, Journ. Mamm., 23:344, August 13, 1942. _Type._--Male, subadult, skull and skin; no. 11541, D. R. Dickey Coll.; Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota; November 1, 1925; obtained by Bernard Bailey, original no. A 606. The skull is complete and the teeth all are present and entire. The skin is well made and in a good state of preservation. _Range._--Southern Manitoba, northeastern North Dakota, the whole of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan and northern Iowa. See figure 25 on page 95. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. richardsonii_, in that, in both sexes, least width of color of underparts averages about a third, instead of two-fifths, of greatest width of color of upper parts, and in that skulls of males are a fifth or more lighter, basilar length averaging less than 40; from _M. e. cicognanii_, in that hind foot more than 40 in males, averaging 32 versus 30 in females, and in larger skull, depth of skull at plane of molars being 11.4 versus 10.0 in males and 9.1 versus 8.6 in females. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Twelve adult and subadult males from Aitkin, Minnesota, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 316 (291-341); length of tail, 87 (70-101); length of hind foot, 43 (40-44). Two adults from Aitkin each weigh 170 grams. Four adult and subadult females from Elk River and Fort Snelling, Minnesota, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 249 (240-260); length of tail, 61 (55-65); length of hind foot, 32 (30-33). _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that, least width of color of underparts averaging, in males from Minnesota, 32 (19-51) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in 12 male topotypes in white winter pelage averaging 52 (45-58) mm. which is 60 (53-66) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (based on adults from Aitkin): See measurements and plates 2-4. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight of 2 adults from Aitkin, 2.2, 2.3 grams (9 subadults from T. 61 N, R. 26 W, average 1.95 grams); basilar length, 39.7 (38.5-40.7); length of tooth-rows rarely more (usually less) than length of tympanic bulla. Female (based on adults from Minnesota as listed in table of cranial measurements, which see): See plates 9-11. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, of a subadult from T. 61 N, R. 26 W, 0.91 grams; basilar length, 32.8 (31.8-33.6); breadth of rostrum rarely equal to as much as 30 per cent of basilar length. From _richardsonii_, topotypes of _bangsi_ differ in that cranial measurements in males are approximately 7 (5-9) per cent less, linear measurements of teeth are 10 (9-11) per cent less and the skull is a fifth lighter. In relation to basilar length the tympanic bullae of _bangsi_ are longer. Skulls of females are individually indistinguishable, those of _bangsi_ averaging approximately 1 per cent less in linear measurements. Comparison with the smaller cicognanii is made in the account of that subspecies. _Remarks._--Before the subspecific name _bangsi_ was proposed, individuals of this subspecies ordinarily were recorded in the literature as _Mustela cicognanii_. The best single lot of material is in the zoölogical collection of the University of Wisconsin. The late naturalist Albert Lano preserved a large share of the material from Minnesota. The large series from Elk River of that same state was mostly collected by Bernard Bailey although his Aunt, Anna (Bailey) Mills, and her brother the late Vernon Bailey, at an earlier time saved some specimens from Elk River. The name _bangsi_ was proposed in recognition of the superior work done on American weasels by the late Outram Bangs. From the range of _M. e. invicta_ in the Rocky Mountains, that of _bangsi_ is separated by the Great Plains from a large part of which region the species is unknown. _M. e. bangsi_ differs from _invicta_ in greater degree of sexual dimorphism in size, and in each sex by larger size, narrower light-colored underparts, and deeper braincase as measured at the anterior margin of the basioccipital. In _bangsi_ the braincase is deeper relative to the length of the skull as well as, of course, actually deeper. Of the two subspecies whose ranges do meet that of _bangsi_, it more closely resembles _richardsonii_ than _cicognanii_. From _richardsonii_, especially from southeastern populations of the same in which the skull is of the same size as in _bangsi_, the latter differs in longer hind feet. This is an average difference and by one interpretation the animals here referred to _bangsi_ might be lumped with some of the populations from the southeastern part of the range of _richardsonii_ and the whole lot treated as intergrades between _richardsonii_ and _cicognanii_. Nevertheless, the animals here referred to bangsi are not geographically intermediate between _richardsonii_ and _cicognanii_ and this consideration had much to do with the decision to recognize as a separate subspecies the animals here named _bangsi_. Within the range of the subspecies there is some geographic variation; the hind feet of animals from Iowa average slightly shorter than those of animals from Minnesota and Wisconsin but are nowhere nearly so short as in _cicognanii_ at the same latitude in the eastern United States. It is noteworthy that the few specimens seen from Isle Royal have the long hind feet of _bangsi_ and not the short hind feet of _cicognanii_ which occurs all along the northern mainland. Because an oft cited record of occurrence even though erroneous, has a way of being repeated in later works, attention is here called to the alleged occurrence of this ermine in northwestern Ohio at New Bremen. Henninger (1921:239) published the original account of the supposed occurrence but as I pointed out in 1937 (p. 304), the specimen concerned proved upon examination to be a female of _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_. Henninger was misled probably by the short tail; the end of the tail had been lost and healed over before the animal's death. The present study has revealed that _M. erminea_ everywhere east of the Cascade Mountains assumes a white winter coat. Had this been known when Henninger obtained his specimen he probably would not have wrongly identified the animal from New Bremen which was in the brown, winter pelage. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 222, arranged alphabetically by provinces and states and, arranged from north to south, by counties in each state. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the University of Wisconsin Museum of Zoölogy. =Iowa.= _Dickinson County_: W side Lake Okobogie, 1[48]. _Winnebago County_: Lake Mills, 7[65]. _Worth County_: Northwood, 1[65]. _Clay County_: "Dewey's Pasture, near Ruthven," 1[76]. =Manitoba.= Aweme, 4[47]; Red River Settlement, 1[91]. =Michigan.= _Isle Royal_: Tobin Harbor, 1[76]; Bell Isle, 1[76]; Washington Harbor, 3[76]. _Ontonagon County_: Ontonagon, 2 (1[76], 1[14]); T. 51N, R. 43W, S. 17, Porcupine Mts., 1[76]. _Gogebic County_: Little Girls Point, 5[76]; Ironwood, 1[76]. _Iron County_: no locality more definite than county, 1[76]. _Luce County_: Tahquamenon River Falls, 1[91]. _Chippewa County_: Sault Ste. Marie, 2[76]. _Emmet County_: Wilderness State Park, 2[76]. _Cheboygan County_: Univ. Mich. Biol. Station, 1[76]. _Washtenaw County_: Ann Arbor, 1[76]. =Minnesota.= _Kittson County_: no locality more definite than county, 1[2]. _Roseau County_: Deer Township, 1[14]; Falun Township, 2[14]. _Marshall County_?: Moose River, 5[93]; Warren, definitely in Marshall County, 1[93]. _Cook County_: Grand Marais, 3 (2[76], 1[14]). _St. Louis County_: 2 mi E Babbitt, 14[93]; Burntside [= Burnside] Lake, 1[91]. _Itasca County_: T. 61N, R. 26W, 23. _Clay County_: Moorhead, 3[9]. _Aitkin County_: Aitkin, 13 (11[60], 1[7], 1[4]). _Otter Tail County_: Arthur, 3[60]; Ten Mile Lake, 1[76]; Parkers Prairie, 2[75]. _Chisago County_: North Branch, 1[60]. _Sherburne County_: Elk River, 42 (16[91], 5[14], 20[59], 1[74]). _Hennepin County_: Lake Minnetonka, 1[75]; Minneapolis, 1[91]; Fort Snelling, 5 (4[2], 1[60]). =North Dakota.= _Pembina County_: Walhalla, 1[91]. _Nelson County_: Stump Lake, 1[91]. _Eddy County_: Brantford, 2[76]. =Wisconsin.= _Douglas County_: T. 44N, R. 13W, 1; Gordon, 1. _Bayfield County_: Brinks Camp, Washburn, 1[2]; "near Cable," 1. _Ashland County_: Bear Lake, 2. _Iron County_: Fisher Lake, 4; Mercer, 5. _Vilas County_: Mamie Lake, 16[91]; Ox Bow Lake, 1[91]. _Oneida County_: Tomahawk Lake, 1[60]. _Langlade County_: T. 34N, R. 11E, 3. _Rush County_: Ladysmith, 1. _Dunn County_: Colfax, 2. _Door County_: Mink River, Ellison Bay, 1[76]. _Dodge County_: Fox Lake, 1[50]; Beaver Dam, 12[50]. =Mustela erminea invicta= Hall Ermine Plates 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11 and 41 _Mustela erminea invicta_ Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:75, February 27, 1945; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:180, July 19, 1945. _Putorius cicognanii_, Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 27:230, October 26, 1908. _Type._--Male, subadult, skull and skin; no. 101122, Mus. Vert. Zoöl.; Benewah, Benewah County, Idaho; October 24, 1926; obtained by William T. Shaw. The skull has a hole in the right squamosal bone on the floor of the braincase, and lacks the hamular process of the left pterygoid. The postmolar part of the right lower jaw is missing. The teeth all are present and entire. The skin is in white, winter pelage, well made, and in a good state of preservation. _Range._--Central Rocky Mountain region from Jasper Park south over Alberta, southeastern British Columbia, Washington east of the Cascades, and north and central Idaho and northwestern Montana. See figure 25 on page 95. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. richardsonii_, in males, by skull lighter than 1.9 grams, mastoid breadth less than 19.9, depth of skull at anterior margin of basioccipital less than 12.4, in females by corresponding measurement of depth less than 10.1, and weight of skull less than one gram; from _M. e. fallenda_, in both sexes, by upper lips white (not brown), in males by skull averaging longer (37.0 versus 35.7), in females by breadth of rostrum less, instead of more, than 30 per cent of basilar length; from _M. e. streatori_, _gulosa_, and _muricus_ by hind foot more than 36 and basilar length more than 35 in males and by hind foot more than 29.5 and basilar length more than 30.5 in females; further distinguished from _streatori_ by white (not brown) upper lips and from _gulosa_ by black tip of tail more than half length of tail-vertebrae. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Ten adults and subadults from central Idaho County yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 291 (272-328); length of tail, 86 (75-100); length of hind foot, 39.9 (38-44). Female: Five adults and subadults from the same locality yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 255 (245-270); length of tail, 71 (68-76); length of hind foot, 32.3 (32-33). _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that underparts in summer Marguerite Yellow or more whitish; least width of color of underparts averaging, in four females from Idaho and Montana, 38 (33-43) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same specimens 38 (31-42) mm. which is 57 (52-65) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (5 adults from Idaho County): See measurements and plates 2-4. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.5 (1.4-1.7) grams; basilar length, 37.0 (35.8-39.8). Female (illustrated by adult and 4 subadults in table of cranial measurements, which see): See plates 9-11. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 0.72 (0.7-0.9) grams; basilar length, 32.2 (31.6-32.8). From _fallenda_, _invicta_ differs in that the skull of the male has a relatively narrower rostrum and relatively shallower braincase. Females show the same differences but the degree of difference is about as great again as in males. The teeth are almost exactly the same size in the two subspecies. The weight is the same in males but in females _invicta_ is 18 per cent heavier. From _streatori_, _invicta_ differs in that males average larger in every measurement taken except that the anteroposterior diameter of the inner moiety of M1 is less; 36 per cent heavier; linear measurements of the skull are about 5 per cent larger and those of the teeth, with the one exception noted, about 6 per cent larger; relative to the basilar length the tympanic bullae are longer and the rostrum is relatively narrower. In females, measurements of the skull average 8 per cent more and those of the teeth 7 per cent more except that, as in males, the inner lobe of M1 is actually shorter. Females of _invicta_ are 12 per cent heavier; relative to the basilar length the skull is narrower throughout and the tooth-rows are shorter than in _streatori_. From _gulosa_, _invicta_ differs in that males average larger (about 12 per cent) in every measurement taken, excepting the anteroposterior diameter of M1 which is the same; 50 per cent heavier; relative to the basilar length the length of the tooth-rows and interorbital breadth are less. In females the inner lobe of M1 is smaller but every other measurement taken of the skull and teeth is more, _invicta_ averaging about 8 per cent larger and 22 per cent heavier; relative to the basilar length, the tooth-rows are shorter and the skull is narrower interorbitally, through the rostrum and across the zygomata. From _murica_, _invicta_ of corresponding sex differs in being larger in every measurement taken; males average 17 per cent larger in cranial measurements, 13 per cent larger in dental measurements and are 83 per cent heavier; corresponding percentages for females are 11, 9 and 20. Exception must again be made for the anteroposterior diameter of the inner lobe of the last upper molar which is less in females, and only slightly more in males. In males of _invicta_ the tympanic bullae are longer in relation to the basilar length. From the geographically remote _cicognanii_, skulls of both males and females of _invicta_ are to me individually indistinguishable. There is, nevertheless, an average difference not apparent to the eye between skulls of males. If the length of the tooth-rows be taken as a standard (100 per cent), the rostrum, of _invicta_, as measured across the lacrimal processes is broader (89 rather than 84 per cent) but the width across the fourth upper premolars is less, 94 rather than 97 per cent of the length of the tooth-rows. Since the skull of _invicta_ closely resembles that of _cicognanii_, it follows that _invicta_ differs from _richardsonii_ and _bangsi_ in about the manner described in the account of _cicognanii_. _Remarks._--Animals of this subspecies in advance of the present study generally were recorded in the literature under the name _Mustela cicognanii_. The difficulty in distinguishing individual specimens of _invicta_ on morphological grounds from those of the geographically remote _M. e. cicognanii_ should not be taken to indicate that the populations do not differ appreciably. Actually they differ in several characters although in no one of these is the degree of difference sufficient to allow of using it alone as a certain means of diagnosis. In _invicta_, as compared with _cicognanii_, the light-colored underparts are wider in relation to the dark-colored upper parts and the tail is longer by 4 per cent relative to the head and body. Given a population of each of the two subspecies, in which the skull is of the same mass, the hind feet are longer in _invicta_, there is more sexual dimorphism in size, and the anterior part of the skull differs in some particulars as just described in the comparison of the skull of _invicta_ with other forms. Nevertheless, each of these differences is of an average sort. Therefore, and because overall size is about the same in the two subspecies concerned, one or a few specimens from, say, central Idaho, can be distinguished from animals from western Pennsylvania only with difficulty, if at all. The close resemblance of skulls of _invicta_ and _cicognanii_ may be a function of their living at approximately the same latitudinal position in a climate that has marked seasonal variation. Intergradation with _richardsonii_ is complete and gradual; in one sense _invicta_ is but little more than a small _richardsonii_. Intergradation with _fallenda_ is shown by several specimens. These two races differ in large degree in color, and in size and shape of the skull of females. Although the geographic area where intergradation in color occurs is fairly wide, the area in which intergradation in cranial characters in females occurs, appears, from the inadequate material available, to be much narrower. Intergradation occurs freely in Washington with _streatori_ but with _muricus_ so far as known only in the Bitterroot and nearby mountains of northwestern Montana. The Snake River Plains and low country along much of the Columbia River appears to be uninhabited by weasels of the species _erminea_ and hence there is opportunity for intergradation only in the mentioned area of Montana. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 177, as follows. Arranged alphabetically by provinces and states then by localities from north to south in each province and by counties from north to south in each state. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the United States National Museum. =Alberta.= Jasper House, 4[77]; Shovel Pass, 2[77]; Jasper Park, 10[77]; head of Smoky River, 9; Henry House, 2 (1[77]); Blindman River, 1[2]; forks of Blindman River and Red Deer River, 2 (1[60], 1[75]); "near Red Deer, Red Deer River," 1[77]; Red Deer River, 2 (1[2], 1[60]); Red Deer, 2[60]; Rosebud, 2[77]; Prairie, 3000 ft., 1; Didsbury, Little Red Deer River, 1; Canadian Nat'l Park, 1[60]; Canmore, 1; Banff, 1[60]; High River, 1[86]; "Waterton Lake Park" in Alberta, 6[77]. =British Columbia.= Grand Forks of Fraser River, 1; Canoe River, 1[77]; Field, 1; Glacier, 1[58]; E side Beaverfoot Range, 4000-4500 ft., 6 mi. SE Fraser Creek, 8[74]; Wentworth Lake, 1[31]; Revelstoke, 2 (1[77], 1[60]); Spillimacheen[e]en River, 2[2]; Sicamous, 2; Albert River, 7000 ft., 1[2]; Lumby, Creighton Valley, 1[31]; Okanagan, 4 (2[75], 1[94], 1[2]); Kettle River Lake, Gold Range, 4000 ft., 1; Crows Nest Station, 1[74]; Yale District, 3; Fort Hope, 1; Chilliwack Lake, 1[77]; Skagit, 2 (1[77], 1[31]); Skagit Valley, 1[77]; Skagit Summit, 1[77]; Lightning Lakes, 2 mi. N International Boundary, 3; Osoyoos-Bridesville Summit, 2; Westbridge, 1[77]; Rossland, 5[77]; Creston, mouth Goat Creek, 3[77]; Yahk, 4[77]. =Idaho.= _Bonner County_: Coolin, 4. _Benewah County_: Benewah, 1[55]. _Idaho County_: "Pete Kings, Lochsa River," 1[97]; 2 mi. SSE Selway Falls, 1900 ft., 1[8]; 4 mi. SW Selway Falls, 5800 ft., 3[8]; Newsome Cr., 12 mi. above jct. with S Fk. Clearwater River, 2[74]; Iron Mt., to 14 mi. W thereof, 24[74]; Pilot Cr., 3/4 to 2-1/2 mi. above Newsome Cr., 4[74]; Sawmill Cr., 1-1/4 mi. W Newsome, 1[74]; between Selway River and S. Fk. Clearwater R., 4[74]. =Montana.= _Teton County_ (of old arrangement of counties): Many Glacier, 4900 ft., 1[74]; Duck Lake, 6 mi. NE St. Marys Lake, 1; St. Marys, Glacier Park, 1[76]; Lower St. Marys Lake, 1[2]. _Flathead County_: Stanton Lake, 5. _County_ in question: Bitter Root Mts., 1. _Ravalli County_: Tin Cup District, 1[74]; Bass Creek, 6800 ft., NW of Stevensville, 1; Capitan Peak, 7000 ft., 1; Darby, 2[74]; Girds Creek, 1[74]; Charlos Heights, 2[74]. =Washington.= _Whatcom County_: Twin Lakes, Winchester Mts., 3 (1[10]); Chilliwack River, 2600 ft., 2; Cooper Creek, near head, 4500 ft., Hannegan Pass, 1; Cooper Cr., 4300 ft., Hannegan Pass, 1[10]; Beaver Creek (2500 ft., and at McMillan Ranch, 1700 ft.), 2; Barron, Bornite Mine, 5000 ft., 1. _Okanogan County_: Tungsten Mine, 6800 ft., Bauerman Ridge, 4; Hidden Lakes, 4100 ft., 1; West Fork Pasayten River, 4700 ft., 1. _Stevens County_: Orin, 1[51]. _Pend Oreille County_: Ione, 2[51]. _Chelan County_: Lake Chelan, 1[46]. =Mustela erminea alascensis= (Merriam) Ermine Plates 2, 3, 4, 9, 10 and 11 _Putorius richardsoni alascensis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:12, pl. 2, figs. 2, 2a, June 30, 1896. _Putorius cicognanii alascensis_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912; Swarth, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 7:140, January 12, 1911. _Mustela erminea alascensis_, Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 57:36, June 28, 1944; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:180, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 74423, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Juneau, Alaska; August 22, 1895; obtained by Clark P. Streator, original no. 4806. The skull shows malformation of the frontal sinuses due to parasites and lacks osseous tissue where the parasitic infestation was localized. The left exoccipital condyle and adjacent region is less developed than the right and the posterior part of the skull is bent slightly to the left. Otherwise the skull is unbroken. The teeth all are present and entire. The skin is in the brown summer coat, fairly well made and in a good state of preservation. A few white hairs persist where the proximal line of the black hair of the tip of the tail meets the distal line of the brown hair. _Range._--Mainland of southeastern Alaska from Lynn Canal south to include Mitkof, Zarembo, Wrangel and Revillagigedo islands. See figures 25, 26 on pages 95 and 134. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. arctica_ and _haidarum_, in both sexes, by proximal two-thirds of under side of tail colored same as upper parts rather than same as underparts and interorbital breadth less, instead of more, than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; from _M. e. salva_, in males, by overall depth of braincase including tympanic bullae less than 89 per cent of orbitonasal length, females not individually distinguishable but averaging shallower through the braincase; from _M. e. initis_, _celenda_ and _seclusa_ by interorbital breadth less than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus (females of _initis_, _celenda_ and _seclusa_ unknown); further from _initis_ by total length less than 317 and black tip of tail less than 57 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae; further from _celenda_ by chest white, not mostly covered by brown patch. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Eight adults from Windham, Alaska, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 298 (288-315); length of tail, 88 (84-94); length of hind foot, 41.3 (37-44). Female: Two adults from Juneau and Helm Bay measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 258, 258; length of tail,----, 76; length of hind foot, 32, 34. _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that least width of color of underparts averaging, in five females, 42 (35-53) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same specimens averaging 36 (30-40) mm. which is 49 (48-53) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (based on 8 adults from Windham): See measurements and plates, 2-4. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.8 (1.5-2.6) grams; basilar length, 37.5 (36.5-38.9); length of tooth-rows more or less than (about same as) length of tympanic bulla. Female (based on 5 adults, from localities listed in the table of cranial measurements): See measurements and plates 9-11. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 0.96 (0.7-1.1) grams; basilar length, 32.7 (31.9-33.2); breadth of rostrum more or less than (about equal to) 30 per cent of basilar length. From _richardsonii_, _alascensis_ differs in that the skull of the male averages smaller in every measurement taken and is 28 per cent lighter. Relative to the basilar length, the orbitonasal length is more and the braincase is shallower as measured at the anterior end of the basioccipital. The four adult females seen of _alascensis_ are more variable than those of _richardsonii_ and average smaller in some measurements and larger in others but give no proof of any consistent difference. From _haidarum_, _alascensis_ differs in that the rostrum and entire preorbital part of the skull is actually as well as relatively much smaller in both sexes. In males of _alascensis_ the length of the skull, and other cranial measurements of length, is more. In males, the mastoid breadth and zygomatic breadth are about the same as in _haidarum_, as also is the weight. M1 is larger but m1 and P4 are smaller. In females the anteroposterior extent of the inner moiety of M1 and length of tympanic bulla are about the same in the two subspecies but all other cranial and dental measurements in _alascensis_ are less. It is 29 per cent lighter. The difference in the preorbital region is of about the same degree as in the males. Comparisons of the skull with those of _arctica_, _salva_, _initis_, _celenda_, and _seclusa_ are made in the accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--The relatively few specimens known of this race seem always to have been referred to in the literature by the name _alascensis_ and the nomenclatural history is therefore simple. The original materials were obtained by the collector Clark P. Streator and the additional series of skeletons, one with skin, from Windham were procured by Stanton Price, a resident there. The subspecies is well differentiated from both _arctica_ and _richardsonii_. Although actual intergrades are lacking between _alascensis_ and the two races just mentioned I have no doubt that intergradation occurs with _richardsonii_ and think it probably does also with _arctica_. The assignment of the three females from Mitkof Island, Zarembo Island, and Loring on Revillagigedo Island, is tentative because each is so young as not to show diagnostic cranial characters. The two other specimens from Revillagigedo Island (Carroll Inlet), labeled as males, are in white winter pelage. Only one, no. 136358, a subadult, is accompanied by a skull. The small size of each specimen, and its cranial characters which are intermediate between those of males and females of _alascensis_ of the adjacent mainland, indicate the existence of a distinct race of weasel on Revillagigedo Island. On the chance that the one specimen with a skull is a dwarf, or is wrongly sexed as seems improbable, the population is tentatively referred to _alascensis_. [Illustration: FIG. 26. Map showing known occurrences and probable geographic ranges of the subspecies of _Mustela erminea_ in southeastern Alaska.] _Specimens examined._--Total number, 24, arranged by localities from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, University of California. =Alaska.= Juneau, 5[91]; Taku River, 1; Windham, 9; Mitkof Island, 1; St. John Harbor, Zarembo Island, 1; Wrangel, 1[91]; Helm Bay, Cleveland Peninsula, 1; Cleveland Peninsula, 2[91]; Revillagigedo Island, Carroll Inlet, 2[91]; Loring, 1[91]. =Mustela erminea salva= Hall Ermine Plates 2, 3, 4, 9, 10 and 11 _Mustela erminea salva_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 57:35, June 28, 1944; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:180, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, adult, skull only; no. 74641, Mus. Vert. Zoöl.; Mole Harbor, Admiralty Island, Alaska, December 27, 1936; obtained by A. Hasselborg. The skull (plates 2-4) shows malformation of the frontal sinuses owing to parasites and lacks osseous tissue where the parasitic infestation was localized. The skull is unbroken. The teeth all are present and entire. _Range._--Admiralty Island, Alaska. See figures 25, 26 on pages 95, 134. _Characters for ready recognition_ (known only from skulls).--Differs from males of _M. e. alascensis_ in overall depth of braincase which is more than 89 per cent of orbitonasal length; from _M. e. initis_, in males, in that orbitonasal length and mastoid breadth total less than 35 mm., weight of skull and lower jaws less than 2.1 grams; from _M. e. celenda_, in males, in that breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes less than a third of basilar length. _Description._--_Size._--Male: An adult from Gambier Bay measures: Total length, 320; length of tail, 95; length of hind foot, 45 (41 in dry skin). Female: A subadult from Hawk Inlet, measures: Total length, 250; length of tail, 70; length of hind foot, 33. _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that least width of color of underparts in four individuals 40 (38-43) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail, in two individuals for which external measurements are given, amounting to 50 and 40 mm. respectively which is 53 and 57 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (type and 4 adult topotypes): See measurements and plates 2-4. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.7 (1.5-1.9) grams; basilar length, 37.8 (36.4-39.5, extremes are in subadults); length of tooth-rows more or less (usually more) than length of tympanic bulla; interorbital breadth rarely more than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus. Female (2 ad. and 1 ad.-sad. topotypes): See measurements, and plates 9-11. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 0.9 (0.8-1.0) grams; basilar length, 33.0 (32.0-33.6); length of tooth rows approximately same as length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum approximately 30 per cent of basilar length. From _alascensis_, _salva_ differs in that males have the preorbital region slightly wider in relation to the length of the tympanic bulla; also the braincase is smaller, actually as well as in comparison with the preorbital part of the skull. The tympanic bullae do not project so far below the squamosals and the braincase itself is shallower, in adults averaging only 11.5 mm. as against 12.5 mm. The overall depth of the braincase, including the tympanic bullae, when divided into the orbitonasal length gives an average of 93 (90-97) per cent whereas in _alascensis_ the figure is only 85 (78-88) per cent. On this basis alone, everyone of the adult skulls of the two races can be distinguished. The females and subadult males show the same tendency to reduction in depth of braincase but not every individual among them can be surely distinguished. By weight the skull of _salva_ of corresponding sex is only about 6 per cent smaller. Comparisons with _initis_ and _celenda_ are made in the accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--Most of the specimens seen were collected by Allen E. Hasselborg, resident on Admiralty Island. On the basis of skulls--few skins, and measurements taken in the flesh, are available--_salva_ more closely resembles _alascensis_ than does any other subspecies so far known from southeastern Alaska. The race on Admiralty Island is only slightly differentiated from _alascensis_ of the adjacent mainland. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 26, all from Admiralty Island, Alaska, arranged in general by localities from north to south, and unless otherwise indicated in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, University of California. =Alaska.= Admiralty Island: Hawk Inlet, 2; Seymour Canal, 4; Mole Harbor, 18 (skulls only); Gambier Bay, 1; no locality more definite than Admiralty Island, 4 (1 in U. S. Nat. Mus.). =Mustela erminea initis= Hall Ermine Plates 4, 5 and 6 _Mustela erminea initis_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 57:37, June 28, 1944; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:180, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 289, Mus. Vert. Zoöl.; Saook Bay, Baranof Island, Alaska; October 9, 1907; obtained by A. Hasselborg, original no. 4. The top of the skull is fractured on the left side from the anterior nares posteriorly through the postorbital process to the posterior root of the zygomatic arch. On the left lower jaw the canine and three incisors are missing; otherwise the teeth all are present and entire. The skin is in process of molt, approximately nine-tenths of the incoming white pelage being in place. The skin is well made and in a good state of preservation. _Range._--Chichagof and Baranof islands, Alaska. See figures 25, 26 on pages 95, 134. _Characters for ready recognition_ (only males known).--Differs from _M. e. arctica_, in that proximal two-thirds of under side of tail colored same as upper parts rather than same as underparts, zygomatic breadth less than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen; from _M. e. salva_ in that orbitonasal length and mastoid breadth total more than 35 mm., weight of skull and lower jaws more than 2.1 grams; from _M. e. alascensis_, by total length more than 317, black tip of tail more than 57 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae, interorbital breadth more than 10.3 and equal to, instead of less than, distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; from _M. e. celenda_ by chest white (not mostly covered by brown patch), breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes less than a third of basilar length; from _M. e. seclusa_ in zygomatic breadth more than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. _Description._--_Size._--Male: The type and an adult topotype measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 330, 320; length of tail, 95, 95; length of hind foot, 45, 45. Female: No external measurements available. _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that least width of color of underparts averages, in two young female topotypes, 50 (49, 50) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in three young female topotypes averaging 54 (52-55) mm. which is 67 (63-69) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (illustrated by type and 1 ad. topotype): See measurements and plates 4-6. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 2.3 and 2.5 grams; basilar length, 39.6, and 40.5; interorbital breadth equal to distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus. Female: No adults available. From _salva_, _initis_ differs in that skulls of males average larger in every measurement taken, being 41 per cent heavier. Relative to the basilar length, the interorbital and preorbital parts of the skull are larger; the relatively greater interorbital and mastoid breadths are particularly noticeable. Although the depth of the braincase, including the tympanic bullae, is both relatively as well as actually more than in _salva_, the depth is relatively less than in _alascensis_ which otherwise differs from initis in about the same way that _salva_ differs from _initis_. Whereas the interorbital breadth in _initis_ is about equal to the distance between the glenoid fossa and the posterior border of the external auditory meatus, the interorbital breadth is uniformly less than this distance in both _salva_ and _alascensis_. In comparison with _seclusa_ the teeth are of the same size but all measurements of the skull are larger. The skull of _initis_ is 25 per cent heavier. In relation to the basilar length, the interorbital and preorbital parts of the skull are much less in _initis_. The preorbital and interorbital regions in _initis_ are relatively smaller in comparison also with _arctica_. The one measurement of interorbital breadth in _initis_ is greater in relation to the basilar length than in _kadiacensis_ but the rostral region, and all that part of the skull anterior to the braincase, is relatively smaller in _initis_. _Remarks._--The two adult males, nos. 286 and 289 from Saook Bay, provide convincing evidence of the existence of a distinct race of weasel on Baranof Island. Three other young specimens, almost subadult, from the same place are labeled as males although the basilar lengths of these skulls are only 35.5, 35.9 and 37.3 millimeters as against 39.6 and 40.5 in the two adult males. The difference in size is too great to be age-variation. The fact that 3 are definitely of one category and 2 of the other makes it doubtful that individual variation accounts for the differences. The small size of these 3 specimens and the fact that in each the anterior margin of the tympanic bulla is flush with the squamosal rather than protruded from the braincase, suggests that the three are females. If they are females, the amount of secondary sexual variation is rather less than would be expected by analogy with the amount obtaining in _alascensis_ on the mainland and in _salva_ on Admiralty Island. Another possibility that I can not disprove is that two stocks of weasels persist on Baranof Island, the two larger specimens being descendants of the stock which first became established on the island and the three smaller specimens being descendants of an individual ermine, or of ermines, that were rafted or otherwise transported to the island at a considerably later date. Assuming for the moment that there are two stocks, it must be admitted that each one differs from any stock known from elsewhere. Therefore, each stock would be presumed to have been long resident on the island. But--two stocks as closely related as the two in question would not be expected to persist for long in an area as small as that of Baranof Island because competition would give one the ascendancy. Therefore, the first suggestion, namely that the three smaller animals are really females, seems the more probable. The feasible way to clear up the present uncertainty is, of course, to obtain additional specimens, carefully labeled as to sex. Yet another reason why additional collecting is desirable in this area is to ascertain whether there is subspecific differentiation between the ermines of Baranof and Chichagof islands. The one specimen available from the latter island, although in general like the three smaller animals from Baranof Island, differs in the fuller (less scooped out) medial side of the tympanic bulla and to a slight degree in each of some other features. This specimen from Chichagof Island is labeled as a male also. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 6, arranged by localities from north to south, and in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, University of California. =Alaska.= Chichagof Island, Freshwater Bay, 1. Baranof Island, Saook Bay, 5. =Mustela erminea celenda= Hall Ermine Plates 5, 6 and 7 _Mustela erminea celenda_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 57:38, June 28, 1944; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:181, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 130987, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Kasaan Bay, Prince of Wales Island, Alaska; June 16, 1903; obtained by Cyrus Catt; original no. 4407X. The skull has a piece 1.5 mm. long broken out of the left zygomatic arch. P2 is absent on both sides. The right I1, and the left I1 and I2 are missing. The skin, in summer pelage, is fairly well made. A scrotal pouch attests to the correctness of the sex recorded on the label. The rostral part of the skull is smaller than in average-sized males of corresponding age. _Range._--Prince of Wales, Dall, and Long islands, Alaska. See figures 25, 26 on pages 95, 134. _Characters for ready recognition_ (only males known).--Differs from _M. e. alascensis_ and _initis_ in chest mostly covered by brown patch, not white, and breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes more than a third of basilar length, which cranial character serves to distinguish also _salva_; from _M. e. seclusa_ in zygomatic breadth less than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen; from _M. e. haidarum_ in chest white (not mostly covered by brown patch), proximal two-thirds of underside of tail colored like upper parts rather than underparts, basilar length more than 38.2 mm. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Seven adults and subadults from Prince of Wales Island, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 286 (277-304); length of tail, 77 (74-85); length of hind foot, 36 (35.5-40.5). Female: No specimen available. _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that upper parts about tone 3 of dark Chocolate Brown of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 342; lower throat and chest covered by a large patch of same color as upper parts; color of underparts extending to toes but in interrupted fashion on both fore-and hind-feet; least width of color of underparts averaging, in four males from Prince of Wales Island, 41 (38-49) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail averaging, in 8 males in winter pelage, 65 (59-78) mm. which is 84 (69-92) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. From its geographic neighbors _alascensis_ and _initis_, _celenda_ differs in darker color of upper parts, presence rather than absence of patch of dark color on lower throat and chest, and longer black tip on tail. From _haidarum_, _celenda_ differs in darker color of upper parts, presence rather than absence of patch of dark color on lower throat and chest, narrower light-colored under parts, black tip of tail averaging less rather than more than nine-tenths of length of tail-vertebrae and ventral face of tail colored like upper parts rather than like underparts. _Skull._--Male (illustrated by 5 adults): See measurements and plates 5-7. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 2.3 (2.2-2.5) grams; basilar length, 39.5 (38.9-40.7) mm.; length of tooth-rows more than length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes more than a third of basilar length; interorbital breadth more than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth more or less than (about equal to) distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. Female.--Complete skull of adult unavailable. Differences from _richardsonii_ are indicated in the formal description just given. Additional to differences therein noted, _celenda_ differs from _initis_ in larger interorbital and preorbital parts of the skull although dimensions of other parts of the skull and the teeth are about the same or even less. From _salva_, _celenda_ differs in larger average size in every measurement taken, except for the inner moiety of M1 which is about the same. The skull of _celenda_ is 35 per cent heavier. In relation to the basilar length the skull of _celenda_ is wider, especially in the interorbital and preorbital regions. In comparison with _alascensis_ the tympanic bullae are of approximately the same length; otherwise essentially the same differences obtain as are noted in comparison with _salva_ and the zygomatic breadth is relatively more in _celenda_. From _seclusa_, in which the teeth are of comparable size, _celenda_ differs in that every cranial measurement is more and the skull is 28 per cent heavier. Because the skull of _celenda_ is so much longer, its dimensions in other planes are less in relation to the length than in _seclusa_. _M. e. celenda_ is larger in every part measured than _haidarum_, 21 per cent heavier, and in relation to the basilar length the interorbital, and preorbital, parts of the skull are smaller, the braincase is shallower, and the skull is relatively wider across the zygomata and mastoid processes. In comparison with _kadiacensis_, differences are: 26 per cent lighter, skull shorter; in relation to the basilar length, braincase shallower as measured at the anterior end of the basioccipital, tooth-rows shorter but orbitonasal length more. In comparison with _arctica_ all parts measured of the teeth and skull of _celenda_ are smaller and its skull is 34 per cent lighter. In relation to the basilar length, the interorbital breadth of _celenda_ is only slightly less but its skull is narrower across the rostrum and zygomata, the tooth-rows are shorter, and the braincase is shallower. _Remarks._--The late George Willett in the course of his work in Alaska collected most of the known specimens of this strongly differentiated subspecies. In both coloration and cranial characters the distinguishing features are so well marked that the zoölogist could with reason accord full specific rank to _celenda_. Nevertheless it obviously is an ermine. Also, races from other islands of southeastern Alaska tend to bridge the gap, as regards cranial features, between _celenda_ and the mainland ermine. The specimen from Dall Island agrees in all respects with topotypes. The specimen from Howkan on Long Island is in white winter pelage and the skull has suffered shrinkage from some chemical solution; the reference of this specimen to _celenda_ is tentative. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 25, as follows: Arranged by localities from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated, in U. S. National Museum. =Alaska.= Prince of Wales Island: Craig, 18 (10 in Mus. Vert. Zoöl., and 8 in Los Angeles Mus. Hist. Art and Sci.); Kasaan Bay, 2; no locality more definite than the Island itself, 3; Dall Island, Otter Harbor, 1 (Los Angeles Mus. Hist. Art and Sci.). Long Island, Howkan, 1 (Field Mus. Nat. Hist.). =Mustela erminea seclusa= Hall Ermine Plates 5, 6 and 7 _Mustela erminea seclusa_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 57:39, June 28, 1944; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:181, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, adult, skull alone; no. 31232, Mus. Vert. Zoöl.; Port Santa Cruz, Suemez Island, Alaska; March 24, 1920; obtained by George Willett. The skull (plates 5-7) is complete and unbroken. Of the upper incisors only right I3 is present. Otherwise the teeth are present and unbroken. _Range._--Known only from the type locality. See figures 25, 26 on pages 95, 134. _Characters for ready recognition_ (only the male known).--Differs from _M. e. celenda_ in basilar length less than 38.2, from _M. e. salva_, _initis_ and _haidarum_ in zygomatic breadth more than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. _Description.--Size_ and _Color._--No external measurements or skins available. Skull.--Male: See measurements and plates 5-7. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.8 grams; basilar length, 34.3; length of tooth-rows about the same as length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes more than a third of basilar length; interorbital breadth more than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior margin of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth more than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. Female.--Skull not available. From _alascensis_ and _salva_, _seclusa_ differs in larger teeth, shorter skull, much larger preorbital and interorbital regions, actually as well as in relation to basilar length. Excepting the teeth, which are of about the same size, the same general differences obtain in comparison with _initis_ which, however, is 29 per cent heavier. From _celenda_, _seclusa_ differs in smaller skull in all parts measured, being 22 per cent lighter. The teeth are about the same size. In relation to its length the skull of _seclusa_ is much broader and deeper. From _haidarum_, _seclusa_ differs in: teeth larger; skull shorter and more convex in dorsal outline along median longitudinal axis; in relation to basilar length, skull broader, deeper and braincase relatively shorter. _Remarks._--The characters shown in the one available skull are far outside the limits of individual variation for other known subspecies. Other specimens are much to be desired to ascertain what the "average" individual is like and to learn the characters of the female. _Specimen examined._--One, the holotype. =Mustela erminea haidarum= (Preble) Ermine Plates 5, 6, 7, 11, 12 and 13 _Putorius haidarum_ Preble, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:169, August 10, 1898. _Mustela haidarum_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:97, December 31, 1912. _Mustela erminea haidarum_, Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 57:38, June 28, 1944; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:181, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, adult, skull, skeleton and skin; no. 94430, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Massett, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia; March 17, 1898; obtained by J. H. Keen; original no. 1800x. The skull is unbroken and complete except for osseous tissue destroyed in the region of each postorbital process; this is the result of infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites. The skeleton is complete down to the distal ends of the tibiae; the more distal bones are in the skin. The first, right, upper incisor is missing. Otherwise the teeth all are present and entire. The skin is in the white, winter pelage but the new under fur is visible along the back and on the head although mostly covered with white hair. _Range._--Queen Charlotte Islands. See figure 25, page 95. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. celenda_ in chest white (not mostly covered by brown patch), proximal two-thirds of under side of tail colored like underparts instead of upper parts, in males basilar length less than 38.2; from _M. e. seclusa_, in male, in zygomatic breadth less than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen; from _M. e. richardsonii_ and _alascensis_, in both sexes, in proximal two-thirds of under side of tail colored like underparts instead of upper parts, interorbital breadth not less than distance from glenoid fossa to posterior margin of external auditory meatus; from _M. e. anguinae_ and _fallenda_, in both sexes, in light-colored underparts more than half the width of dark-colored upper parts, proximal two-thirds of under surface of tail colored like underparts instead of upper parts, interorbital breadth equal to or more than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior margin of external auditory meatus. _Description.--Size._--Male: Two adults, U.S.N.M., no. 100622, from Cumsheva Inlet, and Amer. Mus. N. H., no. 37411, and the type, measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 283, 290, 275; length of tail, 70, 75, 60; length of hind foot, 39, 40, 37. Female: Corresponding measurements of an adult, no. 100624, and a young individual, no. 100623, each from Cumsheva Inlet, are: 252, 250; 63, 61; 31, 32. _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that underparts not Sulphur Yellow but ranging from near (_e_) Colonial Buff through Marguerite Yellow to almost pure white; color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs and onto toes but in many specimens interrupted at wrist by color of upper parts; color of underparts extends onto proximal three-fourths of under side of tail as length of tail is measured along tail-vertebrae; least width of color of underparts averaging, in 5 males, 79 (66-130) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same males averaging 62 (60-70) mm. which is 92 (83-115) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. The close correspondence in color-pattern of this weasel with the Arctic races, _arctica_, _polaris_, _semplei_ and _kadiacensis_ is noteworthy, and distinguishes it from weasels on the adjacent mainland and adjoining islands to the north and south. The color of the upper parts is darker than in the four Arctic races named. _Skull._--Male (7 adults): See measurements and plates 5-7. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.9 (1.7-2.0) grams; basilar length, 36.7 (35.6-37.5); length of tooth-rows more than length of tympanic bullae; breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes more than a third of basilar length; interorbital breadth more than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior margin of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth barely less than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. Female (2 adults): See measurements and plates 11-13. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.3 and 1.4 grams; basilar length, 34.2; length of tooth-rows more or less than (about equal to) length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum more than 30 per cent of basilar length; interorbital breadth not less than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior margin of external auditory meatus. From _richardsonii_, _haidarum_ differs in that skull of the male is actually larger in its anterior part (breadth of rostrum, interorbital breadth and orbitonasal length) but all measurements of other parts average less. In relation to the basilar length, the tympanic bulla is shorter but all other measurements are more. In the skull of the female, which is 23 per cent heavier, the width of the tympanic bulla and anteroposterior extent of the inner lobe of M1 are the same; in all other measurements the female of _haidarum_ is larger, and in relation to the basilar length all measurements are more except the depth of the skull at the anterior margin of the basioccipital and the width of the tympanic bulla, which are less. By actual weight the skull of the male is 25 per cent lighter and the skull of the female 24 per cent heavier than in _richardsonii_. From _fallenda_ and _anguinae_, _haidarum_ differs in that measurements of the skulls of both sexes either average more, or are uniformly more, with two exceptions. These are the lesser length and breadth of the tympanic bulla, in comparison with males of _fallenda_, and the dimensions of M1 which are about the same in all three races concerned. The pre-and interorbital parts are larger in relation to the remainder of the skull. The postorbital breadth is actually a third more than in _fallenda_. In relation to the basilar length, the tympanic bulla is shorter and the braincase deeper than in males of _anguinae_. The skull of the male is 27 per cent heavier than that of _fallenda_ and 58 per cent heavier than that of _anguinae_. The skull of the female is 59 and 50 per cent heavier than those of _fallenda_ and _anguinae_, respectively. Comparison of the skull with those of _alascensis_, _celenda_ and _seclusa_ has been made in the accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--The available specimens of this ermine were obtained by J. H. Keen in 1898, Wilfred H. Osgood and E. A. Lewis in 1900, W. W. Brown in 1914, J. A. Munro in 1917 and 1918, and Allan Brooks in 1920. _M. e. haidarum_ has more claim to full specific status than any other race of ermine because the diagnostic structural features are numerous and individually of relatively great degree. Indeed, individual variation appears not to bridge the gap between any population of _haidarum_ and other subspecies and strong reasons could be advanced for according _haidarum_ the status of a full species. It differs from the subspecies of _erminea_ on the adjoining mainland and adjoining islands to the north and south and agrees with the Arctic races (_arctica_, _polaris_, _semplei_ and _kadiacensis_) in great extent of the color of the underparts, extension of this color onto the underneath side of the tail, long black tip of the tail and general form of the skull including the relatively heavy preorbital region. The color although darker than in the Arctic subspecies, is lighter than in the insular races immediately to the north and south. In combination, the features mentioned could be taken as indication that _haidarum_ is a relict population from a former glacial period. Assuming that it is a relict population, the color may have become slightly darker since that period but the main response appears to have been a decrease in size for this is a much smaller animal than the Arctic ermines. The size is about what would be expected if one were to judge by the slightly larger ermines on the islands of southeastern Alaska to the north and the smaller ermine on Vancouver Island to the south. The ermines of the islands of southeastern Alaska, excepting possibly the incompletely known _seclusa_, have fewer characters of the Arctic races and more characters of the races of the adjoining mainland. Therefore, a possible inference is that the distinctive characters of ermines of the Alaskan islands developed with the aid of isolation from stocks which reached the islands after the glacial period. _M. e. haidarum_ may have found its way to the Queen Charlotte Islands in the glacial period. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 17, as follows. Arranged by locality from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the U. S. National Museum. =British Columbia.= Queen Charlotte Islands. Masset, 7 (4[74], 1[2], 1[59]); Skidegate, 1; Graham Island, 5 (2[94], 1[77], 1[2]); Cumsheva Inlet, 3; no locality more definite than Queen Charlotte Islands, 1[2]. =Mustela erminea anguinae= Hall Ermine Plates 5, 6, 7, 11, 12 and 13 _Mustela cicognanii anguinae_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 38:417, November 8, 1932. _Putorius cicognanii_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 161, 1858 (part). _Putorius streatori_, Swarth, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 10:102, February 13, 1912. _Mustela erminea anguinae_ Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:79, February 27, 1945; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:181, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, adult, complete skeleton (no skin); no. 12482, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., French Creek, Vancouver Island, British Columbia; found as a desiccated carcass on May 1, 1910; obtained by Harry S. Swarth. _Range._--Vancouver Island, British Columbia. See figures 25, 27 pages 95, 149. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. haidarum_, in both sexes, in light-colored underparts less than half the width of dark-colored upper parts, proximal two-thirds of under surface of tail colored like upper parts instead of underparts, interorbital breadth less than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior margin of external auditory meatus; from _M. e. fallenda_, in both sexes, anterior margin of tympanic bullae flush with squamosal rather than projecting from floor of braincase, in males by sagittal crest absent, in females by total length more than 238 and tooth-rows about same length as, instead of longer than, tympanic bulla; from _M. e. streatori_, in male, by sagittal crest absent and hind foot ordinarily more than 33.5, in female by hind foot more than 27.5, basilar length more than 30.2; from _M. e. olympica_, in males, by greater average size, hind foot ordinarily more than 33.4 and interorbital breadth ordinarily more than 8.5, in females by larger size, total length more than 235, tail more than 65, hind foot more than 27.5, basilar length more than 30.2. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Sixteen adults and subadults yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 272 (261-284) mm.; length of tail, 81 (74-86); length of hind foot, 35.0 (33.5-36). Female: Five adults and subadults have corresponding measurements as follows: 247 (241-257); 69 (66-73); 30.0 (28.0-32.0). _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea streatori_ except that: occasionally white in winter; upper parts about tone 2 of Dark Chocolate of Oberthür and Dauthenay; least width of color of underparts averaging, in 7 adult males, 6 (0-15) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same series averaging 37 (26-46) mm. which is 46 (32-54) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (based on 13 adults): See measurements and plates 5-7. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.2 (1.0-1.3) grams; basilar length, 34.0 (32.5-35.6); length of tooth-rows more or less (usually less) than length of tympanic bulla. Female (based on 5 adults): See measurements and plates 11-13. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight 0.9 (0.77-1.06) grams; basilar length, 31.5 (30.9-31.8) grams; length of tooth-rows more or less than (approximately same as) length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum more than 30 per cent of basilar length. The sexual dimorphism in the skull is slight, the skull of the male being only a third heavier than that of the female. In _fallenda_ of the adjacent mainland to the east the male is three-fourths heavier than the female. In comparison with _fallenda_, males are smaller, averaging less in every cranial and dental measurement taken and by weight are a fifth lighter; sagittal crest absent rather than present; tympanic bullae flush with squamosal rather than projecting below floor of braincase; in relation to basilar length, tympanic bullae smaller, braincase deeper and broader, skull wider interorbitally and across zygomata. Females are larger than in _fallenda_, and with one exception average larger in every cranial and dental measurement taken, being 6 per cent heavier. The one exception mentioned is the lesser actual length of the tympanic bulla in _anguinae_, in which the length of the tooth-rows is about the same as, rather than less than, the length of the tympanic bulla. The postorbital breadth is greater than in _fallenda_ and the anterior edges of the tympanic bullae are flush with the squamosals rather than projecting below the floor of braincase. In relation to the skull as a whole the preorbital and interorbital parts are larger. In comparison with _streatori_, skulls of males are of about the same size, _anguinae_ being only 9 per cent heavier. The length of the tooth-rows is ordinarily less than, rather than about equal to, the length of the tympanic bulla; sagittal crest wanting rather than present since in _anguinae_ the temporal muscles meet usually only at the posterior end of the braincase instead of all along the midline on its top; tympanic bullae narrower and more nearly flush with squamosal (less protruded from braincase). Relative to the basilar length, the zygomatic breadth is more, the tympanic bullae are narrower, and the braincase is deeper at the anterior end of the basioccipital. The female is 41 per cent heavier than _streatori_, there being no overlap in most cranial and dental measurements. M1, however, is approximately the same size in each subspecies. The tooth-rows and tympanic bulla are of almost equal length whereas in _streatori_ the length of the tooth-rows is less than that of the bulla. Differences from _olympica_, in males, are: M1 shorter; all other measurements of teeth and parts of skull averaging larger; skull 20 per cent heavier; tooth-rows averaging shorter than tympanic bulla rather than about the same; relative to basilar length, braincase deeper at anterior end of basioccipital and tooth-rows shorter. The skull of the female is 64 per cent heavier, larger in every measurement taken without overlap; temporal ridges meeting, rather than separated, at lambdoidal crest; length of tooth-rows about equal to, rather than shorter than, tympanic bulla; in relation to basilar length, skull deeper, orbitonasal length more, mastoid and zygomatic breadths more, and tympanic bullae shorter. _Remarks._--References in the literature to this insular race mostly were under the name _streatori_ until 1932 when in the course of the present study the name _anguinae_ was proposed. A few specimens have been taken by nearly every student of small mammals who has collected on Vancouver Island. Arthur Peake and Herbert Laing have probably collected more specimens than any other two zoölogists. _M. c. anguinae_ is noteworthy for the slight secondary sexual variation in size; the disparity between the two sexes is less than in any other American subspecies of _erminea_. By linear measurement the body of the female is only 7 per cent shorter than in the male (178 versus 191 mm.). Linear measurements and weights of the skulls of the two sexes are further indicative of this approximation in size. By weight the skull of the female is only a fourth lighter than that of the male, or, stated in another way, the male's skull is only a third heavier (1.2 versus 0.9 grams). No geographic variation has been detected between lots of specimens from different parts of Vancouver Island. The one specimen available from Salt Spring Island presents no obvious differences from selected individuals from Vancouver Island. The winter pelage is more often brown than white. Of 17 specimens seen in winter pelage or in transition pelage, only 6 are white. These 6 are from Comox, Stamp River, Hilliers, Jeune Landing and Port Alice. Of the 34 specimens in brown pelage, 7 have the dark color of the upper parts meeting on the abdomen. Six of the 34 have brown color on the pectoral region. In two, this is a separate patch but in the other four the dark color is a continuation of the upper parts and extends in front of each foreleg over part of the pectoral region, but the two extensions, one from either side, do not meet on the underparts. The color of the lips was recorded in 22 individuals: one had both the upper and lower-lips white; 7 had the upper lips brown and the lower lips white; in 14 both the upper and lower-lips were brown. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 40, listed by localities from north to south as follows. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the National Museum of Canada. =British Columbia.= Vancouver Island: Cape Scott, 4; Shushartie, 1; Quatsino, 1[74]; Jeune Landing, 1[74]; Port Alice, 5[15]; Marble Creek, Quatsino Sound, 1[22]; Port Hardy, 5; Sayward, 2; Bear Lake, 4; Bear River, 1; Comox, 4(3[85]); Stamp River, Alberni, 1[31]; Errington, 1[74]; French Creek, 1[74]; Hilliers, 1[74]; Craigs Crossing, 1[74]; Nanaimo, 2[22]; Cowichan Lake, 1[22]; Duncan, 2[85]; Salt Spring Island, 1[85]. =Mustela erminea fallenda= Hall Ermine Plates 5, 6, 7, 11, 12 and 13 _Mustela erminea fallenda_ Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:79, February 27, 1945; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:181, July 19, 1945. _Putorius streatori_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:13, June 30, 1896 (part-Sumas). [Illustration: FIG. 27. Map showing known occurrences and probable geographic ranges of the subspecies of _Mustela erminea_ in Washington and parts of British Columbia and Oregon.] _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 7096, Nat. Mus. Canada; Huntingdon, British Columbia; May 21, 1927; obtained by C. H. Young, original no. 317. The brown summer skin is well made. The skull (plates 5-7) is complete. Right p2 has the crown broken away; otherwise the teeth all are present and entire. _Range._--On mainland in immediate vicinity of coast from probably opposite Texada Island, British Columbia, south to Lake Whatcom, Washington, and east to Mount Baker Range on International boundary. See figures 25, 27 on pages 95, 149. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. haidarum_, in both sexes, in light-colored underparts less than half the width of dark-colored upper parts, proximal two-thirds of under surface of tail colored like upper parts instead of underparts, interorbital breadth less than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior margin of external auditory meatus; from _M. e. richardsonii_ in both sexes, by upper lips brown rather than white, in males hind foot less than 41 and basilar length less than 38.3, in females hind foot less than 29, basilar length less than 31.4 and breadth of rostrum more, instead of less, than 30 per cent of basilar length; from _M. e. invicta_, in both sexes, by upper lips brown (not white); in males by skull averaging shorter (basilar length 35.7 versus 37.0); in females by breadth of rostrum more, instead of less, than 30 per cent of basilar length; from _M. e. anguinae_, in both sexes, by anterior margin of tympanic bulla projecting from floor of braincase rather than flush with squamosal (the difference is slight in females), in males by sagittal crest present, in females by total length less than 238 and tooth-rows longer than, instead of about same length as, tympanic bulla; from _M. e. streatori_, in both sexes, by black tip of tail more than half of length of tail-vertebrae, in males hind foot more than 33.7, tympanic bulla longer than, instead of about same length as, upper tooth-rows; weight of skull more than 1-1/4 grams, in females weight of skull more than 0.7 grams, length of lateral side of P4, 4 mm. or more; from _M. e. olympica_, in males, length of hind foot more than 33, black tip of tail more than 36.5 mm., weight of skull more than 1.2 grams, basilar length more than 33.5, in females length of hind foot more than 25.5, weight of skull more than 0.66 grams, basilar length more than 28.4; from _M. e. gulosa_, in both sexes, by anterior margin of tympanic bulla projecting below floor of braincase rather than flush with squamosal (the difference is slight in females), in males hind foot more than 33.5, weight of skull more than 1-1/4 grams, basilar length more than 33.9, in females by total length more than 222, hind foot longer than 26, weight of skull more than 0.7 grams, basilar length more than 29. _Description.--Size._--Male: Seven adult topotypes yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 278 (249-305); length of tail, 77 (69-81); length of hind foot, 36.5 (34-40). A male topotype of unknown age weighed 113 grams. Female: Two adult topotypes, with actual measurements in parentheses, average as follows: Total length, 232 (228-236); length of tail, 60 (57-62); length of hind foot, 27 (27-27). An adult from Morovitz Guard Station, Wash., weighed 54 grams. _Color._--Winter pelage rarely white, brown pelage indistinguishable from summer pelage except for slightly more smoky tinge in winter in specimens from some localities; otherwise as described in _Mustela erminea streatori_ except that least width of color of underparts averaging, in seven adult topotypes, 18 (0-37) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail averaging, in same series, 45 (38-52) mm. which is 58 (53-65) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. In comparison with _richardsonii_ and _invicta_, _fallenda_ differs in darker color of upper parts and their extension at the expense of the light-colored underparts which are narrower by a half. In correlation with this restriction in area of the light-colored underparts, the upper lips are brown instead of white. In comparison with _anguinae_, _olympica_ and _streatori_, the longer black tip on the tail is the principal difference in color. From _gulosa_, _fallenda_ differs in slightly darker color of upper parts and in narrow underparts, the width of the same being only about a fifth instead of a third of the width of the dark-colored upper parts. _Skull._--Male (based on 7 adults): See measurements and plates 5-7. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.5 (1.3-1.7) grams; basilar length, 35.7 (34.3-38.2). Female (based on 6 ads.): See measurements and plates 11-13. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 0.85 (0.73-1.0) grams; basilar length, 30.6 (29.4-31.7); breadth of rostrum more than 30 per cent of basilar length. In comparison with _richardsonii_, skulls of males differ as follows: averaging smaller in every measurement taken with no overlap in several dimensions; 40 per cent lighter; in relation to basilar length, rostrum (orbitonasal length) longer and skull slightly broader interorbitally. Females average smaller in every cranial and dental measurement taken with no overlap in basilar length, length of tooth-rows and length of tympanic bulla; 22 per cent lighter; breadth of rostrum more, rather than less, than 30 per cent of basilar length; in relation to basilar length, pre-and interorbital parts of skull larger, and mastoid breadth more. Differences from males of _olympica_ are: size larger with no overlap in most measurements; 50 per cent heavier; tympanic bullae longer than upper tooth-rows rather than of about equal length; in relation to basilar length, rostrum shorter, braincase wider and deeper, zygomata more expanded. Females are larger with no overlap in most measurements; 35 per cent heavier; in relation to basilar length, pre-and interorbital regions narrower, braincase deeper and wider across mastoids. Differences from _streatori_, in males, are: skull averaging larger in every cranial and dental measurement taken; 36 per cent heavier; tympanic bulla longer than, instead of about same length as, upper tooth-rows. In females the inner lobe of M1 is shorter anteroposteriorly; otherwise all measurements of _fallenda_ average larger and it is 33 per cent heavier; rostrum and interorbital region broader in relation to remainder of skull. In comparison with _gulosa_, skulls of males differ as follows: averaging larger in every measurement taken with no overlap in several dimensions; 50 per cent heavier; tympanic bullae with anterior margins projecting slightly below squamosals rather than flush with same; length of bulla more than, rather than about same as, that of upper tooth-rows. Considering the great difference in size, the relative proportions are remarkably alike. In females, length of inner lobe of M1 about the same; otherwise averaging larger in every measurement taken; 44 per cent lighter; relative to basilar length, tooth-rows longer, skull wider across zygomata and mastoids, rostrum and interorbital regions slightly narrower, skull shallower in plane of last upper molars. Comparisons with _haidarum_, _invicta_ and _anguinae_ are made in accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--Until the name _fallenda_ was proposed in the course of the present study, most of the specimens of this race were assigned to _streatori_. Intergradation with _streatori_ is complete as it is also with _invicta_ and _richardsonii_, in other words with each of the subspecies whose ranges meet that of _fallenda_. In color and in size the difference is least between _streatori_ and _fallenda_. As between _fallenda_ and _invicta_ the size is not greatly different and the intergradation in color is gradual. Between _fallenda_ and _richardsonii_ intergradation is somewhat different and to fully appreciate its nature we should remember that the color of _fallenda_ resembles that of the saturate coastal races, _streatori_, _anguinae_ and _olympica_ although the black tip of the tail is longer. In this latter feature and in several cranial details, as well as in greater degree of secondary sexual variation in size, _fallenda_ resembles _richardsonii_. Because the two differ more than do most subspecies of ermine whose ranges meet, some of the intergrades at first inspection appear to be widely different from either parent stock. For example, specimens from Alta Lake, British Columbia, may give this impression because the combination of large size and dark color suggests a kind of ermine different from either _fallenda_ or _richardsonii_. In no instance, however, has there been found in these intergrades any character other than those occurring in one or the other of the two parent races. Along the coast in the north part of the geographic range assigned to _fallenda_, some specimens nearly typical of _richardsonii_ have been taken so near to the place where fairly typical _fallenda_ was obtained that I have doubted whether there is intergradation in the usual fashion in this area; more specimens will have to be obtained from this coastal area to resolve the doubt one way or the other. The winter pelage is brown in all specimens at most localities. The only white pelage seen was in each of three specimens from Glacier, Whatcom County, Washington. A fourth specimen from there is in brown winter pelage. At any one locality there is much variation in the degree to which the dark color of the upper parts encroaches on the area that in most other races is light-colored. An extreme degree of encroachment is shown by a specimen taken on December 1, 1935, by R. A. Cummings, at Vancouver, British Columbia, in which the light color occurs only in three restricted areas, the chin, the throat and the lower breast; otherwise the coat is brown. There are other specimens, for instance from the type locality, which differ mainly in having an additional white spot in the inguinal region. The opposite extreme, in a specimen also from the type locality, is where the least width of the light-colored underparts on the abdominal region is a third of the circumference of the body. The two extremes are connected by a dozen intermediate stages. Of 64 specimens in which the color of the lips was carefully examined, one, from Vancouver, has both the upper and lower-lips brown; 9 have both the upper and lower-lips white; and 54 have the upper lips brown and the lower lips white. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 72, arranged by localities from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the National Museum of Canada. =British Columbia.= Horseshoe Lake, Stillwater, 2; Vancouver, 1[74]; Point Grey, 1[31]; Port Moody, 5[91]; Chilliwack, 8 (2[75], 4[91], 1[60]); Sumas, 19 (18[75], 1[60]); Thurstons Ranch, 2; Cultus Lake, 2; Mt. Baker Range, 5[75]; Lihumption Park, 1; Huntingdon, 14; Tami Hy Creek, 1. =Washington.= _Whatcom County_: Semiahmoo, 1[91]; New Whatcom, 1[68]; Lake Whatcom, 2[91]; 5 mi. W Glacier, 1[51]; Glacier (3 at 900 ft.), 4[91]; E Side Easton Glacier, Mt. Baker, 1[55]; Morovitz Guard Station, 831 ft., 1[55]. =Mustela erminea olympica= Hall Ermine Plates 5, 6, 7, 12, 13 and 14 _Mustela erminea olympica_ Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:81, February 27, 1945; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:181, July 19, 1945. _Mustela rixosa_, Svihla and Svihla, Murrelet, 13:24, January, 1932. _Mustela rixosa rixosa_, Svihla and Svihla, Murrelet, 14:39, May, 1933. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 90738, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; near head of Soleduc River, 4500 ft., Olympic Mountains, Clallam County, Washington; April 28, 1897; obtained by Vernon Bailey, original no. 6213. The skin is well prepared and in good condition. The skull (plates 5-7) is unbroken and the teeth all are present and entire. _Range._--Olympic Peninsula, Washington, south to Olympia. See figures 25, 27 on pages 95, 149. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. anguinae_, in males, by lesser average size, hind foot ordinarily less than 33.4, and interorbital breadth ordinarily less than 8.5, in females by smaller size, total length less than 235, tail less than 65, hind foot less than 27.5, basilar length less than 30.2; from _M. e. fallenda_, in males, by length of hind foot less than 33, black tip of tail less than 36.5, weight of skull less than 1.2 grams, basilar length less than 33.5, in females length of hind foot less than 25.5, weight of skull less than 0.6 grams, basilar length less than 28.4; from _M. e. streatori_ by smaller size, in males hind foot less than 33.0, basilar length ordinarily less than 32.5, in females by hind foot ordinarily not longer than 24, by breadth of rostrum less than 8.6, depth of braincase at posterior border of upper molars less than 7.6. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Twelve individuals of adult proportions yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 243 (205-269); length of tail, 65 (60-74); length of hind foot, 31 (29-32). Female: Corresponding measurements of six females are: 196 (188-208), 52 (45-60?), 23.4 (22.7-24.0). An adult weighs 30 grams. _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea streatori_ except that least width of color of underparts averaging, in 12 males of adult proportions, 5 (0-11) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail averaging, in same series, 26 (20-35) mm., which is 40 (31-58) per cent (average the same as in _streatori_) of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (based on 5 adults): See measurements and plates 5-7. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.0 (0.9-1.1) grams; basilar length, 31.8 (30.6-32.5); length of tooth-rows more or less than (about equal to) length of tympanic bulla. Female (illustrated by 3 adults): See measurements and plates 12-14. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 0.55 (0.52-0.58) grams; basilar length, 27.1 (26.7-27.5); breadth of rostrum more than 30 per cent of basilar length. In comparison with _streatori_, skulls of corresponding sex average smaller in every measurement taken with no overlap in most of those of females. Exception is to be made for the inner lobe of M1 in males where the size is the same. By weight males are smaller by 10 per cent and females by 14 per cent. In relation to other parts of the skull the tympanic bullae are narrower and in females they are shorter as well. Comparison with _anguinae_ and _fallenda_ has been made in the accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--The smaller size, especially of females, is the principal feature distinguishing this race from _streatori_. On the basis of available data the female of _olympica_ is smaller than that of any other race and hence is the smallest adult weasel of the species _erminea_, in either the Old World or in America. Intergradation with _streatori_ is indicated by specimens from the southern end of Puget Sound. These specimens are intermediate in size between typical examples of the two races concerned. The color of the upper parts is uniform and the color pattern varies less than in geographically adjoining races. The white color of the underparts is restricted to a thin line on the abdominal region, but widens out posteriorly in the inguinal region and anteriorly over the pectoral region, throat, chin and lower lips. The upper lips are brown. The brown of the upper parts extends around in front of each foreleg, the two brown areas not quite meeting on the lower throat. The above description applies to each of the 19 specimens examined with regard to these details. Every specimen seen in the winter coat was brown, not white. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 20, arranged by counties from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the U. S. National Museum. =Washington.= _Clallam County_: Clallam Bay, 2 (1[74], 1[94]); Elwha, 2[10]; Johnsons Ranch, 1[60]; Happy Lake, 1[60]; Boulder Lake, 2[60]; near head of Soleduc River, 4500 ft., 1; 12 mi. S Port Angeles, 1[10]. _Jefferson County_: Hayes Cr., 2000 ft., Elwha River, 2; head N Fork Quinault River, 4000 ft., 1; Duckabush, 3; N Fork Skokomish River, 1. _Mason County_: Lake Cushman, 2[76]; 4 mi. S Olympia, 1. =Mustela erminea streatori= (Merriam) Ermine Plates 5, 6, 7, 12, 13 and 14 _Putorius streatori Merriam_, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:13, pl. 2, figs. 5, 5a, 6, 6a, June 30, 1896. _Putorius cicognanii_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 161, 1858 (part unless no. 2395 was a female of _M. frenata_). _Putorius pusillus_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 159, 1858 (part). _Putorius (Gale) vulgaris_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 102, 1877 (part). _Mustela streatori streatori_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912; Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:101, September 26, 1933. _Mustela cicognanii streatori_, Hall, Murrelet, 12:22, January, 1931; Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 38:417, November 8, 1932. _Mustela erminea streatori_, Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:77, February 27, 1945; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:181, July 19, 1945. _Mustela rixosa_, Beer, Journ. Mamm., 29:296, August 31, 1948. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 76646, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Mount Vernon, Skagit Valley, Skagit County, Washington; February 29, 1896; obtained by D. R. Luckey, original no. 3. The skull is unbroken and the teeth all are present and entire. The skin, in brown winter pelage, is stuffed and in good condition. _Range._--Western Washington along eastern side of Puget Sound, western Oregon from the Cascades to the coast, and northwestern California south in the humid coastal district nearly to the Golden Gate. See figures 25, 27 on pages 95, 149. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. anguinae_, in male, by sagittal crest present and hind foot ordinarily less than 33.5, in female by hind foot less than 27.5, basilar length less than 30.2; from _M. e. fallenda_, in both sexes, by black tip of tail less than half of length of tail-vertebrae, in males hind foot less than 33.7, tympanic bulla about same length as, instead of longer than, upper tooth-rows; weight of skull less than 1-1/4 grams, in female weight of skull less than 0.7 grams, length of lateral side of P4 less than 4 mm.; from _M. e. olympica_, by larger size, in males hind foot more than 33.0, basilar length ordinarily more than 32.5, in females by hind foot ordinarily longer than 24, by breadth of rostrum more than 8.6, depth of braincase at posterior border of upper molars more than 7.6; from _M. e. gulosa_ and _muricus_, in both sexes, by upper lips brown (not white), light color of underparts extending down hind leg no farther than knee, depth of skull at posterior border of upper molars more than 7.7 in females and ordinarily more than 9.6 in males, further from _muricus_ by tail more than 62 in males and more than 49 in females; from _M. e. invicta_ by upper lips white (not brown), in males hind foot more than 36 and basilar length more than 35, in females hind foot more than 29.5 and basilar length more than 30.5. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Twelve adults from Blaine and Tillamook, Oregon, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 255 (245-275); length of tail, 72 (64-80); length of hind foot, 31.5 (30.0-33.5). Female: Seven adults from Blaine and Tillamook, Oregon, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 214 (193-230); length of tail, 55 (50-63); length of hind foot, 25 (24-27). _Color._--Winter and summer pelages indistinguishable; upper parts uniform and ranging from Raw Umber to slightly darker (16_n_), and about tones 1 to 3 of Dark Chocolate of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 342; underparts white, in summer rarely with a faint buffy suffusion in pectoral region; color of underparts extends from chin, and often lower lips, posteriorly to inguinal region, distally on posterior sides of forelegs onto antipalmar faces of toes (sometimes interrupted at and above wrist) and on medial sides of hind legs hardly to knee. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in twelve adults from Blaine and Tillamook, 10 (0-47) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail, in same series, averaging 28 (24-33) mm. which is 40 (34-47) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (based on 12 adults): See measurements and plates 5-7. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.1 (1.0-1.2) grams; basilar length, 33.2 (32.5-33.8); length of tooth-rows more or less than (about same as) length of tympanic bulla. Female (based on 7 adults): See measurements and plates 12-14. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 0.64 (0.60-0.67) grams; basilar length, 28.5 (27.6-29.5); breadth of rostrum more than 30 per cent of basilar length. Comparison with _anguinae_, _fallenda_, _olympica_, _gulosa_ and _muricus_ is made in accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--This weasel is rare in collections and the best material of it was obtained by Alex Walker in Tillamook County, Oregon, where he resides. The almost ideal series of 30 specimens showed the range of secondary sexual, age, and individual variation expectable in the small ermines of the Pacific Coast of the United States and was the means of allowing satisfactory decision on questions of classification in the related subspecies in which individuals are of comparable size. Intergradation with each of the geographically adjoining subspecies, _olympica_, _fallenda_, _invicta_, _gulosa_ and _muricus_ is shown by specimens examined. With the last mentioned subspecies, intergradation is shown by two specimens from as far south as Siskiyou County, California, assigned to _muricus_. The application of the name _streatori_ is difficult because it was based on a specimen from a place where two clines cross. The north-south cline is one of size which decreases to the south. The east-west cline is one of intensity of color, the westernmost (coastal) population being the most intensely colored. The type locality of _streatori_ is at the place where two lines perpendicular to one another, and representing the two clines, cross. This intersection is near the place where the ranges of several subspecies meet. The nomenclatural question is, to which one of 6 subspecies should the name _streatori_ apply. Specimens from barely within the geographic boundaries of four of these subspecies so closely resemble topotypes of _streatori_ that a student with material at his disposal from only the area about Puget Sound naturally would apply the name _streatori_ to all of his specimens, and knowing even of the arrangement adopted in the present account the student will have difficulty in identifying his specimens according to it. Not only will the student find the arrangement difficult, but probably unsatisfactory if he thinks of _streatori_ as being the kind of animal represented by topotypes. I conceive of topotypes of _streatori_ as being nontypical of the subspecies; they are intergrades with _fallenda_. My aim was initially to work out the geographic ranges of subspecies and only subsequently to apply names, according to which type localities fell within the previously determined geographic ranges. By this procedure no greater weight was given to a holotype and to topotypes than to specimens from any other locality. Of the 40 specimens seen in winter pelage, only one is white. It is from Darrington in the Cascade Mountains of Washington. The 39 others are brown and I doubt that the white pelage ever occurs in the low coastal territory included within the geographic range of _streatori_. This subspecies resembles _anguinae_ and _olympica_ in the great extension of area of the dark-colored upper parts at the expense of the area of the light-colored underparts. The usual arrangement is one where the brown of the two sides nearly meets on the midventral line leaving a sizable, inguinal area of light color connected by a thin line to the sizable area of light color on the pectoral region. The light color of the pectoral area ordinarily is continuous with the light-colored area of the throat and chin but the dark color of the upper parts extends around in front of each foreleg. These extensions of dark color meet on the chest in only 2 of the 56 specimens examined in this regard. Across the abdomen the dark color is continuous in 4 of the 56 specimens. The lower lips are brown instead of white in only 3 individuals and in 2 of these the lip of one side is brown and its opposite is white. The variation in color-pattern is less than in _anguinae_ or than in _fallenda_. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 63, arranged alphabetically by states, then by counties from north to south in each state. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the U. S. National Museum. =California.= _Humboldt County_: 10 mi. NE Carlotta, 1[74]. _Mendocino County_: Russian Gulch State Park, 1[74]. _Sonoma County_: Mouth of Gualala River, 1[74]. =Oregon.= _Clatsop County_: Astoria, 1. _Tillamook County_: Tillamook, 16 (14[14], 1[59]); Blaine, 12 (7[14], 2[59], 1[93], 2[76]). _Washington County_: Beaverton, 1[60]; Forest Grove, 1[36]. _Clackamas County_: Oregon City, 1[46]. _Lincoln County_: Newport, 1. _Linn County_: Sico, 1[46]. _Lane County_: Vida Fish Hatchery, 2[101]; McKenzie Bridge, 1[101]; Mercer, 1[75]. _Klamath County_: Deschutes River, 6 mi. E Crescent Lake, 1[101]. _Douglas County_: Gardiner, 1[60]. _Curry County_: Port Orford, 1; Gold Beach, 2[60]. =Washington.= _Skagit County_: N end Whidby Island opposite Deception Pass, 1; Hamilton, 4; Mt. Vernon, 3. _Snohomish County_: Oso, 550 ft., 1; Darrington, 600 ft., 1. _Pacific County_: Wallicut River, 2 mi. E Ilwaco, 1[74]. _Wahkiakum County_: 4 mi. E. Skamokawa, 3[74]. _Cowlitz County_: 4 mi. E mouth Kalama River, 2[74]; 6 mi. E mouth Kalama River, 1[74]. _Skamania County_: 15 mi. N Govt. Springs, 1300 ft., 1. =Mustela erminea gulosa= Hall Ermine Plates 5, 6, 7, 12, 13 and 14 _Mustela erminea gulosa_ Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:84, February 27, 1945; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:181, July 19, 1945. _Putorius streatori_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:14, June 30, 1896. _Type._--Male, subadult, skull and skin; no. 81998, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington; February 3, 1897; obtained by P. Schmid, original no. 147. The skin is in brown winter pelage, and appears to have been made up from a skin split along the midventral line from the anus to the forelegs. It probably was dried by a trapper, is well made, and lacks a patch of hair on the left flank but otherwise is in good condition. The skull lacks the central part of the left zygomatic arch and the posterior two-thirds of the right one. The right m2 is represented only by an abortive stump or the broken root, and i1 and i2 on each side are absent; otherwise, the teeth all are present and entire. _Range._--Cascades of Washington from northeastern King County south to Mount Adams. See figures 25, 27 on pages 95, 149. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. invicta_ and _fallenda_, in both sexes, by anterior margin of tympanic bulla flush with squamosal rather than projecting below floor of braincase (difference slight in females), in males hind foot less than 33.5, weight of skull less than 1-1/4 grams, basilar length less than 33.9, in females by total length less than 222, hind foot shorter than 26, weight of skull less than 0.7 grams, basilar length less than 29; from _M. e. muricus_, in both sexes, by upper parts darker, tone 4 of Chocolate or darker (see description of color) least width of light-colored underparts averaging one-third instead of approximately two-thirds of greatest width of dark-colored upper parts, in males, on the average, tail more than 65, weight of skull more than 0.90 grams, basilar length more than 30.8 mm.; from _M. e. streatori_, in both sexes, by upper lips white (not brown), light color of underparts extending down hind legs below knee, depth of skull at posterior border of upper molars less than 7.7 in females and ordinarily less than 9.6 in males. _Description._--_Size._--Male: One adult and four subadults from Mount Rainier yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 253 (238-266); length of tail, 75 (70-83); length of hind foot, 31.5 (30-33). Corresponding measurements of 9 subadults from Trout Lake are: 257 (233-282); length of tail, 76 (56-83); length of hind foot, 30.2 (26-33). Female: Of adults, 2 from Mount Rainier and 2 from Trout Lake measure as follows: Total length, 202, 203, 216, 210; length of tail, 54, 52, 57, 51; length of hind foot, 24, 24, 25, 24. The averages for these females are 208, 54, 24.3. _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that color sometimes brown in winter (with more smoky tinge than summer coat); upper parts ranging from tone 2 through tones 3 and 4 of Dark Chocolate (pl. 342) into tone 4 of Chocolate (pl. 343) of Oberthür and Dauthenay; underparts (always white in winter) in summer Sulphur Yellow or more whitish; least width of color of underparts averaging, in 5 males from Mount Rainier, 31 (18-45) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail, in same series, averaging 34 (29-40) mm., which is 45 (41-50) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull._--Male (based on 2 ad. and 13 sad.): See measurements and plates 5-7. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 1.0 (0.95-1.16) grams; basilar length, 32.3 (30.9-33.4); length of tooth-rows more or less than (about equal to) length of tympanic bulla. Female (illustrated by 5 adults): See measurements and plates 12-14. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 0.59 (0.53-0.65) grams; basilar length, 28.1 (27.8-28.4); breadth of rostrum ordinarily more than 30 per cent of basilar length. In comparison with _streatori_, skulls of males and females average smaller in every cranial measurement taken. Teeth of about same size and males 9 per cent, and females 8 per cent, lighter. In relation to basilar length, skull of female shallower, tympanic bullae slightly shorter and, on the average, zygomata less expanded. In comparison with _muricus_, males average larger in every measurement taken; 23 per cent heavier; in relation to other dimensions, braincase shallower at anterior end of basioccipital. Females are of about equal size; in relation to other dimensions, braincase shallower and mastoid and zygomatic breadths less. Comparisons with _invicta_ and _fallenda_ have been made in the accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--This is not a strongly marked race and in most of the characters used for differentiating it from other races it resembles either _streatori_ to the west or _muricus_ to the southeast. Nevertheless, there is a geographic area, the southern Cascades of Washington, throughout which individual characters are combined in essentially the same way and there are a few features, for instance, smaller skull of the female, in which _gulosa_ differs from either of its close relatives. In view of these circumstances and because the animals can not well be included in the subspecies _streatori_ or _muricus_, _gulosa_ is recognized as distinct. The races _gulosa_ and _olympica_ are what might be termed weakly differentiated subspecies in contrast to the strongly differentiated subspecies _streatori_ and _muricus_. Of the 21 specimens in winter pelage, 17 are white and four are brown. The brown winter coat is distinctly paler, with more of a smoky tinge, than the brown summer pelage. The light-colored underparts are narrower than in the subspecies immediately to the east but are wider than in the coastal forms to the west. The dark color of the upper parts extends onto the chest in front of the forelegs, as in the coastal forms, in only one of the 13 specimens in summer pelage and in it on one side only. The black tip of the tail is short as in the coastal forms. One specimen is in transitional pelage. It has acquired approximately half of the white winter pelage and was taken on October 12, 1897, at Keechelus Lake. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 38, arranged by counties from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the U. S. National Museum. =Washington.= _King County_: 2 mi. E Skykomish, 2[51]. _Kittitas County_: Keechelus Lake, 3 (1[1]); Martin, 1[1]; Easton, 3. _Pierce County_: James Lake, 4370 ft., Mt. Rainier, 1; Glacier Basin, 5935 ft., Mt. Rainier, 1; Meslers Ranch, 2000 ft., 1 mi. W Rainier Park, 1. _Lewis County_: Mt. Rainier Nat'l Park, 5 (1 each from: Paradise Park, 5400 ft.; Reflection Lakes, 4900 ft.; Ohanapecosh [Hot] Springs, 2000 ft.; Tahoma Creek, 1[72]; Bear Prairie); also in Mt. Rainier Nat'l Park, Longmire, 3 (1[72], 1[94]). _Skamania County_: Mt. St. Helens, 6000 ft., 1. _Klickitat County_: Trout Lake, 18. =Mustela erminea muricus= (Bangs) Ermine Plates 7, 8, 12, 13, 14 and 41 _Putorius (Arctogale) muricus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:71, July 31, 1899. _Putorius streatori leptus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 16:76, May 29, 1903. Type from Silverton, San Juan County, Colorado. _Putorius muricus_, Stephens, California Mammals, p. 248, 1906. _Putorius cicognani_, Taylor, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 7:298, June 24, 1911. _Mustela streatori leptus_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912; Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 35:48, September 5, 1913; Dixon, Journ. Mamm., 12:72, February 12, 1931; Whitlow and Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:246, September 30, 1933. _Mustela muricus_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912; Kellogg, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 12:358, January 27, 1916. _Mustela cicognanii lepta_, Dice, Journ. Mamm., 1:12, November 28, 1919; Hall, Mamm. Nevada, p. 184, July 1, 1946. _Mustela rixosa_, Seton, Journ. Mamm., 14:70, February 14, 1933. _Mustela cicognanii leptus_, Miller, Journ. Mamm., 14:368, November 13, 1933; Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:293, August 29, 1936. _Mustela erminea murica_, Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:84, February 27, 1945; Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:181, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male, young, skull and skin; no. 9146, collection of E. A. and O. Bangs in Mus. Comp. Zoöl.; Echo, 7500 ft., El Dorado County, California; July 15, 1897; obtained by W. W. Price and E. M. Nutting. The skull has a fracture along the sagittal suture and fractures on the left side of the braincase but these have been glued, and no part of the skull is missing except in the region of the right P4 which part has been shot away. On the left side m2 never developed. Excepting this tooth and the right P4, all the teeth are present and entire. The skin is well made but has the soles of the hind feet turned up. _Range._--Near 5300 feet (Denver) to 11000 feet (Santa Fe Baldy); typically boreal but taken in Upper Sonoran Life-zone in winter at Denver; from central and southwestern Montana, southern Idaho, and Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington southward east of the Cascade Divide through the Salmon River Mountains and Sierra Nevada at least into Fresno County of California, in the Great Basin to central Nevada, in the Rocky Mountains into northern New Mexico; eastward to the Black Hills. See figure 25 on page 95. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. e. invicta_ by hind foot less than 36 and basilar length less than 35 in males and by hind foot less than 29.5 and basilar length less than 30.5 in females; from _M. e. gulosa_, in both sexes, by upper parts lighter, tone 2 of Chocolate or lighter (see description of color), least width of light-colored underparts averaging about two-thirds instead of one-third of greatest width of dark-colored upper parts, in males, on the average, tail less than 65, weight of skull less than 0.90 grams, basilar length less than 30.8 grams; from _M. e. streatori_, in both sexes, by upper lips white (not brown), light color of underparts extending down hind leg below knee, depth of skull at posterior border of upper molars less than 7.7 in females and ordinarily less than 9.6 in males, tail less than 62 in males and less than 49 in females. _Description._--_Size._--Male: An adult from Black Butte, California, measures: Total length, 227; length of tail, 55; length of hind foot, 27. Corresponding measurements of another from Wheeler Peak, Nevada, are: 220, 56, 26. Two subadults from Colorado, one from Crested Butte and another from Coventry, measure, respectively, as follows: 238, 227; 66, 60; 30, 30. An adult from Wheeler Peak, Nevada, weighs 57.7 grams and another from 2 mi. W Black Butte, Calif., 54.5 grams. Female: Two adults from Teton County, Wyoming, measure: Total length, 205, 200; length of tail 52,--; length of hind foot, 23, 23.7. A subadult from 9-1/2 mi. E Pocatello, Idaho, measures: 197, 50, 25. An adult from Wheeler Peak, Nevada, has corresponding measurements of 190, 42, 23, and weighs 33.8 grams. _Color._--As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that upper parts tone 2 or lighter of Chocolate of plate 343 of Oberthür and Dauthenay; underparts white, Pale Buff or with faint wash of Sulphur Yellow; least width of color of underparts in male from Black Butte and one from Wheeler Peak, amounting to 65 and 59 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail, respectively, 28 and 33 mm., which amounts to 51 and 59 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. In two adult females, one from Teton County, Wyoming, and one from Wheeler Peak, Nevada, the least width of the underparts amounts to 55 and 60 per cent of the greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail, respectively, 23 and 19 mm., which amounts to 44 and 45 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. From the other subspecies of small-sized weasels of more northwestern occurrence, namely _anguinae_, _fallenda_, _olympica_, _streatori_ and _gulosa_, _muricus_ differs in lighter color of upper parts, wider light-colored underparts and relatively longer black tip of tail. _Skull._--Male (illustrated by 5 adults in table of measurements, which see): See plate 7. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 0.78 (Wheeler Peak) and 0.85 (Black Butte) grams; basilar length, 30.6 (29.8-31.2); length of tooth-rows more or less than (approximately equal to) length of tympanic bulla. Female (illustrated by 6 adults in table of measurements, which see): See plates 12-14. As described in _Mustela erminea richardsonii_ except that: Weight, 0.60 (0.575-0.645); basilar length, 28.0 (27.3-29.4); breadth of rostrum approximately 30 per cent of basilar length. In comparison with _streatori_, males average smaller in every measurement taken with no overlap in most dimensions; 25 per cent lighter; anterior margin of tympanic bulla more nearly flush with squamosal, that is to say less protruded from braincase; in relation to other dimensions of skull, braincase shallower anteriorly (at plane of last molars) and deeper posteriorly (at anterior end of basioccipital). Females average smaller in every measurement taken except mastoid and zygomatic breadths which are actually more; 6 per cent lighter; in relation to other parts of skull, preorbital and interorbital parts slightly smaller; in relation to length of skull, braincase shallower. Comparison with _invicta_ and _gulosa_ is made in the accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--The smallest males of the entire species are of this subspecies and the females of it are barely larger than those of _olympica_ and _gulosa_ and hence are among the three smallest. The material now available consists only of one or a few specimens from each of several widely separated localities. If as many specimens per unit area were available as there are of the species _M. erminea_ from southern British Columbia, geographic variation warranting the division of _muricus_ into more than one subspecies might be revealed. Evidence pointing in this direction is comprised in the pale color and small size of the pair of adults from Wheeler Peak on the eastern border of Nevada; the suggestion is that there is a distinct pale race of small individuals in the isolated spots of boreal life-zone in the mountains of the desert. The color and size of the specimens from the Toyabe Mountains, and that from the Pine Forest Mountains, both places also in Nevada, nevertheless, lend no support to this suggestion. Comparison of specimens from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado with those from the Sierra Nevada of California gives no basis for recognizing more than one subspecies. Therefore, _Putorius streatori leptus_ Merriam with type locality at Silverton, San Juan County, Colorado, falls as a synonym of the earlier named _Putorius (Arctogale) muricus_ Bangs with type locality at Echo, El Dorado County, California. Furthermore, specimens from northern New Mexico, the southernmost known area of occurrence for the subspecies (and for the species), are as large as specimens from far north in the range of the subspecies, say, in northwestern Wyoming; there is therefore no evidence of progressive decrease in size to the southward as in advance of study I supposed existed in _muricus_. This erroneous supposition was held because I knew that there was a decrease in size to the southward in the species as a whole and also in each of the subspecies _richardsonii_ and _invicta_ directly to the north of _muricus_. Intergradation with _invicta_ is shown by specimens from southwestern Montana. Where the margins of the geographic ranges of _invicta_ and _muricus_ approach one another elsewhere, low-lying territory, zonally unsuited to the existence of the species, occurs along the Snake and Columbia rivers, and precludes any chance of intergradation except around the head of the Snake River Plains. Two specimens, here referred to _muricus_, from Siskiyou County, California, in both color and cranial characters, are intergrades with _streatori_ and might be referred with almost equal propriety to _streatori_. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 52, arranged alphabetically by states, then by counties from north to south within each state. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, University of California at Berkeley. =California.= _Siskiyou County_: head of Rush Creek, 6400 ft., 1; Castle Lake, 5434 ft., 1. _Tehama County_: 2 mi. W Black Butte, 6800 ft., 1. _Placer County_: ridge W of Tahoe Pines, Lake Tahoe, 1; Blackwood Creek, 6250 ft., near Tahoe Pines, 1. _El Dorado County_: Fallen Leaf Lake, 6500 ft., 1[33]; Echo, 1[75]. _Tuolumne County_: Ten Lakes, 9200 ft., Yosemite Park, 1. _Mariposa County_: Vogelsang Lake, 10350 ft., Yosemite Park, 1. _Mono County_: Mammoth, 1[59]. =Colorado.= _Rio Blanco County_: Marvine, 1. _Boulder County_: Camp Albion, 10600 ft., 1[60]; Boulder, 1[91]. _Denver County_: Denver, 1[57]. _Park County_: Jefferson, 1[57]. _Gunnison County_: near Placita in Gunnison County, 1[26]; Crested Butte, 9000 ft., 3 (1[91], 2[19]). _El Paso County_: Turkey Creek, SW Colorado Springs, 6000 ft., 1[19]. _Chaffee County_: Arbourville, 1[91]; Hancock, 1. _Montrose County_: Coventry, 6800 ft., 1[19]. _San Juan County_: Silverton, 1[91]; in San Juan County above timberline, 1[87]. =Idaho.= _Bannock County_: West Fork of Rapid Creek, 9-1/2 mi. E Pocatello, 1. =Montana.= _Meagher County_: Camas Creek, Big Belt Mts., 4 mi. S Ft. Logan, 1[91]. _Beaverhead County_: Donovan, 1[91]. _County_ in question: Yellowstone Park, 1[75]. =Nevada.= _Humboldt County_: Alder Creek, 6000 ft., Pine Forest Mts., 1. _Ormsby County_: 1/2 mi. S Marlette Lake, 8150 ft., 1. _Nye County_: South Twin River, Toyabe Mts., 1[91]. _White Pine County_: Baker Creek (8500 ft., 8675 ft., 11100 ft.), 3. =New Mexico.= _Taos County_: Twining, 10700 ft., 1[91]. _Sandoval County_: 9 mi. E Cuba, 9000 ft., 1. _Santa Fe County_: Saddle S of Santa Fe Baldy, 11000 ft., Santa Fe Range, 1[1]. =Oregon.= _Wasco County_: Mill Creek, 20 mi. W Warmsprings, 1[91]. _Klamath County_: Fort Klamath, 1[91]. =South Dakota.= _Pennington County_: 4 mi. SE Hill City, 5300 ft, 2[76]; Pfander's Ranch, 3 mi. SSE Hill City, 5300 ft., 1[76]; Palmer Gulch, 3 mi. SE Hill City, 5300 ft., 1[76]; Spring Creek, 2 mi. W Oreville, 5500 ft., 1[76]. _Custer County_: 1/2 mi. E Sylvan Lake, 6250 ft., 1[76]. =Washington.= _Columbia County_: Butte Creek, 1; Stayawhile Spring, 5150 ft., 1: =Wyoming.= _Crook County_: 5 mi. NW Sundance, 5900 ft., 1[93]. _Teton County_: Whetstone Creek, 2[76]; 1/4 mi. E Moran, 6700 ft., 1[93]. _Sublette County_: 1/2 mi. NE Pinedale, 7500 ft., 1[93]. _Albany County_: 30 mi. N and 10 mi. E Laramie, 6560 ft, 1[93]; 26 mi. N and 4-1/2 mi. E Laramie, 6960 ft., 1[93]. _Carbon County_: 8 mi. N and 19-1/2 mi. E Savery, 8800 ft., 2[93]. =Mustela erminea? angustidens= (Brown) Plates 7, 12, 13 and 14 _Putorius cicognanii angustidens_ Brown, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 9 (pt 4):181, pl. 17, 1908: _Mustela cicognanii angustidens_, Hay, Iowa Geol. Surv. Bull., 23:32, 1914; Hay, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Pub. no. 322A:252, October 15, 1924; Hay, _ibid_., Pub. no. 390 (vol. 2): 528, 1930; Hall, _ibid_., Pub. no. 473:111, 112, November 20, 1936: _Type._--Female, adult, skull and lower jaws lacking zygomata, right P2 and incisors, no. 12432, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.; from Conard Fissure, four miles west of Willcockson, Newton County, Arkansas; obtained sometime in the period 1903 to 1905 inclusive (see plates 8, 14). _Range._--Known only from the Pleistocene deposit in Conard Fissure, at the type locality in northern Arkansas. _Description._--_Skull._--Male (based on nos. 12437, 12441 and 12444): See measurements and plates 7 and 8; weight, unknown; basilar length, 38:1 (36:6-39:2); length of tooth-rows more than length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes less than a third of basilar length; interorbital breadth ordinarily equal to distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth probably averaging approximately the same as distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. Female (based on nos. 11766 and 12435): See measurements and plates 8, 12-14; weight, unknown; basilar length, 34:0 (32:5-35:1); length of tooth-rows more than length of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum about equal to (more or less than) 30 per cent of basilar length; interorbital breadth less than distance between glenoid fossa and posterior border of external auditory meatus; zygomatic breadth probably less than distance between last upper molar and jugular foramen. Comparison of the cranial description given above with those of the American races of _erminea_ from the far north will show that many characters are held in common--more than with more southern subspecies of _erminea_. _Remarks._--The ten specimens studied by the writer fall into two groups of six larger individuals and four smaller. Upon comparing these with each sex of the three species of American Recent weasels, _frenata_, _erminea_ and _rixosa_, it is seen that size, and to some degree shape, rule out of consideration both sexes of _rixosa_ and also males of _frenata_. Thus we are left with females of _frenata_ and males and females of _erminea_. So far as size is concerned, it can be assumed that the larger specimens are females of _frenata_ and that the smaller are males of _erminea_. This assumption has in its favor also, the fact that the postglenoidal length of the skull accords with that in Recent specimens. The difference in this regard in Recent animals is that the postglenoidal length of the skull, expressed as a percentage of the total (condylobasal) length of the skull, amounts to: in _frenata_ in _erminea_ [M] ordinarily less than 46 [M] ordinarily more than 46 [F] less than 47 [F] more than 48 In the fossils the percentage for the larger skulls is 46; for the smaller skulls it is 48. It may be that the ten fossil skulls are six female _frenata_ and four male _erminea_ but I think not. In the first place a skull of different shape, seemingly of the _frenata_ stock, is known from the deposit and it is almost certain that two subspecies of the same species would not occur at the same place at the same time. It is possible, of course, that parts of the deposits were laid down at times so far apart that a shift in geographic range of two subspecies had occurred. This one skull, seemingly of the _frenata_ stock, is the type of _Putorius gracilis_ Brown (see p. 404) and was regarded as the only known specimen of _gracilis_. Regardless of the specific identity of this one specimen named _gracilis_, the chances of obtaining otherwise from a deposit, like that in Conard Fissure, six females of frenata and four males of _erminea_ without a male _frenata_ or a female of _erminea_ coming to light are so slight as strongly to incline me to the view that the six larger specimens are males of the same species to which the 4 smaller specimens belong. By either this interpretation, or the one initially considered (of female _frenata_ and male _erminea_), the animals from the fissure are at least subspecifically distinct from any American Recent weasel. Furthermore, by this latter interpretation each sex of this weasel, _angustidens_, is intermediate between the _frenata_ and _erminea_ stocks in the feature of postglenoidal length which feature, at any place where the two Recent species occur together, serves to distinguish one from the other. In the northernmost subspecies of _erminea_ (_arctica_ for example) the postglenoidal length in some males is no longer than in males of _frenata_. Considering general size, _angustidens_ agrees better with _erminea_ than with frenata and this circumstance has influenced me to place _angustidens_ as a subspecies of _erminea_. Today, _erminea_ is not known to occur nearer Conard Fissure than northern Iowa, more than 400 miles to the northward. In comparison with the race there, _bangsi_, males of _angustidens_ are of approximately the same size but in the shorter distance between the glenoid fossa and anterior margin of the tympanic bulla, and also in the lesser postglenoidal length of the skull, _angustidens_ resembles the northernmost American subspecies of _erminea_. Females of _angustidens_ differ more from any living weasel than the males do. The females are much larger than those of _bangsi_, and among living American races of _erminea_ most closely resemble intergrades between _arctica_ and _richardsonii_ which intergrades are found approximately 1700 miles to the north of Conard Fissure. In females, the preorbital part of the skull in _M. e. arctica_ is broader and in _M. e. richardsonii_ narrower than in _angustidens_. If it seems strange that females of _angustidens_ resemble one subspecies whereas males, in size, resemble another subspecies almost a thousand miles distant, it should be remembered that the degree of sexual dimorphism varies much from one subspecies to another in the Recent animals. An example is furnished by _Mustela erminea fallenda_ and _Mustela erminea invicta_. The assemblage of mammals from Conard Fissure includes several species of boreal predilections which, like _Mustela erminea_, now occur only much farther north than Arkansas. At one time the edge of the sheet of ice was only about 200 miles north of Arkansas. It may be significant that the cranial characters of the female ermine from the Fissure, and qualitative cranial characters of males from there, are most nearly approximated among Recent weasels by those which live along the southern edge of the frozen tundra. In view of what has been said, the possibility should be considered that the distinctive cranial features of _angustidens_ may be the result of evolutionary change in time as well as of geographic variation resulting from horizontal placement. =MUSTELA RIXOSA= (Bangs) Least Weasel (Synonymy under subspecies) _Type._--_Putorius rixosus_ Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:21, February 25, 1896. _Range._--From Norway and Switzerland eastward through Siberia and all the way across North America, but unknown from Iceland, Greenland and the Arctic islands west of Greenland; in North America, from the Arctic Life-zone south to Central British Columbia, Montana and into parts of the Upper Austral Life-zone as in the eastern half of the continent. The southern extension of range in the Appalachians (to North Carolina) is not duplicated in the Rocky Mountains of western North America probably because the region there suitable for _rixosa_ south of Central British Columbia and Montana is occupied by the almost equally small _Mustela erminea muricus_ and related subspecies which seem to fill the ecological role that _rixosa_ plays where it occurs. The small size of females of _M. erminea cicognanii_ in New England may similarly account for the absence of _rixosa_ there. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from both _Mustela erminea_ and _Mustela frenata_ by tail a fourth or less of length of head and body and without a black tip (at most a few black hairs at extreme tip in rixosa), and from _M. frenata_ and from _M. erminea_ in regions where it and _rixosa_ occur together, by basilar length of skull less than 32.5 in males and less than 31.0 in females. _Characters of the species._--Size small: Total length less than 250 in males and 225 in females; tail a fourth or less of length of head and body, and without a black pencil and at most with a few black hairs at extreme tip; caudal vertebrae 11 to 16, normally 15 in _M. r. rixosa_, and 11 in one _M. r. eskimo_ examined; skull with long braincase and short precranial portion, thus essentially same shape as in _M. erminea_ but the largest males of _M. rixosa_ always with a lesser basilar length that even the smallest females of _M. erminea_ or _M. frenata_ of the same geographic area. In fact no specimens of _M. frenata_ have skulls so small as the largest _M. rixosa_, and skulls of equal size of _M. erminea_ and _M. rixosa_, for example, _M. erminea muricus_ of Colorado and _M. rixosa eskimo_ of Alaska, differ in that when the skulls are viewed from directly above those of _rixosa_ have the mastoid processes more prominent, or the braincase is higher in relation to its width or both differences together prevail. Stated in another way, comparison of skulls of equal size of _rixosa_ and _erminea_ shows that in the latter the braincase is more nearly flat and is wider above and in front of the mastoid processes; therefore, the greatest breadth of the braincase equals or exceeds the mastoid breadth, whereas the reverse is ordinarily true of _rixosa_. _Geographic variation._--In the Old World four subspecies are currently recognized (see Allen, 1933:316) and the same number is here recognized in North America. Length of the tail, length of head and body and hind foot, breadth of the rostral part of the skull in relation to its length, and position on the side of the head of the line of demarcation between the dark color of the upper parts and the white underparts, are the features in which geographic variation has been detected. The general impression is that the amount of geographic variation is much less than in _Mustela frenata_ and only slightly less than in _Mustela erminea_ of the same geographic area. _Nomenclature._--It is exceptional for a species which occurs in both the Old-and New-World to take its specific name from New World material, especially if the name was proposed as recently as 1896; most circumboreal species take their names from descriptions of European specimens. Although the least weasel, _Mustela rixosa_ (Bangs) 1896, seems now to be an exception, it may yet turn out that the first available name was based on European material. Zimmermann (1943) shows that the least weasel actually was named on the basis of European material long before 1896 and concludes that the name _Putorius minutus_ Pomel, 1853, based on a specimen from France, is the first available name. Because _Putorius_ nowadays is relegated to subgeneric rank under the generic name _Mustela_, we have for consideration the name-combination _Mustela minuta_ (Pomel). Unfortunately for Zimmermann's conclusion, _Mustela minuta_ Pomel is not available because it is preoccupied by _Mustela minuta_ Gervais [= _Palaeogale minuta_ (Gervais), 1848-1852--see Simpson, 1946: 2, 12], a name applied to another species of small mustelid from the Oligocene or lower Miocene deposits of Europe. Some other early names thought by Zimmermann (1943:290) to have been based on the dwarf weasel of Europe are judged to be _nomina nuda_ and therefore are to be ignored. The name _Mustela minor_ Nilsson 1820 was thought by Miller (1912:402) to be a renaming, and hence a synonym, of _Mustela nivalis_ Linnaeus. If that is the case the name does not apply to the dwarf weasel. If the name _Mustela minor_ Nilsson was instead based on the dwarf weasel, the name might still be unavailable, depending on rulings on secondary homonyms, because the name might be preoccupied by _[Lutra] minor_ Erxleben 1777 which is a synonym of _[Mustela] lutreola_ Linnaeus 1766. Two names seemingly available for weasels, and in use for them today, which might replace _rixosa_ as the name of the species, are, first, _Mustela boccamela_ Bechstein, 1801, of Sardinia [= _Mustela nivalis boccamela_ of Miller, 1912, 405] and second, _Putorius numidicus_ Pucheran, 1855, of Morocco and Algeria [= _Mustela numidica_ of Allen, G. M., 1939, 183]. As they stand in the current literature, _Mustela numidica_ is a species distinct from the dwarf weasel and the other name, _Mustela nivalis boccamela_, is an insular subspecies of the mouse weasel. Zimmermann (1943:292), however, implies that _M. numidica_ may belong to the dwarf weasel group when he says "Ob auch _iberica_ BARR.-HAM. als Unterart zu _minuta_ POM. zu stellen ist, soll hier nicht untersucht werden, ebensowenig die von CABRERA vermutete Zugehörigkeit der grossen nordafrikanischen _M. numidica_ PUCH. zur '_iberica_-Gruppe'." The answer to this problem requires a taxonomic, rather than a nomenclatural, decision. Whether either _M. numidica_ or _M. boccamela_ are conspecific with the dwarf weasel I cannot at this time ascertain for want of adequate specimens. Because these two names, _M. boccamela_, and _M. numidica_, are assigned to kinds of weasels which are currently regarded as specifically distinct from the dwarf weasel, and because all the other names which certainly have been assigned to Old World populations of the dwarf weasel before 1896, so far as I know, are _nomina nuda_ or are preoccupied, the next available name, _Mustela rixosa_ (Bangs, 1896), is here employed. _Remarks._--This species may have a wider geographic range in northeastern North America than is now known. Strong (1930:7) writes that the Naskapi Indians of the interior country of Labrador between Hamilton Inlet and Ungava Bay "have only one name for weasel, _mé-tah-kwut_, but they say there are three kinds in their territory, a large, an intermediate, and a very small weasel. The latter suggests the least weasel . . . which has not been recorded from northern Labrador." In the northern part of the range of the species, the winter pelage is white and the summer pelage is brown. In the southern part of the range, that is in the range of the subspecies _allegheniensis_, the winter pelage is either brown or white and the time of the molt into winter pelage is irregular; each of eleven individuals from Pennsylvania, Michigan and Ohio, taken in December, January, February and March is mostly white but retains some considerable part of the brown pelage of the previous coat on top of the head and usually also along the midline of the entire dorsum. These eleven animals include individuals of each sex. Of each sex, some are adults and some are subadults. Therefore, the delayed or incomplete fall molt, at present, cannot be correlated with either sex or with any particular age. No wild-taken specimens of _M. erminea_ or of _M. frenata_ of the same region show this delayed or incomplete molt. Possibly this delay or incompleteness of molt is the result of the same cause that lies behind the birth of some _M. rixosa_ in midwinter. As listed below, several litters of young have been found in midwinter. In fact it appears that in the United States, young may be born in every month of the year although, according to existing information, more litters are produced in spring and in winter than in summer and autumn. Many juveniles and young of _allegheniensis_ examined in study collections clearly were born in spring but about as many seem to have been born in midwinter as at any other time (in the light of present knowledge) and this is in contrast to what we know of the two other species of American weasels since their young, so far as known, are born in spring. One instance is worthy of detailed comment. An adult female, no. 783 Ohio State Museum, taken on January 31, 1931, at Vinton, Meigs County, Ohio, bears the following notation on the attached label "nest plowed out of ground. Very small young escaped--marked like parent. [F] was nursing." The enlarged mammae on the dried skin substantiate the statement that the female was nursing young. She has a brown mask continuous from one ear through the eye, across the forehead and through the other eye to the opposite ear. On each side of the body a stripe of brown 5 to 10 mm. wide extends from the upper part of the foreleg back to the thigh and base of the tail, uniting there with its opposite and covering the tail. There are a few spots of brown on the shoulders, and rump and one on the middle of the back. Otherwise the specimen is white. One implication of the statement on the label that the young which escaped were marked like the parent (presumably this female parent) is that this female is a partial albino. I am more inclined, however, to the view that there was an unseasonable activity of the particular glands of internal secretion the hormones of which promote embryonic growth and that these glands, or others controlled by them, were in some way responsible for an abnormal progress of molt, or for a reversal of molt in that one molt began before the previous molt had been completed. Excepting this one specimen, no. 783 from Vinton, Ohio, all of those in transitional pelage indicate that the direction of the molt pattern is the same as in _M. frenata_ and _M. erminea_. That is to say, the autumnal molt begins on the midventral line and the molt in spring begins on the mid-dorsal line. Furthermore, the normal progress of each molt appears to follow the same pattern that has been described above for _Mustela frenata_. A possible explanation of unseasonal molt in the southeastern area of occurrence of the species _Mustela rixosa_, and a possible explanation of the abnormal molt of the female from Vinton, Ohio, is that the species has only relatively recently invaded the area, and has had insufficient time to adjust the physiology of its molting mechanism to the longer periods of daylight that obtain later in autumn and earlier in spring than farther north. In the other two species of American weasels, the change in length of periods of light, it will be recalled, is known to indirectly control both molt and some changes in the sexual cycle. Wright (1942B:109) has shown that molt in spring precedes by one or two months the birth of young in _M. frenata_, that the two phenomena are correlated in a way that is statistically significant, and recognizes that progressively longer periods of daylight may be the causal stimulus. The suggestion made above that _M. rixosa_ does not live in New England or in the Rocky Mountains of the western United States because each of the two areas already is inhabited by weasels of almost equally small size, is in line with the idea that _rixosa_ is a recent immigrant to America, or more precisely that _rixosa_ arrived later than _erminea_. _Natural History._--Habitat and Numbers.--Soper (1946:136) recounts that near the junction of the Antler and Souris rivers, Manitoba, this species occurs "both in the river valleys and on the upper prairies," and later (1948:55), with reference to the Grand Prairie of the Peace River region of Alberta, writes that the least weasel "inhabits both parklands and mixed wood forest environments." At most times, wherever found, the least weasel is regarded as rare. Not only mammalogists regard it as rare and as a desirable catch, but Indians likewise value it, probably because of its rarity. For example, Osgood (1901:69-70), who caught a female least weasel at Tyonek, Alaska, writes that: "The natives regard the capture of one of these rare animals as a piece of great good fortune. One old Indian who frequently visited our cabin told us that his brother who had caught one when a small boy had in consequence become a 'big chief'; and he assured me that since I had caught one I must surely be destined to become a man of great wealth and power." Swenk's (1926:313-330) account of the species in Clay County, Nebraska, shows, however, that the animal was far more abundant in 1916 and 1917 than subsequently and inferentially than it was before 1916. Clearest proof of multiannual fluctuation is provided by P. O. Fryklund's (Swanson and Fryklund, 1935:120-126) receipt of weasels from Roseau County, Minnesota. From 1895 to 1932 he had approximately equal opportunity to receive least weasels each year. Those which came to his attention were distributed by years as follows: 1895-1927, 7 individuals in all; winter of 1927-28, 3 individuals; winter of 1928-29, 59 individuals; 1929-1930, 84 individuals; 1930-1935, 3 individuals. "These records indicate a very definite increase in the abundance of least weasels in the Roseau region [in] the two years from the autumn of 1928 to the spring of 1930. Mr. Fryklund has handled 166 least weasels in his 40 years in Roseau County, and of these, 143 were taken in the two years mentioned." The maximum home range of the least weasel is two acres and a weasel seldom travels farther than ten rods from its burrow according to Polderboer (1942:146) who, in the period December 20, 1939, to January 2, 1940, studied four least weasels and one long-tailed weasel on a 144 acre farm in Butler County, Iowa. Behavior Of the voice, Llewellyn (1942:441) records that his captive specimen taken in Virginia uttered a shrill shriek when seizing prey or when teased. When excessively annoyed the weasel also emitted musk. The sense of smell is used in hunting as was witnessed by George L. Fordyce; he observed a least weasel following the scent of a _Peromyscus_ and saw the least weasel overtake and kill the mouse (Seton, 1929 (2):637). At a nest in a clover stack, in Manitoba, Criddle (1947:69), on December 27, 1946, found the least weasel "to have been rather remiss in its sanitary habits as its pile of dung was almost, or quite, touching the nest and only just to the side of its entrance." There were 117 voids. Enemies The great-horned owl, barn owl and long-tailed weasel are to be counted as enemies since Nelson (1934:252) found the fur, skull and other fragments of the skeleton of a least weasel in one of 26 pellets of the great-horned owl in Wisconsin; Handley (1949:431) found the skull and other skeletal remains of a least weasel in one of 22 pellets of the barn owl in Virginia; and Polderboer, Kuhn and Hendrickson (1941), in Iowa, found the remains of a least weasel in the den and scats of a _Mustela frenata_. A domestic cat in Michigan killed a least weasel (Dearborn, 1932B:277). Food Mice are killed by the least weasel biting into the back of the head and neck according to Allen (1940:460) who reported upon the growth of five young, from Michigan, that he had in captivity. He further states that a weasel was able to kill a mouse in 30 seconds. One large _Microtus_ introduced into the cage slept with a weasel for several days and ate parts of the mice that the weasel killed but then the weasel killed this mouse! Llewellyn (1942:440-441), in writing of a captive from Virginia, says: "When a live mouse was placed in the cage, the weasel sprang upon it almost instantly. Grasping the mouse by the back of the head, the weasel bit its victim through the skull several times in rapid succession and held on with its sharp teeth. The sound of the teeth piercing the bone was distinctly audible at a distance of several feet. During this interval the weasel hugged the mouse closely with its fore legs and pressed it firmly to its belly through a kicking motion of the hind legs. The hold on the back of the head was not relinquished until the mouse was dead. The killing took only a few seconds. Upon releasing the mouse the weasel usually came to the front of the cage and inspected the observer for an interval of several seconds after which it returned to its prey and began its meal at once. Sometimes the blood would be licked from the wound in the back of the head or perhaps an ear would be chewed a bit and the blood licked off, but never did the weasel 'cut the throat' of its prey and 'suck the blood.' "The weasel ate the head and brain first, beginning at the back of the head and working forward. Just before reaching the nose the process was reversed and eating then proceeded from the base of the skull toward the tail of the mouse. The tip of the nose, maxilla with teeth, and the tail seemed to be the parts least preferred; they were not eaten when an abundance of food was present. At no time did the weasel place its front feet on the mouse in an attempt to hold it. A second or third mouse was killed immediately upon being placed in the cage even though the first one had not been consumed. The weasel, however, usually returned to the partially eaten mouse and finished it before starting on a new one. Upon completing a meal, especially if the meal had been particularly bloody, the weasel rubbed its chin on the bottom of the cage, scooting along and appearing more snakelike than normal. Whenever I attempted to remove a mouse, or partially eaten one, from the cage, the weasel hung to the mouse tenaciously, and often allowed itself to be lifted up in this manner. "In the six days that the weasel was kept in captivity it was fed 10 house mice having a total weight of 118 grams. As no food was given on one day, the amount of food eaten is probably slightly below the actual capacity of the animal. Since the weasel weighed only about 32 grams, the average amount of food eaten a day was slightly in excess of one-half the weight of the animal." Polderboer (1942:146-147) found in three dens, in Iowa, bits of _Reithrodontomys_ (harvest mice) and _Peromyscus maniculatus_ (deer mouse), and in the digestive tract of one least weasel there was a bone fragment and a few hairs of a deer mouse. In the account, given beyond, of a nest, Criddle (1947:69) records the Pennsylvania meadow mouse (_Microtus pennsylvanicus drummondi_) and the Gapper red-backed vole (_Clethrionomys gapperi_) as prey at Treesbank, Manitoba. The same author, concerning the same place, earlier (1926:199-200) wrote that in 1922 the meadow mouse, _Microtus minor_, "went into winter quarters in great numbers and its homes were well stocked with provisions . . . all went well until the middle of February, 1923. Then, within a few days, each was taken possession of by a least weasel (_Mustela rixosa_) and the inhabitants were quickly destroyed. One dwelling was occupied by one of these weasels for about two weeks during which time I observed that it had dragged several mice over the snow to its temporary home. This residence was examined in April, and in it were discovered six dead _Microtus minor_, one _Evotomys_, the head of another, and at least six or eight remnants of small rodents including _Microtus drummondi_, these last remains being chiefly indicated by the hair-lined nest of the weasel. "The homes of 27 other vole communities examined at this time were all found to have been entered by weasels, the inhabitants having been killed and partly eaten. Moreover, the weasels had made the homes temporary centers from which they raided other rodent habitations in the vicinity. Thus from being an abundant animal this vole was reduced to insignificance in the course of a few weeks, while all other kinds of mice had suffered severely from the same enemy." An instance of predation on _Peromyscus_, revealing some of the methods of capturing prey, is recounted by Seton (1929 (2):636-637) who quotes a letter to him from George L. Fordyce, of Youngstown, Ohio, as follows: "While out in the field this morning (Dec. 26), walking along the bank of a ravine at the edge of our golf course, I saw a Field-mouse run out of the bushes into the rough grass that is just outside of the fair-green of the course. In another instant, what I thought at first to be a white Mouse came out at the same place. The Mouse ran into a wheel track, and disappeared under the grass, coming out about 6 feet from where it went in. The white animal followed through the same course, and when it came out, I saw that it was a small Weasel, very little larger than the Mouse, and that it was following the trail of the Mouse by scent. "For a time the Mouse ran in circles, and zigzagged about, often . . . within 4 or 5 feet of the Weasel; but the latter seemed so intent on the trail, that it did not notice the Mouse to one side. After a time the latter started toward the open golf course; and when the Weasel reached the point where the trail was straight, it sighted the prey, made a sudden dash forward, and, although 25 feet behind, overtook the Mouse while it was going 3 or 4 feet. "For a few seconds, they seemed to fight, until the Weasel got the Mouse by the throat, and started for the bushes, dragging the body. When it came to within about three feet of me, I moved a little to see what it would do. It dropped its victim, and ran into the ravine. The Mouse had a drop of bright red blood in the center of its white throat. I waited near by for 15 or 20 minutes, thinking the Weasel might come back, but it did not show up again; even an hour later, the Mouse had not been disturbed." There are two suggestions, but no proof that I know of, in the literature that the least weasel eats insects. Abbott (1884:27-32--1st ed., 1884) gives considerable information on the food (some insects included) of the "little weasel" which he describes (_op. cit._; 27) as having "a little pointed tail of a uniform brown color." Although this suggests _Mustela rixosa_, Abbott mentions on the next page (page 28) that a specimen of the smaller weasel measured six and a half inches from the tip of the snout to the base of the tail and that the tail itself measured two and a fourth inches to the tip of the last caudal vertebra. These measurements indicate that _Mustela erminea_ was involved. Because of the uncertainty as to the species of _Mustela_ involved, Abbott's interesting data on food, nest and behavior are not recorded in the present work. Seton (1929 (2):636) says that of several least weasels brought to D. Nicholson at Morden, Manitoba, most of them decayed so quickly that they could not be saved as specimens. To Seton this indicated that insects were an important part of the food of the weasels. In summary: Least weasels are known to eat harvest mice, deer mice, meadow mice and red-backed mice; it is suspected that they eat also insects. Reproduction Polderboer (1948:296) has taken six specimens in "northeastern Iowa [in] . . . January and December--all males in winter pelage. None of these males showed signs of sexual activity; in all, the testes were retracted and diminutive in size. . . . A male least weasel in brown pelage was taken November 17, 1945, at Marion, Iowa. This specimen had large testes that had descended into the scrotum. The testes, when removed, were about the size of medium-sized garden peas. Microscopic examination of the testes and the vasa deferentia showed mature sperms to be present. . . ." On July 1, 1917, in Clay County, Nebraska, a nest with four young was found (Swenk, 1926:321). On July 29, 1939, an adult and five young were plowed out of the ground in Allegan County, Michigan; one of the two young males weighed 40.5 grams two days after capture (Allen, 1940:459-460). On August 12, 1932, ten young with the mother, were found in Roseau County, Minnesota (Swanson and Fryklund, 1935:125). September appears to have been the month of birth of a specimen, no. 8472 in the Carnegie Museum, taken on November 24 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In October, a young least weasel is recorded from Pennsylvania (Winecoff, 1930:313). Early December was the time of birth of a specimen, approximately 10 weeks old, no. 88077, University of Michigan, taken on February 21 in Allegan County. On December 25, 1927, in Washington County, Pennsylvania, "five full-sized, though young . . . animals were caught under the same pile of corn fodder" (Sutton, 1929:253). The first week of January seems to have been the time of birth of a juvenile, no. 88080, University of Michigan, taken in Livingston County, Michigan, on March 27, 1943, since the specimen is approximately seven weeks old. On January 15, 1929, in Washington County, Pennsylvania, four young with the eyes yet unopened were obtained from a nest (Sutton, 1929:254). On January 25, 1928, young, the eyes of which may not yet have been open, were taken from a den in Washington County, Pennsylvania, by Winecoff (1930:313), who records other young having been taken in the same month as well as in February. On March 10, a female from North Portal, Saskatchewan, gave birth to four young (Dunk, 1946:392). On April 18, 1916, four young, half grown, were taken in Nebraska (Swenk, 1926:317). On April 2, 1929, three young were found in Roseau County, Minnesota, according to Swanson and Fryklund (1935:125) who remark that: "The Pennsylvania and Minnesota records show that least weasels may be born any time from July to early February in the northern states." Now, with all of the above records available, it turns out that November, May and June are the only months in which young least weasels have not been reported. Of course some of the young, for which the ages were not specified, were born in preceding months. Even so, the data now available suggests that, in the United States, young least weasels may be born in every month of the year. The number per litter is 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, and 10, yielding an average of 5. The rate of growth of the young has not been studied enough to allow of judging if it differs significantly from that of other species of the genus. Allen (1940:459-460), however, tells us that of the three young females and two young males captured on July 29, 1939, in Allegan County, Michigan, one male that was killed on July 31, 1939, weighed 40.5 grams. The male remaining alive increased from 46 grams (August 5) to 62.5 grams on September 20, having eaten 63 mice while in captivity. The females in the period of August 5 to September 4 increased in weight as follows: 41 up to 49 grams; 44 to 50 grams; and 47 to 58 grams, having eaten, by September 26, 60, 64 and 65 mice. Concerning a nest in which young were found, Sutton (1929:254) writes that on January 15, 1929, near Burgettstown, Washington County, Pennsylvania, an animal was seen to enter a small hole in a creek bank. After the observer dug in a distance of approximately six inches an adult, female least weasel was seen and obtained. Back of the animal, the hole, which turned sharply downward, was full of water. The weasel first seen was a female nursing young. A chamber, to the side of the hole, filled with dead grass, comprised a nest containing four young with the eyes yet unopened. Several nests occupied by adult least weasels or by least weasels that were old enough to shift for themselves have been found. Polderboer (1942:145-147) in the winter of 1939-40, on a 144 acre farm in Butler County, Iowa, found four least weasels living, singly, in burrows dug by moles and pocket gophers. The nests therein made by mice were used by the least weasels. Winecoff (1930:312-313) mentions one den in Pennsylvania that contained the remains of only mice, "and not a hint of a feather." Above, in the account of food of the least weasel, Criddle's (1926:199-200) account of the havoc wrought by least weasels among the meadow mice (_Microtus ochrogaster minor_) has been given. In this account he mentions the fur-lined nests of the weasels that had appropriated the homes of the _Microtus_. Criddle's (1947:69) later account of a nest at Treesbank, Manitoba, is as follows: "A Nest of the Least Weasel.--When a least weasel finds its way into a locality that has a large number of mice in it, it selects for its home one of their nests that has been made in a well concealed place. This it immediately starts to improve by lining it with hair plucked from its victims before eating them; and as long as sufficient numbers of mice remain in the district the weasel continues adding their hair to the nest, so that the thickness of its walls give one a good idea of the length of time it has been in use. The nest is not only used for sleeping in, as most of the food is consumed in it. Frozen mice are taken in to be thawed out and the weasel carries those it has recently killed in to prevent them getting frozen, or perhaps to have them warm for its next meal. "On January 27, 1946, my son Percy called my attention to a nest that he had just uncovered in a clover stack that we were using. This nest had originally been made by a Drummond's vole, _Microtus pennsylvanicus drummondii_, and taken from it by the least weasel, _Mustela rixosa_, the tracks of which had been noticed about the stack yard since the first snow in early November. "The nest had evidently been in use for at least three months and the continual additions made to its walls had been so great that they were nearly an inch thick of hair matted together so closely that it appeared to be felt. The hair alone weighed nearly 22 gm., so that with this for protection the weasel must have been warm and comfortable through the severest winter weather. [Illustration: FIG. 28. Map showing occurrences and probable geographic ranges of the subspecies of _Mustela rixosa_ in North America.] "In the nest were two red-backed mice, _Clethrionomys gapperi_, one of which had the base of its skull eaten out. No hair had been removed from either of them, but a _Microtus_ lying in a side tunnel some feet away had the long hair plucked from its back and sides. In and close about the nest were found forty-three front parts of mice skulls which had evidently been discarded because of the sharp teeth in the maxillaries. Seven full stomachs and eleven hind feet of adult _Microtus_ with parts of leg bones were disclosed in, or under, the weasel's bed and a few small bits of skin with hair attached were scattered among the plucked hair of the nest. "This weasel seems to have been rather remiss in its sanitary habits as its pile of dung was almost, or quite, touching the nest and only just to the side of its entrance. It was composed of 117 voids all of which contained much hair and broken bone. "Six other mouse nests found in the same stack, or others adjoining it, had been thinly lined with hair. One of these had two mice in it, a red-backed with its brain eaten out and a _Microtus_ with some hair plucked from its neck. Another nest contained the front part of a skull with teeth and the hind feet and tail of a red-back. Besides the mice found in the nests seven others were discovered tucked away in side tunnels. One of these mice had most of the hair plucked from its back. Whether all these mice and nests belonged to the same weasel or not I am unable to say, but it is usual for them to have several nests in the area surrounding the one that is used as their headquarters or home." =Mustela rixosa eskimo= (Stone) Least Weasel Plates 14 and 15 _Putorius rixosus eskimo_ Stone, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1900:44, March 24, 1900. _Putorius (Gale) vulgaris_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 102, 1877 (part). _Putorius rixosus Bangs_, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:21, February 25, 1896 (part); Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:14, June 30, 1896 (part). _Mustela rixosa eskimo_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912; Swenk, Journ. Mamm., 7:327, November 23, 1926; Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 30:421, March 19, 1929. _Type._--Female, age in question, no. 848 in Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia; Point Barrow, Alaska; July 25, 1898; obtained by E. A. McIlhenny. Type not seen by me. _Range._--Alaska and Yukon Territory. See figure 28 on page 180. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. r. pygmaea_ of eastern Asia in longer tail, averaging 11 rather than 16 per cent of length of head and body, and in study skins reaching only to heel instead of to point between heel and toes; from _M. r. rixosa_ in shorter tail averaging 16 rather than 19 per cent of length of head and body and not extending beyond outstretched hind feet in study skins; white of underparts extending dorsally as a reëntrant angle from upper lip to behind eye, rather than delimited dorsally by a boundary between white and brown color that extends straight across cheeks from upper lip to side of body well below eye and ear; breadth of rostrum measured across lacrimal processes more, instead of less, than 85.5 per cent of orbitonasal length; from _M. erminea_ of same region by basilar length of skull less than 32; tail less than 50 and lacking black pencil. _Description._--_Size._--Male: The original describer lists measurements of topotypes as follows: Total length, 204, 230; length of tail, 28, 31; length of hind foot, 20, 22. Allowing 5 per cent for shrinkage, the hind feet of 5 topotypes yield an average measurement of 23 for the hind foot. Female: Measurements of two topotypes are: Total length, 184, 180; length of tail, 25, 25; length of hind foot, 24, 18. In four other topotypes the hind feet, allowing 5 per cent for shrinkage, yield an average of 21. _Color._--Winter pelage all white, rarely with few white hairs in tip of tail but no black pencil; summer pelage with upper parts about Raw Umber and tone 3 of Chocolate pl. 343 of Oberthür and Dauthenay; underparts white, extending over upper lip, insides of limbs and over all four feet. Line of demarcation between underparts and upper parts extends from upper lip posterodorsally to behind eye down to base of ear, up behind ear for a third or more of its height, and back along side of body. Tail unicolor all around and same color as upper parts. Least width of color of underparts averaging 83 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. _Skull._--Based on topotypes; see measurements and plates 14 and 15; weight, 0.82 (0.74-0.93) grams in males, and 0.80 and 0.84 in two females; basilar length, 29.5 (27.6-30.1) in males and 27.8 (27.1-28.8) in females; otherwise as described in _M. e. richardsonii_. _Remarks._--Among the earliest specimens preserved was one by Edward W. Nelson in the course of his explorations of the Upper Yukon, and one in 1874 by L. T. Turner from St. Michaels, Alaska. Bangs, in 1896 (p. 22) mentioned the occurrence of the species in Alaska, but it was not until 1900 (p. 44) that Stone named the subspecies, and then principally on the basis of specimens obtained two years before by E. A. McIlhenny. The large size, broad skull, light color and short tail are the distinguishing subspecific characters of the race _eskimo_, and the three characters first mentioned are distinguishing features also of the subspecies of _Mustela erminea_, namely _arctica_, which inhabits the same region. Possibly _eskimo_ also will be found on Banks Island and the other Arctic islands between Alaska and Greenland, as is _M. e. arctica_; at the present time no specimens of _Mustela rixosa_ are known from these islands although some race of rixosa would be expected to occur there. Animals from southern Alaska average slightly smaller than those from northern Alaska, and this decrease in size toward the south probably represents intergradation with _M. r. rixosa_. Further evidence of intergradation is furnished by the short tail of the specimen from 15 miles east of Atlin; in other particulars this specimen agrees with the subspecies _rixosa_ to which it is here referred. Nevertheless, the short tail, and color pattern, namely reëntrant angle of white behind the eye, is to be seen in all Alaskan specimens examined in the brown pelage, even in no. 107591, from Tyonek on Cook Inlet, which Osgood (1901:69) and Swenk (1926:323) thought might not differ from the subspecies _M. r. rixosa_. Each of four male topotypes, hardly subadult in age, probably of a single litter, is much larger than any other specimen seen from Point Barrow. The basilar length, for example, is 31.9 as against 29.5, and the weight of the skull (with lower jaws) is as much as 1.5 grams, as against 0.93 in the heaviest of the other males. Initial examination of materials from Point Barrow raised the suspicion that two distinct species were represented--_rixosa_ and a larger one possibly allied to _M. nivalis_ of the Old World. Nevertheless, further study almost completely allayed the suspicion because the only difference discernible is one of size, and it is supposed that additional specimens will bridge the gap in size and show that _M. r. eskimo_ at Point Barrow averages larger than the adult specimens now available indicate. The four large males of subadult age are nos. 42814-42816 and 42818 of the American Museum of Natural History. Of the fourteen adult and subadult skulls examined, two display lesions resulting from infestation of the frontal sinuses by nematode parasites. None of the young skulls show such infestation. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 42 as follows. Arranged alphabetically by Territory and District and unless otherwise indicated in the United States National Museum. =Alaska.= Barrow and Point Barrow, 19 (8[2] 7[74], 2[1], 1[50]); Wainwright, 1[57]; Mts. back of Icy Cape, 1[77]; west of Beechey Point, 1[2]; west edge of Colville River Delta, 1[2]; Koyukuk River, 16 mi. above Beetles, 1; upper Yukon, 1; Fort Yukon, 1; Stephens Village, 1; Wales, 1[57]; McDonald Creek, tributary of Salcha Slough, 1; near head of Toklat River, 1; head of Kantishna River, 1; St. Michael, 4 (2[74]); Tyonek [= Tyonek], 1; Bethel, 3; vic. Bristol Bay, 1. =Yukon.= La Pierre's House, 1; Klotassin River, tributary of White River, 1. =Mustela rixosa rixosa= (Bangs) Least Weasel Plates 14 and 15 _Putorius rixosus_ Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:21, pl. 1, fig. 6, pl. 2, fig. 6, pl. 3, fig. 4, February 25, 1896; Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:14, pl. 2, figs. 7, 7a, June 30, 1896. _Putorius pusillus_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 159, 1858. _Putorius (Gale) vulgaris_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 102, 1877. _Mustela rixosa_, Thomas, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 168, March, 1911. _Mustela rixosa rixosa_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912; Swenk, Journ. Mamm., 7:327, November 23, 1926. _Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull; no. 642 Bangs Coll. in Mus. Comp. Zoöl.; Osler, Saskatchewan; July 15, 1893; obtained by W. C. Colt; original no. 79 according to describer. The skull lacks the basioccipital, basisphenoid, and left zygomatic arch. The "crowns" of the lower canines are missing; otherwise the teeth are present and entire. The skin is fairly well made, with soles of hind feet up, in good condition and in summer pelage. _Range._--From northern British Columbia and Great Slave Lake south on the west side of the Rocky Mountains to Ootsa Lake, British Columbia, and on the east side of the Rocky Mountains, south to central Montana, North Dakota and Minnesota; eastward in Canada, entirely north of St. Lawrence River, to Atlantic Ocean. See figure 28 on page 180. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. r. eskimo_ in longer tail averaging 19 rather than 16 per cent of length of head and body and extending beyond outstretched hind feet in study skins, rather than to a point short of tips of toes; boundary between brown upper parts and white underparts extending straight across cheeks from upper lip to side of body well below eye and ear, rather than with reëntrant angle from upper lip carrying white upward to point behind eye, and with breadth of rostrum less, instead of more, than 85.5 per cent of orbitonasal length; from _M. r. campestris_ by smaller size: hind foot less than 25 in males and ordinarily less than 22 in females; in males total length less than 216 and tail averaging less than 34, and in females total length averaging less than 182 and tail averaging less than 29; color said to average darker; from _M. r. allegheniensis_ by three average differences, namely lighter color, longer tympanic bullae and larger size of males; from _M. frenata_ and _M. erminea_ of same region by basilar length of skull less than 32; tail less than 50, and lacking black pencil. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Six adults and subadults from Shaunavon, Saskatchewan, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 202 (188-208); length of tail, 32.5 (31.5-34.0); length of hind foot, 22.8 (21-24). Female: One adult and 3 subadults from the same area yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 172 (162-190.5); length of tail, 27.4 (24-34); length of hind foot, 19.6 (17.5-22). _Color._--Winter pelage all white, rarely brown; as described in _M. r. eskimo_ except that line of demarcation on side of head between upper parts and underparts passes almost straight back without the dorsally directed reëntrant area of white behind the eye and ear; least width of color of underparts averaging 52 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. _Skull_ (Based on those from Shaunavon, Sask.)--See measurements and plates 14 and 15; weight, 0.88 (0.70-0.98) grams in males and 0.55 (0.54-0.56) in females; basilar length, 29.5 (28.4-30.4) in males and 26.1 (24.7-27.0) in females; otherwise as described in _M. e. richardsonii_. _Remarks._--As early as 1858 (p. 159) Baird recognized an individual of this race from Pembina, Minnesota, as pertaining to a distinct species. Although he used for it the specific name _pusillus_ originally proposed by DeKay for a small weasel from the state of New York, Baird wisely noted that the specimen he described "may be different from the New York species. . . ." After preparing this account, Baird included a second specimen, from Fort Steilacoom, Washington Territory, which he thought might be the same, but the differences that he was careful to point out, in the light of later knowledge, show it to be of the species _Mustela erminea_. Only a few other naturalists followed Baird in distinguishing the least weasel as a separate species until Bangs in 1896 (p. 21) clearly differentiated it and proposed for it the name _Putorius rixosus_, which continues in use today and applies to the species. The accumulation at the National Museum of Canada, through the energy of Dr. R. M. Anderson, of a good series of specimens from Saskatchewan in the general vicinity of the type locality allows for the first time an adequate conception of the amount of secondary sexual variation and individual variation and permits recognition of subspecific characters to differentiate between _M. r. rixosa_ and the subspecies _eskimo_ and _campestris_. In comparison with the subspecies _allegheniensis_ the basis for segregation is less clear and will remain somewhat in doubt until additional adults of _allegheniensis_ from, say, Pennsylvania, become available with accurate external measurements taken in the flesh and especially with complete skulls. Intergradation with the subspecies _eskimo_ is suggested by the short tail of the specimen from fifteen miles east of Atlin, British Columbia; in other particulars that specimen, a skin-alone, agrees with the subspecies _rixosa_. Intergradation with _campestris_ is indicated by increased size of some specimens from North Dakota, and is suggested with _allegheniensis_ by the color of specimens from Wisconsin and Illinois. Three specimens from Winona County, in southeastern Minnesota, unfortunately are skulls-alone without external measurements. Also, two of these skulls are of young animals. The one adult, unsexed, is from Crystal Springs. Selected cranial measurements are: basilar length, 28.5; length of tympanic bulla, 10.9. These measurements accord with those of males of the subspecies _rixosa_ to which the specimens from Winona County, therefore, are here assigned. The possibilities have not been excluded, however, that the adult is an unusually large female of the subspecies _campestris_ or a male of _allegheniensis_ that has tympanic bullae longer than average for that subspecies. Some hesitation is felt in assigning the specimens, 8 in all, from eastern Canada to the subspecies _rixosa_. The skin-alone from Eagle River and the skin, with part of the skull, from St. Michael Bay, are in transitional pelage and are of no help in appraising subspecific characters. The one adult specimen which does have a complete skull is from an island south of the Comb Hills. This animal in all respects agrees with selected individuals of _M. r. rixosa_ from Saskatchewan, but each of the five other skins in summer pelage has spots of dark brown color on the breast. Only about one specimen in three of _rixosa_ from Saskatchewan is similarly marked. Furthermore, on some of the specimens from eastern Canada the spots are larger than on any of the animals from farther west. The greater frequency of brown spots on the breast, the larger average size of these spots, and the darker average coloration of the upper parts are suggestive of geographic variation, the existence of which has to be proved by additional and more complete specimens from eastern Canada. For the time being, specimens from there are tentatively assigned to the race _rixosa_. Of 56 subadult and adult skulls only 3 (1 North Dakota; 1 Calgary, Alberta; and 1 Island S Comb Hills, Queb.) display lesions resulting from infestation of the frontal sinuses by nematode parasites. None of the young skulls shows such infestation. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 87 as follows. Arranged alphabetically by provinces and states and within each from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the United States National Museum. =Alberta.= Miette River, 1[77]; 5 mi. NW Camrose, 1[77]; Camrose, 2 (1[77], 1[31]); "near Camrose," 2[77]; Forks Blindman and Red Deer rivers, 1[60]; Innisfail, 1[86]; Veteran, 1[93]; Diddsbury [= Didsbury], 1; Calgary, 2 (1[93], 1[2]); Shepard, 1[86]. =British Columbia.= Clarks Ranch, Halfway River, Peace River Dist, 1[85]; 15 mi. E Atlin, 1[8]; Wistaria, P. O., 3 (2[77], 1[85]); Ootsa Lake, 1[85]. =Labrador.= Davis Inlet, 1[60]; 30 mi. upriver and 20 mi. toward Groswater Mts., Eagle River, 1; St. Michael Bay, 1. =Mackenzie.= Old Fort Reliance, 1[2]; Fort Resolution, 2; Fort Smith, 1. =Manitoba.= Gypsumville, 1[86]; Lake St. Martin Reserve, 1[86]. =Minnesota.= _Roseau County_: Cedarbend, 2[14]; Grimstad, 1[14]; America, 2 (1[14], 1[74]); Malung, 1[74]; Norland, 1[41]; Falun, 3 (1[14], 1[74], 1[41]); Palmville, 1[41]; Spruce, 1[74]; Stokes, 1[74]. No locality more definite than Marshall County, 1[14]. _Clay County_: Moorhead, 1[36]. _Winona County_: "near" Whitman, 1[34]; Altura, 1[98]; Crystal Springs, 1[98]. =Montana.= Sun River Valley, 1; Wibaux in Wibaux County, 1. =North Dakota.= _Walsh County_: Grafton, 15 (3[60], 1[93], 5[2], 2[14], 1[74], 1[1], 1[76]). _McHenry County_: 4 and 4-1/2 mi. N Upham, 2. _Wells County_: 1[36]. _Morton County_: Mandan, 1[60]. =Ontario.= Algoma Dist: Tatnall, near Oba, 1[86]. Moose Factory, 1[75]. =Quebec.= Island S of Comb Hills, James Bay, 1[9]. _Saguenay County_: Natashkwan, 1. =Saskatchewan.= Osler, 1[75]; "near Regina," 1[77]; Dollard, 2[31]; Shaunavon (and "near" and 1 mi. NE), 9[77]; Klintowel P. O. (about 15 mi. N of Eastend), 1[77]; Eastend and "near" Eastend, 2[77]. =Mustela rixosa allegheniensis= (Rhoads) Least Weasel Plates 14, 15 and 41 _Putorius allegheniensis_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1900:751, March 25, 1901. _Putorius rixosus allegheniensis_, Cory, Mamm. Illinois and Wisconsin, p. 378, 1912. _Mustela allegheniensis_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912. _Mustela rixosa allegheniensis_, Swenk, Journ. Mamm., 7:328, November 23, 1926. _Type._--Probably male adult, skin and skull, no. 6195, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia; near Beallsville, Washington Co., Pa.; about 1885 or 1886; obtained by Robert Hawkins. Type not seen by me. _Range._--Wisconsin, northern Illinois, northern Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania east to Dauphin County and south in the mountains to northwestern North Carolina. See figure 28 on page 180. _Characters for ready recognition._--Distinguished from _M. r. rixosa_ by three average differences, namely, darker color, shorter tympanic bullae, and smaller size of males; from _M. r. campestris_ in smaller size: hind foot less than 25 in males and less than 22 in females; in males total length less than 216 and tail averaging less than 34, color averaging darker; from _M. frenata_ and _M. erminea_ of same region by basilar length less than 31, tail less than 45, and lacking black pencil. _Description._--_Size._--Male: An adult or subadult from Fair Oaks, Pa., a subadult from Finleyville, Pa., and an adult from Huttonsville, W. Va., measure, respectively as follows: Total length, 206, 194, 191 (average 197); length of tail, 37, 32, 28 (32); length of hind foot, 23 in each. An adult from Roanoke, Indiana, weighs 40.6 grams. Female: Two young from Leasuresville, Pa., and Middle Paxton Twp., Pa., measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 188, 172; length of tail, 33, 30; length of hind foot, 20.5, 21. An adult from Monroeville, Ohio, weighs 40.5 grams and a young individual from Middle Paxton Twp., Pa., 39.3 grams, and a subadult from Swan Creek Exp. Station, Allegan Co., Mich., weighs 49 grams. _Color._--Winter pelage either all white, or brown as in summer; upper parts about Raw Umber, or tone 2 of Carbo Brown of pl. 342 of Oberthür and Dauthenay. Underparts white at least on thoracic region; approximately three-fourths of specimens with brown rictal spot at angle of mouth or with this area covered by brown upper parts which extend down on each side and meet on the underparts in about one specimen out of three; upper lips and hind feet ordinarily brown; toes of forefeet ordinarily white (see under remarks for details of color pattern). Least width of color of underparts in the specimens in which the dark color of the upper parts does not encircle the body averages 60 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, or including all specimens the percentage is 42. _Skull_ (based on specimens from Pa. listed in table of cranial measurements, which see and plates 14 and 15).--Basilar length 29.7 and 28.6 in male and 28.0 in female; weights unavailable; otherwise as described in _M. e. richardsonii_. The length of the tympanic bullae seems to be actually less, and less in relation to the basilar length, than in other American subspecies of _M. rixosa_. _Remarks._--Robert Kennicott's mention in 1859 (p. 245) of what seems to be this subspecies is the earliest reference to it that I can identify in the literature. He used the specific name _pusillus_ and it was not until 1900 that Samuel N. Rhoads proposed the name _Putorius allegheniensis_. Since 1900, several records of occurrence have been published which have made the geographic range of this race better known. An adequate number of specimens has been gathered only from Ohio and from western Pennsylvania. Many from Ohio are without accurate external measurements taken in the flesh. The majority of the specimens from Pennsylvania owe their preservation to the willingness of local officials, who pay bounties on weasels, to save the skins of _Mustela rixosa_. These specimens ordinarily comprise the skin with locality but because the feet, external measurements in the flesh, and skulls are unavailable, the material is far from adequate and to give an accurate notion of the usual or average cranial characters of _allegheniensis_ in Pennsylvania, skulls from there are especially desirable. A smaller percentage of the specimens from Ohio than from Pennsylvania have the brown color of the upper parts meeting on the underparts. Also, more of the specimens from Ohio are lighter colored and this suggests intergradation with the subspecies _campestris_ and _rixosa_ to the westward. From Pennsylvania 23 animals in brown pelage are available. In 5 there is a rictal spot at the angle of the mouth; in 5 the area is white and in 13 the brown color of the upper parts is continuous over the area in question. Only 2 of 23 have the upper lips white. Eight have the color of the upper parts meeting on the venter thus restricting the white of the underparts to the chin, throat, and pectoral region, and 6 of these have a white area in the inguinal region as well. The toes of the forefeet are white in 3 of 4 animals suitable for examination in this regard and the hind feet are marked with white in 3 of the 8 animals which have the hind feet preserved. _Mustela rixosa_ in Pennsylvania parallels the species _Mustela frenata_ in that in this relatively humid area of the northeastern United States the color of the upper parts is darker and the area of the dark-colored upper parts is increased at the expense of the area of the light-colored underparts. Also _Mustela erminea_ in this same region (range of the subspecies _Mustela cicognanii_) shows the same tendency to darker color of upper parts and their extension in area at the expense of the area of the light-colored underparts, or was mentioned above. It is difficult to account for the seeming absence of the species from New England and all that part of Canada and the United States south of the St. Lawrence River and northeastward from Pennsylvania. The size of females of _M. erminea cicognanii_ in that territory is so little more than in _rixosa_ that the latter possibly cannot successfully compete with the _erminea_ stock which may already occupy the ecologic niche to which _rixosa_ is adapted. It will be remembered that in western North America in territory seemingly climatically suitable for _rixosa_ it occurs no farther southward than the line below which _M. erminea_ has become reduced to a size comparable with that of _M. rixosa_. Of 41 subadult and adult skulls assigned to this subspecies 24 have obvious lesions in the frontal sinuses evidently resulting from infestation by nematodes. More in detail, none of the specimens from Illinois (3 individuals), Pennsylvania (3 barely subadult), or West Virginia (2) displays lesions. From Wisconsin, Indiana, Virginia and North Carolina there is one specimen each and each specimen displays lesions. From Ohio, 17 of 23 specimens display lesions. From Michigan 3 of 8 specimens display lesions; 2 adults and one subadult have lesions and 5 subadults do not have lesions. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 102 as follows: Arranged alphabetically by states and within each state by counties from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the United States National Museum. =Indiana.= _Huntington County_: Roanoke, 1. _Wells County_: Harrison Township, 1[76]. =Illinois.= _Lake County_: Deerfield, 3[60]; no locality more definite than county, 1[60] _Cook County_: Northfield, 1[60]; La Grange, 1[18]. =Michigan.= _Tuscola County_: 8 mi. N Caro, 1[76]. _Santilac County_: Deckerville, 1[76]. _Allegan County_: Swan Creek Exp. Station, 1[76]; Swan Creek Farm, 1[76]; T. 2N, R. 14W, 1[76]; Allegan, 1[76]. _Livingston County_: George Reserve, 1[76]; 1/2 mi. N Unadilla, 1. _Oakland County_: Rochester, 1[76]. _Macomb County_: Romeo, 1[76]. _Washtenaw County_: 5 mi. SW Ann Arbor, 1[76]. _Branch County_: vic. Coldwater, 1[76]. =North Carolina.= "near Marshall," 1. =Ohio.= Northern part of state, 1[81]. _Williams County_: Stryker, 1[60]. _Lucas County_: Monclova, 1[60]. _Erie County_: Sandusky, 2[76]; marsh near Sandusky, 1[76]; Berlin Heights, 1[76]; no locality more definite than county, 1[2]. _Wood County_: 10 mi. NE Bowling Green, 1[76]; Bowling Green, 4[76]; 3 mi. E Bowling Green 1[76]; Plain Township, 1[2]; Portage Township, 1[60]. _Loraine County_: Wellington, 1[81]. _Huron County_: west of Monroeville, 1[76]. _Summit County_: Ira, 3[81]. _Portage County_: Suffield, 1[81]. _Hancock County_: Vanburen, 1[76]; Findlay, 1[81]; 9 mi. S Findlay, 1[76]; no locality more definite than county, 7 (2[76], 2[81], 3[2]). _Mahoning County_: Ellsworth, 1. _Crawford County_: "near Crestline," 1[81]. _Delaware County_: Sunbury, 1[2]; Lewis Center, 1[81]; no locality more definite than county, 1[81]. _Licking County_: Johnstown, 1[2]. _Fairfield County_: Baltimore, 1[81]; Violet Township, 1[81]. _Meigs [= Gallia?] County_: Vinton, 1[81]. =Pennsylvania.= _Erie County_: McKeen Twp. 1. _Crawford County_: Springboro, 1[1]; Pymatuning Swamp, between Hartstown and Shermansville, Sadsbury Twp., 3[9]. _Mercer County_: Shenango Twp., 1. _Lawrence County_: Little Beaver Twp., 1. _Butler County_: Leasuresville, 1[9]; Clearfield Twp., 1; Valencia, 1[9]. _Armstrong County_: Ford City, Burrell Twp., 1. _Indiana County_: Smicksburg, 1; N. Mahoning Twp., 2; White Twp., 1. _Allegheny County_: South Hills, Pittsburgh, 1[9]; "near Pittsburgh," 1[9]; Fair Oaks, 1[9]. _Westmoreland County_: Bolivar, 1. _Dauphin County_: Middle Paxton Twp., 1. _Washington County_: Finleyville, 1; Rea, 5; Beallsville, 1[1]; Claysville, 1. _Green County_: Deep Valley, 1; Waynesburg, 1; Jefferson, 1; Cumberland Twp., 1. _Fayette County_: Acme, 1[9]; _Somerset County_, 1. _Lancaster County_, 1. =West Virginia.= _Randolph County_: Huttonsville, 1. =Wisconsin.= _Sauk County_: Sumpter Twp., 1[60]. _Dodge County_: Beaver Dam, 1[50]. _Dane County_: Madison, 1; McFarland (= MacFarland), 1. =Mustela rixosa campestris= Jackson Least Weasel Plates 14 and 15 _Mustela campestris_ Jackson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:124, May 21, 1913. _Putorius pusillus_, Aughey, Sketches of the physical geography and geology of Nebraska, p. 119, 1880, Omaha. _Mustela rixosa campestris_, Swenk, Journ. Mamm., 7:329, Nov. 23, 1926. _Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull; no. 171490, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Beemer, Cuming County, Nebraska; April 18, 1911; obtained by G. Sharp; x catalogue no. 8440. The skull is unbroken. On the left side, C1 and P2 are missing; the other teeth are present and entire. The skin is excellently made and in a good state of preservation. _Range._--South Dakota, Nebraska and Iowa. See figure 28 on page 180. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. r. rixosa_ and _M. r. allegheniensis_ in larger size: Hind foot more than 25 in males and ordinarily more than 22 in females; in males total length more than 216 and tail averaging more than 34; color possibly slightly paler than in _M. r. rixosa_ and averaging paler than in _M. r. allegheniensis_; from _M. frenata_ and _M. erminea_ of the same region by basilar length less than 32; tail less than 50, and lacking black pencil. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Four adults from Nebraska yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 231 (225-237); length of tail, 36 (32-39); length of hind foot, 29 (28-31). Female: Six adults from Nebraska yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 192 (184-225); length of tail, 35 (28-40); length of hind foot, 23 (20.5-26). _Color._--Winter pelage ordinarily white; as described in _M. r. eskimo_ except possibly paler and certainly with line of demarcation on side of head between upper parts and underparts passing almost straight back without the dorsally directed reëntrant angles of white behind the eye and ear; least width of color of underparts in four specimens from Nebraska averaging 80 (49-89) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, but in a fifth animal in summer pelage the brown color of the upper parts encircles the body. _Skull._--See measurements in table and plate 15; weight 1.1 grams (male from Brown Co., S. D.); basilar length, 30.7 in male from Clay Co., Neb., and 28.8 in female from same county; otherwise as described in _M. e. richardsonii_. _Remarks._--In his revisionary treatment of the American races of _Mustela rixosa_, Myron H. Swenk (1926:313) credits Samuel Aughey with recording this animal, _M. r. campestris_, from Nebraska, as early as 1880, under the name _Putorius pusillus_. In 1908, Swenk recorded the animal from the same state under the name _rixosus_ and in 1913 the race _campestris_ was formally named by H. H. T. Jackson. On the testimony of a friend who had previously obtained several specimens for him, Swenk (1926:321) records the least weasel from Oshkosh, Garden County, Nebraska, which is a marginal record of occurrence to the southwest for _M. r. campestris_. At an early stage in the study of American weasels the writer examined the specimens from Nebraska saved by Mr. Myron H. Swenk and recorded measurements of them. However, at the time of writing this account the specimens were not available for examination and the account of coloration is accordingly incomplete. The large size, particularly the large external measurements, comprises the principal distinguishing character of this subspecies of the least weasel. Of the four adults examined from Iowa and South Dakota one exhibits lesions such as result from infestation of the frontal sinuses by nematodes. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 21 as follows. Arranged alphabetically by states and by counties, from north to south in each state. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the United States National Museum. =Iowa.= _Howard County_: Chester, 1[12]. _Palo Alto County_: Emmetsburg, 1[65]. _Kassuth County_; Algona, 1[65]. _Clayton County_: National, 1. _Storey County_: Nevada, 1[65]. _Wapello County_: Ottumwa, 1[65]. _Henry County_: Mount Pleasant, 1[66]. =Nebraska.= _Holt County_: Page, 1[35]. _Madison County_: Norfolk 1[35]. _Cuming County_: Beemer, 1. _Hamilton County_: Chapman, 1[35]. _Clay County_: Inland to 1 mi. east thereof, 7[35]. =South Dakota.= _Brown County_: shore of Sand Lake, S. 15 T. 126N, R. 62W, 1. _Day County_: Waubay Migratory Waterfowl Refuge, 1. _McCook County_: Salem, 1[102]. =MUSTELA FRENATA= Lichtenstein Long-tailed Weasel (Synonymy under subspecies) _Type._--_Mustela frenata_ Lichtenstein, Darstellung neuer oder wenig bekannter Säugethiere, pl. 42 and corresponding text unpaged. 1832. _Range._--From southern Canada southward over all of the United States, México, Central America, Venezuela, and the republics of western South America to southern Perú and extreme northern Bolivia. All the life-zones from Alpine Arctic to Tropical are inhabited. In the extremely desert region of southeastern California and western Arizona the species is scarce or possibly absent although recovery of a skull (see under account of _M. f. neomexicana_) from near the center of this region at Potholes on the Colorado River, and a reported occurrence in the mountains of Baja California, México, indicate that a few individuals of the species live in favorable habitat even in this desert region. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela erminea_, in regions where the two species occur together, by tail more than 44 per cent of length of head and body and by postglenoidal length of skull less than 46 per cent of condylobasal length in males and less than 48 per cent in females (see under characters of the species); from _Mustela rixosa_ by presence of black pencil on tail, caudal vertebrae more than a fourth (2/5-3/4) of length of head and body, basilar length of skull more than 34 mm.; from _Mustela africana_ by absence of thenar pad on forefoot, underparts without longitudinal, median, abdominal stripe of same color as upper parts, upper lips narrowly (rather than broadly) edged with color of underparts, longest facial vibrissae extending to or behind posterior margin of ear; presence of p2; more inflated (see pls. 23 and 30) tympanic bullae. _Characters of the species._--Size large: Total length 300 to 550 mm.; tail two-fifths to seven-tenths of length of head and body, with distinct black pencil at end; caudal vertebrae 19 to 23; skull with long precranial portion; postglenoidal length, expressed as a percentage of the condylobasal length, less than 47 in females and ordinarily less than 46 in males; upper parts brown; light-colored underparts, in summer pelage, tinged with buffy or yellowish and continuous from chin to inguinal region; some subspecies (southwestern United States, México, Central America, and Florida) with white or yellowish facial markings which do not occur in any other American species of the genus _Mustela_. _Geographic variation._--Forty-two subspecies are recognized, and the species is geographically more variable than any of the other 3 American species. Color, color-pattern especially on the head, relative proportions of the tail, hind feet, body including the head, and shape and size of the skull are the principal features in which geographic variation has been noted. The variation in the skull extends to the basicranial region (shape and size of tympanic bullae and related structures), interorbital region and preorbital region. _Natural History._--Habitat and Numbers.--As has already been remarked, the long-tailed weasel is absent from the extreme desert of the southwestern United States and northwestern México. Possibly the absence of water to drink is the limiting factor. In southern Nevada the finding of weasels only in places that were well watered, even though small rodents suitable as food for weasels were even more abundant in the surrounding desert, supports this possibility that the absence of water to drink is the limiting factor. Also at Berkeley, California, in early December of 1927 in the canyon at the head of Dwight Way and in the autumn and winter of 1928 in Strawberry Canyon on the campus of the University of California, I trapped extensively for this species in different habitats and obtained, in all, four individuals no one of which was farther than 10 feet from water. The lesser cruising range of the individual weasel than of, say, the coyote, probably explains why, in an arid region, for example Pahranagat Valley, Nevada, only the meadow mice and their riparian associates are preyed upon by the long-tailed weasel whereas the coyote preys upon these riparian rodents and also upon the kangaroo rats and other rodents which are so abundant in adjoining habitats that are devoid of water. In areas where water is available every few hundred yards, no particular habitat seems to be avoided in summer providing there is food for the long-tailed weasel. In winter (January and March) there obviously was a choice of habitat, possibly occasioned by more abundant food or more satisfactory shelter, or both, in Centre County, Pennsylvania, where Glover (1943B) found the population density in the chestnut-oak habitat to be one weasel per 6.5 acres in areas of tree cuttings and slash and one weasel per 13.3 acres in the open forest. In the scrub oak-pitch pine forest type the population was one weasel per 26.4 acres in tree cuttings and slash and one weasel per 38.2 acres in the open forest. No weasel was found in an area of 9.6 acres comprising a wood lot, the edge of the forest, abandoned fence rows and an abandoned orchard. The two types of forest in which he did find weasels, 25 in all, comprised 381.6 acres. Glover's (_op. cit._) data is the only precise information known to me on actual numbers of long-tailed weasels in a given area of any considerable size. Fluctuations which I elsewhere (1946:57) have designated as multiannual fluctuations occur in this species but seemingly not in the degree that they do in _Mustela erminea_. This difference between the two species is to be expected because _M. frenata_ does not range so far northward toward the polar regions as does _M. erminea_ and populations of most kinds of animals in the polar, at least in the arctic, regions are subject to more extreme and more regular fluctuations than are kinds of animals in temperate or tropical regions. Indication of the means by which decrease in the weasel population is brought about is afforded by Osgood's (1935:156) observations around Rutland, Vermont. In the late winter of 1934, tracks indicated that weasels left their usual haunts and hunted cross lots, vainly trying to find food. Testing of the small mammal population in the spring and summer of 1934 showed that it was at low ebb. In the fall of 1934 mice and shrews were abundant again but weasels seemed to be entirely absent. The decrease in the population of weasels lagged behind the decrease in the population of the herbivorous prey as did the subsequent increase; this, of course, is the normal relation of carnivorous species of mammals and their prey, at least in and above the Transition Life-zone. The average distance away from the central den which four weasels (sex unspecified) traveled in a single night at Ames, Iowa, was 312 feet; the maximum distance was 642 feet. These data were obtained in the winter of 1939 by Polderboer, Kuhn and Hendrickson (1941:115) who studied the tracks in the snow. In Manitoba, Criddle and Criddle (1925:143) noted that a female which lived in their basement often wandered more than half a mile away in search of food. In Michigan, Quick (1944:75) found the maximum distance traveled in one day (= night?) by a large male to be 3.43 miles although two miles was the average distance traveled by this individual. In 1942, from January 4 to March 4, in Centre County, Pennsylvania, Glover (1943B) studied tracks of 11 males and 10 females, in newly fallen snow, and ascertained that the distance traveled in a single night averaged 704 (60-2535) feet for the male and 346 (20-1420) feet for the female. The weasels in the open timber traveled farther per trip than those in the brushland and dense stands of trees. Behavior An adult female (now the holotype of _Mustela frenata nevadensis_) seen running across a field, and, I think, unaware of my presence, at every bound bent her back up so far that she reminded me of a measuring worm. For part of the time when running, the tail was held off the ground straight out behind, and then, for a while, inclined upward at an angle of about 45°. Another weasel that I saw in the daytime, and that I think was unaware of my presence, was bounding along among the _Baccharis_ bushes on the south-facing slope of Dwight Way Canyon, Berkeley, California. This individual, at each bound, arched the back up so high as to remind me, again, of a measuring worm. The long-tailed weasel is a land mammal and unlike its close relative, the mink, is seldom seen in the water. That it can swim, however, is attested by the capture of one while it was swimming across the Río Ramos in México (Davis, 1944:381). Also, Green (1936), in May, in Gratiot County, Michigan, saw a weasel, running with a _Peromyscus_ in its mouth. The weasel dropped the mouse, entered the water and swam to a hole among stones. More instances of climbing, than of swimming, have been reported in the literature for the long-tailed weasel. Seton (1929 (2):625) quotes William M. Graffius of Pennsylvania as having seen a weasel closely pursue a red squirrel nearly to the topmost branch of a large hemlock. When the squirrel loosed its hold and dropped into a stream, the weasel descended to the ground and caught and killed the squirrel when it emerged from the water. Pearce (1937:483), in central New York State, on July 29, 1931, watched a weasel chase a chipmunk up a black cherry tree ten inches in diameter, and noted that the first rush carried the weasel "straight up the trunk for approximately 10 feet, where it hesitated momentarily before continuing. Then, instead of climbing vertically, it made progress by traveling in short ascending spirals around the trunk, scarcely making 3 feet in height for each circuit of the tree. Upon reaching the limb by which the chipmunk escaped, the weasel followed out along this in the same spiral manner. This limb had a diameter of about 4 inches at its base and extended upward at an angle of perhaps 20 degrees above the horizontal . . . it made its way head first almost down to the ground, using the same spiral mode of progress, but at a leisurely pace. . . . While traveling down the side limb it appeared practically to wrap its sinuous body around the limb." A male long-tailed weasel, from Colorado, which I kept captive was often fed freshly killed mice. These I thrust through one of the small openings in the wire mesh. The weasel quickly learned to seize any part of a mouse thus introduced and his tugging aided in getting the mouse into the cage. Occasionally a mouse too large to be got through the mesh had to be withdrawn. In such an instance, if the weasel had already had hold of the mouse, he would screech frightfully. I have heard no other vocal sounds from a weasel except a kind of purring. The sense of smell apparently is well developed; at any rate it is keen enough to allow the weasel to follow the trail of an intended victim by the scent left by the latter. Murie's (1935:321-322) account, for example, of a weasel pursuing a snowshoe rabbit gives clear evidence that the weasel relied on scent in following the rabbit. A captive male weasel obtained at Gainesville, Florida, stamped his hind feet when annoyed (Moore, 1945:259). A male from Colorado that I kept for months in a cage at Lafayette, California, was several times found in a sleep so deep that he was awakened with difficulty. Seton (1929 (2):629-630) writes: "In my small menagerie, I have had half-a-dozen Weasels of the New York species. Their sleeping dens are arranged so as to be easily and silently opened. Several times I have lifted the lid to find the weasel in a deep sleep--a sleep so profound that I had to poke him vigorously with a stick before he awoke, looked up, and rushed forth with a little puff of wrath, and a little puff of smell." Feces and urine were ordinarily deposited in one particular place by each of the captive weasels that I have observed. Hamilton (1933:294) records that a large male _M. f. noveboracensis_, in a week, averaged 10 evacuations every twenty-four hours, that urination immediately precedes defecation, and describes the feces as black or brown, long and narrow and often spiral-shaped owing "to the matted fur of some rodent that had been eaten." Quick (1944:77) writes, concerning four winter dens in Michigan, that "The latrines of weasels were in the entries of used dens and scats could be collected there by the handful." Polderboer, Kuhn and Hendrickson (1941:116) in the spring of 1939 at Ames, Iowa, gathered scats "from latrines found at the entrances of burrows and from latrine chambers found within burrows." Scats were found by them in the linings of some nests. Courage of a high order might be credited to the long-tailed weasel because individuals have attacked animals much larger than the weasels. Actually, however, in few if any of these instances was the motive for attack known. That a hawk was attacked is suggested by Soper's (1919:45) account of _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_ wherein he repeats a story told to him of a hawk observed in unsteady flight, and obviously in distress, which when it plummeted to earth was with a weasel which escaped from the observer. Charles Tatham, Jr., of Cambridge, Massachusetts, according to Seton (1929 (2): 630, 631) observed one that attacked his dog. Persons and long-tailed weasels have figured in some rather strange encounters. For example, Oehler (1944:198) recounts that in the autumn of 1940 at Cincinnati, Ohio, an animal, mistakenly thought to be a chipmunk, was seen to dash into a hollow log whereupon pounding on the log brought out the weasel which bit and clung to the hand of one man whose companion was bitten when he attempted to free the man that was bitten first. Seton (1929 (2): 631) writes that on the night of September 5, 1897, on Roosevelt's old ranch, near Medora, North Dakota, a man turned over his saddle (which was lying on the ground) to dislodge what was thought to be a pack-rat. The animal was a long-tailed weasel which attacked him. It ran up his legs a number of times aiming at his throat before being killed by a dog. Criddle and Criddle (1925:146) wrote: "August 20, 1919.--A _longicauda_ in the Insectary ran at me this morning apparently with a view to intimidating. It uttered a shrill cry while making the attack, but retreated after advancing within two feet." The same authors (_op. cit._: 147) further write that a "Long-tailed Weasel was caught in a trap set for gophers, and, on being released by Miss M. Criddle, at once turned upon its liberator and bit savagely at her boot. It then moved a short distance away to a tub of water, where it drank thirstily, merely glancing at the observer from time to time while doing so, and then ran off out of sight. "Mr. T. Criddle records a similar experience. After liberating a large weasel from a trap, it immediately rushed at him and persisted in its attack with such ferocity that it was three times picked up and thrown, on each occasion to a greater distance, before it finally abandoned its offensive. "We have no record of a weasel making an unprovoked attack upon anyone." Wight (1932: 164) in Michigan, detected a weasel attacking a hen. The weasel fled at Wight's approach but returned and attacked him several times. Finally the weasel went around Wight to reach the hen. In Wight's words "There was no evidence of infuriation, but rather a well directed offense at the one object, regardless of its size, which stood between the weasel and an opportunity to satisfy its desire to kill, which was probably based upon the uncontrollable urge of hunger pangs." Weasels of each of the three North American species have been successfully kept in captivity. A type of cage satisfactory for keeping the animals in the laboratory is described by Bissonnette and Bailey (1940:761-763). Some of the captives used their teeth to break glass water-containers and to gnaw slivers of wood from the cages. Ingested slivers of wood and bits of broken glass caused the deaths of some of the captives. Weasels kept by me all were of the species _Mustela frenata_. They thrived on a meat diet but I was always careful to give them, every few days, if not each day, some small rodents entire, thinking that the bits of bone and fur ingested might, in some way unknown to me, keep the digestive tract in better condition than would flesh devoid of hair and bone. Three young weasels approximately the size of mice, in the Okefinokee Swamp of Georgia, were obtained by a hunter who, according to Harper (1927:303), raised them by feeding "milk for a few days, and then fresh meat." Litters of young born in captivity have been successfully raised by the mothers (Hamilton, 1933) and success in getting the animals to breed in captivity and to rear their young is recorded by Wright (1948A). He has found, however, that the majority of his captive adult males show no interest in mating when placed with females in heat. He, therefore, uses only selected males and when a female in heat is to be bred, he places one of his responsive males with her one day, another of his responsive males with her the second day and thus alternates a couple of males for three or four days. Even so, slightly fewer than half of the females which were thus bred produced young. A weasel in the white winter coat was used by Audubon and Bachman (1856:177, Quarto edit.) to drive rabbits out of their burrows in the same fashion that ferrets commonly are used. Although these naturalists refer to their animal as an ermine it probably was _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_, the long-tailed weasel. The animal's teeth (probably canines) were blunted and a long cord tied on its neck. With the aid of this weasel 12 rabbits were caught in one morning and more than 50 in four weeks. Enemies Little is recorded concerning enemies of weasels and it may be that other vertebrates are not an important factor in removing the annual increase. Errington (1935:195-198), in Iowa, found four, putrid weasels about dens of red foxes, _Vulpes fulvus_. No remains of weasels were found in the feces of the foxes and it appears that the foxes do not eat the weasels. The label on an adult female specimen of _M. f. spadix_ from Boone County, Iowa, bears the date May 10, 1938, and the annotation, by T. G. Scott, "fox-killed." Bailey (1931:328) recounts that "Weller saw a coyote carrying one in its mouth" at an elevation of 11,500 feet in the Pecos Mountains of New Mexico. The type specimen, a young female, of _M. f. peninsulae_ from Hudsons, Florida, according to Rhoads (1894:155) ". . . was caught in the woods by a cat." Barber and Cockerell (1898:189) mention one that was killed by a dog in Mesilla Park, New Mexico. Moore (1945:258) records the death of a weasel in Florida. Circumstantial evidence indicated that it was killed by the bite of a water moccasin. In the Biological Surveys Collection of mammals in the United States National Museum, the label with the skull of an adult male weasel, No. 160663, from Banning, California, carries the information that the skull was taken from the stomach of a _Crotalus_ (rattlesnake). In reporting on a study of owl predation in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, Pearson and Pearson (1947:143) mention that "weasels are found throughout the county but . . . were never eaten by the owls." The Uinta spermophile at some places and times probably is a prey sought by the long-tailed weasel but Warren (1924:265) records _Citellus armatus_ repeatedly chasing weasels in August, at Camp Roosevelt, Yellowstone National Park, and how the ground squirrels at one time ignored the weasel even when it came within a few inches of a squirrel. Warren (1932:71), on August 2, 1931, at Grand Mesa, Colorado, obtained a large male weasel with two porcupine quills in it; one was near the mouth and another "in the skull." Osgood (1935:156) writes that near Rutland, Vermont, a male weasel "taken in April, was heavily parasitized and had several short porcupine quills embedded in its neck, head, and shoulders." The remainder of Osgood's account implies that the weasel may have turned to porcupine because the normal food for weasels was scarce at the time. Porcupine quills, then, are a hazard for weasels although it is unlikely that the porcupine is ever to be classed as an enemy of the weasel. An accident of another sort, which must at the very least have been annoying to the weasel that suffered it, was recorded by Soper (1921:37). The animal had a stick lodged crosswise between the fourth upper premolar teeth. The recorded actions of several kinds of animals which are too small to be dangerous to the weasel suggest that they recognize that the weasel is a danger to them. Borell and Ellis (1934:21) mention that a weasel in Nevada caused a great disturbance among the chipmunks. Long (1938:250) heard pikas give evidence of terror by a peculiar cry when a weasel was in a rock slide occupied by the pikas. Seton (1929 (2):629) writes "On June 14, 1915, as I prowled around the south side of the lake on my homeland at Greenwich, Conn., my attention was called to a pair of song sparrows and a male towhee that were noisily mobbing a Weasel, twittering around and darting at him, as though they knew full well his evil ways. The weasel paid little heed, but soon dived from sight in a stone wall." No account has been found of an American weasel or ermine rolling, tumbling and frolicking in a manner that aroused the curiosity of birds to a degree which permitted the weasel to come within leaping distance of the birds. Accounts of such behavior are on record for the English stoat (ermine). Food and Hunting Weasels are active both in the daytime and at night. Whether the time of activity varies with the season, with the locality, with the sex or with other conditions, I do not know. Adult, live, free-living, actively moving weasels that I recall having seen all were observed in the daytime: two were in Alameda County, California, two were in White Pine County, Nevada, one was in Scotts Bluff County, Nebraska, and one was in Laramie County, Wyoming. I recall ten adults, from the same three states, and one from Washington State, that got into my traps; two of these certainly got in the traps in the night; one certainly got in the trap in the daytime; the other eight were found in traps which may have caught the weasels either in the night or in the daytime. Soper (1946:136) in speaking of _M. f. longicauda_ north of the International Boundary in Canada remarks that it has the "habit to some extent of hunting at all times of day." Criddle and Criddle (1925:144) in writing of _Mustela frenata longicauda_ in Manitoba record that "The shrill cry of a rabbit [_Lepus americanus_] in the dark is nearly always due to the weasel's attack. Indeed, we have often watched the latter at work during the twilight hours. First would come the almost noiseless run of the small rabbit with its characteristic dodging and this would be followed by the appearance of the agile foe which, at times, would leap high over obstacles and at others move swiftly beneath them. Then there would follow intermittent cries of the rabbit as the weasel secured a temporary hold of its quarry, for be it noted that this hunter apparently bites anywhere to begin with and it is probable that the blood made to flow acts as an aid to tracking as well as weakening the prey. Several similar close encounters might occur before the rabbit would be finally overcome, but weasels are very persistent when they once get into contact with their victims and it is therefore very seldom that the latter escape. In killing, they either penetrate the brain with their teeth, or dislodge the vertebrae behind the head." These and more than two score other observations which record the time when weasels were seen make it clear that some were active at night and that some were active in the daytime. As to the routes traveled while the weasels are hunting, Quick (1944:77) says of four individuals that he studied in Washtenaw County, Michigan: "The weasels appeared to prefer hunting certain coverts with noticeable regularity, but rarely cruised the same area on two consecutive nights." The killing technique of fifteen captive _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_ was studied by Glover (1943A). For the weasels he released 19 mice, 3 brown rats, 6 cottontails and 4 ring-necked pheasants. Most of the mice were killed by a bite on the back of the head, with the body and legs of the weasel hugging the back of the victim. "The weasel shoved the prey in close to the stomach with the hind legs, and the kill was made in a reclining semi-curled-up position." On each of the rats (_Rattus_) an initial grip was secured at the base of the ear. When the rat rested, a new hold was taken by the weasel. Finally the weasel secured a hold at the base of the skull and near the ear, and a light crushing sound followed. Four of the six cottontails were killed by bites on top of the head and ear; two cottontails succumbed from neck wounds. In three instances, neither of two weasels could be induced to make a determined attack on the cottontails or to kill them. At times the cottontails proved to be able opponents for weasels by striking out with their front feet and by kicking with their strong hind legs. In killing the pheasants the teeth of the upper jaw of the weasel pierced the top of the braincase and the teeth of the lower jaw entered the region of the auditory process. The forelegs hugged the neck of the pheasant, the body of the weasel was extended in a riding position on the back of the bird and no amount of kicking or rolling dislodged the weasel. Polderboer, Kuhn and Hendrickson (1941) describe a cottontail cached by a weasel as having the muscles of the neck severed from the region behind the right mastoid process and noted "that hemorrhage in the region of the right jugular vein had occurred." Concerning the methods of killing mammals smaller than cottontails, the accounts by Nichols and Nichols (1935:297-299) and that by Svihla (1931) corroborate Glover's (1943A) account, as do also the accounts of Miller (1931B:164) and Moore (1945:257). The latter says that his captive male, from Gainesville, Florida, customarily bit its rodent prey at the base of the skull and used the feet to manipulate the live prey. Miller (_loc. cit._) emphasized that his male weasel (_M. f. longicauda_) grasped where it could, used its snakelike body to coil over the prey and shifted the grip of its teeth to the nape of the neck or back of the skull. The captives that I have had [one from Salt Lake City, Utah; three from Contra Costa County, California; and the same individual reported upon by Miller (1931:150)] customarily employed the techniques of killing small rodents that were described by Glover and Miller (_loc. cit._). Allen (1938:225-229) experimented with the ability of four different males of _M. f. noveboracensis_ from Michigan to kill adult cottontails. The method used was to place the weasel in a cage of quarter-inch hardware cloth approximately three feet long, two feet wide, and two feet high. The bottom of the box was covered with several inches of straw. One cottontail was offered to each weasel. In two instances the weasel attacked and bit the cottontail, was struck by the hind feet of the cottontail, retired from the attack and died a few hours later as a result of the blows of the cottontail's hind feet. In the other two instances the weasel rendered the cottontail helpless by severing the neck muscles from the skull. Subsequently an incision made by the weasel, in each of the two instances gave access to blood on which the weasel fed until it was full, in one instance by licking "blood as a cat laps milk." One rabbit was subdued in 10 minutes and the other in 15 minutes. Allen (_op. cit._) points out that cottontails form a considerable portion of the weasel's food and thinks that they are killed in burrows more easily than they were in the cage. In writing of the three species of weasels, including _Mustela frenata_, found at Treesbank and vicinity, Manitoba, Norman Criddle and Stuart Criddle (1925:143, 144), in my opinion, correctly explain the killing of more prey than weasels need. "The fact that weasels frequently kill many more animals than they require for immediate use has been universally interpreted as a lust for killing--a supposition which we believe to be quite erroneous. It is true that weasels often kill more than they need, but the surplus is not necessarily wasted because the animals always store it for future use, in much the same way as do badgers, minks or skunks, and with the same object in view as squirrels have in gathering nuts. We have observed many such stores, but as far as our observations go, the habit of killing in excess occurs much more prominently in the late summer and autumn months than in the spring. Indeed, we have no records of excessive spring slaughter and this indicates that the supposedly blood-thirsty habit of weasels is no more a lust for killing than is the woodsman's foresight in providing his larder with meat for the winter months. It should be noted in this connection that members of the weasel family, when undisturbed, do not leave their victims scattered about, but carefully store them away, and in many instances the bodies are buried with earth or taken under ground to preserve them. We suspect that this instinct for preserving food for future use accounts for most of the excessive killing by carnivorous animals instead of this latter indicating an aimless desire for slaughter which would unnecessarily deplete the food supply of the future. This instinct, however, does not seem to be as definite as that of some rodents, and there is no doubt that much of the stored meat decays before it can be utilized." Criddle and Criddle (1925:146) note that a weasel in the vicinity of Treesbank was carrying a rat [_Rattus_] and that "Two small punctures in the throat were the only evidence of the manner in which its death had been brought about." Considerable information has been recorded concerning the food of _Mustela frenata_ and a little information is on record as to kinds of foods not taken that could have been taken. For example, Ingles (1939:253, 254) on May 14, 1938, near Shasta City, California, noted that nestlings of russet-backed thrushes were ignored by an adult weasel and four young weasels which were feeding instead on meadow mice and a mole. Howard (1935:322, 323) records that a weasel in Michigan which carried bits of meat from beef bones on a porch ignored a red squirrel which drew on the same food supply but which retreated to the end of the porch when the weasel appeared. Quick (1944) records that in the winter of 1940 on a 640 acre area in Washtenaw County, Michigan, four resident weasels did not kill any of the 10 rabbits or several pheasants but subsisted on smaller animals. Glover (1943A) thought that _M. frenata_ kills only a few adult cottontails in the wild. To judge from these observations, _M. frenata_ chooses small mammals as prey in greater measure than it does birds or larger mammals. Records of prey taken, attacked or pursued by _Mustela frenata_ include the following: Broad-footed mole (_Scapanus latimanus_).--One was fed on by an adult _M. frenata_ and four young, on May 14, 1939, "near Shasta City," California (Ingles, 1939:253, 254). Dusky shrew (_Sorex cinereus_).--A female weasel, at Majestic, Long Island, N. Y., was shot when carrying a _Sorex cinereus_ that had a small hole in the top of its head (Nichols and Nichols, 1935:297-299). Big short-tailed shrew (_Blarina brevicauda_).--One was taken from the stomach of a weasel (Hamilton, 1928:249). Townsend ground squirrel (_Citellus townsendii_).--Alcorn saw a weasel five miles west of Fallon, Nevada, carrying a squirrel (Hall, 1946:192). Richardson ground squirrel (_Citellus richardsonii_).--The attempted capture of one of these squirrels in Saskatchewan is recorded by Seton (1929 (2):625). Belding ground squirrel (_Citellus beldingi_).--Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale (1937:233) recount that at Tuolumne Meadows, California, a weasel killed a ground squirrel of this species. Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (_Citellus tridecemlineatus_).--Errington (1936:406, 407) found a den in Palo Alto County, Iowa, on June 22, 1934, where he collected 32 fecal pellets. Sixteen samples contained thirteen-lined ground squirrels, 9 contained rabbits, 9 contained mice (7 _Microtus_, 1 _Peromyscus_ and 1 unidentified); red-winged blackbirds and unidentified fringillids were represented as also were ground beetles, grasshoppers and other insects. One red-winged blackbird lay near the entrance of the den. Franklin ground squirrel (_Citellus franklinii_).--Sowls (1948:126) records that at Delta, Manitoba, a weasel was observed killing one of these squirrels and that "the weasel had taken the squirrel from its hibernating burrow as evidenced by tracks in the snow." On July 19, 1917, in the vicinity of Treesbank, Manitoba, T. Criddle saw a weasel attacking one of these ground squirrels which was in mortal terror and squeaking continuously. Eventually the squirrel was thrown on its back "and would have been speedily killed but for an interruption" (Criddle and Criddle, 1925:146). Golden-mantled ground squirrel (_Citellus lateralis_).--On August 15, 1941, along the Kaweah River in Sequoia National Park, Boyer (1943:99, 100) saw a weasel chasing a _Citellus lateralis_; three or four times the weasel grasped the back of the neck of the squirrel which each time threw off the weasel until the two, weasel after the squirrel, plunged into the river. The squirrel, bleeding at the base of the skull, was rescued and entered a hole; the weasel got out of the water and under a rotting log. Follett (1937:365) at 2 p.m. in Plumas County, California, saw a weasel have hold of the lower jaw of a golden-mantled ground squirrel near its throat. Alcorn watched a weasel chase a golden-mantled ground squirrel in Nevada (Hall, 1946:192) and Grinnell and Dixon (1919:681) record that on August 4, 1911, near Monache Meadows in eastern Tulare County, California, a weasel pursued, captured and killed a golden-mantled ground squirrel. Eastern chipmunk (_Tamias striatus_).--Pearce (1937:483) in central New York State, on July 29, 1931, saw a chipmunk scamper up a tree pursued by a weasel. Chipmunk (subgenus _Neotamias_).--Stanford (1931:363) on November 11, 1931, at Fish Lake, Utah, saw a weasel pursuing a chipmunk. On August 5, 1910, "near Independence Lake," Nevada County, California, Louise Kellogg recorded that a weasel seized and ran off with a chipmunk (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937:233). Allen (1938:228) observed that a chipmunk (whether _Tamias striatus_ or _T. minimus_ not specified) was killed in 30 seconds whereas 10 to 15 minutes were required by the caged, male _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_ to kill a cottontail. Red squirrel (_Tamiasciurus_).--Seton (1929 (2):625) records the capture of one in Pennsylvania, and Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale (1937:232), at Cisco, California, saw one closely pursued by a weasel. Flying squirrel (_Glaucomys_).--Burroughs (1900:77, 78) records remains of one of these squirrels along with the remains of other animals in a food cache of a Mustela but his account does not make clear whether _Mustela frenata_ or _Mustela erminea_ was the species of weasel involved. Northern pocket gopher (_Thomomys_).--In "July, 1939, near Stillwater [Nevada], Alcorn pursued . . . [a] weasel and caused it to drop . . . a pocket gopher [_Thomomys bottae_] which was about two-thirds grown" (Hall, 1946:192). Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale (1937:233) write that "at least twice, weasels in the [Yosemite] Valley were seen carrying pocket gophers." Relative to _Thomomys talpoides_ in the vicinity of Treesbank, Manitoba, Criddle and Criddle (1925:146) record that on September 11, 1918, an individual of _Mustela frenata longicauda_ took seven pocket gophers dead. . . . It seized the rodents by the middle of their back and held them high while carrying them away. They were stored in a gopher burrow some two hundred yards distant. On February 17, 1921, "Came across the marks of a weasel carting some object over the snow. An investigation revealed a recently-killed pocket gopher with its captor still in possession." Criddle (1930:279), at Aweme, Manitoba, "frequently observed this weasel [_M. f. longicauda_] . . . carrying a pocket gopher to its larder, and twice it has been encountered in mid winter with freshly killed gophers in its possession." The evidence already presented that weasels levy heavily on pocket gophers is strengthened by the many references in the literature to weasels having been caught in traps set for pocket gophers in the burrows of those rodents and by the many statements, not quoted here, that living quarters of weasels are in burrows made originally by pocket gophers. For example, the present writer, in an account of the Mammals of Nevada (Hall, 1946:191, 192), has said of the long-tailed weasel, _Mustela frenata nevadensis_, that "All the three dens that were excavated . . . were originally burrows of pocket gophers. . . . Although we have found weasels in many situations in Nevada, . . . they most often were obtained from the burrows of pocket gophers." Excluding the weasels taken by Alcorn, more specimens of the remaining lot were caught in traps set in the burrows of pocket gophers than by all other means combined. All of the 22 weasels taken by Alcorn [within a radius of 10 miles of Fallon] were obtained in gopher traps. Mexican pocket gopher (_Cratogeomys_).--At Chalchicomula, 8000 feet, Puebla, Nelson (1918:470 and letter dated March 9, 1928) saw a weasel fastened to a pocket gopher. Nelson obtained the pocket gopher and found that its neck muscles were torn loose from the skull. Grasshopper mouse (_Onychomys_).--Barber and Cockerell (1898:189) found remains of this mouse in the stomach of a weasel at Mesilla Park, New Mexico. White-footed mice (_Peromyscus_).--Green (1936) saw a weasel in Gratiot County, Michigan, in May, carrying a _Peromyscus_. Quick (1944:76), in winter, in Michigan, found one dead, probably killed by a weasel. From Washtenaw County, Michigan, Quick (1944:77) examined 294 scats of free-living weasels and found _Peromyscus_ in 189 scats, _Microtus_ in 83, small birds in 20, red squirrel in 3, and hair of weasels in small quantities (probably from the animals which deposited the scats) in 36. He concludes (_op. cit._, 78) that the winter food was 65 to 70 per cent _Peromyscus_, 23 to 33 per cent _Microtus_, and 2 to 7 per cent small birds. Wood rats (_Neotoma_).--A female long-tailed weasel weighing 250 grams was taken one mile north of Kent, Texas, while eating a _Neotoma albigula_ (Davis and Robertson, 1944:263). A wood rat house under observation by Vestal (1937:364) in Contra Costa County, California, was invaded by one weasel which ate two adult wood rats (_Neotoma fuscipes_) and one young. In the same area he saw a weasel in a wood rat nest some months later (Vestal, 1938:5). Three miles east of Reno, Nevada, on May 13, 1936, W. B. Richardson watched a long-tailed weasel carrying a half-grown round-tailed wood rat (_Neotoma lepida_) across a rock slide (Hall, 1946, 192). Harper (1927:303) records three wood rats [_Neotoma floridana_] and two cotton rats [_Sigmodon hispidus_] found dead in the den of a female weasel and her three young in the Okefinokee Swamp of Georgia. Another female and three young approximately half grown were found in the swamp in a hollow pine log. Contents of the den as described to Harper were nearly a peck of wood rats, whole and in pieces; remains of several kinds of birds including robins and quail, and a piece of joint snake (_Ophisaurus ventralis_). Meadow mice (_Microtus_).--Polderboer, Kuhn and Hendrickson (1941), in 1939, at Ames, Iowa, identified "A total of 118 items . . . in 97 winter scats and 48 in the 38 spring scats." Their combined data are as follows: Frequency Percentage Meadow mouse 71 42.85 Harvest mouse 36 21.75 Deer mouse 17 10.23 Mearns cottontail 14 8.42 Short-tailed shrew 9 5.42 House mouse 3 1.86 Tree sparrow 2 1.02 Grasshopper 1 .60 Shaw pocket gopher 1 .60 Least weasel 9 5.40 Unidentified material 3 1.85 Polderboer, Kuhn and Hendrickson divide their data into two categories, winter and spring. Items recorded in winter but not in spring are house mouse, tree sparrow, and grasshopper. Items recorded only in spring were pocket gopher and least weasel. The samples of cottontail and least weasel all were from the scats of one large male weasel. Of a total of 14 pheasants, 24 quail and 35 cottontails on the 160 acres involved in the study only two cottontails appear to have been killed by the weasels--really by one weasel of four which lived on the area. Food items taken from the nests (3) and adjacent caches of food in the dens, were as follows: meadow mouse, 30; short-tailed shrew, 4; pocket gopher, 2; deer mouse, 2; least weasel, 1; tree sparrow, 1. The authors remark that the abundance of several prey species does not cause the weasels to ignore the shrews which are said to be distasteful to carnivores. Two horned larks, apparently killed by weasels, were found on the 160 acre area studied; the horned larks were not in caches of food, nor were remains of horned larks found in scats. Dearborn (1932:34, 37) for Michigan, on the basis of contents of (37?) intestinal tracts and "feces collected partly in winter and partly in summer" found that, by frequency of occurrence, mammals comprised 83 per cent of the food, birds 10 per cent and insects 7 per cent. Frequency indices for the genera of mammals in percentages of food items of all kinds were as follows: _Microtus_, 31 per cent; _Peromyscus_, 24 per cent; _Sylvilagus_, 14 per cent; _Sorex_, 7 per cent; _Blarina_, 5 per cent; _Scalopus_, 2 per cent. Criddle and Criddle (1925:146), for the vicinity of Treesbank, Manitoba, record that on October 3, 1913, a weasel was seen to take a field mouse down a hole. They add (_op. cit._: 147) that "Once while ploughing, we observed a Long-tailed Weasel carrying a field mouse. . . ." Ingles (1939:253, 254), in June, 1938, near Mt. Shasta City, California, found an adult and four young weasels which fed on several _Microtus montanus montanus_. Green (1936) in May, in Gratiot County, Michigan, in the vicinity of a nest in which there were four young weasels, found "several" dead _Microtus_. Hamilton (1933:330) records that in New York State a male weasel, on April 5, 1932, at Ithaca, had eaten a _Microtus_ and that in May, 1927, a female weasel was seen carrying a _Microtus_ in its mouth. Hamilton's (1933:333) study of the contents of the digestive tracts of bodies of weasels obtained from fur trappers and fur buyers enabled him to publish the following "Frequency Indices of Mammal Genera in Fall and Winter Food of 163 _Mustela noveboracensis_": _Microtus_, 33.6 per cent; _Sylvilagus_, 17.3; mammals undetermined to genus but principally mice, 17.1; _Peromyscus_, 11.3; _Rattus_, 9.1; _Blarina_, 5.9; _Sciurus_, 2.7; _Tamias_, 1.0; _Condylura_, 0.8; _Ondatra_, 0.8. Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale (1937:233, 234) quote W. Fry concerning a weasel which reared six young at Giant Forest, California, in 1919, as follows: "This parent weasel, after the birth of her young, remained at the premises for a period of thirty-seven days; during which time, from actual count, the following numbers of mammal species fell victim to her: mice [genera not specified] 78; gophers 27; moles 2; chipmunks 34; wood rats 3; ground squirrels 4. This is a total of 148 animals for the . . . thirty-seven days . . . not a bird was captured during the period." Rats (_Rattus_).--Criddle and Criddle (1925:146), on the farm at Treesbank, Manitoba, record a long-tailed weasel, on July 2, 1918, running away from the farm buildings carrying a rat; July 11, 1919, "Two _longicaudas_ . . . have been seen running off with rats on several occasions."; July 11, 1920, "There are two large weasels about the buildings[;]. . . . Each has been noted with rats and this afternoon one of them was seen running into the woods carrying a rat, followed by two excited swallows." The authors (_op. cit._:147) add "In the fall of 1924, Mr. A. Cooper, a prominent poultryman of Treesbank, observed a large weasel carrying a freshly killed rat which it stored below ground and then returned towards the poultry-house, causing no little apprehension to the owner. Within a short time, however, the weasel reappeared with another rat which it hid as before. In this way several rodents were accounted for during the afternoon, and Mr. Cooper assures us that the weasel 'kept up the good work for some days'." Hamilton (1933:330) in New York State in May, 1927, saw a male weasel in possession of a rat. Big jumping mouse (_Zapus major_).--In the Warner Mountains of California, on Parker Creek, H. C. Bryant frightened a weasel that dropped a freshly killed jumping mouse (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937:232). Snowshoe rabbit (_Lepus americanus_).--Adolph Murie (1935:321-322) writes that: "Four miles north of Funkley, Minnesota, early on the morning of November 13, 1921, . . . watched from the top of a 30-foot spruce a weasel. .. hunting a varying hare. . . . The ground was covered with six inches of fresh snow . . . both animals . . . [had] their [white] winter pelage. "My attention was first attracted to the hare as it came hopping steadily but unhurriedly from the north. Directly in front of me, about 75 feet from the tree I had climbed, the hare crisscrossed back and forth at various angles over an open area about 20 feet in diameter. After producing a maze of tracks, the hare 'froze' near one edge of the pattern. In a few minutes the weasel appeared, all his faculties focused on the warm trail. Expertly he followed its convolutions, passing at times within a few feet of the watching hare. Not until the weasel had followed every turn of the trail to within three feet of its termination did the hare skip off. It came out to the road almost directly below me, turned at right angles northward and was soon out of sight. At the road the weasel lost the trail, . . . and then ran parallel with it, once more in hot pursuit. "Ten minutes later the hare emerged from the north as before, came on directly to the tracked-up area, and continuing its stratagem, leisurely hopped about to leave its zigzag trail. Then it sat down quietly to wait. . . . The weasel['s] . . . nose led him through the network with little trouble. He was almost upon the hare before it jumped off and followed the same path [as] . . . before. . . . "The hare had to show his big heels [a third time] . . . as the weasel approached him. This time the weasel failed to follow. . . . After examining a few brush heaps he vanished into the woods behind me." Seton (1929 (4):723, 724) writes that in December of 1886 in the sandhills northeast of Carberry, Manitoba, he saw a weasel chasing a snowshoe rabbit which took refuge near his feet under the sleigh and so escaped the weasel. Thurber (1940:356) mentions a month-old varying hare that was rescued from a weasel and of approximately the same size as the weasel. Criddle and Criddle (1925:146) for the vicinity of Treesbank, Manitoba, record "August 21, 1921.--Heard cries of a small rabbit at dusk to-night, which investigation showed was being attacked by a large weasel. The rabbit was later carried to the weasel's store chamber below ground." They record further (_op. cit._, 146, 147): "November 8, 1924.--Shot a bush rabbit and left it lying. Two hours later [it] . . . was found to have been dragged beneath a brush pile and partly eaten. Innumerable weasel tracks left no doubt as to the identity of the thief." In describing a weasel that wintered in a nest in a threshing machine, the same authors (_op. cit._:143) say that no bird remains were found in the pile of approximately three pounds of droppings adjacent to the nest. In a store chamber some 140 yards away from the nest, two bush rabbits (_Lepus americanus_) had been dragged to the entrance and numerous smaller rodents were taken below ground. The rabbits were buried beneath the snow and eaten as necessity arose. Narrow selectivity on the part of the weasel in choosing food is almost always shown in instances where the food of weasels has been studied. For example, the weasel which lived in the threshing machine ate rodents and rabbits and not poultry although the weasel had ready access to the poultry building. The weasel which lived in the bag of feathers in the basement of Stuart Criddle's house ignored grouse, approximately 20 in number, in favor of other non-avian food. Cottontail (_Sylvilagus_).--Polderboer, Kuhn and Hendrickson (1941) mention that one of 4 weasels which they studied on a 160 acre area at Ames, Iowa, in 1939, had a cache of food in a pocket gopher burrow 10 rods distant from the weasel's den. The cache contained only two cottontails, one partly eaten. Leopold (1937) records seeing a _Mustela_ (probably a long-tailed weasel but possibly an ermine) kill a third-grown cottontail by biting it at the base of the skull. Leopold describes the blood sucking or licking, suggesting that he shared the popular misconception that weasels suck blood. The supposition that weasels suck blood has been refuted by many observers, for example by Svihla (1931). My own observation of captives makes me think that weasels do not suck blood. Seton (1929 (2):626) quotes B. H. Warren as seeing a weasel dragging a freshly killed, still warm, rabbit that contained nine embryos almost ready for birth. A young rabbit was seen being carried by a weasel in Hidalgo County, Texas, in March, 1935 (Mulaik, 1938:104). An instance of a cottontail being chased in June in South Carolina is recorded by Hamilton (1933:330). Addy (1939:372, 373), in Virginia, on August 14, 1939, shot a large weasel which was pursuing a _Sylvilagus_ that was only a foot and a half ahead of the weasel. The rabbit stopped when a shot was fired and permitted itself to be stroked and petted. Tracking showed that the weasel had chased the rabbit for a half mile. On November 20, 1942, at Lake James, Indiana, a weasel was seen by Grosjean (1942:443) attacking a "young rabbit" in the throat of which the weasel had made five large holes from which there was no obvious bleeding. Seton (1929 (4):798) recounts that in 1910 at Base Lake, Michigan, F. C. Hicks saw a cottontail with a weasel hanging to its legs rush to the cottage. When only four feet from Hicks the weasel loosed its hold and the cottontail escaped under the cottage. Burroughs (1939:253) on May 14, 1939, in Saginaw County, Michigan, records that a young cottontail weighing between 200 and 250 grams was carried from the nest and killed. Burroughs was attracted first by the "hissing scream" of the weasel, strode toward the sound, flushed an adult cottontail, and discovered the empty nest from which the weasel had taken the young cottontail. Brush rabbit (_Sylvilagus bachmani_).--Vestal (1937:364) in Contra Costa County, California, found a brush rabbit that appeared to have been killed by a weasel. Reptiles.--Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale (1937:234) recount that in July, 1889, in Wilson Canyon, near Pasadena, California, a weasel killed a red racer by severing the backbone of the snake. In April, 1935, in Hidalgo County, Texas, a half grown bull snake (_Pituophis sayi sayi_) was regurgitated by a young weasel. Russell (1930:504, 505) has recorded finding in California a male weasel and a king snake (Lampropeltis getulus boylii) three feet five inches long in mortal combat. The weasel killed the snake but the weasel, incapacitated by the conflict, was easily picked up by hand and was also saved as a specimen. Wild birds.--In the spring of 1940, in Washtenaw County, Michigan, one bobwhite, of 10 bobwhite living on a 640 acre area, was killed by one of four weasels that lived on the area. No other quail was killed there. The one unfortunate bird was killed in the mouth of an abandoned den where the quail roosted (Quick, 1944:76). A male weasel, subspecies _M. f. effera_, was seen by Booth (1946:439) attempting to enter the nesting hole of a pair of flickers, _Colaptes_. One song sparrow (_Melospiza melodia_), and one slate-colored junco (_Junco hyemalis_) were recorded by Quick (1944:76) as killed by weasel in Michigan. Chicken (genus _Gallus_).--Quick (1944:78) writes that in one year (1938-1939) weasels were reported to have killed 1.03 per cent of all chickens in one township of Washtenaw County, Michigan, and that of the total damage to all kinds of poultry, 59 per cent was done by weasels. Weasels entered 19 per cent of the chicken coops on the study area. Farmers killed 68 per cent of the weasels seen in barn yards. Spring and summer were the seasons in which most of the weasels were observed in barn yards. Internal evidence in Quick's (_op. cit._) account leads me to suspect that some losses of poultry were charged to weasels when _Rattus_ was actually responsible. Criddle and Criddle (1925:146), quote a neighbor in the vicinity of Treesbank, Manitoba, as recording that on October 29, 1917, "A weasel last night made its way into our fowl-house, the door being inadvertently left open. The weasel killed eleven fowl, some of which were dragged into the yard. All the largest fowls were selected, the pullets remaining untouched though they were in the majority. Next night the weasel dug a hole beneath the building and killed a hen and two cocks, returning for another during the day, making a total of fourteen in all." Criddle and Criddle (1925:146) remark that the weasel proved to be a large one, probably an old male. The same authors (_op. cit._:147) record that at their farm at Treesbank, Manitoba, on January 31, 1925, "A Long-tailed Weasel killed three hens last night, and rather severely bit a cock about the neck. This, or another weasel, had been around the farm-yard for sometime (The specimen was a large male). . . . "In the fall of 1924, Mr. A. Cooper, a prominent poultryman of Treesbank, observed a large weasel carrying a freshly killed rat which it stored below ground and then returned towards the poultry-house, causing no little apprehension to the owner. Within a short time, however, the weasel reappeared with another rat which it hid as before. In this way several rodents were accounted for during the afternoon, and Mr. Cooper assures us that the weasel 'kept up the good work for same days'. "Being a farmer of many years' standing, Mr. Cooper has naturally lost some poultry through the agency of weasels, but while he remarks that 'there are good as well as bad actors among weasels', he has the practical good sense to recognize the value of an efficient ratter even though it be a weasel. "Our sister, Maida Criddle, writes under date of March 4, 1925: "'There is another weasel (_longicauda_) in the fowl-house, a well-behaved one this time. It came and took a piece of meat out of my hand quite nicely, which it carried down a hole and then came and sniffed all over my mitt to see if there was any more. I thought it had been killed when I visited the farm buildings next day as there was a strong smell of musk on the cat and in the fowl house, but the weasel was there as cheeky as ever. It got hold of my skirt twice and tried to pull me down its hole. I think it wanted the cloth for a bed, as it was taking straw and other material down the burrow. The poultry were very frightened at first, but they are getting used to the weasel's presence now'." In commenting on the economic role of the long-tailed weasel in Manitoba, Criddle and Criddle (1925:145) write as follows: "Supply and demand are prominent factors in governing our weasels' food habits. The two smaller species, as we have already pointed out are so dependent upon mice for a living that they increase or diminish with the fluctuation of these creatures. The Long-tailed Weasel, however, is not so easily checked by the temporary disappearance of any particular kind of game. If mice are scarce it devotes greater attention to gophers or bush rabbits and if these are not in sufficient numbers to satisfy its appetite, the animal raids a poultry house as a last resource. In nine years out of ten, this weasel will find sufficient food about the fields and woods, but on the tenth it may be obliged to temporarily turn to domestic animals. It is at such times that the weasel is seen and its deeds recorded. A thousand mice may have been killed in the meantime, but the destruction of half a dozen hens is alone used as evidence of the weasel's economic standing. "In the last twenty years we have permitted weasels to frequent the farm buildings at will and the poultry house has been no exception. In that time rats and mice suffered severely from the weasels, while the total number of poultry taken were six. Many times that number, however, have been killed by rats. "When we review our experiences of the past, we are astonished to find what few poultry have been killed by weasels. Our own losses in forty-two years have not exceeded fifteen birds and even these were usually eatable. There have been reports of losses from time to time from neighbors, but on looking into details we find that there are very few farmers who have experienced more than three separate occasions of weasel depredation and the total loss per farmer in the last thirty years does not, we are sure, exceed ten birds. This is surely a remarkably small payment to weasels in general for the great good done by them in killing rodents. "We wish to point out, too, that only the exceptional weasel becomes a poultry killer. In most cases apparently it is a fully-grown male that does the killing. There are exceptions, of course, but when we see a large weasel actively engaged in rodent hunting within a few feet of a brood of newly hatched chickens and not even looking at them, we must at least pause to ask if this animal is the enemy that we were taught to believe it to be." A suggestion that weasels sometimes obtain the prey killed by hawks is offered by Criddle and Criddle (1925:147) who write: "Hawks are not always the aggressors, as is shown by an incident reported by Mr. H. L. Seamans, of Lethbridge, Alberta. Mr. Seamans noted a large buzzard suddenly fly straight upwards from a fence post, and then alight upon another one some distance away. A little while afterward this bird once more arose in the same manner as before, and presently repeated the performance again. An investigation then followed and revealed that a Long-tailed Weasel was following the hawk from post to post. "We should hardly expect a weasel to attempt to capture a bird of the above type. On the other hand, it is possible that these animals might be able to startle a hawk sufficiently to cause it to drop its prey, which would thus provide food for the weasel." The following frequency index is compiled from the foregoing data on prey of _Mustela frenata_. Moles (family _Talpidae_), 5 Shrews (family _Soricidae_), 26 Pigmy weasel (_Mustela rixosa_), 1 Ground squirrels (genus _Citellus_), 23 Chipmunks (genus _Tamias_), 38 Tree squirrel (possibly all _Tamiasciurus_), 8 Flying squirrel (genus _Glaucomys_), 1 Pocket gophers (family _Geomyidae_), 34 Mice (order _Rodentia_), 96 Harvest mice (genus _Reithrodontomys_), 36 Grasshopper mouse (genus _Onychomys_), 1 Deer mice (genus _Peromyscus_), 235 Cotton rat (genus _Sigmodon_), 2 Wood rats (genus _Neotoma_), 14 Meadow mice (genus _Microtus_), 248 Muskrat (genus _Ondatra_), 1 Old World rats (genus _Rattus_), 19 House mouse (genus _Mus_), 1 Jumping mouse (genus _Zapus_), 5 Varying hare (_Lepus americanus_), 5 Rabbits (genus _Sylvilagus_), 48 small birds, 32 chickens, 17 lizard, 1 snakes, 4 insects, 3 More significant than the above compilation, of course, are the results of careful studies of the food of the long-tailed weasel in restricted areas. Examples of such studies are those of Polderboer, Kuhn and Hendrickson (1941) and Hamilton (1933:333). According to Hamilton's (1933:332) observations on captive weasels, "There seems to be little relative difference in the amount they eat, regardless of their activities. "In general, more food is taken in summer than in winter. Usually about a third their weight every 24 hours is eaten, but a growing young weasel will consume much more. A young male _noveboracensis_, weighing 145 grams, consumed an entire chipmunk, fur and bones, weighing 85 grams, in 24 hours. A day later it ate all of a partly grown rat, 105 grams, in the same length of time." Moore (1945:253) records that a captive male that he obtained at Gainesville, Florida, consumed, on the average, between 63 and 70 grams of flesh and blood per day. The weasel itself weighed approximately 320 grams. Sanderson (1949:413), concerning seven young weasels from Manitoba, that he raised in captivity, writes: "From the fifth to the seventh week of age, they consumed approximately 22 per cent of their body weight per day; from the eighth to the tenth week (just before reaching mature size) they consumed approximately 24 per cent; but after reaching maturity they consumed only 18 per cent. When given all the food they would take in one day, they ate as much as 40 per cent of their body weight." Criddle and Criddle (1925:143, 146) say that weasels drinking at a bird trough "held their mouths very close to the water and as far as we could see, lapped the liquid up with rapid movements of the tongue. As a rule, after drinking, they would merely spring to the ground and vanish amid a bunch of scolding birds, but occasionally we have seen an animal slowly drag itself through the water and follow this performance by some rapid gambols, or a quick run, a method of drying which most of us have practiced in our youth." According to Hamilton's (1933:332) observations on captives, "Weasels are great drinkers, and while they take but little at a time, about 25 c.c. is drunk by a large animal during a day. . . ." Reproduction Philip L. Wright's several papers (1942A, 1942B, 1947, 1948A, and 1948B) reporting on his detailed studies of _Mustela frenata_ (subspecies _oribasus_ and _longicauda_) in captivity have yielded a large share of the precise information that we have concerning breeding and reproduction in this species. He has found that a single litter, of up to 9 young is born in the spring, usually in April. At three months of age the females "are full grown." The young males remain sexually immature during the first summer but the young females, as well as the females which are more than a year old, come into heat in the midsummer and are bred by the adult males. After a long period of quiescence lasting for several months, the embryos resulting from these matings become active in early spring and develop to full term in less than 27 days after they become implanted. The adult males are sexually active from April into August, when the testes are at maximal size and are conspicuous in the scrotum. A gradual regression takes place starting in August and extending into September. By October the testes may be fully regressed and the molt to white may start in this month. The white winter weasel, of either sex, is sexually inactive. The testes of the sexually active male in early spring and late summer are seven to eight times the size of the fully regressed testes. Females which had borne and suckled young were first found to be in oestrus 65 to 104 days after birth of the young. Lactation lasts for approximately 5 weeks. In 18 litters the length of the gestation period varied from 220 to 337 days with an average of 279 days. The female in heat has the vulva much swollen and she will remain in this condition for several weeks if not bred. Wright (1948A) describes the actual mating as beginning with a scuffle after which the male grabs the female by the scruff of the neck with his teeth and holds her until she becomes subdued when he clasps her lower abdomen with his front feet and arches his back over her posterior regions. The two animals remain locked in this position usually for two hours and sometimes for longer than three hours. If the animals are left together, copulation may take place again on the same day or upon succeeding days. Hamilton (1933:316-321) writes of a freshly born _M. f. noveboracensis_ that it ". . . was pink and much wrinkled. The wetness . . . did not entirely obscure a few sparse, rather long, white hairs . . . over its back and head. It had the pronounced and extraordinarily long neck of the adult." At one day of age the average weight of six individuals in the litter was 3.1 grams, which is 3 per cent of the weight of the adult female and 1-1/2 per cent of the weight of an adult male. At two weeks of age "The silky white hair . . . obscures the general flesh color of the skin, evident a week earlier. The hair on the back of the head and neck, also over the shoulders, is slightly longer than that of the back . . ." but there is no crest or mane or pompadour at this or any other age such as characterizes the juvenal ermine. When 21 days old one young male "hurried from the nest chamber and commenced to eat some meat." At three and a half weeks "They are all eating small pieces of meat. . . . The canine teeth have made their appearance in both the upper and lower jaw, but just a hint of the incisors show. Some of the cheek teeth are through, as the meat appears to be thoroughly masticated by the little ones." On the 36th and 37th days the eyes opened. Sanderson (1949:415) found that a litter of seven young of _Mustela frenata longicauda_, from Manitoba, raised in captivity, "reached the peak of their growth" at approximately ten weeks of age. Several nests have been found. In Manitoba, Sanderson (1949:412) excavated a burrow at the mouth of which he had trapped the adult female and in which he found eight young approximately five weeks old. The "burrow was about three inches in diameter, with two chambers at a depth of twelve inches. One of these was empty, the other contained the young. The two surface-openings were but two feet apart and the entire burrow was no more than three feet long. . . . The meager nest material consisted entirely of finely chopped grass. There was no mouse hair present, no accumulation of fecal material, and no storehouse containing food." Charles O. Handley has written me that on January 25, 1929, on the Sinkola Plantation, Thomas County, Georgia, he investigated the living quarters of a family of five weasels, four of which had been shot five days before by a hunter. According to the hunter each of the four which had been killed was approximately two-thirds the size of one which escaped into a hole in the ground. Handley found that the weasels had been using as headquarters a burrow in the trunk of an old uprooted oak as well as a nearby gopher burrow. The burrow in the oak was approximately ten feet long and had been excavated in the rotten wood. In a distance of fifty feet along the gopher tunnel there were several used openings with pathways leading away from each. On February 6, Handley, with the help of a friend, trapped a large male weasel near this place. Criddle and Criddle (1925:143) describe a female which, one winter, slept in a bag of feathers in a basement of a house occupied by one of the authors; another weasel in winter made its headquarters in a threshing machine. The nest of the latter "was somewhat roughly constructed and consisted of a convenient bunch of straw and chaff under the cylinder." Harper (1927:303) in the Okefinokee Swamp of Georgia dislodged a weasel from the house of a wood rat and was told of a den found in the swamp "in the trunk of a hollow cypress tree" from which a mother weasel and three young "about the size of mice" were obtained. "The bed contained, I suppose, a bushel or more of rabbit hair, rat hair, and squirrel hair. It looked like it must have been used as a den for several years, although there was no stink that I could detect except the musk from the old Weasel." Another female and three young approximately half grown were found in a hollow pine log. Between January 6 and April 12, 1940, on 640 acres of land, in Washtenaw County, Michigan, four weasels were studied and each weasel used only one den in this period (Quick, 1944:78). Criddle (1930:279) remarks that _M. f. longicauda_ at Aweme, Manitoba, often makes its temporary headquarters in the burrows of pocket gophers (_Thomomys_). A female and three young weasels were found by Shaw (1921:167) using a nest of a mountain beaver in the burrow of that animal. Green (1936), in May, in Gratiot County, Michigan, saw a weasel enter a hole under a decayed log and investigated finding four young weasels in a nest mostly of _Microtus_ fur. In the early part (winter and spring) of 1939, at Ames, Iowa, Polderboer, Kuhn and Hendrickson (1941) studied four weasels living in four separate dens on 160 acres typical of Iowa farmland and excavated three of the dens. One den was in a weed patch in an old mole run. The nest chamber, approximately nine inches in diameter and six inches below the surface of the ground "was filled with grasses packed in a layer-like formation. In the center of this mass was a nest hollow lined with patches of mouse and shrew fur. Beneath this layer of fur and at the sides of the nest were skins, various bones, and skulls of partially eaten mice and shrews . . . scats [were in the nest]. . . . At intervals, layers of clean grass had been laid over the filth of the former bed, thus giving the nest a stratified appearance." A second den, of a large male, was in a field of sweet clover two feet high in the former burrow of a Franklin's ground squirrel. The nest cell, seven inches in diameter and nine inches below the surface of the ground, "was lined with grasses mixed with much rabbit and mouse fur. Some scats, and bones and fur of mice and shrews were matted together in layers at the bottom of the nest." When this den was abandoned the male weasel occupied, for a month, another burrow, 20 rods distant, of a Franklin ground squirrel, in the field of sweet clover. The nest cell measured 11 by nine inches and was 11 inches below the surface of the ground. "Two nest layers were present. The first, composed chiefly of coarse straw and grass, had apparently been occupied at some time by a spotted skunk. . . . On top of the skunk nest was the weasel nest composed of fine grasses, mouse fur, and skeletal remains of mice." Relation of the Sexes to each other and to the young Quick (1944:75) writes that on March 28, in Michigan, he found the tracks of a male and those of a smaller animal, supposedly a female, meeting. The two "then led along the fence for about 18 chains and both entered the den of the male. . . . Only the tracks of the smaller weasel left the den on the same date. Observation on April 12 showed that the large male still occupied the den." I am at a loss to explain this behavior since breeding would not be expected to occur in late March and since I suppose that the male and female do not live together except in the breeding season. Consequently, I wonder if the sign was wrongly read. [Illustration: FIG. 29. Map showing the geographic ranges of the subspecies of _Mustela frenata_ and _Mustela africana_. 1. _M. f. noveboracensis_ 2. _M. f. occisor_ 3. _M. f. primulina_ 4. _M. f. arthuri_ 5. _M. f. olivacea_ 6. _M. f. peninsulae_ 7. _M. f. spadix_ 8. _M. f. longicauda_ 9. _M. f. oribasus_ 10. _M. f. alleni_ 11. _M. f. arizonensis_ 12. _M. f. nevadensis_ 13. _M. f. effera_ 14. _M. f. washingtoni_ 15. _M. f. saturata_ 16. _M. f. altifrontalis_ 17. _M. f. oregonensis_ 18. _M. f. munda_ 19. _M. f. xanthogenys_ 20. _M. f. nigriauris_ 21. _M. f. latirostra_ 22. _M. f. pulchra_ 23. _M. f. inyoensis_ 24. _M. f. neomexicana_ 25. _M. f. texensis_ 26. _M. f. frenata_ 27. _M. f. leucoparia_ 28. _M. f. perotae_ 29. _M. f. macrophonius_ 30. _M. f. goldmani_ 31. _M. f. tropicalis_ 32. _M. f. perda_ 33. _M. f. nicaraguae_ 34. _M. f. costaricensis_ 35. _M. f. panamensis_ 36. _M. f. meridana_ 37. _M. f. affinis_ 38. _M. f. aureoventris_ 39. _M. f. helleri_ 40. _M. f. macrura_ 41. _M. f. agilis_ 42. _M. f. boliviensis_ 43. _M. a. africana_ 44. _M. a. stolzmanni_ Hamilton (1933:328), however, writes that _M. f. noveboracensis_ is to "be found in pairs when caring for the young. During mid-May, 1927, I several times saw a male of this species carrying food to a den of young ones." Green (1936), in May in Gratiot County, Michigan, remarks that while he was uncovering and examining a nest of four young weasels, two adults ran about excitedly and one removed a young weasel. In instances where several nearly full-grown young have been obtained from one den it has been my experience (Hall, 1946:191) that the only adult trapped there was the female; no adult male was found or in the one instance when found he was living alone in a den 200 yards away from the den of the female and her young. Data are too few to warrant a definite conclusion about the extent to which the male aids in rearing the young, but I have wondered if he might not do so when the young were less than half grown and then live alone when they were more than half grown. =Mustela frenata noveboracensis= (Emmons) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 16, 17, 18, 31, 32 and 33 _Putorius Noveboracensis_ Emmons, Quadrupeds of Massachusetts, p. 45, 1840. _Mustela fusca_ DeKay, Zool. of New York, Pt. 1, Mammalia, p. 34, 1842. _Putorius fuscus_ Audubon and Bachman, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 (Pt. 2):288, 1842; Audubon and Bachman, Vivip. quadrupeds of N. Amer., 3:234, pl. 148, 1853 (pl. 1848). _Putorius noveboracensis_, DeKay, Zool. of New York, Pt. 1, Mammalia, p. 34, 1842; Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 166, 1858; Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:16, pl. 4, figs. 1, 1a, 2, 2a, pl. 5, figs. 3, 3a, text figs. 4-6, 30, June 30, 1896; Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:13, pl. 1, figs. 2, 2a, pl. 2, figs. 2, 2a, and pl. 3, figs. 3, 3a, February 25, 1896; Cory, Mamm. Illinois and Wisconsin, p. 366, plates, 1912. _Putorius erminea_, Audubon and Bachman, Vivip. quadrupeds of N. Amer., 2:56, pl. 59, 1851. _Putorius agilis_ Audubon and Bachman, Vivip. quadrupeds of N. Amer., 3:184, pl. 140, 1853. _Putorius richardsonii_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 164, 1858 (part). _Putorius_ (_Gale_) _erminea_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 109, 1877 (part). _Putorius noveboracensis notius_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zool. Club, 1:53, June 9, 1899. Type from Weaverville, Buncombe County, North Carolina. _Mustela noveboracensis noveboracensis_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:97, December 12, 1912; Soper, Journ. Mamm., 4:251, November 1, 1923. _Mustela cicognanii_, Henninger, Journ. Mamm., 2:239, November 29, 1921; Seton, Lives of game animals, 2:584, 1929 (part, Ohio); Hamilton, Amer. Midland Nat., 14:290, July, 1933 (part, Ohio); Lyon, Amer. Midland Nat., 17:109, January, 1936 (part, Ohio). _Mustela noveboracensis_, Jackson, Journ. Mamm., 3:15, February 8, 1922. _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:104, November 20, 1936; Hall, Amer. Midland Nat., 18:304, March, 1937. _Type._--Williamstown, Berkshire County, Massachusetts. Type specimen not known to be in existence. _Range._--Altitudinally, sea level to highest parts of mountains of eastern United States; Canadian Life-zone of Ontario and Quebec southward through eastern United States in Canadian, Transition and Upper Austral life-zones to and including upper edge of Lower Austral Life-zone in the Carolinas and northern parts of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi; westward from the Atlantic Coast to St. Croix and Mississippi rivers. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs: From _M. f. olivacea_, in males, by width of tympanic bulla which is less than rather than more than 8.5 mm., and in adult females by total length which is less than rather than more than 345 mm. and by mastoid breadth which is less than rather than more than distance between articular faces of exoccipital condyle and glenoid fossa; from _M. f. occisor_ by a number of average differences including smaller size, relatively shorter tail and relatively narrower skull (see measurements); from _M. f. spadix_ by least width of color of underparts amounting to less than 41 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, absence of color of underparts on ankles and feet, adults with hind foot less than 50 in males and 40 in females, orbitonasal length less than 15.5 in males and 13.5 in females, length of tooth-rows less than 18.0 in males and 15.7 in females, mastoid breadth less than 25.5 in males and 22.0 in females; from _M. f. primulina_ in males by interorbital breadth averaging more than 24 per cent of basilar length, orbitonasal length averaging more than 34 per cent of basilar length or 64 per cent of mastoid breadth, tympanic bullae less inflated anteromedially, than posteromedially, and in females by orbitonasal length amounting to more than two-thirds of mastoid breadth, by zygomatic breadth averaging less than 21, and by anterolateral margin of tympanic bullae not projecting below squamosal; from _M. f. arthuri_ in males, by zygomatic breadth more than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla and by convex dorsal outline of skull in longitudinal axis. _Description.--Size._--Male and Female: ======================================================================= | Number | | |Per cent| | LOCALITY | of | Total | Length | of | Length of | | specimens | length | of tail | body- | hind foot | | averaged | | | length | | ----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------------+ | 8 ad. [M] | 415 | 146 | 54% | 46.0 | Massa- | | (390-432) | (127-159) | | (41.0-48.0) | chusetts +------------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------------+ | 4 ad. [F] | 311 | 104 | 50% | 33.9 | | | (298-321) | (95-114) | | (31.5-37.0) | ----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------------+ | 10 ad. [M] | 411 | 141 | 52% | 47.1 | Liberty | | (379-438) | (124-155) | | (43.0-51.5) | Hill, +------------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------------+ Conn. | 6 ad. and | 318 | 105 | 49% | 33.0 | | sad. [F] | (303-338) | (80-123) | | (31.7-36.0) | ----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------------+ | 10 ad. [M] | 407 | 130 | 47% | 46.0 | Beaver | | (372-431) | (113-143) | | (42.0-50.0) | Dam, +------------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------------+ Wisc. | 4 ad. [F] | 326 | 99 | 43% | 35.6 | | | (303-338) | (86-108) | | (34.6-38.0) | ----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------------+ | 10 ad. [M] | 371 | 130 | 54% | 45.0 | Washtenaw | | (350-405) | (115-140) | | (40.0-50.0) | Co., +------------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------------+ Mich. | 10 ad. [F] | 306 | 97 | 46% | 34.0 | | | (290-335) | (90-120) | | (30.0-40.0) | ----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------------+ The length of the hind foot averages more than the basal length in males whereas the reverse is true in females. The tail, relative to the length of the body, is longer in males than in females. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes in Massachusetts, are: total length, 104; length of tail, 42; length of hind foot, 12.1. In Michigan, where the males are smaller, corresponding differences are only, 65, 33, and 11. Weight of 19 adult males from New York (Hamilton, 1933:294), 225 (196-267) grams and in 13 adult females, 102 (72-126) grams. Weights of 2 adults from Michigan are: [M] 258; [F] 101 grams. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black, brown, or white (often all three colors in same specimen) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles as shown in figure 19. _Color._--Upper parts, in summer, Vandyke Brown or darker than tone 4 of Burnt Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 304. Sometimes approaching tone 2 of Warm Sepia of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 305. Underparts, in summer, ranging from white through Napthalene Yellow (Peterboro, N. Y.), Pale Orange Yellow (eastern Mass.), near Primuline Yellow (unusual specimen from Leelanau Co., Mich.) to near (_c_) Deep Chrome (no. 19053, U. S. Nat. Mus., Roan Mts., N. C). In winter, all white except tip of tail, or upper parts near (12" 1) Rood's Brown and tone 2 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 301, with underparts white or sometimes tinged with yellowish. Tip of tail at all times black. Upper parts of uniform color except for occasional slight darkening of nose. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs to foot and sometimes over upper sides of toes and on medial sides of hind limbs only to knees. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in a series of twenty-two males, mostly in full winter pelage, from Liberty Hill, Connecticut, 21 (11-40) per cent of greatest width of color of underparts. In eleven females from the same place, corresponding percentages are 20 (14-29). Black tip of tail in same series of males, most of which are in full winter pelage, 70 (60-75) mm. long; thus longer than hind foot and averaging 50 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on ten adults from Massachusetts): See measurements and plates 16-18; weight, 3.6 (3.3-4.4) grams; basilar length, 44.6 (43.3-46.0); zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and Ml or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth less than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth more or less than length of upper premolars and greater than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth more or less (usually more) than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate less than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 to 6 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more or less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa behind or directly below posterior fourth of m1. Female (based on five adults from Mass.): See measurements and plates 31-33; weight, 1.7 (1.2-2.1) grams; basilar length, 36.5 (35.2-38.1); zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth more or less than length of upper premolars and more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate more or less (usually less) than greatest length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4 to 5-1/2 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer than rostrum. The skull of the female averages 53 per cent lighter than that of the average male. Comparisons of the skull with those of _M. f. olivacea_, _M. f. spadix_, _M. f. primulina_, and _M. f. arthuri_, are made in the accounts of those subspecies. As compared with that of _M. f. occisor_ the skull of adult male _noveboracensis_, is of smaller average size with relatively (to basilar length of Hensel) lesser mastoid and zygomatic breadths. In addition to the zygomatic arches of _noveboracensis_ being less widely bowed outward they seem to be more rounded posteriorly. Comparisons of subadult females indicate that these differences exist in the females as well as in the adult males. _Remarks._--The earliest of the post-Linnaean references to this weasel mostly were under the specific name _erminea_ in the belief that the American animal was the same as the larger of the two common species of weasel in the Old World. The name _noveboracensis_, now in use for this subspecies, was applied in 1840 and since that time the males usually have borne that name; the females, because they are smaller, were more frequently confused with some other species. Audubon and Bachman in 1853 even proposed the name _agilis_ for the female in the mistaken belief that it was a species distinct from the male. After 1896, when Bangs correctly classified the weasels of the eastern United States, the males have been correctly identified and the females, except by a few authors, likewise have been correctly named. Because many early American naturalists did their first collecting of mammals in the geographic range of _noveboracensis_, the person who examines labels of specimens of this subspecies can find data written in the hand of Spencer Fullerton Baird, Theodore Roosevelt, and other naturalists famous for their work as scientists or accomplishments otherwise. The material is more nearly adequate than is that of many other subspecies and the number of specimens is exceeded--and only slightly--by that of the subspecies _nevadensis_, which like _noveboracensis_ has a relatively large geographic range. Intergradation with _Mustela frenata spadix_ is indicated by subadult males from western Wisconsin, namely, one from Gordon, three from Colfax and one from Meridean. Linear measurements of the teeth of these specimens are exactly intermediate between those of _spadix_ from Elk River, Minnesota, to the west, and _noveboracensis_ from, say, Beaver Dam, Wisconsin, to the east. The specimens from western Wisconsin show approach to spadix also in that the length of the tooth-rows and breadth of the rostrum are slightly greater than in _noveboracensis_ from farther east, say, Beaver Dam, Wisconsin. Indeed, animals from as far east as Beaver Dam itself might be thought of as showing some approach to _spadix_. Although, along the eastern seaboard, the upper lips, with rare exceptions, are the same color as the underparts, farther west, in Michigan and Wisconsin, the lips more often than not are white. Animals from Beaver Dam have slightly shorter black tips on the tails, broader extent of the light color of the underparts and females average slightly larger than typical _noveboracensis_, say, those from Massachusetts. Each of these differences reflects characters found better developed in the _spadix-longicauda_ stock to the west. Toward the southern part of its range where _noveboracensis_ meets _M. f. olivacea_ there is a marked increase in yellowness of the underparts. This coloration of the underparts, since it is not so well marked in the northern part of the range of _noveboracensis_, might be regarded as showing intergradation with _olivacea_ and _primulina_, each of which has far more intensely colored underparts than does _noveboracensis_. Excepting this increase of yellow on the underparts, however, there are few if any characters of _noveboracensis_ which undergo marked change as approach to the range of _olivacea_ is made. Indeed, the characters of _noveboracensis_ remain constant to within a relatively short distance of the geographic range of _olivacea_. Notwithstanding the state of affairs described above, intergradation seems to take place. Three specimens referred to _noveboracensis_ but which at the same time are regarded as intergrades with _olivacea_ are as follows: No. 28.300, Charleston Museum, from five miles east of York, South Carolina, is an adult female with a badly crushed skull. In external measurements the specimen agrees with _noveboracensis_. The underparts, as regards color and width, are intermediate. The general proportions of the skull and tympanic bullae agree with those of _noveboracensis_ but the skull is larger than in any female of true _noveboracensis_ and approaches that of _olivacea_. The same can be said of a young female, no. 80, Ohio State Museum, from Roswell, Georgia. Another female, no. 171559, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Lookout Mountain, 1500 ft., Fort Payne, Alabama, is barely subadult. The external measurements are nearer those of _olivacea_. The color and narrowness of the underparts are typical of _noveboracensis_. The proportions and especially size of the skull show approach to _olivacea_, though they are nearer to _noveboracensis_ when all features are taken into account. In the northern part of its range individuals of _noveboracensis_ attain larger size than farther south. This tendency reaches its extreme, in males at least, in _M. f. occisor_ of Maine. Specimens of _noveboracensis_ from the Adirondacks of New York average larger (see cranial measurements on page 418) than those from farther south, and thus approach _occisor_ in size as well as in geographic position. Also, occasional individuals which strongly show characters of _occisor_ are found even farther south than the Adirondacks of New York. This is true of no. 96518, U. S. Nat. Mus., [M] ad., from Lunenburg; Massachusetts. The animal has a large skull of relatively great width much as in _occisor_, although its external measurements, relative length of tail and long, terminal, black brush place it with _noveboracensis_ rather than with _occisor_. Of a pair of specimens from Ossipee, New Hampshire, the male, no. 77108, U. S. Nat. Mus., has a long (175 mm.) tail, and short (60 mm.) black pencil as in _occisor_, although otherwise it is referable to _noveboracensis_. Still another specimen, a subadult male, no. 4193, Mus. Comp. Zoöl., from Upton, Maine, has a longer (51 mm.) hind foot than _noveboracensis_ although it otherwise agrees with that subspecies. As remarked by Bangs (1899:55), other than fully adult specimens from the range of _occisor_ are "troublesome," and would not be selected as distinct from _noveboracensis_ if placed in a series of that subspecies, say, from New York State. In view of the facts that several specimens from intermediate localities combine the characters of _noveboracensis_ and _occisor_, that _noveboracensis_ in the northern part of its range averages larger than it does farther south and thus approaches _occisor_ in size, and that occasional large specimens resembling _occisor_ in several, but not all, features sometimes crop up in the northern part of the range of _noveboracensis_, it appears that _noveboracensis_ and _occisor_ intergrade. Therefore they are treated as two subspecies of the single species, _Mustela frenata_. Intergradation with _M. f. primulina_ has been commented on in the discussion of that subspecies. Female, no. 159980, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Golconda, Illinois, has many characters of _primulina_ but two young males from there agree better with _noveboracensis_. Examination of 283 adult and subadult skulls for malformation of the frontal sinuses revealed only ten that were not obviously malformed. Two were from New York, one from Massachusetts, one from Pennsylvania, and six from the 52 specimens from Michigan and Wisconsin. In addition, skulls of many young and even juveniles were malformed. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 555, arranged alphabetically by states and provinces and, unless otherwise noted, from north to south by counties in each state. Except as otherwise noted specimens are in the United States National Museum. =Alabama.= _DeKalb County_: Fort Payne, 1. =Connecticut.= _Litchfield County_: Riverton, 1[5]; Gaylordsville, 1. _Hartford County_: East Hartford, 4 (3[5]); Glastonbury, 2[5]; South Glastonbury, 4[5]. _Windham County_: Plainfield, 2 (1[14]). _Fairfield County_: Greenwich, 2[2]. _New London County_: Liberty Hill, 35 (33[75], 2[7]). =District of Columbia.= Washington, 3; near Washington, 1; Eastern Branch, 1; Congress Heights, 1; Benning, 1; no definite locality, 1. =Georgia.= _Towns County_: Young Harris, 1. _Cherokee County_: Canton, 1. _Cobb County_: Roswell, 1[81]. =Indiana.= _St. Joseph County_: Notre Dame, 2[99]. _Porter County_: Hebron, 1. _Miami County_: Denver, 5 (4[75], 1[4]). _Wells County_: Bluffton, 1. _Howard County_: Russiaville, 1. _Jay County_: Salamonia, 1[2]. _Boone County_, 1[2]. _Knox County_: Bicknell, 3. =Illinois.= _Lake County_: Camp Logan, 3[60]; Fort Sheridan, 1[60]. _Cook County_: W Northfield, 2; Flossmoor, 1[60]; no locality more definite than county, 1. _Du Page County_: Bloomingdale Spg., 1[60]. _Carroll County_: Savanna, 1[87]. _McLean County_: Normal, 1[7]. _Champaign County_: Harwood Township, 1[7]. _Pike County_?: Milton Spring, 1[60]. _Pope County_: Golconda, 3. =Kentucky.= _Woodford County_: Midway, 1. _Hancock County_: Hawesville, 1. =Maine.= _Oxford County_: Upton, 1[75]; Bethel, 1[74]. =Maryland.= _Howard County_: Long Corner, 1; Hanover, 1. _Montgomery County_: Gaithersburg, 1; Garret Park, 1; Chevy Chase, 1; Bethesda, 1. _Prince Georges County_: Laurel, 18; Plummer Island, 3; Oxon Hill, 1. _Talbot County_: Easton, 1. _Dorchester County_: Cambridge, 5[40]. =Massachusetts.= _Middlesex County_: Wilmington, 6; Burlington, 6; Lexington, 1[75]; Wayland, 2[75]. _Berkshire County_: New Marlboro, 1[5]. _Worcester County_: Lunenburg, 2; Lancaster, 1[75]; Princeton, 2[75]. _Norfolk County_: So. Weymouth, 1[75]. _Plymouth County_: Wareham, 5[75]. =Michigan.= _Marquette County_: Michigamme, 1. _Charlevoix County_: Thumb Lake, 1[76]; 1/2 mi. N Thumb Lake, 1[76]. _Leelanau County_: Leland, 3[76]; Duck Lake, 2 mi. S Leland, 1[76]; Lost Pond, 8-1/2 mi. S Leland, 1[76]. _Osceola County_: Le Roy, 2[76]. _Huron County_: Rush Lake, 1[76]. _Saginaw County_: East Saginaw, 1. _Oakland County_: Royal Oak, 4[76]; South Lyon, 1[76]. _Livingston County_: Portage Lake, 1[76]. _Washtenaw County_: Portage Lake, 6[76]; Waterloo, 2[14]; Lima, 1[76]; Ann Arbor, 11[76]; 3 mi. E Ann Arbor, 1[76]; 2 mi. SE Ann Arbor, 1[76]; 2 mi. S Ann Arbor, 1[76]; 3 mi. S Ann Arbor, 1[76]; Dixboro, 1[76]; Pittsfield, 3 (2[76]); Saline, 1[76]; near Saline, 2[76]; 1 mi. S Saline, 2[76]; York, 2[76]; Manchester, 2[76]. _Lenawee County_: Morenci, 1[76]. _Cass County_: Marcellus Township, 1[76]. _Berrien County_: Harbert, 1[76]; Warren Wood Preserve, 1[76]; Warren Woods, 1[76]. =New Hampshire.= _Grafton County_: Franconia, 1[2]. _Carroll County_: South Chatham, 4 (3[5]); Ossipee, 2; Intervale, 1[5]. _Merrimack County_: Webster, 2[75]. =New Jersey.= _Morris County_: Morristown, 1. _Essex County_: West Orange, 1[2]. _Mercer County_: Princeton, 1[1]. _Ocean County_: Point Pleasant, 1[2]. _Camden County_: Haddonfield, 1[1]. _Cumberland County_: Millville, 2[74]. =New York.= _St. Lawrence County_: Ogdensburg, 1[74]. _Clinton County_: Rouses Point, 1[80]. _County_?: Adirondacks, 12. _Essex County_: Elizabethtown, 1; Schroon Lake, 1; no locality more definite than county, 1. _Lewis? County_: Locust Grove, 4; Lyons Falls, 1. _Warren County_: Lake George, 6; Caldwell, 1. _Hamilton County_: Beaver Brook, 1/2 mi. above mouth Indian Lake, 1[80]. _Oswego County_: Scriba, 2[74]; Palermo, 1[74]. _Monroe County_: Penfield, 3. _Madison County_: Peterboro, 6 (2[75]). _Schoharie County_: Schoharie, 1[2]. _Rensselaer County_: East Shodack, 1[80]. _Tompkins County_: Taughannock Falls, 2[58]; Ithaca, 4 (3[58]); Glenside, Ithaca, 1[58]; 6 mi. Creek, Ithaca, 1[58]. _Green County_: Lanesville, 1[2]. _Orange County_: Poplopen's Pond, 1[2]; Highland Falls, 1[2]. _Putnam County_, 1[19]. _Westchester County_: Sing Sing, 4; Armonk, 1[2]; Hastings, 3 (2[2], 1[19]). _Nassau County_: Flushing Meadows, 1[2]; Flushing, 1[58]; near Flushing, 1[2]; Oyster Bay, 2. _Long Island_: Cold Spring Harbor, 1; Bridgehampton, 1[2]. _County_ in question: Severance, 3; Lake Grove (Long Island?), 1. =North Carolina= (east to west by counties). _Wake County_: Raleigh, 4 (1[2], 1[75], 2[76]). _Mitchell County_: Magnetic City, foot of Roan Mountain, 6; Roan Mt., 1; Roan Mt., 6000 ft., 3. _Buncombe County_?: Valley of Black Mts., 1[2]. _Madison County_, 2[11]. =Ohio.= _Trumbull County_: Warren, 1[93]. _Seneca County_: Tiffin, 1[81]. _Summit County_: Ira, 2[81]. _Crawford County_: Galion, 1[81]. _Ashland County_: Loudonville, 1[76]. _Auglaize County_: New Bremen, 3[81]. _Franklin County_: 3 mi. N Columbus, 1[81]; Minerva Park, Columbus, 5[81]. _Fairfield County_: Sec. 32, Pleasant Twp., 1[81]; Lancaster, 1[81]. _Clinton County_: Reesville, 1; 1/2 mi. S and 1/2 mi. W Wilmington, 2[74]. _Pike County_: Waverly, 1[81]. =Ontario.= _Sudbury District_: Metagama, 2[86]. _Carleton County_: Ottawa, 2[77]. _Muskoka County_: Lake of Bays, 1; Bracebridge, 1. _Haliburton County_: Gooderham, 1[60]. _Simcoe County_: Orillia, 4 (2[2], 2[60].) _Prince Edward County_: Bloomfield, 1[77]. _York County_: Toronto, 1[2]. _Waterloo County_: Branchton, 3[60]; Preston, 2[77]; no locality save county, 1[60]. _Welland County_: Ridgway, 1[14]. _Elgin County_: St. Thomas, 1[77]. _Essex County_: Kingsville, 1[77]; Point Pelee, 1[77]. =Pennsylvania= (east to west by counties). _Crawford County_: Pymatuning Swamp, 3-1/2 mi. W Linesville, 1[9]; Meadville, 2[9]. _Beaver County_: Beaver, 1[9]; Raccoon Creek, 1[9]. _Butler County_: Mars, 1[9]; Leasuresville, 4[9]. _Allegheny County_: Allegheny, 1. _Warren County_: Bear Lake, 2[9]. _Westmoreland County_: Kingston, 1[9]; Laughlinstown, 2[9]. _Somerset County_: Confluence, 1[9]; Tub Mill Run, 2 mi. N Springs, 1[9]. _Jefferson County_: Siegel, 1[9]. _Clearfield? County_: Penfield, 1[9]. _Cambria County_: Cresson, 1[9]. _Fulton County_: Well's Tannery, 1[9]. _Clinton County_: near Round Island, 2[1]. _Cumberland County_: Carlisle, 1. _Snyder County_: 5 mi. S Selinsgrove, 1. _Northumberland County_: Pottsgrove, 1. _Union County_: Mifflinburg, 1. _Sullivan County_: Lopez, 7 (4[1], 3[74]). _Chester County_: Westtown, 1[1]; Valley Forge, 1[1]; W Bradford Township, 1[1]; no locality more definite than county, 3. _Philadelphia County_: Holmsburg, 2[1]. _Bucks County_: 1[1]. _Pike County_: Milford, 1. =Rhode Island.= _Providence County_: Chepachet, 1. _Washington County_: Lake Warden, 2. =Quebec.= _Megantic County_: Black Lake 1[77]. _County_ in question: Meach Lake, 1[77]. =South Carolina.= _York County_: 5 mi. E York, 1[11]. _Laurens County_: Laurens, 1[39]. =Tennessee.= _Campbell County_: Highcliff, 1. _Carter? County_: Roan Mts., 1[2]. _Hamilton County_: Walden Ridge, near Soddy, 3. =Vermont.= _Windsor County_: Hartland, 1[2]. =Virginia.= _Shenandoah County_: Toms Brook, 1. _Arlington County_: Arlington, 1; Ballston, 1; Alexandria, 1. _Fairfax County_: Falls Church, 3; Mt. Vernon, 2; no locality more definite than county, 1. _Prince William County_: Occoquan, 1. _Essex County_: Montague, 1. _Prince George County_, 1. _Norfolk County_: Wallaceton, 1. _Grayson County_: Mt Rogers, 3. _County_ in question: Dismal Swamp, 1; Massanutten Mt., 1. =West Virginia.= _Hardy County_, 1. _Pendleton County_: radius of 2 mi. Smoke Hole, 1[74]. _Greenbriar County_: White Sulphur, 2[60]. =Wisconsin.= _Douglas County_: Gordon, 1[104]. _Vilas County_: Mamie Lake, 4. _Dunn County_: Colfax, 4[104]; Meridean, 1[104]. _Door County_: state game farm, 17[104]; no locality more definite than county, 1[104]. _Dodge County_: Rolling Prairie, 1[50]; Beaver Dam, 52[50]. _Dane County_: Wingra Lake, 1[104]. _Waukesha County_: Pewaukee, 2[104]. _Racine County_: Waterford Township, 2[104]. _Rock County_: Milton, 1[104]; Bowers Lake, 1[104]. _Walworth County_: Lane's Mill, 8 mi. N Elkhorn, 7 (1[104], 6[54]); Delavan, 7. =Mustela frenata occisor= (Bangs) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 16, 17, 18, 31, 32 and 33 _Putorius occisor_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zool. Club, 1:54, June 9, 1899. _Mustela occisor_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98, December 31, 1912. _Mustela frenata occisor_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:104, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 9102, coll. of E. A. and O. Bangs in Mus. Comp. Zoöl.; Bucksport, Hancock County, Maine; January 15, 1899; obtained by Alvah G. Door but measured and sexed by O. Bangs. The skin is well made and in good condition. It is in full, white winter-dress with black-tipped tail. The skull has the posterior half of the left zygomatic arch broken away; otherwise the skull is unbroken and complete. Left I3 and right P3 are missing. The teeth otherwise all are present and entire. _Range._--Maine; possibly north locally to south side of St. Lawrence River in Quebec and possibly occurring in western New Brunswick. Zonal range Canadian and probably Transition. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. noveboracensis_ by a number of average differences including larger size, relatively longer tail and relatively wider skull (see p. 225, and measurements on pp. 418, 419). _Description._--_Size._--Male: Five adults yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 443 (430-465); length of tail, 163 (154-175); length of hind foot, 50 (47-54). Tail averages 58 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot averages more than basal length. Female: Measurements of two subadult female topotypes are as follows: Total length, 346, 318; length of tail, 116, 110; length of hind foot, 39, 35.5. Tail amounts to 50 per cent and 54 per cent of body-length respectively. Length of hind foot more or less than (about equal to) basal length. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 111; length of tail, 50; length of hind foot, 12.5. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_. _Color._--As described in _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_ except that black tail-tip in series of 10 males in full winter pelage 60 (45-80) mm. long; thus averaging 39 per cent of length of tail vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 3 adults): See measurements and plates 16-18. As described in _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_ except that: Weight, 4.2 (4.1-4.3) grams; basilar length, 45.7 (44.9-46.9); zygomatic breadth more or less than (about equal to) distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; least width of palate rarely less than length of P4; anterior margin of masseteric fossa behind or directly below posterior half of m2. Female (based on 2 subadults): See measurements and plates 31-33. As described in _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_ except that: Weight, 2.0 (1.9-2.1) grams; basilar length, 37.3, 38.2. Comparison of the skull with that of _M. f. noveboracensis_ is made in the account of that subspecies. _Remarks._--Excepting a specimen in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, obtained in 1893, and two in the Boston Society of Natural History, obtained in 1925, I have seen no material of this subspecies in addition to that examined by Bangs at the time he prepared the original description in 1899. Anderson (1945:56, 57) records a specimen, Canadian National Museum Catalogue Number 18426, from Kamouraska County, Quebec, as of this subspecies and thinks that _occisor_ occurs north of Maine "locally to south side of lower St. Lawrence River in Quebec; probably also in western New Brunswick." So far as the available material of occisor permits one to judge, it is distinguished from _noveboracensis_ by a combination of characters no one of which invariably can be relied upon as diagnostic. Employing adult males, average differences indicate that _M. f. occisor_ is larger in each of the external and cranial measurements; tail relatively longer; black tip of tail relatively shorter; mastoid and zygomatic breadth relatively greater and zygomatic arches more nearly square posteriorly. Considering the large number of specimens of _noveboracensis_ which are available in comparison with the few of _occisor_ it is not surprising that some _noveboracensis_ should be found which exceed in size those of _occisor_. This is the case as regards the basilar length of a very old male, no. 96518, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Lunenburg, Massachusetts. Also, the skull is actually broader than any of those of _occisor_. However, this specimen is much older than any _occisor_ examined. In a female, no. 4260, Mus. Comp. Zoöl., from Liberty Hill, Connecticut, the skull is longer (but narrower) than in either of the two available females of _occisor_. The average differences pointed out above which characterize this extreme northern population of _noveboracensis_-like weasel in comparison with true _noveboracensis_ without much question are geographic variations. Whether or not these variations are of a degree sufficient to warrant nomenclatural recognition is debatable. With equally scanty material from other regions I have not named variations seemingly as great as those shown by _occisor_. The paucity of material of _occisor_ is a handicap in making a decision in this instance. Each of the adult and subadult specimens, except the one from Perry, shows malformation resulting from the infestation of the frontal sinuses with parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 18, listed by counties from west to east and unless otherwise indicated in the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. =Maine.= _Oxford County_: South Andover, 2 (Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.); Umbagog Lake, 1. _Franklin County_: Seven Pd. Township, 1. _Piscataquis County_: Grenville, [= Greenville?], 1. _Hancock County_: Bucksport, 10. _Washington County_: 3rd Mopang Lake, 1 (Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.); Perry, 1 (Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.). _County_ in question: Moosehead Lake, 1. =Mustela frenata primulina= Jackson Long-tailed Weasel Plates 16, 17, 18, 31, 32 and 33 _Mustela primulina_ Jackson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:123, May 21, 1913. _Putorius noveboracensis_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 166, 1858 (part). _Mustela longicauda longicauda_, Dice, Journ. Mamm., 4:108, May 9, 1923. _Mustela longicauda primulina_, Linsdale, Journ. Mamm., 9:141, May 9, 1928. _Mustela frenata primulina_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:104, November 20, 1936. _Mustela frenata_, Leopold and Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:143, July 19, 1945. _Type._--Male?, young, skull and skin; no. 168006, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; 5 miles northeast of Avilla, Jasper County, Missouri; May 11, 1905; obtained by Hartley H. T. Jackson; original no. 7869X. The skin lacks the distal part of the tail--the part which bears the black tip. Otherwise the skin is complete and well preserved. The teeth of the permanent dentition all are present and entire. The lower jaws are complete and unbroken. The skull is broken transversely through the interorbital region, transversely through the braincase and longitudinally through the basioccipital. Both zygomatic arches are gone. The type is judged to be a male rather than a female as stated by the original describer, Jackson (1913:123), whose measurements of hind foot, interorbital constriction, maxillary tooth-row, and mandibular tooth-row agree with those of males and are larger than those of any female seen of this subspecies. _Range._--Upper and Lower Austral life-zones west of the Mississippi River in Missouri and Arkansas, the southeastern half of Iowa, eastern half of Kansas and Oklahoma, northern Louisiana and northeastern Texas. Southern and southwestern limits of range undetermined. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. noveboracensis_ in males by interorbital breadth averaging less than 24 per cent of basilar length, orbitonasal length averaging less than 34 per cent of basilar length or 64 per cent of mastoid breadth, tympanic bullae as much inflated anteromedially as posteromedially, and in females by orbitonasal length amounting to less than two-thirds of mastoid breadth, by zygomatic breadth averaging more than 21 mm., and by anterolateral margin of tympanic bulla projecting below squamosal; from _M. f. spadix_ by least width of color of under parts amounting to less than 40 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, by absence of color of underparts on hind leg below knee, and by smaller size (hind foot less than 50 in males and 40 in females; orbitonasal length less than 15.5 in males and 13.5 in females; length of tooth-rows less than 18 in males and 15.7 in females; mastoid breadth less than 25.5 in males and 22 in females); from _M. f. longicauda_ by Brussels Brown rather than near (_h_) Clay Color of upper parts, least width of underparts less than 40 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, absence of color of underparts on hind leg below knee, zygomatic breadth less than 28.8 in males and 24.1 in females; from _M. f. neomexicana_ by Brussels Brown rather than Buckthorn Brown color of upper parts, in absence of white frontal spot and broad white bands on sides of head, in anterolaterally rounded, rather than "square," tympanic bullae and in zygomatic breadth of less than 30 in males and 24 in females; from _M. f. frenata_ and _M. f. texensis_ by absence of white facial markings and smaller size (basilar length of adult males less than 47, tail-length less than 155 in males, and hind foot less than 40 in females); from _M. f. arthuri_ by less evenly spreading zygomatic arches (see pls. 16, 17 and 18), greater inflation of the tympanic bullae anteromedially and more nearly straight (less convex) dorsal outline of skull. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Eighteen adults and subadults from Douglas County, Kansas, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 397 (371-440); length of tail, 133 (120-147); length of hind foot, 43 (40-47). Tail averages 50 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot averages less than basal length. Corresponding measurements, originally taken in inches and fractions thereof, of 9 adults and subadults from Boone County, Arkansas, are as follows: 413 (384-438); 138 (127-155); 41 (38-44). Female: Six adults and subadults from Douglas County, Kansas, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 339 (317-355); length of tail, 107 (95-115); length of hind foot, 35 (34-37). Tail averages 46 per cent of length of head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. Corresponding measurements, originally taken in inches and fractions thereof, of 5 adults and subadults from Boone County, Arkansas, are as follows: 355 (332-397); 113 (101-127); 33 (29-38). The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes, in Douglas County, Kansas, are: Total length, 58; length of tail, 26; length of hind foot, 8. An adult male from Boone Co., Iowa, weighed 293 grams. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black or dark brown (often both colors in same specimen) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae colored either like underparts or upper parts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles as shown in figure 20. _Color._--Upper parts, in summer, Brussels Brown to near (14 _n_) Brussels Brown, or tones 2 to 4 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 301. Chin and rarely upper lips white. Remainder of underparts Picric Yellow to Primuline Yellow. In winter, color essentially the same except for smoke-gray effect in upper parts and more whitish in underparts. Tip of tail at all times black. Upper parts of uniform color except for occasional darkening of nose and mid-dorsal region. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs onto antipalmar faces of toes, on medial sides of hind legs only to a point between knee and ankle. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in a series of 21 males from Lawrence, Kansas, 23 (9-35) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same series, most of which are in full winter pelage, 52 (40-70) mm. long; thus longer than hind foot and averaging 39 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on ten adults from Douglas County, Kansas): See measurements and plates 16-18; weight, 3.7 (3.3-4.2) grams; basilar length, 44.8 (43.8-46.0); zygomatic breadth more or less (less in 80 per cent) than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior end of tympanic bulla (less in 70 per cent); mastoid breadth more or less (less in 80 per cent) than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and, except in one specimen, more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth more or less (less in 70 per cent) than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate less than outside length of P4 (except in one specimen); anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 2-1/2 to 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more (except in one specimen) than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer (except in one specimen) than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa behind or just below posterior eighth of m1. Female (based on 5 adults and subadults from Douglas County, Kansas): See measurements and plates 31-33; weight, 2.2 (2.0-2.4) grams; basilar length, 38.9 (37.6-40.7); zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and except in one specimen, more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate less than greatest length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 to 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more or less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer than rostrum. The skull of the female averages 41 per cent lighter than that of the male. Compared with the skull of _M. f. noveboracensis_ from Massachusetts, that of the male of _primulina_, in dorsal view, is seen to be shorter anteriorly to the postorbital processes and to have a more marked postorbital constriction. In lateral view the dorsal outline of the skull of _primulina_ is less concave in the postorbital region. In ventral view the skull of _primulina_ is seen to be wider across the mastoid processes and zygomatic arches but the most pronounced difference is in the tympanic bullae. In _noveboracensis_ each bulla is scooped out on the anterior part of the medial face and appears to be narrower anteriorly than posteriorly whereas in _primulina_ the anterior part of the medial face is not scooped out but is moderately inflated and the bulla appears to be of uniform breadth anteriorly and posteriorly. By actual measurement the breadth of the bulla averages 59 per cent of its length in _primulina_ but only 50 per cent in _noveboracensis_. Other respects in which the skull of the male of _primulina_ differs from that of _noveboracensis_ are as follows: Linear measurements of teeth more; relative to the basilar length, the length of the tooth-rows averages more, whereas the interorbital breadth and orbitonasal length are less. When skulls of females are compared, each of the differences mentioned above is found to apply, except that the degree of difference is in some parts greater, for example, in the tympanic bullae. In _primulina_, the bulla is in general like that of the male _noveboracensis_, whereas in the female _noveboracensis_ it is less inflated, especially anteromedially, shorter, relatively narrower, and in ventral view projects little or none below the squamosal floor of the braincase. The breadth of the bulla averages 51 per cent of its length in _primulina_ but only 47 per cent in _noveboracensis_. The bullae project below the basioccipital on the average, for a distance of 2.9 millimeters in female _primulina_ and only 2.3 millimeters in female _noveboracensis_. In _primulina_ the temporal ridges are well developed and fuse to form a low sagittal crest, but in _noveboracensis_ the ridges are absent. Also, in _primulina_ the mastoid processes project farther laterally beyond the braincase. The skull of female _noveboracensis_ is much lighter than that of _primulina_. Average weights of the two are 1.7 and 2.2 grams. The skulls of females of _primulina_ and _noveboracensis_ differ more than do the skulls of males. Compared with the skull of _spadix_, that of the male, and the female, of _primulina_ averages smaller in every part measured. Expressed in percentages of the basilar length, the two depth measurements of the skulls are not significantly different, but, excluding the measurements of the bullae and teeth, the other cranial measurements are less. The main difference in relative proportions is in the tympanic bullae which average only a half millimeter shorter in males of _primulina_ and one and one-tenth millimeters shorter in females. The bullae are, therefore, relative to the basilar length, longer in _primulina_. The skull of _primulina_, then, differs from that of _spadix_ mainly in smaller size and relatively longer tympanic bullae, especially in males. Compared with the skull of _M. f. longicauda_, that of both sexes of _primulina_ averages smaller in every part measured, except in males where the length of the tympanic bulla, and breadth and length of M1 are the same or slightly larger in _primulina_. Relative to the basilar length, the length of the tympanic bullae, and in females only, the depth measurements are greater in _primulina_ but all the others, in both sexes, are less. These ratios reflect the relative narrowness of the skull of _primulina_. Upon direct comparison the narrowness is especially noticeable in the interorbital region, mastoid region, tympanic bullae, and across the zygomata. Compared with the skull of _M. f. neomexicana_ that of both sexes of _primulina_ averages smaller in every part measured. Excepting the measurements of the teeth, most of the other measurements are constantly larger. Relative to the basilar length, the length of tooth-rows and length of tympanic bulla are more, but excepting the depth measurements, the others are less. Still other differences are, in _primulina_, less well-developed sagittal crest, anterolateral corner of bulla rounded rather than "square," and in males a transversely convex rather than flat interorbital region. Compared with _M. f. frenata_ and _M. f. texensis_, the skulls of males of _primulina_ differ in being smaller in every part measured but relative to the basilar length, have longer tooth-rows, a lesser zygomatic breadth and are less constricted interorbitally. Compared with the skull of _M. f. olivacea_, those of both sexes of _primulina_ average smaller in every part measured, have shallower (dorsoventrally) tympanic bullae, a lower sagittal crest and slightly weaker postorbital processes on the frontals. Relative to the basilar length, the several cranial measurements are about the same. Comparison of the skull with that of _M. f. arthuri_ has been made in the account of that subspecies. _Remarks._--The first specimens of this race known to have been preserved in study collections are one in the United States National Museum, taken at Bridge, Carroll County, Missouri, many years ago by J. Burbage, and less than a dozen specimens preserved before 1900 from eastern Kansas in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. In 1913 Hartley H. T. Jackson bestowed a name on this animal on the basis of two specimens taken by him in southwestern Missouri. Later, through the efforts of Charles D. Bunker, and his associates at the University of Kansas, nearly 100 specimens were saved from eastern Kansas, principally from Douglas County. In the course of the present study, Lawrence V. Compton obtained a topotype for the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, and with the assistance of Mr. B. G. Roberts, a good series of specimens from Boone County, Arkansas, was preserved in the same museum. In the early years of the 20th Century, the late B. H. Bailey at Coe College, Iowa, collected specimens from that state. The specimens from these several sources suffice to give a relatively clear idea of the characters of this subspecies. _Mustela frenata primulina_ is closely related to _M. f. noveboracensis_, from which, on the average, it differs in the lighter color of the upper parts of the summer coat, in the more intense coloring of the underparts, and in certain cranial features pointed out above. In the southern part of its range, however, _noveboracensis_ has the underparts only a little less intensely colored with yellow than _primulina_. Also, the skull of the one topotype from 7-1/2 miles southeast of Carthage, a subadult male in brown, winter pelage, is almost exactly intermediate between that of _noveboracensis_ from Massachusetts and _primulina_ of Douglas County, Kansas, and Boone County, Arkansas. _M. f. primulina_ often has the underparts white in winter, as does this topotype which agrees with the average of _noveboracensis_ in small size of teeth and narrowness across the mastoid processes and zygomatic arches. However, it agrees with _primulina_ in shape and relative size of the rostrum. It is almost exactly intermediate in shape and width of the tympanic bullae. Three other males, but no females, all in winter pelage, are available from eastern Missouri. Of the two from Silex, Lincoln County, one is nearer _noveboracensis_ and the other nearer _primulina_ on the basis of cranial characters. The third specimen, from four miles south of Lesterville, so far as I can determine by examination of individual cranial characters and tabulation of results, is exactly intermediate. Final decision on the proper allocation of specimens from the parts of Missouri represented can best be made when skulls of females are available. From the fact that the skull of the female referred to _noveboracensis_ from Golconda, Illinois, shows almost as many characters of _primulina_ as of _noveboracensis_, it is judged that females from as far west as Silex and Lesterville, Missouri, will show even more characters of _primulina_ and so be referable to that form. If this supposition be correct, the present reference of the almost exactly intermediate males, from eastern Missouri, will stand; otherwise, it may not. Additional intergrades with _noveboracensis_ are available from eastern Iowa. Of five specimens from Hillsboro, Iowa, two males and a female have tympanic bullae like those of _primulina_ but the other two males have bullae like those of _noveboracensis_. The female is smaller than _primulina_ and in this small size and in general configuration of the skull, viewed dorsally, is more nearly like _noveboracensis_. As a whole, the population averages almost exactly intermediate. The same is true of 3 males and one female from Muscatine. The subadult male from Keosaqua, to my eye, resembles _noveboracensis_ in the greater length of the skull anteriorly to the postorbital processes, and in the relative narrowness across the mastoidal region, but otherwise is more like that of _primulina_. Two males and one female from Tipton, although in each instance variously intermediate, are as a whole nearer _primulina_, No. 2865, Coe College, male adult, from Cedar Rapids, has characters of the three races, _spadix_, _noveboracensis_ and _primulina_. In the skull, the width suggests _spadix_, the narrow mastoid region, _noveboracensis_, and the tympanic bullae are as in _spadix_ or _primulina_. One male, no. 12, Coe College, from Dubuque, is as narrow across the mastoid region as is _noveboracensis_ although the bullae are well inflated as in _primulina_. The skull, without corresponding skin, of a female, no. 140a, Iowa State College, from Green's Island, also resembles _noveboracensis_ in narrowness of the mastoidal region, and in small size of skull, but in larger teeth, broader tympanic bullae, and sagittal crest is referable to _primulina_. Of two females from Vinton, one adult is typical of _primulina_ but the other, a subadult, is practically indistinguishable from female _noveboracensis_, from Ann Arbor, Michigan. Three males from Vinton agree well with _primulina_ except that the interorbital region is wider than average and thereby suggests _spadix_ or _noveboracensis_. An adult female from New Hartford also is typical of _primulina_ except for the broader interorbital region. Three males from Fayette are typical of _primulina_. Other specimens from Iowa are intergrades with _spadix_, or if not with _spadix_, with the animal of northwestern Iowa which in some ways combines the characters of _longicauda_ and _spadix_. For example, no. 2665, Coe College, an adult male from Davenport, has the anterior part of the skull (all that is preserved) heavily ridged as in _spadix_ and in addition, the underparts are marked with the shade of reddish displayed by topotypes of _spadix_ and with some yellowish as seen in _longicauda_. The color pattern, however, is as in _primulina_. A young male, no. C-51, Iowa State College, from Kelley, Story County, has anteriorly truncate bullae as are more frequently found in the _longicauda-spadix_ stock of northwestern Iowa, than in _primulina_. In other respects, the animal, in so far as can be judged from the broken skull, agrees with _primulina_ as it certainly does in color, color pattern, and external measurements. An adult male, no. 499a, Iowa State College, from 2 miles east of Ledges St. Park, in Boone County, in short body, size of teeth, and size of skull, in so far as the broken parts can be measured, resembles _primulina_ more closely than it does any other subspecies. The long tail, long hind foot, wide extent of the light-colored underparts, and extension of the color of the underparts onto the hind feet are more as in _spadix_. Other intergrades with _spadix_ from Iowa are mentioned in the account of _spadix_. The specimen from Swartz, Louisiana, suggests intergradation with _arthuri_ in that the anteromedial part of the tympanic bulla is less inflated than in typical _primulina_. Intergrades with _longicauda_ are available from Riley and Pratt counties, Kansas. No. 7182, Univ. Kans., subadult male in winter pelage, from near Winkler, has a skull of larger size as in _longicauda_ with which race it seems to agree in large size of body, tail and hind foot, although the collector's measurements are lacking. Color pattern and relative proportions of the skull throughout are as in _primulina_. The young male, no. 3495, Univ. Kans., from Pratt, Kansas, agrees in external measurements and large size of skull with _longicauda_, but has the color and color pattern precisely as in _primulina_. The teeth are smaller as in _primulina_. Immaturity prevents judging of its relationships on the basis of relative proportions of the skull. The two specimens, skins only, available from Oklahoma, are provisionally referred to _primulina_. These are remarkable for the restriction of the color of the underparts and for the intensity of the yellow coloration of the underparts. The specimen from Norman has the color of the underparts entirely absent from the hind legs and not extending posteriorly to the penis. On the chest and lower throat, large spots of color of the upper parts are present and the yellow area of the underparts on the belly is narrower than in any other specimen of _primulina_ examined. The specimen from 8 miles northwest of Stillwater has the color of the underparts only a little less restricted although this color does extend over the inguinal region almost to the knees. The skin of the posterior part of the body of a weasel is available from 10 miles south of Sulphur Springs, Texas. It, likewise, is only provisionally referred to _primulina_. The coloration is about as in the specimens from Oklahoma but the distribution of the color of the underparts cannot be made out. The dark color of the upper parts occurs far westward in animals which otherwise display characters of _longicauda_. Among these intergrades, the larger size of _longicauda_ generally is combined with this dark color. This geographic behavior of the dark color of the upper parts is analogous to the condition described in _M. f. spadix_. Stated in another way, the dark color of the upper parts is the character, of the eastern animal, last to disappear as one goes westward across the Mississippi Valley toward the range of _longicauda_ which is a subspecies of markedly different size, shape of skull, and coloration. Only two of 29 specimens from Kansas show infestation of the frontal sinuses. All four of the specimens from Missouri have the frontal sinuses malformed as do 9 of the 14 from Arkansas examined in this respect. An adult female from Boone County, Iowa, bears the date May 9, 1938, and the annotation by T. G. Scott, "Fox-killed." _Specimens examined._--Total number, 131, arranged alphabetically by states and from north to south by counties in each state. Except as otherwise indicated, specimens are in the University of Kansas, Museum of Natural History. =Arkansas.= _Boone County_: 3 mi. E Bergman, 4[74]; 3 mi. SE Bergman, 1[74]; 3 mi. S Bergman, 1[74]; 3 mi. SW Bergman, 1[74]; 4 mi. SE Bergman, 2[74]; 5 mi. SE Bergman, 1[74]; 4-1/2 mi. SE Bergman, 3[74]; 5 mi. SE Bergman, 1[74]; 5 mi. S Bergman, 2[74]; 5 mi. SW Bergman, 2[74]. _Washington County_: Fayetteville, 1[96]. _Crawford County_: 10 mi. S Winslow, 1. _Sebastian County_: Fort Smith, 1[91]. =Iowa.= _Fayette County_: Fayette, 3[12]. _Dubuque County_: Dubuque, 1[12]; Green's Island, 1[65]. _Butler County_: New Hartford, 1[12]. _Hardin County_: Union, 1[65]. _Benton County_: Vinton, 5[12]. _Linn County_: Cedar Rapids, 1[12]. _Boone County_: Worth Township, Sec. 21, 1[65]; 2 mi. E Ledges St. Park, 1[65]. _Story County_: Kelley, 1[65]. _Cedar County_: Tipton, 3[12]. _Scott County_: Davenport, 2[12]. _Muscatine County_: Muscatine, 4[12]. _Henry County_: Hillsboro, 5[91]. _Van Buren County_: Keosaqua, 1[65]; no locality more definite than county, 1[50]. _Taylor County_, 1. =Kansas.= _Riley County_: near Winkler, 1. _Pottawatomie County_: Onaga, 1[83]. _Atchison County_: Doniphan Lake, 1; 5 mi. NE Muscotah, 1; no locality more definite than county, 1. _Douglas County_: Lawrence, 8; 6 mi. NW Lawrence, 1; 1-1/2 mi. W Lawrence, 1; 6 mi. S Lawrence, 1; 7 to 7-1/2 mi. SW Lawrence, 14; 10 mi. W Lawrence, 1; Clinton, 4; Baldwin, 1; no locality more than county, 29 (2[74]). _Woodson County_: 1-1/2 mi. S Neosho Falls, 1[59]. _Greenwood County_: 8 mi. SW Toronto, 2. _Pratt County_: Pratt, 1. =Louisiana.= _Quachita Parish_: Swartz, 1[71]. =Missouri.= _Carroll County_: Bridge Creek, 1[91]. _Lincoln County_: Silex, 1[74]; 1 mi. E Silex, 1[74]. _Reynolds County_: 4 mi. S Lesterville, 1[74]. _Jasper County_: 5 mi. NE Avilla, 1[91]; 7-1/2 mi. SE Carthage, 1[74]. =Oklahoma.= _Payne County_: 8 mi. NW Stillwater, 1[82]. _Cleveland County_: Norman, 1[100]. =Texas.= _Hopkins County_: 10 mi. S Sulphur Springs, 1[43]. =Mustela frenata arthuri= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 16, 17 and 18 _Mustela noveboracensis arthuri_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 40:193, December 2, 1927. _Mustela frenata arthuri_ Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:105, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, subadult, skull and skin; no. 37515, Mus. Vert. Zoöl.; Remy, St. James Parish, Louisiana; December 15, 1926; obtained by Stanley C. Arthur. The skin is stuffed and well preserved. The skull (plates 16-18) is unbroken. The teeth all are present and entire. The presence of a well-developed scrotal pouch shows the specimen to be a male. Contrary to what was stated in the original description the specimen was taken in 1926 and not in 1925. _Range._--Lower Austral Life-zone of southeastern Texas, Louisiana, and into Mississippi. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition (of males)._--Differs from _M. f. olivacea_ in smaller size (adult males with hind foot and basilar length less than 45), depth of skull at anterior margin of basioccipital, ignoring sagittal crest, amounting to more than 63 per cent of mastoid breadth, and greater convexity of dorsal outline of skull in longitudinal axis (see pls. 16-18); from _M. f. noveboracensis_, in males, by zygomatic breadth not less than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla and by convex dorsal outline of skull in longitudinal axis; from _M. f. primulina_ by evenly spreading zygomatic arches, lesser inflation of tympanic bullae anteromedially than posteromedially, and convex dorsal outline of skull in longitudinal axis; from _M. f. texensis_ and _M. f. frenata_ by absence of white facial markings and postorbital breadth more than distance between posterior borders of P4 and P2. _Description._--_Size._--Male: The type, a subadult male, measures (inches and quarter fractions thereof, transposed into millimeters) as follows: Total length, 390; length of tail, 113; length of hind foot, 44. Tail is 41 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. Typical female unknown. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black, or dark brown (both colors in the type) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to within 3.5 millimeters of apical pad of fifth digit. Hairiness of foot-soles in type slightly less than shown in figure 20. _Color._--Upper parts in summer tone 4 of Burnt Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 304; underparts as described in _M. f. olivacea_. In winter, upper parts (based on type) near (1) Brussels Brown or grayer than tone 4 of Burnt Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 304, darker on top of head from nose to a line connecting posterior margins of ears. Chin and posterior third of each upper lip white. Remainder of underparts white with wash of Warm Buff. Tip of tail black. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes but represented on antipalmar faces of feet by only a few scattered hairs. Color of underparts extends distally on medial sides of hind limbs only to knees. Least width of color of underparts amounting to 15 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail 50 mm. long; thus longer than hind foot and 44 per cent as long as tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on type and 2 subadults): See measurements and plates 16-18. As described in _M. f. noveboracensis_ except that: Weight, 4.0 (3.7-4.3) grams; basilar length, 43.5 (43.3-43.6); zygomatic breadth not less than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth more than length of upper premolars; interorbital breadth more than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; least width of palate more or less than length of P4; tympanic bulla longer than rostrum. Female: Typical skull unknown. The skull from 12 miles east of Eagle Lake, Texas, lacks the convexity in the dorsal longitudinal axis and the skull agrees with those of larger individuals of _primulina_ except that the anteromedial faces of the tympanic bullae are less inflated, and the mastoid and zygomatic breadths are greater than in any female seen of _primulina_. Probably this greater breadth is the result of intergradation with _M. f. frenata_ to the westward. Compared with the skull of _M. f. olivacea_ that of _arthuri_ differs as follows: Averaging smaller in every part measured; basilar length 5 mm. less; by weight a fourth lighter; relative to basilar length, interorbital breadth greater and zygomatic and especially mastoid breadth less; dorsal outline of skull more convex in longitudinal axis; tympanic bullae narrower and less inflated especially on anteromedial faces. Compared with the skull of _noveboracensis_ that of _arthuri_ has the zygomatic breadth equal to or exceeding the distance from the anterior palatine foramen to the anterior margin of the tympanic bulla, whereas the zygomatic breadth is less than this distance in _noveboracensis_. Also, in _arthuri_, the rostrum is relatively shorter, the braincase is more inflated anteriorly, the zygomatic arches are more uniformly spreading, and the dorsal outline of the skull is distinctly convex, both transversely and longitudinally, whereas it is transversely more nearly flat in _noveboracensis_ and longitudinally is concave in the interorbital region. Compared with _M. f. primulina_, _arthuri_ has narrower bullae, which are much less inflated on their anteromedial faces, a less marked postorbital constriction, a braincase which is narrower across the mastoid region and broader anteriorly, and a skull, which, in longitudinal axis, has the dorsal outline markedly more convex. Compared with the skull of _M. f. texensis_ that of _arthuri_ is smaller in every part measured; length one-fifth less; one-half as heavy; postorbital constriction less marked; braincase relatively narrower posteriorly and tympanic bullae less inflated especially anteromedially. Compared with the skull of _M. f. frenata_ that of _arthuri_ is smaller in every part measured; basilar length 6 mm. less; a third lighter; postorbital constriction less marked; relative to the basilar length the rostrum is broader, longer and deeper; the zygomatic expanse and breadth of the braincase across the mastoids is less; the dorsal profile of the skull is more convex in longitudinal axis; zygomata evenly spreading rather than abruptly protruding from skull posteriorly; tympanic bullae less inflated anteromedially. _Remarks._--In 1926, Stanley C. Arthur, then Director of the Division of Wild Life, for the Louisiana State Department of Conservation, obtained specimens of this weasel. Some of them were mounted and the remainder were placed in the collections of the United States National Museum and the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. In 1938 to 1940 George H. Lowery saved specimens from Baton Rouge, which showed the color of the summer pelage and revealed that the size of males was more than was indicated by the original materials. In 1940 and 1941 Rollin H. Baker obtained specimens from eastern Texas which greatly extended the known geographic range. In addition to the localities represented by specimens examined, Arthur (1928:117) has recorded specimens from Greensburg, St. Helena Parish; Braithwaite, Plaquemines Parish; Geismar, Assumption Parish; Laurel Hill, West Feliciana Parish; French Settlement, Livingston Parish; and Kentwood, Tangipahoa Parish. All these localities lie within the eastern half of southern Louisiana. A skin-only, no. 38902, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., obtained from a fur buyer by Stanley C. Arthur, was taken in Mississippi "south of Jackson." Possibly it is of the subspecies _arthuri_. Intergradation with _M. f. olivacea_ is indicated by a specimen from Mobile County, Alabama, commented on in the account of _olivacea_. Intergradation with _primulina_ is indicated by the shape of the anteromedial part of the bullae of the specimen from Swartz, Louisiana, that is referred to _primulina_. The lack of specimens from the northern two-thirds of Mississippi and from western Tennessee, prevents any definite statement as to the limits of range of _arthuri_ in those areas. In comparison with animals from the type locality, the slightly larger size of the adult male from Baton Rouge, and the still larger size of the adult male of _primulina_ from Swartz, Louisiana, suggests that the _olivacea_ "influence" may extend farther west in the latitude of northern Louisiana than anywhere else. None of the skulls examined shows malformation of the frontal sinuses such as results from infestation by parasites in some races. Arthur (1928:115) speaks of the ". . . cut-over swamp land, where the tupelo and cypress have been removed, . . ." as constituting suitable habitat for this animal. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 13, as follows: =Texas.= _Colorado County_: 12 mi. N Eagle Lake, 1[43]; 5 mi. W Eagle Lake, 1[43]; 3 mi. S Garwood, 1[43]. =Louisiana.= _East Baton Rouge Parish_: Baton Rouge, 4[71]. _Livingston Parish_: Springville, 1[74]. _Saint James Parish_: Convent, 1[91]; Remy, 2 (1[74], 1[45]). _Assumption Parish_: near Lake Verret, 1[45]. =Mississippi.= _Harrison County_: Saucier, 1[71]. =Mustela frenata olivacea= Howell Long-tailed Weasel Plates 16, 17, 18, 31, 32 and 33 _Mustela peninsulae olivacea_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:139, May 21, 1913. _Mustela frenata olivacea_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:104, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 180802, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surveys Coll.; Autaugaville, Autauga County, Alabama; December 22, 1912; obtained by L. S. Golsan. The skull (plates 16-18), although cracked at two places in the interorbital region, is in one piece and not warped out of shape. The teeth all are present and entire. The skin is exceptionally well made and in perfect condition except for the extreme tip of the tail which is broken off. _Range._--Lower and Upper Austral life-zones in eastern Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, and northern Florida. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. peninsulae_ in finer, softer pelage and shorter (less than 15.8 in ad. [F]) tympanic bullae; from _M. f. noveboracensis_, in adult males by wider tympanic bulla which is more than rather than less than 8.5, in adult females by total length which is more than rather than less than 345, and by mastoid breadth which is more than rather than less than distance between articular faces of exoccipital condyle and glenoid fossa; from _M. f. arthuri_ in larger size (adult males with hind foot and basilar length each more than 45); depth of skull at anterior margin of basioccipital, ignoring sagittal crest, amounting to less than 63 per cent of mastoid breadth, and lesser convexity of dorsal outline of skull in longitudinal axis (See pls. 16-18). _Description._--_Size._--Male and female: External measurements of adults are available as follows: Length Length Catalogue Sex Locality Total of of hind no. length tail foot 47165 [M] Box Springs, 454 160 48 Talbot Co., Georgia 47166 [M] Box Springs, 435 147 47 Talbot Co., Georgia 47167 [M] Box Springs, 422 145 45 Talbot Co., Georgia 41023 [M] Thomas Co., 443 140 47 Georgia 41025 [M] Grady Co., 395 142 47 Georgia 223880 [M] Okefinokee Swamp, 416 145 49 Georgia 198 [M] Okefinokee Swamp, 425 140 48 Georgia Average 7 [M] 427 146 47 49385 [F] Gainesville, 396 124 45* Alachua Co., Florida 41024 [F] Thomas Co., 380 125 41 Georgia 51527 [F] Talbot Co., 376 128 43 Georgia * [not typical] The length of the hind foot averages less than the basal length in both males and females. The tail averages 52 per cent as long as the head and body in males and 51 per cent in females. Average differences in measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 49; length of tail, 19; length of hind foot, 5. An adult male, no. 41023, and an adult female, no. 41024, each taken in February, 1929, on the Sinkola Plantation, Thomas County, Georgia, weighed 15 ounces (425 grams) and 7 ounces (198 grams) respectively according to Charles O. Handley. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_, except that hairiness of foot-soles slightly less than shown in figure 19. _Color._--Upper parts, in summer, near tone 4 of Burnt Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 304. In winter lighter, between tones 3 and 4 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 301. Dark spot at each angle of mouth present or absent. Underparts ranging from Massicot Yellow to Cream Buff except on chin and upper lips which are white. Tip of tail black. Upper parts of uniform color. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over antipalmar faces of toes and on medial sides of hind limbs to ankles. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in a series of five males from Talbot Co., Georgia, 29 (extremes 24-34) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same series, averaging 65 (extremes 60-70) mm. long, thus longer than hind foot and averaging 43 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. The spot at the angle of the mouth is absent in one-third of the specimens examined. The upper lips are white in specimens from the southern part of the range of _olivacea_ but in the northern part of the range of the subspecies the upper lips are dark colored as in _noveboracensis_. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 5 adults from Talbot Co., Georgia): See measurements and plates 16-18; weight, 5.3 (5.0-6.4) grams; basilar length, 48.3 (45.8-50.1); zygomatic breadth more or less (usually less) than distance between condylar foramen and M1 and more or less (usually more) than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth more or less than (averaging about equal to) postpalatal length; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and more or less than (about equal to) width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth more or less than (about equal to) distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate less than greatest length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 to 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla not less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer than rostrum (one exception); anterior margin of masseteric fossa below posterior half of m2. Female (based on 2 adults from Thomas Co., Ga., and one from Talbot Co., Ga.): See measurements and plates 31-33; weight, 3.8 (3.5-4.0) grams; basilar length, 43.4 (42.7-44.0); zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and more or less (usually more) than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate less than greatest length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 to 4 (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla not less (usually more) than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer than rostrum. The skull of the female averages 28 per cent lighter than that of the male. Compared with the skull of _M. f. peninsulae_, of which only one good skull, and that a female, is available, that of _M. f. olivacea_ averages smaller and has relatively and actually smaller and less inflated bullae. As compared with the skull of _M. f. noveboracensis_, that of _olivacea_ in the case of males is larger in every part measured and relative to the basilar length is broader across the zygomatic arches and mastoids. However, the rostrum and interorbital region are relatively narrower. The orbitonasal length is relatively less. The tympanic bullae are broader and more inflated. The same differences hold as between females of _noveboracensis_ and _olivacea_. Indeed, the females of these two races differ more than do the males. Additional, selected differential cranial characters in the females are, in _olivacea_, as follows: Weight averaging 3.8 grams rather than 1.7 grams; braincase with, rather than without, sagittal crest; anterior border of tympanic bulla separated from foramen ovale by breadth of less than, rather than breadth of more than, 4 upper incisors (including I3); height of tympanic bulla not less than, rather than less than, distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; squamosal bone, between anterior margin of tympanic bulla and foramen ovale, ventrally concave rather than ventrally convex. Comparisons of the skulls with those of _M. f. arthuri_ and _M. f. primulina_ are made in the accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--Excepting two young specimens from South Carolina in the Charleston Museum, no specimens of this race of large weasel seem to have been preserved until Arthur H. Howell, in the course of his study of the mammals of Alabama, procured specimens on which his name, _olivacea_, was based. Later, Francis Harper obtained three instructive specimens from Okefinokee Swamp. Really adequate material, for the localities represented, owes its preservation to the alertness of Charles O. Handley, when he resided at Thomasville, Georgia, and to Hallie E. Fuller of Geneva, Talbot Co., Georgia. The distinctness of _M. f. olivacea_ from _M. f. peninsulae_ is not satisfactorily established due to inadequate material of _peninsulae_. Differences shown by the specimens seen indicate that, as compared with _olivacea_, _peninsulae_ is larger, has transversely wider light-colored underparts which possess more yellow, and a larger skull with more inflated tympanic bullae. In each of these characters, _olivacea_ is intermediate between _noveboracensis_ on the north and _peninsulae_ on the south. The question arises, therefore, whether the animals here recognized under the name _olivacea_ really constitute a recognizable subspecies or instead are only representatives of a subspecies which reaches its extreme development in Florida. In the latter event, the name _peninsulae_ would apply to all. Examination of more material from Florida, especially from the southern half of Florida, will be necessary to answer this question. This large weasel of the southeastern United States is remarkably different from _noveboracensis_. Indeed, were it not for actual intergrades such as the two from Fort Payne, Alabama, and York, South Carolina, which are described in the account of _M. f. noveboracensis_, and the six specimens from northwestern Alabama, which are referred to _olivacea_, the systematist, I believe, would have little or no hesitancy in designating the two as distinct species, especially on the basis of differences to be seen in the skull. Not only are the two forms structurally more different than usually is the case but between two geographically, adjacent subspecies of the same species of mammal, but the belt where intergradation occurs appears to be narrow. Nevertheless, when material of the two races is laid out in geographic order, and examined in mass, certain features are seen to undergo gradual change as a person's eye travels from specimens from, say, the center of the range of _noveboracensis_ to specimens from southern localities adjoining the territory occupied by _olivacea_. One of these features subject to gradual change is the color of the underparts. Beginning at the Adirondacks of New York where a large number of the specimens have white underparts, the underparts become more intensely yellowish southward through the range of _noveboracensis_ into that of _olivacea_. Indeed, this progressive trend seems to continue right on southward through the range of _olivacea_ into that of _peninsulae_. Turning in the opposite direction we find that the least width of the underparts decreases gradually northward toward the range of _noveboracensis_. There is, likewise, a decrease to the northward in length of the skull and relative, as well as actual, narrowing of the braincase and tympanic bullae. However, in least width of color of underparts and the mentioned cranial features, the trend stops relatively abruptly at the southern boundary of the geographic range of _noveboracensis_ and does not continue on, northward, into the range of _noveboracensis_ as is the case with the change in intensity of yellowness of the underparts. Two males, in the United States National Museum, Biological Surveys Collection, from near Leighton, Alabama, no. 178386 from the Tennessee River nine miles north [of Leighton?] and no. 180240 from La Grange Mountain, although clearly referable to _olivacea_ on the basis of cranial characters, show some approach to _noveboracensis_ in lesser size of the skull and agree with _noveboracensis_ in the narrowness of the color of the underparts. Also, these specimens, like others from the northern part of the range of _olivacea_, for instance, no 31.227, Charleston Museum, from Mayesville, South Carolina, have the color of the underparts extended only part way out on the hind limb toward the foot. In specimens of _olivacea_ from the southern part of its range the color of the underparts is extended onto the hind feet and this trend reaches its extreme in _peninsulae_, specimens of which have the feet and larger parts of the limbs marked with the light color of the underparts. An adult female, no. 32.32, Charleston Museum, although typical of _olivacea_ in most respects, is nevertheless an intergrade. The teeth are as small as in some specimens of _noveboracensis_. The size of the skull is only slightly nearer that of _olivacea_ than it is to that of _noveboracensis_. The proportions of the skull, however, are distinctly those of _olivacea_. Five other specimens, from northwestern Alabama, namely two from eight miles north of Nauvoo, two from Shoal Creek, and one from White Creek, also show intergradation between _noveboracensis_ and _olivacea_. The remarks concerning color and color pattern of the specimens from Leighton apply equally well to the five from northwestern Alabama. In cranial characters, no. 51658 from Shoal Creek is referable to _olivacea_, as also is no. 51677 from the same place, providing it is a female rather than a male as sexed by the collector. No. 57146 from White Creek also is referable to _olivacea_ although the skull shows some approach to that of _noveboracensis_. Of the two males from near Nauvoo, no. 51652 is to me indistinguishable from _noveboracensis_, but no. 51653 does have some characters of _olivacea_, although on the whole, the latter, too, seems to be a little nearer _noveboracensis_ than _olivacea_. However, because the mean of these seven specimens from northwestern Alabama is nearer _olivacea_ than _noveboracensis_ the former name may be applied. Another specimen from "Souinlonie" Creek, Clark County, Mississippi, has the coloration and rostral configuration of _primulina_, narrow mastoidal breadth and smaller teeth of _noveboracensis_ and skull of large size with "full" braincase as in _olivacea_. No. 235364, U. S. Nat. Mus., from the Mobile River at the "L. and N. RR. Crossing," Mobile County, Alabama, although definitely _olivacea_, shows approach to _arthuri_ in that the dorsal outline of the skull is longitudinally more convex and the tympanic bullae are less inflated than in _olivacea_ and in that the color of the underparts is almost exactly as in the type specimen of _arthuri_. The young specimen labeled as from "Silver Springs," Florida, has large tympanic bullae (17 mm. long) and several characters that show its relationship to _peninsulae_ as that race is now understood. Because the sex is unknown the identification as _olivacea_ is tentative and is made on the assumption that the specimen is a male. If it is instead a female, the animal is referable to _peninsulae_. An adult, female specimen in the Charleston Museum, no. 27.239.1, taken at St. Matthews, South Carolina, on December 8, 1927, contained four embryos which averaged 19 mm. in length and 47.75 centigrams in weight. Another adult female, in the Charleston Museum, no. 32.32, taken on February 21, 1932, at the same place, has prominent mammae, and the collector has noted that two were slightly active. Sixteen of twenty-nine adults examined show infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites. However, in none is the malformation of the frontal region so great as frequently occurs in _M. f. noveboracensis_. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 52, arranged alphabetically by states and from north to south by counties in each state. Except as otherwise indicated specimens are in the University of California Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. =Alabama.= _Lawrence County_: White Creek, 1; Little Sand Mt., Shoal Creek, 2. _Winston County_: 7-1/2 mi. N Nauvoo, 1; 8 mi. N Nauvoo, 1. _Lauderdale County_: near Leighton, 9 mi. N Tennessee River, 1[91]. _Colbert County_: Leighton, 1[91]. _Autauga County_: Autaugaville, 1[91]. _Dale County_: Midland City, 1[91]. _Mobile County_: Mobile River, 12 mi. NE Mobile, 1[91]. =Florida.= _Alachua County_: Gainesville, 4[61]. _Marion County_: "Silver Springs," 1. =Georgia.= _Spalding County_, 1. _Lamar County_, 1. _Talbot County_: southwest part of county, 1; Box Springs, near Geneva, 3; Upatoie Creek, 1 mi. SW Box Springs, 2; 3 mi. SE Geneva, 1; 4 mi. W Geneva, 1; 5 mi. W Geneva, 1; 2 mi. E Geneva, 1. _Chattahoochee County_, 2. _Grady County_: Beachton, 3[91]; locality no more definite than county, 4. _Thomas County_: Sinkola Plantation, 2; locality no more definite than county, 2. _Charlton County_: 1/2 mi. E Chesser's Island, Okefinokee Swamp, 1[58]. _County_ in question: Billy's Island, Okefinokee Swamp, 1[91]; Okefinokee Swamp, 1[58]. =Mississippi.= _Clark County_: Souinlonie Creek, 1. =South Carolina.= _Darlington County_: Society Hill, 1[91]. _Sumter County_: Mayesville, 1[11]. _Calhoun County_: St. Matthews, 2[11]. _Georgetown County_: Sampit, 1[11]. Charleston County: Rantowles, 1[11]; 8 mi. N Charleston, 1[11]. _Beaufort County_: Yemassee, 1[2]. =Mustela frenata peninsulae= (Rhoads) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 16, 17 and 18 _Putorius peninsulae_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1894:152, June 19, 1894; Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:10, February 25, 1896. _Mustela peninsulae_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98, December 31, 1912. _Mustela p. peninsulae_, Bailey, Bailey Mus. and Library Nat. Hist., 1(no. 5):1, December 1, 1930. _Mustela frenata peninsulae_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:105, September 20, 1936. _Type._--Female, young, part skull and skin; no. 8515, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia; Hudson's, Pasco County [14 miles north of Tarpon Springs], Florida; before 1895; obtained by W. S. Dickinson. The skull has been cut vertically in two at the plane of the glenoid fossae. These fossae and all the cranium posterior to them are missing. In addition to the part of the cranium anterior to the glenoid fossae, the lower jaws are preserved complete. The teeth all are present and entire. The prominent sutures on the rostrum and palate show the specimen to be young and its small size leaves but little doubt that the animal was a female. The light facial markings are more extensive than in any of the referred specimens. In the type these light facial markings consist of a median isolated spot immediately in front of the ears, a larger one on the nose, with an interrupted bar on each side extending posteroventrally in front of and anterior to the eye, a wider bar, on each side, extending anterodorsally between the ear and eye and finally an isolated spot at the anterior border of each ear. The skin is stuffed and in fair condition except that the vertebrae remain in the tail. _Range._--Austral and probably Tropical life-zones of Florida south of latitude 29°. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. olivacea_ in coarser pelage and larger tympanic bullae. _Description._--_Size._--Male: No external measurements available. Female: The type a young animal and no. 2379, an adult from Tarpon Springs, measure respectively as follows: Total length, 375, 378; length of tail, 100, 130; length of hind foot, 40, 44.5. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_ except that hairiness of foot-soles as shown in figure 20. _Color._--Upper parts (in winter) near tone 3 of Burnt Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 304. Dark spot at each angle of mouth present or absent. Tip of tail black. Underparts Reed Yellow except on chin and usually on legs where white. Upper lips white entirely around. Upper parts of uniform color. Color of underparts extends distally on legs over both sides of feet and on front legs over wrists. Proximal part of tail slightly lighter below than above. Least width of color of underparts, in seven specimens, averaging 41 (extremes 31-52) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail, in each of two females, 45 mm. long; thus slightly longer than hind foot and amounting to 36 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. The spot at the angle of the mouth is absent in four of the ten specimens and is present on both sides in the other six. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on an adult from Apopka and the anterior part of an adult from Enterprise): See measurements and plates 16-18. As described in _Mustela frenata olivacea_ except that: Weight, 7.0 grams; basilar length, 49.8. Female (based on an adult from Tarpon Springs, Florida): See measurements. As described in _Mustela frenata olivacea_ except that: Weight, 4.7 grams; basilar length, 44.2; zygomatic breadth more than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla. In comparison with _M. f. olivacea_, the insufficient material of _M. f. peninsulae_ suggests that its skull averages larger and has relatively as well as actually larger and more inflated tympanic bullae. _Remarks._--The first published mention of this weasel seems to have been the original description which appeared in 1894. This description was based on a single specimen sent to Samuel N. Rhoads by W. S. Dickinson, who, in the following year, procured another specimen at Tarpon Springs. So far as known only eight other specimens, as listed under "_Specimens examined_," have found their way into collections of study specimens. H. H. Bailey (1930:1) credits the range of this subspecies as extending south "to the shores of Florida Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, where ever high ground occurs." Evidence of intergradation between _M. f. peninsulae_ and _M. f. olivacea_ is provided by specimens of _olivacea_ from Gainesville, Florida, and the Okefinokee Swamp, Georgia. These specimens, on the average, have the color of the underparts wider, the skull larger, and the tympanic bullae relatively larger than do specimens of _olivacea_ from farther north. In these features, approach to _M. f. peninsulae_ is shown. Light facial markings occur in this subspecies. They are similar to those possessed by weasels which occur at the same latitude and under corresponding climatic conditions on the Pacific Coast. The type specimen and one from Tarpon Springs have white facial markings. Two of the three specimens from Apopka also show white facial markings, although in reduced amount. One of the four specimens of _M. f. olivacea_ from Gainesville, Florida, has well-developed light (white) facial markings. Also of the four specimens of _M. f. olivacea_ examined from Okefinokee Swamp, Georgia, one has prominent white facial markings. However, in it the pattern is so unusual as to suggest that it is an instance of partial albinism rather than an outcropping of a racial tendency, or a pattern of coloration induced by climatic factors. None of the eight available skulls show any infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 10, arranged by counties from west to east. =Florida.= _Pasco County_: Hudson's, 1[1]. _Pinellas County_: Tarpon Springs, 1[1]. _Hernando County_, 1[91]. _Polk County_: Auburndale, 1[91]; no locality more definite than county, 1[91]. _Orange County_: Apopka, 3[61]. _Volusia County_: Enterprise, 1[60]. _Seminole County_: Osceola, 1[2]. =Mustela frenata spadix= (Bangs) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 16, 17, 18, 31, 32 and 33 _Putorius longicauda spadix_ Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:8, February 25, 1896; Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:21, figs. 10, 11, June 30, 1896; Cory, Mamm. Illinois and Wisconsin, p. 374, 1912. _Mustela longicauda spadix_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98, December 31, 1912; Bailey, Journ. Mamm., 10:156, May 9, 1929. _Mustela longicauda_, Johnson, Journ. Mamm., 11:439, November 11, 1930. _Mustela noveboracensis_, Murie, Journ. Mamm., 16:321, November 15, 1935. _Mustela frenata spadix_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:105, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, young, skull and skin; no. 3265/1786, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.; Fort Snelling, Hennepin County, Minnesota; June 25, 1889; obtained by Edgar A. Mearns; original no. 812. The skull is complete although there are fractures on the top of the braincase, on the right side of the braincase and at the middle of the right zygomatic arch. The teeth all are present and entire. The skin, although overstuffed, is complete, well preserved, and in summer pelage. _Range._--Upper Austral and Transition life-zones of Minnesota, northern and western Iowa, southeastern North Dakota, eastern part of South Dakota, and northeastern Nebraska. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. noveboracensis_ and _M. f. primulina_ in that specimens of all ages have least width of color of underparts amounting to more than 41 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, and have light color of underparts extended onto hind foot rather than stopped short of ankle; adults with hind feet more than 50 in males and 40 in females; orbitonasal length more than 15.5 in males and 13.5 in females; length of tooth-rows more than 18.0 in males and 15.7 in females; mastoid breadth more than 25.5 in males and 22.0 in females. From _M. f. longicauda_ by color darker than near (_h_) Clay Color, in males by a flattened occiput in which the depth of the skull, exclusive of the sagittal crest and taken at the anterior border of the basioccipital, amounts to less than 58 per cent of the mastoid breadth. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Three adults from Elk River, Minnesota, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 458 (444-467); length of tail, 154 (140-165); length of hind foot, 55 (52-59). Tail averages 51 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot averages more than basal length. Corresponding measurements of three subadults from Madison, Minnesota, are as follows: 453 (438-469); 157 (152-165); 50 (47-51). Tail averages 53 per cent as long as head and body. Female: Three adults from Elk River, Minnesota, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 387 (380-391); length of tail, 131 (121-138); length of hind foot, 44 (43-46). Tail averages 51 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more or less than (approximately equal to) basal length. Corresponding measurements of two adults and one subadult from Madison, Minnesota, are as follows: 385 (379-396); 137 (119-159); 42 (38-44). Tail averages 55 per cent as long as head and body. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes from Elk River, are: Total length, 71; length of tail, 23; length of hind foot, 11. At Madison, corresponding differences are 68, 20, and 8. Two adult females from Elk River, Minnesota, weigh 205 and 210 grams. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black, brown, or white (often all three colors in same specimen) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles (in summer pelage) as shown in figure 19. _Color._--Winter pelage all white except tip of tail. In southern part of range sometimes assumes a brown winter coat. Summer pelage with upper parts ranging from near (16´) Cinnamon Brown to Vandyke Brown. Chin and upper lips white. Remainder of underparts ranging from near (a) Olive Ocher to Ochraceous Buff and Pale Orange Yellow. Tip of tail at all times black. Upper parts of uniform color except for occasional slight darkening of nose. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and ankles, on medial sides of hind limbs to ankle, over antiplantar faces of toes and distomedial fourth of each tarsus, and over proximal fifth to third of under side of tail. Least width of color of underparts averaging (in 3 specimens from Elk River) 54 (47-59) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail averaging same length as hind foot and 28 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. Save for the greater width of the light-colored underparts and relatively short black tip of the tail, both features of _M. f. longicauda_, _spadix_ is variously intermediate, depending on locality, as between _noveboracensis_ and _longicauda_. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 3 adults from Elk River, Minn.): See measurements and plates 16-18. As described in _Mustela frenata longicauda_ except that: Weight, 5.6 (5.0-6.5); basilar length, 49.0 (48.7-49.2); zygomatic breadth sometimes less than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth more or less (about equal to) width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth more or less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4 to 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more or less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla less than length of rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below talonid of m1. Female (based on 4 adults from Elk River, Minn.): See measurements and plates 31-33. As described in _Mustela frenata longicauda_ except that: Weight, 3.5 (3.3-4.0) grams; basilar length, 42.9 (42.3-43.2); least width of palate more or less than greatest length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 to 5 upper incisors. The skull of the female averages 33 per cent lighter than that of the male. Skulls of adult males of _spadix_ from Elk River, Minnesota, as compared with those of _longicauda_ from Alberta, are larger in every part measured. Relative to the basilar length these skulls of _spadix_ are broader across the mastoid region, narrower across the zygomata, deeper through the plane of the postorbital processes, shallower through the braincase and have relatively shorter tympanic bullae. Whereas the tympanic bullae of _longicauda_ are, on the average, approximately as long as the rostrum (orbitonasal length), in _spadix_ the rostrum is longer than the bulla. Viewed posteriorly, the braincase of _spadix_ is seen to be much shallower and wider than that of _longicauda_. Indeed, the depth of the braincase, measured at the anterior end of the basioccipital, amounts to only 56 per cent of the mastoid breadth in _spadix_ as against 61 per cent in _longicauda_. The longer, waistlike, postorbital constriction, relatively smaller braincase, and especially the relatively narrower zygomatic expanse in _spadix_ imparts to its skull a more slender appearance than has the skull of _longicauda_. These differences are not shown by the skulls of females. To be sure, _spadix_, in most of its cranial measurements, averages slightly larger, has a relatively shallower braincase and is relatively deeper through the postorbital processes, but these differences are so slight that inclusion of one more specimen, of slightly different proportions, in the average might cause the average measurements to read as they do in _longicauda_. Compared with _noveboracensis_, from Massachusetts, adult skulls of _spadix_, taking sex into account, are larger in every part measured and are relatively as well as actually wider and deeper throughout. Also, in _spadix_: Sagittal and lambdoidal crests higher, especially in females; anterior margin of tympanic bulla projecting up sharply from squamosal; occiput more flattened in posterior view; tooth-rows relatively and actually longer but orbitonasal length relatively shorter; postorbital processes more robust; zygomatic arches widely bowed outward rather than evenly rounded; canines larger; squamosal less swollen ventrally, especially in females. Between _noveboracensis_ and _spadix_, the differential cranial characters are greater in number and degree between females than between males. Comparison of the skull with that of _M. f. primulina_ is made in discussion of that subspecies. _Remarks._--Edgar A. Mearns in 1889 and the early nineties took several specimens of this weasel and it was principally on these that Bangs in 1896 (p. 8) based his description. The best material, however, is that from Elk River, Minnesota, collected in later years by Bernard Bailey, and supplemented by one specimen taken in 1885 by Vernon Bailey and another by his sister Anna Bailey in 1891 at the same place. _Mustela frenata spadix_ has just one structural feature of a "unique" kind which serves to differentiate it from the geographically adjoining subspecies. This feature is large size. The other diagnostic characters ascribed to _spadix_ are of an intermediate sort--intermediate as between two extremes, one found to the westward in _longicauda_ and the other to the eastward in _noveboracensis_. For example, the dark-colored upper parts are merely darker than in _longicauda_ and merely lighter than in _noveboracensis_. The color is not "different"; it is only "intermediate." Furthermore, each of the characters ascribed to _spadix_, including large size itself, undergoes change from one part of its geographic range to another; the characters are not constant over a wide area. Indeed, excepting the large size which remains relatively uniform over the northern two-thirds of the range, no two localities have been found from which the specimens can be said really to agree in characters. By way of illustration, the coloration of the upper parts may be cited. Near the range of _noveboracensis_ the average coloration of individuals from one locality is only a little lighter than in _noveboracensis_. Farther westward the average coloration is a little lighter and farther westward yet, toward the range of the extremely light colored _longicauda_, the average coloration is lighter still. Although all these animals are darker than _longicauda_ and lighter than _noveboracensis_, those from the three places do not agree among themselves. Because of the lack of more than one character of a "unique" kind and because of the inconstancy, geographically, of other characters, and for that matter, lack of constancy geographically in combination of characters, the writer regards _spadix_ as a barely recognizable subspecies. Examination of the specimens of _spadix_ shows that the individual variation in a single species is greater in a region of intergradation than it is some distance inside the borders of the geographic range of a well-marked subspecies. This is illustrated by three specimens of _M. f. spadix_ in fresh summer pelage from the single locality, Elk River, Minnesota. In these, the color of the upper parts varies from a little darker than Cinnamon Brown to Vandyke Brown. At any one locality well within the range of _longicauda_, or _noveboracensis_, there is nowhere nearly so much variation in color, even in much larger series of specimens. Study of the specimens here assigned to _spadix_ reveals that some features regarded as of diagnostic value for one or the other of the two races, _longicauda_ and _noveboracensis_, behave differently. For example, the dark coloration of the upper parts, which is characteristic of _noveboracensis_, manifests itself far westward within the range of _spadix_ whereas the wider extent of the light-colored underparts, which is characteristic of _longicauda_, and the Olive Ocher, rather than Pale Orange Yellow, color of these underparts, are seen in varying degree all the way across the range of _spadix_. Thus, these animals are colored above like _noveboracensis_ and below like _longicauda_, but not _vice versa_. In these animals, then, the _longicauda_ type of underparts is dominant, in one sense of the word, over the _noveboracensis_ type of underparts, and the _noveboracensis_ type of upper parts is dominant over the _longicauda_ type of upper parts. Each of these features is subject to actual intergradation and does not always behave as a "unit character," that is to say, one which is either present or absent. However, the _noveboracensis_ type of upper parts is carried much farther west before being diluted than is the _noveboracensis_ type of underparts. Indeed, within the range of _noveboracensis_ itself, the broad extent of the _longicauda_ type of underparts is manifest. This is, of course, near the western margin of the range of _noveboracensis_. The large size of males of _spadix_, as exemplified by specimens from Elk River (see measurements on p. 421), seems to be retained across the northern part of the range here assigned to the subspecies. This larger size than is found in _longicauda_ from Alberta, is shown also by some specimens from eastern North Dakota which are assigned to _longicauda_. However, the average of these Dakotan specimens, all characters considered, is nearer to my concept of _longicauda_. Inspection of the cranial measurements of _spadix_ shows also that in addition to its large size it is distinguishable from any one of the geographically adjoining races by its relatively (to basilar length) greater, as well as actually greater, mastoidal breadth. This might be included with size as a unique character distinguishing _spadix_ from _longicauda_ and _noveboracensis_. However, it is not clear whether or not this greater mastoidal breadth is more than a function of the large size. Excepting the greater mastoidal breadth and generally larger size of the skull, the cranial features distinguishing males of _spadix_ from _longicauda_ are features in which _spadix_ shows approach to _noveboracensis_. This is true, in _spadix_, of the relatively longer (in comparison with _longicauda_) rostrum, relatively lesser zygomatic breadth, relatively shallower braincase measured at the anterior end of the basioccipital, and relatively deeper skull as measured at the posterior borders of the last upper molars. This same approach to _noveboracensis_ already has been pointed out with respect to color of the upper parts and is evident also in the relative shortness of the tail which averages only 51 per cent of the length of the head and body rather than 55 per cent as in _longicauda_. Because the _longicauda_ type of animal previously has been regarded as specifically distinct from the _noveboracensis_ type of animal, comment is offered below on selected specimens, referred to _spadix_, which are regarded as intergrades with _noveboracensis_ or with other subspecies. No. 8722, Univ. Wisconsin, adult male, in the white winter coat, from north central Itasca County, Minnesota, obviously has characters of _M. f. spadix_ or _longicauda_ that occur to the west and _M. f. noveboracensis_ of the east. Selected outstanding characters of _longicauda_ are its long tail, anteriorly truncate tympanic bullae and large teeth. Characters indicating its affinities with _noveboracensis_ are smaller size of skull, general narrowness of skull, and relatively low tympanic bullae. The skull is intermediate as regards several individual structural features. For example, although long and narrow and in this feature more nearly approaching _noveboracensis_, the skull is wider than usual in that subspecies and thus approaches that of _longicauda_ or _spadix_. The hind foot, in the dried state, measures 47 millimeters. This large hind foot, obviously long tail (the specimen lacks external measurements), and anteriorly truncate bullae constitute basis for here referring the specimen to _spadix_. However, the seemingly small size of the body and the narrow skull clearly show relationship to _noveboracensis_. Specimens, referred to _spadix_, from northern Iowa, are instructive as showing what happens where the ranges of _noveboracensis_, _primulina_, _spadix_, and perhaps _longicauda_, meet. No. 47167, Univ. Mich. Mus. Zoöl., a nearly adult female, taken on November 22, 1915, at Island, Clay County, and in process of assuming a brown winter pelage, retains enough of the dark summer pelage to show that the color was slightly lighter than average for _spadix_. The color pattern, white lips, and extension of light color of the underparts onto the feet, agrees with _spadix_ or _longicauda_ as does also the long tooth-row. The overall length of the skull is intermediate between that of _spadix_ and _primulina_. The proportions of the anterior part of the skull and of the tympanic bullae resemble those found in _primulina_. A subadult male skull only, no. 123846, American Museum of Natural History, from Webb, Clay County, shows approach to _primulina_ in the narrowness of the rostrum. A young male from Ruthven, Iowa, no. 48340, Univ. Michigan, has a large skull approaching in size that of _spadix_, has the _longicauda-spadix_ type of light-colored underparts and color pattern, and is slightly darker above than true _longicauda_. Another subadult male in the white winter coat from Palo Alto County, no. 35756, Univ. Michigan, has a large skull, which shows approach to _primulina_ in its narrowness anteriorly and in some other features. Although the tail is of moderate length, the body is large as in _spadix_ or _longicauda_, and the length of the hind foot suggests _spadix_ or _longicauda_. A subadult male, no. 425a, Iowa State College, from Manson, Iowa, in brown winter pelage, agrees with _primulina_ in the restriction of the area of the light color of the underparts and in less expanded zygomatic arches. The teeth are intermediate in size between those of _noveboracensis_ and _primulina_ on the one hand and those of _spadix_ and _longicauda_ on the other. In other respects it agrees with, or is more nearly like, _spadix_. An adult female, no. 426a, Iowa State College, from Barnum, in the brown winter coat, agrees with _primulina_ except that the orbitonasal length of the skull is more as in _spadix_ and the presence of some light color on the lower part of the hind legs suggests _spadix_. The skull only, no. 440a, Iowa State College, labeled merely Webster County, Iowa, is almost a duplicate of no. 426a. A subadult male, no. 427a, Iowa State College, from Moorland, Iowa, only about six miles southeast of Barnum, likewise is indistinguishable from _primulina_ except for having a white winter coat and in being relatively broad in the mastoidal region. Nevertheless, both of these animals are here referred to _spadix_ because the average of specimens from this general area is nearer that of _spadix_. No. 497a, Iowa State College, an adult female in white winter pelage, from Ames, approaches _primulina_ in the narrow rostrum and smaller teeth but otherwise approaches or even agrees with _spadix_. Two adult males, without external measurements, from Pilot Mound, Iowa, have skulls quite like males of _longicauda_ from Alberta. The only approach noted to eastern forms is the restricted color of the underparts on no. 2856, Coe College, which has a brown winter coat. The color of the underparts is not extended so far out on the feet as in _longicauda_. Also the tympanic bullae of this specimen are a trifle narrower. The other male, no. 2652, is in the white winter coat. The one female from the same place, no. 2660, Coe College, in brown winter pelage, has a skull notably unlike that of _longicauda_ or _spadix_; the skull is narrower and practically indistinguishable from that of the largest female skull of _primulina_ available from Lawrence, Kansas, save that the tooth-row is much longer. The color pattern also agrees with that of _primulina_ or _noveboracensis_ in that the color of the underparts extends only as far as the knee on the hind legs and is narrow on the belly. Nevertheless, another adult female, no. 120a from Amaqua Township, some 6 miles southwest of Pilot Mound, is in all respects typical of _spadix_. This is the more remarkable because another comparable specimen from less than 20 miles to the southwest in Worth Township is equally typical of _primulina_. Two young females from Chester, Iowa, nos. 2656 and 2874/2873, Coe College, have skulls larger than those of corresponding age of _primulina_ or _noveboracensis_. The color is as in spadix. The color pattern of the underparts also is as in _spadix_ or _longicauda_ except that the width of the area of light color on the belly is restricted somewhat although not so much as in _noveboracensis_ or _primulina_. Of four males from the same place, also in the collection of Coe College, no. A2874 is a white skin only and does not provide diagnostic characters. The three other males, each in summer pelage, are marked and colored as are the two females from the same place except that male no. 2861 has the color of the underparts so much attenuated on the hind legs that it barely, uninterruptedly, extends to the feet. No. 2658 is young, or perhaps barely subadult. The skull is large and referable to _spadix_. The two adults, nos. 2861 and 2657, differ cranially from typical (Elk River, Minn.) _spadix_ only in being slightly narrower across the mastoids and in having the bullae a little narrower. In these departures they show some approach to _primulina_ and to _noveboracensis_. Another male, subadult, no. 2867, Coe College, from Decorah, which has acquired half of the white winter coat, agrees with the males from Chester except that the preorbital part of the skull is shortened much as in some specimens of _primulina_. From Lansing, in extreme northeastern Iowa, a large subadult male, no. 2864, Coe College, of 453 mm. in total length and half through with acquiring the white winter coat, agrees with the males previously described from Chester except in having the palate narrower as in _noveboracensis_. The adult female available from Lansing, no. 2863/2862, Coe College, in white winter pelage except for the top of the head, although a large skin, has a skull smaller than that of any _spadix_ or _longicauda_ and of about the same size as that of no. 3838, Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist., of _primulina_, from Lawrence, Kansas, except that the skull of no. 2863/2862 is much narrower across the mastoids. This specimen, then, shows approach to _noveboracensis_ in narrowness of the mastoidal region, to _primulina_ in other respects and to _spadix_. Many of these instructive specimens from Iowa, made available to the present writer by Mr. W. F. Kubichek, were brought together at the Coe College Museum by the late B. H. Bailey. Most of them were obtained from trappers who did not supply the conventional external measurements taken in the flesh. Even though these are lacking, the specimens clearly show that actual intergradation occurs where the ranges of _M. f. longicauda_, _spadix_, _noveboracensis_ and _primulina_ meet. The dark color of the upper parts, restriction of the color of the underparts on the ankles with the result that the color reaches the toes in interrupted fashion, and large skull, of no. 18912 of the Museum of the University of South Dakota, from Roberts County, South Dakota, clearly place this specimen with _spadix_, rather than with _longicauda_. Likewise, male, subadult, no. 11376, Univ. South Dakota, from Clay County, South Dakota, is referable to _spadix_. Although without external measurements, the specimen obviously is large. The patch of summer pelage on its head and neck is darker than the summer pelage of _longicauda_, and the orbitonasal length is greater than the length of the tympanic bullae; all these features are characters of _spadix_. The adult male from Fort Sisseton, South Dakota, no. 188407, United States National Museum, figured by Merriam (1896, p. 20, figs. 7-9), is almost exactly intermediate between _longicauda_ and _spadix_, although here referred to the latter. Five specimens, nos. 147375, 147432, 147762, 148720 and 148721, U. S. Nat. Mus., including 3 skulls only from Beemer, Cuming County, Nebraska, are intergrades between _M. f. longicauda_, _M. f. primulina_ and _M. f. spadix_. One skin is in white winter pelage and the other, a female, is in summer pelage which in coloration and color pattern agrees with that of _spadix_. External measurements of the male agree with those of _longicauda_. Measurements of the female agree with those of _spadix_ except that the tail is shorter as in _primulina_. The skulls are as long as in _longicauda_ but are more slender than in either _longicauda_ or _spadix_ although nearer the latter in this respect. In dorsal aspect, the skulls especially posteriorly to the orbital region, resemble _primulina_. All points considered, the animals seem best referred to _spadix_. Although the degree of development of certain morphological features has been settled upon as indicative of the race _spadix_, some doubt remains as to where the western boundary of its range should be shown. This results from the fact that color has been taken into account as one diagnostic feature and this feature is lacking in the white winter specimens which, from the following places, are all that are available: Kittson County, Minnesota; Moorhead, Minnesota; Casselton and Valley City in North Dakota; Armour, South Dakota and Clay County, South Dakota. In summary, more specimens in the summer coat will be required to establish definitely the boundary between the ranges of _longicauda_ and _spadix_. Surber (1932:49) has referred to additional specimens of this weasel in the University of Minnesota Museum as from Winona, Hennepin and Isanti counties of that state. At Elk River, Minnesota, B. Bailey (1929:156) found this species to be about half as abundant as _Mustela cicognanii_ and that it is "more often found in the open timber and about the dry ridges and fields." Of seventeen adult or subadult skulls of this race from Minnesota, ten have obvious marks of infestation of the frontal sinuses. In no skull, however, has the infestation resulted in so much malformation, as occurs in _noveboracensis_. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 76, arranged alphabetically by states and from north to south by counties in each state. =Iowa.= _Lyon County_: Granite, 1[65]. _Howard County_: Chester, 6[12]. _Winneshiek County_: Decorah, 1[12]; 8 mi. NE Ossian, 1[76]. _Allamakee County_: Lansing, 2[12]. _Clay County_: Island, 1[76]; Webb, 1[2]. _Palo Alto County_: Ruthven, 1[76]; no locality more definite than county, 1[76]. _Calhoun County_: Manson, 1[65]. _Webster County_: Barnum, 1[65]; Moorland, 1[65]; no locality more definite than county, 1[65]. _Boone County_: Pilot Mound, 3[12]; Amaqua Township, Sec. 19, 1[65]. _Story County_: Ames, 1[65]. =Minnesota.= _Kittson County_, 1[2]. _Roseau County_: 2-1/2 mi. SW Roseau, Jadis Township, 1[14]. _Itasca County_: T. 61N, R. 26W, 1[104]. _Clay County_: Moorhead, 2[9]. _Atkin County_: Atkin, 1[50]. _Otter Tail County_: Lake Lizzie, 1[9]; Parkers Prairie, 1[57]. _Grant County_: 3 mi. NW Barrett, 1[76]. _Benton_ (now Mille Lacs?) _County_: Princeton, 1[91]. _Sherburne County_: Elk River, 14 (6[59], 4[14], 3[91], 1[74]). _Hennepin County_: Fort Snelling, 6 (5[2], 1[91]). _Carver? County_: Chaska, 1[60]. _Lac qui Parle County_: Madison, 5 (3[91], 2[1]); no locality more definite than county, 2 (1[68], 1[75]). _Yellow Medicine County_: Wood Lake, 1[2]. _Blue Earth County_: Rapidan, 1[64]. _County_ in question: Moore Lake, 1[91]. =Nebraska.= _Cuming County_: Beemer, 5[91]. =North Dakota.= _Cass County_: Fargo, 1[91]; Casselton, 1[91]. _Dickey County_: Oakes, 1[91]. =South Dakota.= _Roberts County_, 1[102]. _Marshall County_: Fort Sisseton, 1[91]. _Douglas County_: Armour, 1[14]. _Clay County_, 1[102]. =Mustela frenata longicauda= Bonaparte Long-tailed Weasel Plates 16, 17, 18, 31, 32 and 33 _Mustela longicauda_ Bonaparte, Charlesworth's Mag. Nat. Hist., 2:38, 1838. _Putorius longicauda_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 169, 1858; Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 136, 1877; Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:7, figs. 1, 1a of pls. 1, 2 and 3, February 25, 1896; Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:19, pl. 3, figs. 3, 3a, 4, 4a, pl. 5, figs. 1, 1a, text figs. 7-9, June 30, 1896. _Mustela longicauda longicauda_, Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 49:166, January 8, 1927. _Mustela frenata longicauda_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:105, November 20, 1936; Hall, Canadian Field-Nat., 52:108, October, 1938. _Mustela frenata_, Sowls, Journ. Mamm., 29:126, May 14, 1948. _Type._--Possibly not in existence. No. 43.3.3.3 [from Carlton House, Saskatchewan] in the British Museum of Natural History has been regarded by several zoölogists as the type. It is a subadult female, skull and skin, from North America. See the account of _M. erminea cicognanii_ for reasons for and reasons against regarding this specimen as the holotype. No. 43.3.3.3 from the collection of Dr. John Richardson is in the white winter coat and now (Sept. 24, 1937) is prepared as a study skin. Evidences of its once having been mounted are: holes in the soles of the hind feet for supporting-wires, large straight wire in the tail, folds in the skin of the now backward-projecting hind feet, and unevenness of the skin on the back resulting from straightening out the specimen. The tip of the tail and some skin from the middle of the belly are missing. Otherwise the skin is intact. The skull is that of an animal in its first year, lacks the zygomatic arch on each side, but otherwise is complete and unbroken. The teeth all are present and entire except that p2 on the right side is missing from its alveolus. _Range._--Transition and Upper Sonoran life-zones of the Great Plains, southward from central Alberta, Saskatchewan and southern Manitoba through eastern Montana, the Dakotas and Nebraska into southeastern Wyoming, northeastern Colorado and western Kansas. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. primulina_ in near (_h_) Clay Color rather than Brussels Brown of upper parts, least width of color of underparts more than 40 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, color of underparts extended onto hind foot rather than stopped short of ankle, zygomatic breadth more than 28.8 in adult males and more than 24.1 in adult females; from _M. f. spadix_ in lighter color being near (_h_) Clay Color, in males by deeper occiput in which the depth of the skull, exclusive of the sagittal crest and taken at the anterior border of the basioccipital amounts to more than 59 per cent of the mastoid breadth; from _M. f. oribasus_ in near (_h_) Clay Color rather than near (14_n_) Brussels Brown color of the upper parts and in males by deeper occiput in which the depth of the skull, exclusive of the sagittal crest and taken at the anterior border of the basioccipital, amounts to more than 59 per cent of the mastoid breadth; from _M. f. alleni_ in larger size, adult males having a total length of more than 400 millimeters, hind foot more than 45, basilar length more than 43.5, and females having a total length of more than 375 and basilar length not less than 40.0; from _M. f. nevadensis_ in near (_h_) Clay Color rather than near (14_n_ to 1) Brussels Brown of upper parts, basilar length more than 40 in females and averaging more than 45 in males; from _M. f. neomexicana_ by near (_h_) Clay Color rather than Buckthorn Brown color of upper parts, absence of white and Argus Brown facial markings, and length of tooth-rows amounting to more than 37 per cent of basilar length. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Five adults from Alberta yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 438 (418-473); length of tail, 158 (140-193); length of hind foot, 50 (46-54). Tail averages 56 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot averaging more than basal length. Corresponding measurements of five adults and subadults from North Dakota are as follows: 465 (445-516); 164 (150-179); 51 (50-54). Tail averages 55 per cent as long as head and body. Female: Six adults (Alberta, 4; Saskatchewan, 1; Manitoba, 1) yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 401 (383-425); length of tail, 145 (141-159); length of hind foot, 43 (41-44). Tail averages 57 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more or less than (approximately equal to) basal length. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 37; length of tail, 13; length of hind foot, 7. General comparisons indicate that the Alberta-taken males may not attain so large a size as those from some other areas. Thus the differences in external measurements might be some greater elsewhere, say, in North Dakota. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black, brown or white (often all three colors in same specimen) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles (in summer pelage) only slightly greater than shown in figure 20. _Color._--Winter pelage all white except tip of tail. Summer pelage with upper parts near (_h_) Clay Color or near tone 3 and 4 of Snuff Brown of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 303. Chin and upper lips white. Remainder of underparts ranging from near (_a_) Olive Ocher to near (16´) Ochraceous Buff. Upper parts of uniform color except for occasional darkening of head in front of ears. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and wrists, on medial sides of hind limbs to ankles over antiplantar faces of toes and distomedial third of each tarsus, and over proximal fourth to third of under side of tail. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in a series of 10 males from Alberta, 58 (45-60) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Corresponding figures for 10 females from the same place are 57 (50-74). Black tip of tail in same series of males, most of which are in full summer pelage, averaging 43 (35-60) mm. long. Thus, averaging shorter than hind foot and 27 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. As compared with _M. f. neomexicana_, _longicauda_ lacks the white facial markings, black ears, black forehead and nose, but otherwise is similarly colored. As compared with _M. f. nevadensis_, _M. f. oribasus_ and _M. f. spadix_, each of color pattern similar to _longicauda_, selected differences of _longicauda_ are its much lighter color, especially of the upper parts, with less conspicuous darkening on the nose. From _M. f. primulina_, _longicauda_ differs in lighter color of upper parts, reddish rather than yellowish underparts, and light rather than dark-colored hind feet. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 5 adults from Alberta): See measurements and plates 16-18; weight, 4.7 (4.6-4.9) grams; basilar length, 46.0 (44.7-46.8); zygomatic breadth more than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth more than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth greater than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum more or less (usually less) than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate less than greatest length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 to 4 (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below talonid of m1 or anterior half of m2. Female (based on 5 adults: Alberta, 3; N. D., 1; Sask., 1.): See measurements and plates 31-33; weight, 3.1 (2.8-3.5) grams; basilar length, 42.3 (40.0-43.7); zygomatic breadth more or less (approximately equal to) than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or that between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and more or less than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate not more than greatest length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 to 4 (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla not less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-rows and longer or shorter than rostrum. The skull of the female averages 34 per cent lighter than that of the male. Comparisons of the skull with those of _M. f. primulina_, _M. f. spadix_, _M. f. oribasus_, _M. f. alleni_, _M. f. nevadensis_, and _M. f. neomexicana_ are made in accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--Richardson's (1829:47) account on which Bonaparte may be said to have based his name, records measurements in inches and lines which I transpose into millimeters as follows: Total length, 440 mm.; length of head and body, 305; length of tail (vertebrae), 135; length of tail (including fur), 164 mm. Specimen no. 43.3.3.3 in the British Museum, which has by some persons been regarded as the type, yields measurements as follows: Total length, 408 (which allows for 15 mm. loss of the fleshy part of the end of the tail); length of head and body, 272; length of tail (vertebrae), 136 (= 121 + 15); length of tail (including fur), 162 (142 + 20 mm. that appears to have been lost). Richardson's specimen would appear to have been of unusual proportions and to have been larger than no. 43.3.3.3. Some reasons for and reasons against regarding this specimen as the holotype are given in the account of _M. erminea cicognanii_. The name _longicauda_ was applied to practically all long-tailed weasels of the western United States at one time but as one after another of the geographic variants in the mountainous regions were designated as separable, the name _longicauda_ came to be restricted to the light-colored, relatively large, animal of the Great Plains. The intergradation of _longicauda_ with _spadix_ and _oribasus_ has been commented on in the discussions of those subspecies. The larger size and darker color of specimens referred to _longicauda_ from Devils Lake and Grafton, North Dakota, are features indicative of intergradation there with _spadix_. Two young females from Waterton Lake Park, Alberta, by their darker than average color, suggest intergradation with _oribasus_, as, for that matter, does the specimen from Waterton Lake [= Chief Mountain Lake, in Montana] itself, which, however, is even darker than the two specimens taken on the Canadian side of the line and hence is referred to _oribasus_. An adult female, no. 175586, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Moose Pass, Alberta, examined after the above was written, is larger than any other female seen of _longicauda_ and in this respect may show approach to _oribasus_, which in the northern part of its range is of large size as judged by males from the Bowron Lake region. One male, no. 8564, Nat. Mus. Canada, from Max Lake, Turtle Mountain, Manitoba, presents puzzling characters. The external measurements of 465, 170, and 57, are in keeping with the great length of the skull which has a basilar length of 48.8. The tooth-rows are 19.3 in length and the mastoid breadth, 25.4. The relative narrowness indicated by the mastoid breadth is maintained throughout the skull. The only other specimens relating to the Turtle Mountains that have been seen are two male, skins without measurements or corresponding skulls, nos. 38902 and 38903, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., labeled as from either "Stump Lake or Turtle Mts.," North Dakota. One of these, no. 38902, is much darker than the other. Possibly it is from the Turtle Mountains and the other, lighter-colored one, is from Stump Lake. Study of additional specimens from the Turtle Mountains might show the existence there of a distinct race. Four specimens, in the collection of Myron Swenk, from Inland, Clay County, Nebraska, are instructive as showing how intergradation occurs between _primulina_ and _longicauda_. A subadult male, no. 10, is intermediate in external measurements and in color but in each instance is nearer _primulina_. The same is true of the least width of the color of the underparts. The color of the underparts extends uninterruptedly over the hind legs to the toes as in _longicauda_, but is absent from the underside of the tail as in _primulina_. In the skull, the basilar length, breadth of bulla, and size of teeth are nearer _longicauda_, as are also the ratios to the basilar length of the length of tooth-rows, breadth of the rostrum, length of the tympanic bulla, and depth of the braincase at the anterior margin of the basioccipital. Ratios to the basilar length of the interorbital breadth, mastoid breadth, zygomatic breadth, and depth of the skull at the posterior borders of the upper molars are nearer to those of _primulina_. The relatively long rostrum, as represented by the orbitonasal length, is nearest to that of _spadix_. A young, almost subadult, female, no. 7, agrees with _primulina_ in color, color pattern, and length of hind foot. The other external measurements are intermediate, but nearer those of _primulina_. Size of skull and teeth are as in _longicauda_. Relative proportions of parts of the skull are not diagnostic in specimens as young as this female. An adult female, skull only, no. 8, agrees with, or approaches nearer to, _longicauda_ in size of skull and teeth and in relative proportion of every part studied. A juvenile, skull only, of questionable sex, no. 9, provides no diagnostic characters. On the basis of color, these specimens from Inland are distinctly nearer _primulina_. On the basis of cranial characters they are distinctly nearer _longicauda_. External measurements are intermediate and are a little nearer those of _primulina_. By placing the most weight on the cranial characters, the animals may be referred to _longicauda_. The same may be said of 2 skins, one skin with a skull, from Hastings, Nebraska. In each skin the color-pattern is as in _primulina_; in one the under side of the tail is nevertheless lighter-colored more as in _longicauda_ and the skull, adult male 121651 American Museum of Natural History, approaches nearer to _primulina_ in narrowness but has the large teeth of _longicauda_. Intergradation with _neomexicana_ is suggested by one specimen, no. 7936, Univ. Kans., from Thomas County, Kansas, which has well-developed white facial markings. The specimen, no. 180, Kansas Agric. College, from Glasco, is mounted, of large size, in white winter pelage, and lacks external measurements. On the basis of its obvious large size, and a hind foot measurement of 49 millimeters obtained from the mounted skin, the animal is provisionally referred to _longicauda_ rather than to _primulina_. _Putorius culbertsoni_ is a name now credited to Coues (1877:136). Although Coues probably intended only to indicate that Baird wrote this name on the labels of two specimens in the mammal collection of the Smithsonian Institution, Coues gave an "indication" of the application of the name by publishing at the same time the catalogue numbers of specimens whose labels bore the name and thus, in accordance with article 21 of the International Rules of Zoölogical Nomenclature, himself becomes the author of the name. Of the two specimens mentioned by Coues, only the first recorded by him, no. 4320 (with skull no. 37995, U. S. Nat. Mus.), can now be found. Fortunately, the skull of this specimen labeled (see Lyon and Osgood, 1909:218) as taken at Fort Laramie, Wyoming, is well preserved. Its only defects are a fracture in the left zygomatic arch and the absence of parts of each of the first lower molars. In deciding on the subspecific application of the name _Putorius culbertsoni_ Coues, the skull of the type must be principally relied upon, for there is available only one other specimen, a skin only (no. 12596, U. S. Nat. Mus.), from the same place, and it, like the type, is in white winter pelage and lacks flesh measurements. The ranges as now known of three subspecies of _Mustela frenata_ approach near to Fort Laramie. These are _M. f. longicauda_, _M. f. alleni_, and _M. f. nevadensis_. The skull of the type of _culbertsoni_ is not typical of any one of the three mentioned races. The small size of its teeth and relative (to basilar length) shallowness of the frontal region of the skull through the postorbital processes of the frontal are as in _nevadensis_. The zygomatic arches are not so greatly expanded as in some specimens of _longicauda_ and are more like the average for _nevadensis_ or _alleni_, as also is the relatively (to basilar length) long orbitonasal length. However, each of these characters is subject to variation and alone is not surely diagnostic, especially toward the margin of the range of any one of the subspecies concerned. The same may be said of the relatively great breadth of the skull interorbitally--a feature typically found in _longicauda_. More important, in my estimation, is the large size of the skull; all parts measured (excepting the teeth, the depth at the posterior border of the last upper molars, the zygomatic breadth, and the depth of the tympanic bullae) equal or approach nearest to the average for males of _longicauda_ of similar age. The small size of _alleni_ prevents its identification with _culbertsoni_. The question of application lies between _nevadensis_ and _longicauda_. If the long-tailed weasel at Fort Laramie is found to be referable to the race earlier named _longicauda_, no change in current nomenclature will be effected. If, on the other hand, the long-tailed weasel from Fort Laramie is found to be referable to _nevadensis_ this name will have to fall before the earlier proposed name _culbertsoni_. There is, however, a third possibility, namely, that the long-tailed weasel of the Transition and Upper Sonoran zones of southern Wyoming and northern Colorado, as for example, at Lay, Colorado, may represent a recognizable race characterized by size about as in _longicauda_, relative proportions of skull about as in _nevadensis_ and coloration intermediate, to which the name _culbertsoni_ may apply. For more detailed discussion of this possibility, see remarks under _M. f. nevadensis_. Satisfactory application of the name _Putorius culbertsoni_ Coues requires an adequate series of adult specimens, of both sexes in the summer coat with external measurements taken in the flesh, from the type locality and like material from elsewhere in southern Wyoming. On the evidence furnished by the skull of the type of _culbertsoni_, that name tentatively is placed in the synonomy of _longicauda_. Only 2 of 25 adults examined for malformation of the frontal sinuses by parasites showed evidence of disease. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 138, arranged alphabetically by provinces and states and further by districts or counties from north to south except as otherwise indicated. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the collection of the United States National Museum. =Alberta.= St. Albert, 1; S. Edmonton, 3; Islay, 4[77]; Battle River, south of Camrose, 1[77]; Daysland, 1[77]; Moose Pass, 1; Blindman River, 2 (1[75], 1[2]); Red Deer, 3 (2[2], 1[60]); Bearberry Creek near Sundre, 1[77]; Canad. Nat. Park, N.W. Territory, 1[60]; Red Deer River, Didsbury, 1; Canmore, 1; Calgary, 11 (6[60], 2[1], 1[86]); Red Deer River, 3[2]; Little Sandhill Creek, Red Deer River, 1[77]; Waterton Lake Park, 2[77]; Sweetgrass Hills, 1[77]; Alberta, 1[14]. =Colorado.= _Yuma County_: Wray 4 (1[88], 3[74]). =Kansas.= _Rawlins County_: 7 mi. N, 3 mi. W Beardsley, 1[74]; 6 mi. S and 2 mi. E Atwood, 1[74]; 15 mi. SE Atwood, 1[74]. _Thomas County_: near Brewster, 2[93]; no locality more definite than county, 2[93]. _Trego County_, 2 (1[2]). _Cloud County_: Glasco, 1[67]. =Manitoba.= Portage la Prairie, 3[75]; Carberry, 2 (1[2], 1[1]); Carman, 1[60]; Max Lake, Turtle Mt., 1[77]. =Montana.= _Glacier County_: St. Marys Lake, 1; Blackfoot, 1: Blackfoot Agency, 1. _Blaine County_: 6 mi. east Chinook, 1[74]. _Pondera County_: 1/2 mi. SE Conrad, 1[74]. _Toole County_: Shelby Junction, 1. _Hill County_: Havre, 1. _Fergus County_: Moccasin Mts., 5 mi. NW Hilger, 1; 7 mi. NE Hilger, 1. _Rosebud County_: 3/4 mi. N Ingomar, 1. _County_ in question, Milk River, 2. =Nebraska.= _Dawes County_: Chadron, 2[35]. _Cherry County_: Kennedy, 1; no locality more definite than county, 1. _Brown County_: Long Pine, 1[68]. _Antelope County_: Neligh, 1[35]. _Adams County_: Hastings, 2[2]. _Clay County_: Inland, 4[35]. =North Dakota= (arranged by counties from west to east). _Divide County_: Crosby, 1. _Mountrail County_: Lostwood, 1. Little Missouri River, 1. _Golden Valley County_: Sentinel Butte, 1. _Billings County_: Medora, 1[60]. _McLean County_: 3 mi. W Elbowoods, 1. _Oliver County_: Ft. Clark, 2. _Morton County_: Mandan, 1. _Sioux County_: 3 mi. N Cannonball, 1. _Logan County_: 6 mi. SW Napoleon, 1. _Rolette County_: Turtle Mts., 1[76]; Fish Lake, 1. _Benson County_: Ft. Totten, 3[14]; Sully Hill Nat. Park, 1. _Ramsey County_: Devils Lake, 2. Stump Lake or Turtle Mts., 2[2]. _Nelson County_: Stump Lake, 1. _Grand County_: Larimore, 1. _Walsh County_: Grafton, 11 (4[76], 3[74], 2[2]). _Stutsman County_: Jamestown, 1. _Barnes County_: Valley City, 1. =Saskatchewan.= Wingard, 5; Osier, 2[75]; Simpson, 1[2]; Touchwood Hills, 4[7]; South arm Last Mountain Lake, 1[77]; Rush Lake (Assiniboia, N.W.T.), 2[75]. =South Dakota.= _Pennington County_: Rapid City, 1. =Wyoming.= _Goshen County_: Fort Laramie, 2. =Mustela frenata oribasus= (Bangs) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 16, 17, 18, 31, 32, 33 and 40 _Putorius (Arctogale) longicauda oribasus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:81, December 27, 1899. _Putorius longicauda_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 136, 1877 (part). _Mustela longicauda oribasus_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98, December 31, 1912. _Mustela longicauda oribasa_, Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:368, November 5, 1934. _Mustela frenata oribasa_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 437:105, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin; no. 9058, collection of E. A. and O. Bangs, but now in collection of Mus. Comp. Zoöl.; source of Kettle River, 7500 feet [the summit between middle fork of Kettle River and Cherry Creek at Pinnacles--oral information from the collector, Feb. 12, 1936], British Columbia; September 10, 1898; obtained by Allan Brooks; original no. 1368. The skull (plate 40) is complete and unbroken. The teeth all are present and entire except right I^3 which has the anterior half broken away. The skin is complete, fairly well made, and in summer pelage. _Range._--Canadian and Hudsonian life-zones from near 56°N in the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia and Alberta and Ootsa Lake along the Fraser and Chilcotin rivers south to Alta Lake, in the Caribou and Monashee mountains, probably in the Selkirks and Rockies, and through the Rockies of Montana into extreme northern Wyoming. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. longicauda_ by near (14 _n_) Brussels Brown rather than near (_h_) Clay Color of upper parts and in males by relatively shallower occiput in which the depth of the skull, exclusive of the sagittal crest and taken at the anterior border of the basioccipital, amounts to less than 59 per cent of the mastoid breadth; from _M. f. nevadensis_ by greater average size, see measurements. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Two adults from Florence, Montana, measure as follows: Total length, 440, 440; length of tail, 165, 161; length of hind foot, 47, 49. Corresponding measurements of an adult male from Quesnel, British Columbia, are: 443; 168; 55. Tail amounts to 60, 58, and 61 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot averages more than basal length. Female: The type specimen, the only typical adult or subadult specimen of this sex of which external measurements are available, measures: Total length, 392, length of tail, 150, length of hind foot, 46. Tail is 63 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot amounts to more than basal length. The differences in external measurements, between the one female and the average of the three males are: Total length, 49; length of tail, 15; length of hind foot, 4. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae brown or white (often both colors in same specimen) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to or beyond apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles (in summer pelage) slightly less than shown in figure 19. _Color._--Upper parts, in summer, near (14 _n_) Brussels Brown, more blackish and less reddish than tone 4 of Burnt Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 304; in type near tone 4, pl. 301 of Oberthür and Dauthenay. Underparts, in summer, Buff Yellow or near (20 _c_) Amber Yellow. In winter, all white except tip of tail which is at all times black. Upper parts of uniform color except for occasional slight darkening of top of head and along mid-dorsal line of back. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over feet, on medial sides of hind limbs over antiplantar faces of toes and over proximal two-thirds of ventral side of tail. Least width of color of underparts amounting to 43 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, 75 per cent in male from 4 miles northeast of Quesnel, British Columbia, and 52 (33-66) in four males from Montana. Black tip of tail in four males from Montana averaging 50 (44-60) mm. long. Thus averaging approximately as long as hind foot and 33 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. Color not different than in many specimens of _M. f. nevadensis_. Color comparison with _M. f. longicauda_ has been made in the account of that subspecies. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 5 adults and 2 subadults from British Columbia and 4 adults from Montana): See measurements and plates 16-18. As described in _Mustela frenata longicauda_ except that: Weight, 5.0 (3.8-6.0) grams; basilar length, 46.7 (43.6-48.8); postorbital breadth in one of nine instances less than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth more or less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than length of tympanic bulla; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 2-1/2 to 5 upper incisors; length of tympanic bulla not less than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and shorter than rostrum. Female (based on the type, specimen): See measurements and plates 31-33, 40. As described in _Mustela frenata longicauda_ except that: Weight, 3.5 grams; basilar length, 41.6 mm.; zygomatic breadth more than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate more than outside length of P^{4}; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4-1/2 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from anterior margin of tympanic bulla to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla less than length of rostrum. If more than one skull were available of the female of _oribasus_ it is believed that the description would agree with that of _longicauda_ in nearly all features. The skull of the female is 30 per cent lighter than that of the average male. Comparison with _longicauda_ reveals that, on the average, skulls of males are larger, relative to the basilar length broader across the mastoids, shallower through the braincase as measured at the anterior end of the basioccipital exclusive of the sagittal crest, with longer rostrum. Compared with _nevadensis_, the skull averages larger in all measurements taken, and has a relatively broader rostrum, relatively greater mastoid breadth and a braincase which is shallower relative to the basilar length. By weight, the skull of _nevadensis_ is a fourth lighter, and in linear measurements 5 to 18 per cent smaller. _Remarks._--Some of the specimens from Montana, which here are referred to _oribasus_, more than half a century ago were listed by Coues (1877:138) under the name _longicauda_. It was not until 1899 that this race was given a name by Bangs, who at that time (1899B:81) accurately made out the distinctive color features. Distinctive cranial characters cannot be described with assurance even now because there still are too few specimens. The type specimen, at one time examined by the present writer, has on the stuffed skin no well-developed mammae, scrotal pouch, or other visible sexual part. Probably the collector's sex mark for female is correct. As judged by the two skulls of subadult males from the Barkerville region, individuals of this race attain larger size than do those of _longicauda_. On the basis of larger size than either _longicauda_ or _nevadensis_, the specimens from the Rocky Mountains of Montana and two from northern Wyoming are referred to this race. The short, wide, flat, tympanic bullae, relatively great mastoidal breadth, and some other features of the specimen from Donovan, Montana, point toward _oribasus_, whereas nearly as many more cranial features, in this instance mainly differences in size, are indicative of _nevadensis_ to which race the specimen might almost equally well be referred. Another male from Darby, in the Bitterroot Valley of Montana, has a slightly longer hind foot than those from Florence, but a female from Hamilton, agrees more nearly with _nevadensis_. The average of all the specimens from the Bitterroot Valley is a little nearer _oribasus_. Four skulls from Buffalo, Wyoming, here referred to _nevadensis_ show approach to _oribasus_ in size of skull. The specimens from Big Snowy Mountains, and the Highwood Mountains of Montana are too young clearly to show size of the adult skull, but are distinctly darker colored than _longicauda_ of the plains country proper. Of two subadult females from Tacy, Montana, the color of the one in summer pelage is distinctly nearer that of _oribasus_ and _nevadensis_ than it is to that of _longicauda_ to which some approach in color might be expected. The reduced size of both of the specimens is further suggestive of _nevadensis_ and it may be that adult specimens from these more eastern mountainous areas in Montana will show that _nevadensis_ is the name proper to apply to animals of this region. Intergradation with _nevadensis_ is suggested by specimens collected from along the upper reaches of Okanagan Lake, British Columbia, by Major Allan Brooks and Mr. J. A. Munro and by a series of skulls from Ione, Pend Orielle County, Washington, lent me by Mr. Walter Dalquest. At each place, the average of all specimens is nearest to that of _nevadensis_. Specimens from near Waterton Lake show several steps in the transition from the light-colored _longicauda_ type of coloration to the darker coloration characterizing _oribasus_. One taken here, at a time when the body of water referred to seems to have been known as Chief Mountain Lake, is barely dark enough to be placed with _oribasus_. Two other specimens from across the Canadian Border labeled as "Waterton Lake Park" are slightly lighter colored above, and on this account are placed with _longicauda_. The two adult males from Lillooet, British Columbia, are referable to _oribasus_ although neither is quite typical. One has a saturated coloration suggestive of that of _altifrontalis_ and the skull is shorter and broader than in other specimens of _oribasus_. The female from Lillooet, skin alone, no. 916, Prov. Mus., B. C. is small for _oribasus_. The female, no. 1539, collection of Kenneth Racey, from Alta Lake, in brown winter pelage, in almost every measurement falls nearly midway between _altifrontalis_ and _oribasus_ but slightly nearer the latter. The skull from Chezacut and 3 animals from Wistaria, British Columbia, probably are females and show a greater average size than specimens from farther to the southeast. For example, the basilar length of the skull, 44.8 (44.3 to 45.1), exceeds that of the type specimen. The animals from Wistaria on Ootsa Lake furnish the northwesternmost station of occurrence of which I have record for this subspecies. The northernmost records of occurrence, at "Clearwater River, Peace River, B. C," and at Little Prairie, are furnished by a white skin without skull, no. 257450, U. S. Nat. Mus., purchased on August 2, 1932, at the place mentioned by W. H. Sheldon and Richard Borden, and a skull with white winter skin, no. 3585, Provincial Museum, British Columbia, respectively. The characters distinguishing _longicauda_ and _oribasus_ are not shown by white winter skins; the skull shows some features of _longicauda_, and the reference of these specimens to _oribasus_ rather than _longicauda_ is tentative. Only the skull from Little Prairie shows evidence of infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites. In the Barkerville area of British Columbia, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas T. McCabe obtained only 2 skulls of this subspecies from a total of 238 weasel skulls gathered by local trappers. The others were _Mustela erminea_. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 46, listed by localities from north to south and unless otherwise indicated, in the United States National Museum. =British Columbia.= West of Hudson Hope, 1[7]; Clearwater River, tributary to Peace River, 1; Little Prairie, a few miles south of Peace River and about 40 miles west of the main highway between Dawson Creek and Fort St. John, 1[85]; Wistaria, 3[85]; Four Mile Creek, 4 mi. NE Quesnel, 1[21]; Isaacs Lake, 3200 ft., 1[74]; Barkerville region, 1[74]; Clear River, 4800 ft., 1[74]; Chezacut, 1[31]; Lillooet 3 (2[77], 1[85]); Alta Lake, 1[31]; source of Kettle River, 7500 ft., 1[75]; E side Beaverfoot Range, 4000 to 4500 ft. between Fraser Creek and 6 mi. SE of Fraser Creek, 1[74]; Cranbrook, 1[86]; head of Cross River, 10 mi. below Assiniboine Pass, 1[7]; camp east of "Kootanie," 1[7]; camp east of Kootanie River, 1[7]. =Alberta.= Thoral Creek, 7000 ft., 50 mi. NE Jasper, 1[2]. =Montana.= _Glacier? County_: Chief Mt. Lake (= Waterton Lake), 1. _Flathead County_: Columbia Falls, 1. _Chouteau? County_: Highwood Mts., 1. _Fergus? County_: Big Snowy Mts., 1. _Wheatland County_: Harlowton, 1[74]. _Ravalli County_: Florence, 2; Hamilton, 1[56]; Darby, 1[56]; Carlos [= Charlos] Heights, 2[74]; Tin Cup District, 2[74]; no locality more definite than county, 2[74]. _Beaverhead County_: Donovan, 1. _Madison County_: Sheridan, 1[74]. _Gallatin County_: Ranch 7-11, Eldridge, 1[60]. _Stillwater County_: Tacy, 2[76]. _County_ in question: Gallatin Valley, 1; Yellowstone Park, 1[75]. =Wyoming.= Glen Creek, Mammoth Hot Springs, 1. _Park County_: Four Bears, 1[2]. =Mustela frenata alleni= (Merriam) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 18, 19, 20, 31, 32 and 33 _Putorius alleni_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:24, June 30, 1896. _Mustela alleni_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:99, December 31, 1912. _Mustela frenata alleni_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:106, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 186451, U. S. Nat. Mus. (formerly 4485/5120, collection of Dr. C. Hart Merriam); Custer, South Dakota; obtained by Vernon Bailey; original no. 90. The skull is complete and unbroken. The upper incisors are missing. All the other teeth are present although the premolars, and especially the canines, are much worn, possibly as the result of the animal's efforts to free itself from a trap. The skin is fairly well made, in a good state of preservation, and entire. _Range._--Canadian, Transition and Upper Sonoran life-zones of the Black Hills of South Dakota and adjacent semi-bad-land territory of Wyoming and Nebraska southward to Mitchell, Scottsbluff County. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. longicauda_ in smaller size, adult males having a total length of less than 400, hind foot less than 45, basilar length less than 43.5, and in adult females total length less than 375, and basilar length less than 40; from _M. f. nevadensis_ in near Clay Color rather than near (14 _n_ to _l_) Brussels Brown of upper parts in summer. _Description._--_Size._--Male: External measurements of the type specimen are: Total length, 372; length of tail, 137; length of hind foot, 44. Tail is 58 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more than basal length. Female: No external measurements for typical adults are available. No. M1 #41 from Mitchell, Scottsbluff Co., Nebraska, an adult female which is an intergrade with the larger _M. f. longicauda_, measures as follows: Total length, 367; length of tail, 120; length of hind foot, 41. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae dark brown or white and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles (in summer pelage) as shown in figure 20. _Color._--Winter pelage unknown; probably white except, of course, tip of tail. Summer pelage as described in _Mustela frenata longicauda_ except that: Least width of color of underparts averaging, in 3 males from Black Hills, 54 (38-62) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail averaging 43 (40-45) mm. long. Thus, averaging approximately same length as hind foot and in type specimen amounting to 33 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on the type and no. 7440 Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., from Hill City, S. Dak.): See measurements and plates 18-20. As described in _Mustela frenata longicauda_ except that: Weight, 3.1 (3.0-3.2) grams; basilar length, 41.0 (40.9-41.0); mastoid breadth not less than postpalatal length; breadth of rostrum more than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4 to 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more or less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale. Female (based on no. 7441, American Mus. Nat. Hist., from Black Hills, S. Dak.): See measurements and plates 31-33. As described in _Mustela frenata longicauda_ except that: Weight, 2.0 grams; basilar length 37.6. The skull of the female is 35 per cent lighter than the average for the two males. Comparison with _M. f. longicauda_ and _M. f. nevadensis_ reveals that the tympanic bullae average more nearly flat and that the skull is smaller. _Remarks._--Animals of this subspecies were described and named by Merriam in 1896 as a distinct species on the basis of two or possibly three specimens from the Black Hills of South Dakota and the name seems never to have been applied to specimens from other regions. Vernon Bailey obtained only the one specimen, the type, on his trip in 1888, but two more were obtained for the American Museum of Natural History by Walter Granger in 1894. _Mustela frenata alleni_ combines the light coloration of _M. f. longicauda_ with the small size of _M. f. nevadensis_. Indeed, the size may average less than that of _nevadensis_. _M. f. alleni_ seems to reach its extreme of small size in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Specimens from Mitchell, Scottsbluff County, Nebraska, here referred to alleni are of larger size and in this respect are intermediate between the subspecies _alleni_ and _longicauda_. Of the two specimens available from Chadron, Nebraska, and here referred to as _longicauda_, the female, M1 #6, is almost exactly intermediate in size between _alleni_ and _longicauda_, whereas the male, Ml #11, is as large as the average-sized _longicauda_. None of the nine skulls (5 adults) shows malformation resulting from the infestation of the frontal sinuses with parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 10, as follows. =Wyoming.= _Crook County_: Sundance, 1[91]. =South Dakota.= _Pennington County_: Hill City, 1[2]; 20 mi. N Elk Mt, 1[91]. _County_ in question: Black Hills, 1[2]. _Custer County_: Custer, 2 (1[91], 1[2]). =Nebraska.= _Scottsbluff County_: Mitchell, 4[35]. =Mustela frenata arizonensis= (Mearns) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 19, 20, 21, 31, 32 and 33 _Putorius arizonensis_ Mearns, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:234, June, 1891; Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:22, fig. 12, June 30, 1896. _Mustela arizonensis_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:99, December 31, 1912. _Mustela frenata arizonensis_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:106, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin; no. 2490/1886, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.; San Francisco Forest [then (1886?), Yavapai County], Arizona; June 20, 1886; obtained by Edgar A. Mearns. The skull (plates 31-33) is complete and unbroken save for a small puncture in the right squamosal. The incisors above and below and M^2 and P^2 on each side are missing. Four canines are preserved separately. Otherwise the teeth are in place. The skin has been taken down from a mount. Some hair has been lost from in front of the ears. Seven mammae are evident and show the animal to have been nursing young. The slightly faded color was mentioned by Mearns in the original description. He says (1891:234): "The memorandum of the colors was made before skinning, the specimen having been subsequently preserved in a solution of alum and salt, which extracted much of the coloring matter." _Range._--Transition to Hudsonian life-zones of Arizona and extreme western New Mexico, along the Colorado River, and south of the Little Colorado River, from San Francisco Mountain region along Mogollon Plateau to extreme western New Mexico. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. neomexicana_ by near (14 _n_) Brussels Brown rather than Buckthorn Brown color of upper parts, in absence rather than presence of white frontal spot continuous with color of underparts, in basilar length of less than 44 in males and 39.3 in females; from _M. f. nevadensis_ in that total length averages less than 375 in males and 330 in females, basilar length averaging less than 41 in males and less than 36.7 in females. _Description._--_Size._--Male: No. 24679/32071, from Springerville, and no. 248993 from the Kaibab Plateau, measure respectively, as follows: Total length, 363, 367; length of tail, 140, 143; length of hind foot, 41.5, 41.0. Tail is 63, and 64 per cent as long as head and body. These males, the only specimens of that sex of which external measurements are available, probably are grading toward _nevadensis_ and therefore are nontypical. Female: Three specimens, one young from Little Spring, a subadult from Deadmans Flat and the type specimen, measure respectively as follows: Total length, 323, 296, 302; length of tail, 110, 101, 109; length of hind foot, 38, 33, 36. These average, 307, 107, 36. Tail averages 53 per cent as long as head and body. Differences in external measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 56; length of tail, 39; hind foot, 5.5. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black, brown or white (often all three colors in same specimen) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot soles (in summer pelage) about as shown in figure 19. _Color._--Winter pelage unknown. Summer pelage with upper parts near (14 n) Brussels Brown or tone 2 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, Pl. 301, darker on top of head from nose to line connecting posterior margins of ears. Tip of tail always black. Chin and upper lips white. Remainder of underparts Buff Yellow to Straw Yellow and rarely Ochraceous Buff. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and wrists, on medial sides of hind legs to ankles and over antiplantar faces of toes, medial third of tarsus, and over proximal fifth to fourth of ventral side of tail. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in 8 specimens, 44 (29-54) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail, in four females averaging 35 (33-38) mm. long. Thus, averaging shorter than hind foot and 32 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. Three of the eight specimens before me (no. 242671 from 25 mi. SE Flagstaff, not available at time of this accounting) have the dark spot near the angle of the mouth faintly indicated, whereas the other five lack the spots. The color is as in _M. f. nevadensis_. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 55211, 65231, and 248993; see p. 422): See measurements and plates 19-21; weight 2.7 and 3.1 grams; basilar length, 40.4; zygomatic breadth more than distance between condylar foramen and Ml or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth more than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth more or less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate more or less than medial length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3-1/2 (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar-premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below talonid of m1. Female (based on the type specimen): See measurements and plates 31-33; weight, 1.6 grams; basilar length, 35.5; zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 and more than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla (nearly equal in each instance); postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and greater (7.1-8.4) than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate equal to inside length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar-premolar tooth-row and greater than length of rostrum. The skull of the female averages 41 per cent lighter than that of the male. Compared with the skull of _M. f. nevadensis_, that of _arizonensis_ is smaller, less heavily ridged and has more inflated tympanic bullae and a relatively greater mastoid breadth. Comparison with the skull of _M. f. neomexicana_ is made in the account of that subspecies. _Remarks._--In 1891 Mearns (234-235) named this weasel as a full species on the basis of two individuals taken by him in 1886 and 1887. Since that time only a few additional specimens have been preserved. Only four are adults. Although this material does not permit of a definition of the subspecies as precise as could be wished, still, it clearly shows that the animals from the plateau region of Arizona are recognizably different from those farther north in the Sierra Nevada of California and those of the Rocky Mountains and Great Basin region northward to the Canadian border. These more northern animals have gone by Mearns' name, _arizonensis_, since the date of its proposal until 1939 when the name _nevadensis_ was proposed. The smaller size, especially of the skull, and the greater inflation of the tympanic bullae are the outstanding characters which distinguish _arizonensis_ from the similarly marked _nevadensis_. The bullae are relatively much inflated throughout but especially so on the posteromedial parts. Although the three adult males and two subadult females available of this subspecies are smaller in most parts measured than any of the scores of _nevadensis_ of similar age that have been measured, overlap in size probably will be found as additional specimens of _arizonensis_ become available. A young female, no. 18513, coll. D. R. Dickey, from Little Spring, does have certain cranial measurements as large as are found in the minimum-sized _nevadensis_ from farther north. Intergradation with the two subspecies whose geographic ranges adjoin that of _arizonensis_ is indicated by specimens at hand. One of these is the adult male from 25 miles southeast of Flagstaff, which shows decided approach to _neomexicana_, in color and in possessing white facial markings less well developed than in _neomexicana_. Even better developed white facial markings, with intervening blackish coloration, are displayed by no. 148271, U. S. Nat. Mus., from 8500 feet altitude on Willow Creek, New Mexico. This subadult female shows approach to _neomexicana_ also in larger size of the skull and entire animal. The great inflation of the posterior part of each of its bullae and the dark color of the upper parts are characters of _arizonensis_. The color of the underparts stops at the ankles leaving the hind feet dark colored, in which respect the specimen is unlike either _neomexicana_ or _arizonensis_. If additional specimens showing the same characters as this one be found at other nearby localities they probably should be given recognition as a separate subspecies. For the present it seems best to regard the specimen merely as an intergrade. Although it might, with almost equal propriety, be referred to either _neomexicana_ or _arizonensis_, the specimen is here placed with the latter. The subadult male from Springerville, Arizona, is of larger size than the topotypical male of _arizonensis_ and in this respect shows slight approach to _nevadensis_. The narrower mastoidal breadth and slightly less inflated tympanic bullae of the male from the Kaibab Plateau may reflect merely individual variation or may represent intergradation in these features with _nevadensis_. The statement made by Merriam (1896:22) that, "The type specimen . . . is an immature female and is of unusually small size. A male obtained by him [Mearns] near the same place is of the normal size, as is another male in the Department collection from Springerville, Ariz., collected by E. W. Nelson," needs correction. The female is not immature. The specimen obtained by Mearns near the same place probably refers to Amer. Mus. No. 2489, from Quaking Asp Settlement, which lacks both the skull and external measurements. As stuffed it is of small size for a male. The male from Springerville, as shown by the external and cranial measurements, is not of normal (_i. e._ average) size, but is smaller than the average for the other populations of similarly colored weasels referred to by Merriam (_op. cit._) as _arizonensis_ but here described under the name _nevadensis_. None of the skulls shows signs of infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 17, arranged alphabetically by states and from north to south by counties in each state. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the collection of the United States National Museum. =Arizona.= _Coconino County_: VT Park, Kaibab Plateau, 1; Deadman Flat, 6400 ft., 1[74]; Little Spring, 1[59]; Government Prairie, near Parks, 1[74]; _Coconino? County_: San Francisco Forest (Yavapai Co., in 1886), 1[2]; 25 mi. SE Flagstaff, 1; Quaking Asp Settlement, 1[2]. _Apache County_: Springerville, 1; North Fork White River, White Mts., 8200 ft., 4[87]; head San Francisco River, Judd Ranch, Alpine, 1[74]; 2 mi. SE Big Lake Knoll, 8700 ft., 24 mi. S Springerville, 1[74]. _Greenlee County_: S end Blue Range, 9000 ft., Prieto Plateau, 1; Beaver Creek, 7000 ft., 1[74]. =New Mexico.= _Grant County_: Mogollon Mts., Willow Creek, 8500 ft., 1. =Mustela frenata nevadensis= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 19, 20, 21, 33, 34, 35 and 39 _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:91, November 20, 1936. _Putorius longicauda_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 136, 1877 (part); Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:83, July 30, 1891. _Putorius (Gale) brasiliensis frenatus_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877 (part). _Putorius arizonensis_, Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:22, figs. 13, 14, June 30, 1896 (part); Stephens, Mammals of California, p. 247, 1906. _Mustela arizonensis_, Grinnell and Swarth, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 10:376, October 31, 1913; Whitlow and Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:247, September 30, 1933. _Mustela arizonensis arizonensis_, Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:102, September 26, 1933. _Mustela frenata_, Boyer, Journ. Mamm., 24:99, February 20, 1943. _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin; no. 41053, Mus. Vert. Zoöl.; three miles east Baker, White Pine County, Nevada; May 30, 1929; obtained by E. R. Hall and W. C. Russell; original no. 2674, E. R. H. The skull (plates 33-35) is complete and unbroken. The teeth all are present and entire. The skin is fairly well made. Eight mammae are evident and show the animal to have been nursing young. _Range._--Altitudinally, 700 feet at Wenatchee, Washington, to the highest parts of the mountains of the western United States; Upper Sonoran Life-zone to Arctic Alpine Life-zone; southern British Columbia in the Cascades and territory west to Monashee Mountains, and Nelson, southward in the Cascades of northern Washington, over western Washington, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada to northeastern Arizona and northern New Mexico; westward from the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado to the western base of the Sierra Nevada and Cascades of California and to the Cascades of southern Oregon. See figures 29 and 30 on pages 221 and 314. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. oribasus_ by smaller average size, see measurements; from _M. f. longicauda_ by near (14 _n_ to _l_) Brussels Brown rather than near (_h_) Clay Color of the upper parts, and in males by a shallower occiput in which the depth of the skull, exclusive of the sagittal crest, and taken at the anterior border of the basioccipital, amounts to less than 59 per cent of the mastoid breadth; from _M. f. alleni_ by near (14 _n_ to _l_) Brussels Brown rather than near (_h_) Clay Color of upper parts in summer; from _M. f. neomexicana_ by near (14 _n_ to _l_) Brussels Brown rather than Buckthorn Brown color of upper parts, in absence of white frontal spot continuous with color of underparts, in basilar length of less than 46 in males and 40 in females; from _M. f. arizonensis_ by total length averaging more than 375 in males and 330 in females, basilar length averaging more than 41 in males and 36.7 in females; from _M. f. inyoensis_ by absence of white facial markings; from _M. f. pulchra_ by absence of light facial markings, near (14 _n_ to _l_) Brussels Brown rather than near (16 _j_) Buckthorn Brown color of upper parts, and lesser size, hind foot less than 40 in females and basilar length averaging less than 46.0 in males; from _M. f. xanthogenys_ by absence of light facial markings and near (14 _n_ to _l_) Brussels Brown rather than Buckthorn Brown color of upper parts; from _M. f. munda_ by absence of white facial markings, presence of color of underparts on ventral face of proximal third of tail, and hind foot of less than 50 in males; from _M. f. saturata_ by presence of light color of underparts on tail and ankle and in lesser average breadth across mastoid processes of skull (see measurements); from _M. f. oregonensis_ by absence of nasofrontal white patch, presence of light color of underparts on ventral face of tail, and shorter skull, which, relative to its length in males, is deeper through the braincase; from _M. f. washingtoni_ by presence of light color of underparts on ventral face of tail, by skull which in male relative to basilar length is shorter in the preorbital region and wider across the zygomata and mastoid processes, and in female has longer preorbital region and larger bullae (see measurements); from _M. f. altifrontalis_ by lighter colored upper parts which are tones 1 to 3 of Raw Umber, pl. 301, rather than tone 4 of Brownish Drab, pl. 302, of Oberthür and Dauthenay, by Buff-Yellow to Straw Yellow rather than near (14´ _a_ to 16´ _c_) Ochraceous-Buff color of underparts, by least width of color of underparts amounting to more than 37 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, by presence of color of underparts on ventral side of tail and on hind leg over ankle, and by lesser depth of skull through frontal region; from _M. f. effera_ by larger size, males averaging 12-1/2 per cent larger in external measurements, 8 per cent larger in linear measurements of skull, and 22 per cent heavier in weight of skull, total length averaging 400 rather than 360, basilar length averaging 43.6 rather than 40.5. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Twenty-one adults from the southern half of the Sierra Nevada of California yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 400 (356-428); length of tail, 150 (125-178); length of hind foot, 46.1 (42-50). Tail averages 60 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot averaging more than basal length. Corresponding measurements of twelve adults from extreme southern and southwestern Colorado are as follows: 407 (355-431); 150 (133-170); 46.0 (42-49). Female: Ten adults from the Sierra Nevada of California yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 349 (336-362); length of tail, 127 (120-133); length of hind foot, 36.3 (32-39). Tail averages 57 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. Corresponding measurements of ten adults from the Rocky Mountains of central Colorado are as follows: 347 (325-375); 123 (111-141); 40 (32-43). The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes, in the Sierras of California are: Total length, 51; length of tail, 23; length of hind foot, 9.8. Weight of 7 adult males from California is 267 (226-345) grams. Two adult females from there weigh 148 and 115 grams and 3 from White Pine County, Nevada, 134, 122 and 124, giving an average of 129 grams. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black, brown or white (often all three colors in same specimen) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles (in summer pelage) about as shown in figure 19. _Color._--Upper parts, in summer, near (14 _n_ to _l_) Brussels Brown or tones 1 to 3 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 301, darker on top of head from nose to line connecting posterior margins of ears. Chin and upper lips white. Remainder of underparts Buff-Yellow to Straw Yellow and sometimes Ochraceous-Buff especially in young, and in some adults from southern Colorado. In winter, all white, except tip of tail, or upper parts near (_j_) Snuff Brown or lighter than Brussels Brown with a smoked effect, and underparts white. Tip of tail at all times black. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and wrists, on medial sides of hind legs to ankles, over antiplantar faces of toes, medial third of tarsus and usually over proximal tenth to three-fourths of ventral side of tail. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in a series of twenty males from the southern half of the Sierra Nevada of California, 59 (37-76) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. In seven males from southern Colorado corresponding percentages are 55 (37-71). Black tip of tail in series from Sierra Nevada averaging 50 (40-60) mm. long; thus longer than hind foot and averaging 33-1/3 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 25 adults, from Sierra Nevada of California): See measurements and plates 19-21; weight, 3.7 (2.9-4.9) grams; basilar length, 43.6 (40.6-46.1); zygomatic breadth more than distance between condylar foramen and M1 (save in four instances) and more than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla (save in two specimens); mastoid breadth more (80 per cent of specimens) or less (20 per cent) than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and more or less than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth more or less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate less than medial length of P4 (except in two specimens); anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 to 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa not carried farther forward than point directly below hypoconid of m1. Female (based on ten adults from Sierra Nevada of California): See measurements and plates 33-35; weight, 2.2 (1.8-2.4) grams; basilar length, 38.2 (36.7-39.5); zygomatic breadth more (except in one specimen) than distance between condylar foramen and M1 and more (save in two specimens) than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and less than (except in one specimen) width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate more or less than either outside or inside length of P4 but generally less than inside length; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 to 5-1/2 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more or less (usually more) than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and more or less than length of rostrum. The skull of the female averages 41 per cent lighter than that of the average male. Compared with the skull of _M. f. longicauda_, that of both sexes averages smaller in every measurement taken. Males of _nevadensis_, on the average, relative to the basilar length, are narrower in the interorbital region and across the zygomata but have the orbitonasal length greater. Stated in another way, the rostrum of _longicauda_ appears to be shorter and broader and the zygomata are more expanded. Females of _nevadensis_, on the average, relative to the basilar length are narrower across the mastoid processes and zygomata and have the braincase deeper at the anterior margin of the basioccipital. Also in _nevadensis_ the mastoid processes do not project so far laterally beyond the braincase, the lambdoidal crest and postorbital processes are less well developed and except in the interparietal region, the temporal ridges hardly meet and they form a sagittal furrow rather than a low sagittal crest which characterizes adult females of _longicauda_. Each of these differences separating the females of _longicauda_ from those of _nevadensis_ are of the same nature, although not necessarily of the same degree, as those which appear in _longicauda_ with increasing age. The differences mentioned above are readily appreciable when series of specimens are compared. However, none of the differences is of great degree, and most parts of the skulls of the two subspecies are of similar relative proportions. Even so, there is but little overlap in actual size. Comparisons with the skulls of _M. f. oribasus_, _alleni_, _neomexicana_, _arizonensis_, _inyoensis_, _pulchra_, _xanthogenys_, _munda_, _saturata_, _oregonensis_, _washingtoni_, _altifrontalis_, and _effera_ are made in the accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--The populations to which the name _nevadensis_ at present is assigned have gone by the name _arizonensis_ since Mearns proposed this name in 1891. Before that time Coues (1877:141) had included individuals of this race under the name _Putorius longicauda_. Among the populations here assigned to _M. f. nevadensis_, there is some geographic variation but it is of lesser degree than in most other species of mammals which range over the same region. Comparison of 20 adult males from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado with 25 adult males from a place as far distant as the Sierra Nevada of California shows that the two populations closely resemble each other. The specimens from Colorado average a trifle wider across the zygomata, have a longer body and therefore relatively shorter tail, and, except in southern Colorado, a slightly longer hind foot. Comparison of ten adult females from each of the two areas reveals that those from Colorado have a markedly longer hind foot, and a tail somewhat shorter relative to the length of the body. The mentioned differences are the only ones found among the great number of points investigated, except that as remarked by Merriam (1896:23) the Sierran animal has the yellow of the underparts reaching farther up under the chin, the underside of the tail on the average is more suffused with yellowish and the white on the upper lip is more extensive. As regards the last mentioned feature, my check of 34 skins from Colorado reveals that the white extends all the way around the upper lip in every specimen but one, whereas in 69 specimens from the Sierra Nevada the white extends all the way around the upper lip in only 39. However, as further remarked by Merriam (_loc. cit._), not only this but the other color features are inconstant in addition to being slight. When the occurrence of the dark spots near the angles of the mouth are tabulated, it is found that in 33 Colorado-taken specimens they are absent in 19, faintly indicated in 13, and well developed in 1. In 62 California-taken specimens they are absent in 37, faintly indicated in 20, and well developed in 5. In northwestern Colorado, southern Wyoming, and possibly through the Bear River Divide into southeastern Idaho, long-tailed weasels here referred to _nevadensis_ approach _longicauda_ in large size and occasionally in other features, more closely than do specimens of _nevadensis_ from most other places in its range. This tendency is thought to be significant for much of the area in question lies in or below the Transition Life-zone, the same life zones in which farther to the eastward true _longicauda_ occurs. One specimen that illustrates this approach to _longicauda_ is an adult male, no. 2334, collection of E. R. Warren, from 6160 feet, Lay, Routt [now Moffat] County, Colorado. In large size and, relative to the basilar length, shorter rostrum and shorter tympanic bullae, it agrees with _longicauda_ but the darker color and, relative to the basilar length, narrowness of the rostrum, interorbital region, zygomatic expanse and the shallowness through the region of the postorbital processes place it with _nevadensis_. Of two other specimens from Steamboat Springs, Routt County, a young male, no. 4010, in the collection of E. R. Warren, has a hind foot (50 mm.) as long as in _longicauda_; and the other, no. 138195, U. S. Nat. Mus., an adult male, agrees well enough in size and proportions with _nevadensis_ but has the coloration typical of _longicauda_. From Wyoming, one subadult female, no. 177553, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Garrett, is intermediate in size and coloration but is nearer to _nevadensis_ in these particulars, as it is in all other points considered except size of the molar teeth which are as large as in _longicauda_ and larger than in any female _nevadensis_ from Colorado or California. Another female, an adult, no. 179304, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Lonetree, Wyoming, agrees with _longicauda_ in size of skull. Indeed, ten of seventeen cranial measurements exceed the maximum for Colorado-taken _nevadensis_. Where differences exist in relative proportions of the skull as expressed in percentages of the basilar length, the specimen approaches _nevadensis_ in 5 instances and _longicauda_ in only 3. The color is intermediate but much nearer that of _nevadensis_ with which the animal agrees also in external measurements. Ten subadults (5 of each sex) from within 12 miles of Laramie (not Fort Laramie) show greater resemblance to _nevadensis_ but definitely approach _longicauda_. Average external measurements are: [M], 408, 155, 44; [F], 361, 134, 40. The two other specimens examined from this general locality, a young female, no. 2711, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., from Fort Bridger, and a subadult female, no. 188377, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Bridger Pass, show no departures from _nevadensis_ of similar age. The specimens from scattered localities in the Transition Life-zone of northwestern Colorado and southern Wyoming are larger than _nevadensis_ is elsewhere, and also in certain other features resemble _longicauda_ of the plains to the eastward. Everything considered, the animals in question are much more like _nevadensis_ than _longicauda_. Study of more specimens, especially from Wyoming, might provide grounds for recognizing as a different subspecies the animals in this large area comprising parts of Colorado and Wyoming from which so few specimens now are available. Possibly the name _Putorius culbertsoni_ Coues would apply. Decision on that point will require adequate material from the type locality, Fort Laramie. See discussion of this name under _M. f. longicauda_. In southeastern Idaho males are larger than they are at most other places within the range of _nevadensis_. An average of 7 adults and subadults from Pegram, Montpelier, Springfield, and the vicinity of Pocatello, reveals, when compared with the average of _nevadensis_ from Colorado and that of _longicauda_ from the Great Plains, that this population from southeastern Idaho is nearest to _longicauda_ in linear measurements of the orbitonasal length, mastoid breadth, length of tympanic bullae, and as expressed in percentage of the basilar length, length of tooth-row, breadth of rostrum, and zygomatic breadth. In all other points of size, relative proportions and color, the animals approach nearer to, or actually agree with, _nevadensis_. The specimens commented upon clearly show intergradation between _nevadensis_ and _longicauda_. Similarly, the specimens from Scottsbluff County, Nebraska, here referred to _M. f. alleni_, by their larger size suggest intergradation of that subspecies with the larger _nevadensis-longicauda_ stock although the approach is more toward _longicauda_ than _nevadensis_. Between _oribasus_ and _nevadensis_, however, there is no lack of material showing intergradation. As set forth in the account of _oribasus_, specimens from Montana are truly intermediate structurally as well as geographically. Intergradation with _washingtoni_ is shown by specimens from the northern part of the Cascade Range in Chelan and Okanogan counties, Washington. The adult male, U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 235183, from Bald Mountain, is referable to _washingtoni_ on the basis of cranial characters but all the other adult and subadult specimens examined from Chelan and Okanogan counties are nearer _nevadensis_ on the basis of cranial characters. Indeed, some show no approach to _washingtoni_ in cranial characters. As might be expected on geographic grounds, the specimen from Easton, U. S. Nat. Mus., male subadult, no. 116870, shows approach to _washingtoni_. This is true of the coloration of the hind limbs, small size of the tympanic bullae, and relatively greater length of the preorbital part of the skull. However, the greater width of the light color of the underparts and relatively great breadth across the mastoid processes and zygomatic arches are points of agreement with _nevadensis_. Similarly, a series of 7 specimens from the Entait River, 20 miles above its mouth, in tone of color is nearer to _washingtoni_, as is one of the two skulls of adult males in length of the preorbital region. However, in greater breadth of the skull otherwise, and in the relatively great width of the light color of the underparts, the animals are nearer to _nevadensis_, to which they are here referred. Some of these characters mentioned above in which departure is shown from typical _nevadensis_ are characters that show approach to _altifrontalis_. This is especially true of the more intense coloration and restriction of the color of the underparts. Complete intergradation with _effera_ is shown by specimens from southern Oregon. The change from small _effera_ to the larger _nevadensis_ here is gradual; consequently in northeastern California and southern Oregon the size increases gradually to the northward. Specimens showing complete intergradation with _oregonensis_ and _saturata_ are wanting. However, one specimen from Crescent Lake suggests _oregonensis_ in having near (18) apricot yellow underparts such as occur frequently in _oregonensis_. Also some specimens from northern California approach _saturata_ in having the color of the underparts reduced in the extent to which it reaches out on the under side of the tail. This fact and the consideration that the two races are less different from one another than are other kinds which definitely are known to intergrade leave no doubt but that material from the intervening localities would show complete intergradation. Intergradation between _nevadensis_ and _munda_ is indicated by specimens from South Yolla Bolly Mountain, Trinity County, which are commented on at greater length in the account of _M. f. munda_. _M. f. inyoensis_ is so closely related to _nevadensis_ as to leave no doubt that specimens from suitable localities will show actual intergradation. That intergradation occurs directly with the bridled weasel of the interior valleys of California, _M. f. xanthogenys_, is shown by specimens from along the west-facing flank of the southern part of the Sierra Nevada. Probably intergradation occurs all along the Sierra Nevada on the western slope but specimens are lacking to show this. Weasels are known to occur in the foothill territory and the lesser attention given to this region by mammal collectors than to the higher parts of the mountains may explain the lack of preserved specimens. Individual specimens, here referred to _nevadensis_, but, showing varying degrees of approach to _xanthogenys_ are as follows: A female from Hume; a male and a female from 8000 feet elevation, Monache Meadows; a male from 9800 feet elevation on the east fork of the Kaweah River; and 7 specimens, probably one family, from one-half mile south of Mineral King, 7850 feet. Of the specimens from 7850 feet, the adult male has no light facial markings and the head is only slightly darker than the back. The adult female has much restricted, light facial markings and the intervening areas are darker than in the male. The five juveniles trapped in the same burrow as the female, each has more extensive light facial markings than the adult female although the area of this varies from only slightly more than in the female to as much as in typical specimens of _xanthogenys_. Also, the dark color of the head in these five specimens averages darker than in _nevadensis_ and more as in weasels to the southwestward especially _latirostra_. One of the five juveniles is lighter colored over all of the upper parts than _nevadensis_ and is suggestive of _xanthogenys_ in this respect. Finally, the adult male has on the underparts small spots of ochraceous orange suggestive of _latirostra_ and some individuals of _pulchra_. No. 30655/42628, U. S. Nat. Mus., taken on Mount Whitney, also shows white facial markings and some other features of the valley-inhabiting _xanthogenys_. A suggestion of intergradation with _arizonensis_ is furnished by specimens, referred to that race, from Springerville and the Kaibab Plateau. No specimens happen to be available from the region in which intergradation would be expected between _nevadensis_ and _neomexicana_. Since _neomexicana_ and _arizonensis_ intergrade it is probable that _nevadensis_ also will be found to intergrade with _neomexicana_. In summary, _nevadensis_ is judged to intergrade with each of the subspecies of _Mustela frenata_ whose range adjoins that of _nevadensis_. This subspecies is remarkably free from injury to the frontal sinuses such as result from the presence of parasites. In 98 adults from Oregon, California, Nevada, and Colorado, no malformation was noted. Only 1 of the 26 specimens from Washington was malformed and it was an intergrade with _washingtoni_. The single adult from New Mexico was diseased, as were 3 of the 6 from British Columbia, 1 of the 20 from Idaho, and 1 of the 7 from Utah. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 568, arranged alphabetically by provinces and states and from north to south by counties in each state. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the collection of the United States National Museum. =Arizona.= _Apache County_: 15 mi. E Luka Chu Kai Navajo School, 8000 ft., 2. =British Columbia.= Monte Cr., 20 mi. E Kamloops, 1[21]; Sicamous, 2; Okanagan, 18 (7[2], 6[85], 1[75], 1[86]); Monashee Pass, 1[31]; Swan Lake, near Okanagan Landing, 1[22]; Okanagan Landing, 11 (2[74], 3[31], 3[86], 3[22]); Vernon, 1[74]; Hope-Princeton Summit, 5600 ft., 1[77]; Hope, 1[20]; Similkameen, 1[77]; Osoyoos-Bridesville Summit, 1[77]; Anarchist Mt., Osoyoos, 1[31]; Myer's Creek, 1[77]; Rossland, Mt. Glory, 7000 ft, 1[77]; Cascade, 1[77]; Nelson, 1. =California.= _Siskiyou County_: Hornbrook, 1; Tule Lake Refuge, 5[74]; Upper Mud Creek, 6700 ft., Mt. Shasta, 3; Mt. Shasta, 1. _Modoc County_: Goose Lake, 1[20]; Joseph Creek, 1[74]; 5280 ft., Parker Creek, near Alturas, 1[74]; Warner Mts., near Alturas, 1[8]; 5 mi. NW Eagle Peak, 7000 ft., 2[74]; Shields Creek, 5000 ft., 1[74]; Jess Valley, 1[8]. _Shasta County_: Cassel, 1. _Lassen County_: 3 mi. W Eagle Lake, 5800 ft., 1[74]; 4 mi. S Eagle Lake, 6000 ft., 2[74]; Mill Creek, 5000 ft., S base Mt. Lassen, 1; 6 mi. SW Calneva, 1. _Tehama County_: Dale's, 600 ft., on Paines Creek, 1[74]. _Plumas County_: Kelly's, 2 mi. S Willow Lake, 5200 ft., 3[74]; Quincy, 4[68]; Beckwith, Sierra Valley, 1. _Butte County_: Jonesville, 1[74]. _Sierra_ _County_: Little Truckee River, 6500 ft., 3 mi. N Independence Lake, 2[42]. _Nevada County_: Independence Lake, 1[74]. _Placer County_: Donner, 3; 2 mi. W Soda Springs Station, 6500 ft., 1[74]; Blue Canyon, 5000 ft., 2 (1[74]); 4 mi. S Tahoe City, 1[74]. _Eldorado County_: 5 mi. S Tallac, 6300 ft., 1; Gilmore Lake, Mt. Tallac, 2[74]; Mt. Tallac, 1[68]; Phillips, 1[59]. _Alpine County_: 8000 ft., Hope Valley, 1; 8000 ft., Silver Creek, 1. _Tuolumne County_: Strawberry, 5200 ft., 1[74]; 9300 ft., Ten Lakes, Yosemite Park, 1[74]; Tuolumne Meadows, 8600 ft., Yosemite Park, 1[74]; Tuolumne Meadows (Soda Springs), 1; Tuolumne Meadows, 8500 ft., Yosemite Park, 1[74]; Sequoia, 1. _Mariposa County_: Chinquapin, 6256 ft., 2[74]; Merced Grove Big Trees, 5400 ft., 1[74]; Wawona, 1; no locality more definite than county, 1. _Madera County_: Bass Lake, 1[74]. _Mono County_: Tioga Crest, near Tioga Pass, 4[74]; Warren Creek, 1[74]; Tioga Lake, 1[74]; Ellery Lake, 9600 ft., 1[74]; Mono Lake P. O., Mono Lake, 1[74]; Walker Lake, 8000 ft., 2[74]; Pine City, 1; Mammoth, 13 (12[59], 1[14]); 10300 ft., near Big Prospector Meadow, White Mts., 2[74]. _Inyo County_: Little Onion Valley, 7500 ft., 1[74]; N Fork Bishop Cr., 10500 ft., 1[74]; S fork Bishop Cr., Andrews Camp, 8000 ft., 1[74]; South Lake, S Fk. Bishop Cr., 9750 ft., 1[74]; Lamarck Cr., 9900 ft., 15 mi. SW Bishop, 1[74]. _Fresno County_: Hume, 1. _Tulare County_: Mt. Whitney, 2; Whitney Meadow, 9800 ft., 1[74]; Monache Meadow, 8000 ft., 3[74]; E fork Kaweah River, 9800 ft., 1; 1/2 mi. S Mineral King, 7850 ft., 7[52]; Quaking Aspen Meadow, 7500 ft., 1[52]. =Colorado.= _Moffat County_: Lay, 1[19]. _Routt County_: Steamboat Springs, 2 (1[19]); no locality more definite than county, 1[57]. _Jackson County_: Higho, North Park, 8400 ft., 1; Buffalo or Illinois Creek, "near Rand," 6[74]. _Washington County_: 6 mi. NE Hillrose, 1[74]. _Larimer County_: Estes Park, 2 (1[2], 1[7]); Pinewood, 1; Loveland, 2 (1[57]); no locality more definite than county, 1[7]. _Rio Blanco County_: Compass Creek, 9000 ft., 1[2]; White River, 6200 ft., 1[21]; Piceance Creek, 6200 ft., 1[2]; Dry Fork, 6200-6600 ft., 4[2]; Meeker, 1; Marvine, 1[74]. _Grand County_: Crembling [= Kremmling?], 1[50]; Middle Park, 1[57]. _Boulder County_: Foot Mt. Meeker, 8700 ft., 1[2]; Silver Lake Mine, 1[60]; Boulder, 1[60]; Dixie Lake, 2 (1[2], 1[57]); Caribou, 1[2]; no locality more definite than county, 1. _Clear Creek County_?: Grays Peak, 1[93]. _Jefferson County_: 7000 ft., Mt. Parks, 1[57]; 6 mi. W Denver, 1[57]. _Adams County_: Barr, 1[2]; near East Lake, 2[57]. _Denver County_: Denver, 2 (1[2], 1[74]). _Arapahoe County_: Littleton, 1[19]. _Summit County_: Breckenridge, 1[57]. _Eagle County_: Eagle, 9500 ft., 1[104]. _Park County_: Jefferson, 4 (1[2]); 12800 ft., Mt. Bross, 1[57]. _Mesa County_: Tunnel, 1. _Montrose County_: near Crawford, Clear Fork of Smiths Fork, 1[19]; Coventry, 3 (1[19]); Naturita, 1; Paradox, 1[94]; West Paradox Valley, 1[57]. _Pitkin County_: Placita, 2[26]. _Gunnison County_: Marble, 1[26], Crested Butte, 2[19]; Deckers Ranch, Crested Butte, 2[19]; Sapinero, 7245 ft., 1[19]. _Chaffee County_: Buena Vista, 1[76]; Hancock, 1[16]; Salida, 5[19]. _Teller County_: Glencore, Pikes Peak, 1[76]. _El Paso County_: Monument, 1[76]; Seven Lakes, 1[19]; Lake Moraine, 10250 ft., 1[19]; Colorado Springs, 6000 ft., 1[19]; 5 mi. E Sand Creek, Colorado Springs, 1[19]; no locality more definite than county, 1[50]. _Saguache County_: Villa Grove, 1[19]; Pierce Place, Cochetopa Nat. Forest, 1; Houselog Creek, Cochetopa Nat. Forest, 1; P. Tevebaugh's Ranch, near Cochetopa Pass, 1; P. Tevebaugh's Ranch, 9 mi. S Cochetopa Pass, 1. _Rio Grande County_: between Monte Vista and Del Norte, 1[88]. _Archuleta County_: Upper Navajo River, 2[57]; Navajo River, 5 (4[57], 1[2]); Chromo, 2[57]. _Conejos County_: Osier, 3[57]. _Montezuma County_: Ure Peak, 1[57]. _County_ in question: Del Norte Peak, 1[76]; no locality more definite than state, 4[75]. =Idaho.= _Latah County_: Cedar Mt., 4000 ft., 12 mi. NE Moscow, 1[55]; Moscow and 1/2 mi. W, 2[97]. _Idaho County_: Lochsa River (= Locksaw Fork), 1; between Selway Riv., and S Fork Clearwater Riv., 8[74]; Selway Divide, 8[74]; Pilot Creek, 2[74]; Newsome Cr., 1[74]. _Lemhi County_: Salmon River Mts., (now Lemhi Mts.), 8000 ft., 5; Leadore, 3. _Adams County_: summit Smith Mt., 7500 ft., 1[41]. _Washington County_: Midvale, 2. _Custer County_: Pahsimeroi Mts., 1; Double Springs, 16 mi. NE Dickey, 1[74]; Mackay?, 1; Stanley Lake, 1. _Payette County_: 2 mi. S Payette, 1[74]. _Fremont County_: 17 mi. E, 4 mi. N Ashton, 6275 ft., 2[74]. _Teton County_: 3 mi. S Victor, 1[74]. _Jefferson County_: 20 mi. W Camas, 1. _Blaine County_: Sawtooth City, 1; Ketchum, 5 (3[50], 2[75]). _Canyon County_: Nampa 3. _Clark County_: Dry Creek, Targhee Nat. Forest, 1[2]; Birch Creek, 2. _County_ in question: North fork of Teton River, 1. _Bingham County_: Shelley, 1; Alridge, 2; Springfield, 1. _Lincoln County_: Shoshone, 1. _Minidoka County_: 1/4 mi. E Heyburn Bridge, 1[74]. _Power County_: 4 mi. NW American Falls, 1[74]. _Bannock County_: 3 mi. N Schutt's Mine, Ross Creek, 1[74]; 3 mi. N Pocatello, 1[74]; near (within 10 miles of) Pocatello, 1[74]; 3 mi. S Pocatello, 1[74]; 1 mi. E Portneuf, 1[74]; 2 mi. up Mink Creek, 2 (1[74], 1[41]); Inkom, 2; Swan Lake, 1. _Owyhee County_: 5 mi. SE Riddle, 1; Three Creek, 2. _Cassia County_: Elba, 1[52]. _Bear Lake County_: Geneva, 6171 ft., 1[74]; Montpelier, 1; Paris, 6000 ft., 1[6]; Pegram, 2. =Nevada.= _Humboldt County_: Alder Creek, 7000 ft., Pine Forest Mts., 1[74]; head of Big Creek, 8000 ft., Pine Forest Mts., 1[74]; Cottonwood Range, 1; Calico Mt., Little Owyhee R., 1; Mahogany, Little Owyhee R., 2; Sulphur, 1. _Pershing County_: Lovelocks, 1. _Elko County_: Mountain City, 3; Three Lakes, Ruby Mts., 1[41]. _Washoe County_: Pyramid Lake, 1; 3 mi. E Reno, 1[74]; Incline Creek, 7100 ft., 1[74]; 2-1/2 mi. S Incline, 6250 ft., 1[74]; E side Marlette Lake, 8000 ft., 1[74]; Marlette Lake, 8000 ft., 1[74]. _Ormsby County_: 1/2 mi. S Marlette Lake, 8150 ft., 1[74]. _Churchill County_: 4 mi. W Fallon, 1[74]; 3 mi. W Fallon, 1[74]; 2 mi. W Fallon, 1[74]; Fallon, 3970 ft., 1[74]. 5 mi. S Fallon, 4000 ft., 1[74]; 8 mi. S and 3 mi. E Fallon, 1[74]. _Douglas County_: Mt. Siegel, 1[60]. _Mineral County_: Lapon Cañon, 8900 ft., Mt. Grant, 1. _Nye County_: Arc Dome, 1; 10700 ft., 1/2 mi. SW Jefferson Peak, Toquima Range, 1[74]. _White Pine County_: 3 mi. E Baker, 1[74]; Baker Creek, 6600 ft., 4[74]; Baker Creek, 8400 to 8450 ft., 4[74]; Gleason Creek, 7500 ft., 1[74]. _Esmeralda County_: Arlemont, 4850 ft., Fish Lake Valley, 1[74]. _Lincoln County_: 3 mi. S Crystal Spring, 3900 ft., Pahranagat Valley, 1[27]. =New Mexico.= _Taos County_: 2 mi. N Twining, 10500 ft., 1; Taos, 2. _Santa Fe County_: 11600 ft., Pecos Baldy, 1. _San Miguel County_: 8000 ft., above Willis, Pecos River, Forest Reserve, 2[75]; Ribera, 1. =Oregon= (by counties from west to east). _Jackson County_: Rustler Peak, Crater Nat. Forest, 1[46]; Siskiyou (probably south of), 2. _Klamath County_: 20 mi. W Crescent, 1[101]; Anna Creek, Mt. Mazama, 2; S Boundary Crater Lake Nat. Park, 1[74]; Fort Klamath, 15; Upper Klamath Lake, 2[4]; Klamath Falls, 1[75]. _Lake County_: Dog Lake Ranger Station, 30 mi. SW Lakeview, 1. _Harney County_: Camp Harney, 2[75]; Burns, 2 (1[101]); 20 mi. S Burns, 1[46]; Narrows, 1[59]; Voltage, 1; Shirk P. O., 2; Keiger Gorge, Steen Mts., 4. _Malheur County_: Riverside, 1; 2 mi. NW Riverside, 2; Barren Valley, Cord, 1; Cedar Mts., 2; Cow Creek Lake, 1; Jordan Valley, 1. _County_ in question: Sageview, 1. =Utah.= _Cache County_: Logan, 1[74]. _Rich County_: 8000 ft., near Laketown, 1. _Boxelder County_: Willard, 1[103]. _Salt Lake County_: Salt Lake City, 1[74]; Barclay, 6500 ft., Wasatch Mts., 1; Mill Creek, 1[103]. _Utah County_: Provo Bench, 2[6]; Aspen Grove, Mt. Timpanogos, 1[6]; Payson, 1[6]. _Juab County_: between Santaquin and Starr, 1[103]. _Uinta County_: Dry Fork Canyon, 20 mi. NW Vernal, 1[9]. _Carbon County_: Sunnyside, 1[44]; Range Creek, 1[44]. _Millard County_: Deseret, 1[74]. _Sevier? County_: Fish Lake Plateau, 1. _Grand County_: Warner Ranger Station, La Sal Mts., 1[6]. _Beaver County_: Britts Meadows, 11000 ft., Beaver Range, 1[2]; Britts Meadows, Beaver Range, 1; Puffer Lake, 1[44]. _Garfield County_: Boulder, 2[6]. _Washington County_: Pine Valley, 1[44]; St. George, 1. _San Juan County_: Geyser Pass, La Sal Mts., 2[6]. _County_ in question: Salt Lake, 2; Wasatch Mts., 1; La Sal Mts., 11000 ft., 1. =Washington.= _Okanogan County_: Bald Mt., 6800 ft., 1; Bauerman Ridge, 6800 ft., Tungsten Mine, 1; Hart Pass, Methow River Trail, 1[46]; Conconully, 2 (1[51], 1[49]); 5 mi. NW Loomis, 1; Molson, 3800 ft., 1; Tunk Mt., 3500 ft., 1. _Whatcom County_: Barron, 5000 ft., 1. _Stevens County_: Colville, 1; Orin, 11[51]. _Pend Oreille County_: Ione, 6[51]. _Chelan County_: Chelan Mts., 1[2]; Lake Chelan, 1[46]; Manson, 1; Entiat River, 1680 ft., 20 mi. from mouth, 7; Dryden, 2[49]; Wenatchee, 1. _Kittitas County_: Easton, 2 (1[51]); Ellensburg, 1[51]; 4 mi. E Ellensburg, 1[51]. _Grant County_: Neppel, 1[51]. _Lincoln County_: Sprague, 1. _Spokane County_: Spokane, 1[94]; Cheney 2[89]. _Whitman County_: Pullman, 11 (6[55], 1[68], 1[10]); 6 mi. S Pullman, 1. _Garfield County_: Snake River, 1. _Yakima County_: Yakima, 1[74]; 1 mi. W Moxee, 1[74]. =Wyoming.= NW Wyoming, 1[75]. _Yellowstone National Park_: Lamar River, 1; Yellowstone Lake, 1. _Park County_: Greybull River, 1[80]. _Teton County_: Crystal Creek, 2; Jackson, 1; Whetstone Creek, 2[76]. _Johnson County_: Buffalo, 4 (2[93]). _Fremont County_: Continental Divide, 20 mi. NW Dubois, 1[75]. _Sublette County_: Bronx, 1[75]. _Carbon County_: Medicine Bow Mts., 1[75]; 15 mi. SE Parco, 1[74]. _Albany County_: Garrett, 1; 12 mi. W Laramie, 1[74]; 7 mi. W Laramie, 2[74]; 5 mi. W Laramie, 4[74]; "near" Laramie, 1[74]; 3 mi. SW Laramie, 1[74]; 12 mi. S Laramie, 1[74]. _Uinta County_: Fort Bridger, 6800 ft., 1[74]; Lonetree, 1; Bridger Pass, 1. _County_ in question: Laramie River, 2. No locality more definite than state, 1. =Mustela frenata effera= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 19, 20 and 21 _Mustela frenata effera_ Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:93, November 20, 1936. _Mustela arizonensis_, Dice, Journ. Mamm., 1:12, November 28, 1919. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 33637, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.; Ironside, 4000 ft., Malheur County, Oregon; September 8, 1912; obtained by H. E. Anthony; original no. 267. The skull (plates 19-21) is complete and unbroken. The teeth all are present and entire. The skin, in summer pelage, is well made. _Range._--Upper Sonoran to Arctic Alpine life-zones of northern two-thirds of Oregon east of the Cascades, and southeastern Washington, south of the Snake River. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. nevadensis_ in small size, males averaging 12-1/2 per cent smaller in external measurements, 8 per cent smaller in linear measurements of skull, and 22 per cent in weight of skull, total length averaging 360 rather than 400, condylobasal length averaging 40.5 rather than 43.6; from _M. f. oregonensis_ in absence of frontonasal white patch, presence of light color of underparts on ventral face of tail and smaller skull with basilar length averaging less than 41.7 in males; from _M. f. washingtoni_ in presence of light color of underparts on ventral face of tail, in male skull by linear measurements averaging 7 (5-12) per cent shorter and relative to basilar length shorter in preorbital region and broader across mastoid processes and zygomatic arches. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Eight (6 adult and 2 subadult) males from northeastern Oregon yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 360 (340-378); length of tail, 129 (122-136); length of hind foot, 42 (40-44). Tail averages 56 (52-59) per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more or less than (about same as) basal length. Female: No. 212423 from Vale, and no. 566 V. B. Scheffer, from 15 mi. E Ukiah, measure, respectively: Total length, 312, 306; length of tail, 113, 114; length of hind foot, 35, 35. Tail averages 57 per cent as long as head and body. Differences in external measurements between the one adult female and the average of the males are: Total length, 51; length of tail, 16; length of hind foot, 7. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black, brown or white (often all three colors in same specimen) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles (in summer pelage) about as shown in stage 4 of figure 19. _Color._--Upper parts, in summer, near (14 _n_ to _l_) Brussels Brown or tones 1 to 3 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 301, darker on top of head from nose to, or slightly behind, line connecting posterior margins of ears. Chin and usually all of upper lips white. Remainder of underparts Buff-Yellow to Straw Yellow. In winter all white except tip of tail or upper parts near (_j_) Snuff Brown or lighter than Brussels Brown with a smoked effect, with underparts white. Tip of tail at all times black. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of toes and wrists, on medial sides of hind legs to ankles over antiplantar faces of toes, distomedial third of tarsus and usually over proximal fourth to three-fourths of ventral side of tail. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in 15 males, 53 (36-69) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail averaging 47 (38-67) mm. long. Thus averaging longer than hind foot, and 36 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 6 adults from northeastern Oregon): See measurements and plates 19-21. As described in _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ except that: Weight, 2.9 (2.5-3.4) grams; basilar length, 40.5 (39.3-41.8). Female (based on no. 212423, adult from Vale): In so far as parts of the broken skull permit a person to judge, the skull is as described in _M. f. nevadensis_ except that: Smaller; lighter; postorbital breadth more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite. As compared with the skull of _M. f. nevadensis_ that of _effera_ seems, on the average, to have the preorbital part relatively smaller. Otherwise, the skull is a miniature of the skull of _nevadensis_, averaging about eight per cent smaller in linear measurements and weighs twenty-two per cent less. Comparisons of the skull with those of _M. f. washingtoni_ and _M. f. oregonensis_ are made in accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--This geographic race has long borne the name of _Mustela arizonensis_ (Mearns). Small size differentiates _effera_ from _nevadensis_ and specimens have been allocated to one or the other subspecies on the basis of size, or average size when several individuals are available from one locality. Complete intergradation with each adjoining subspecies is indicated by numerous specimens, more of which are assigned to these adjoining subspecies than to _effera_ itself. The minimum of size in _M. f. effera_ is found in the Blue Mountain region of northeastern Oregon. Specimens from the area intervening between these mountains and the Cascades average larger but are nearer the mean of typical _effera_ than they are to the means of _washingtoni_, _oregonensis_ or _nevadensis_. Two males, nos. 204883, adult, and 204884, young, from Sisters, Oregon, near the eastern base of the Cascades, show approach structurally to _M. f. washingtoni_ as it is represented at the nearby locality, Permilia Lake, at the west base of Mount Jefferson. Everything considered, however, the two specimens from Sisters are nearer to _effera_. A male from Condon, Oregon, shows approach to the Cascade race in slightly increased size. No perfect skulls of adult females are available from the part of northwestern Oregon in which _effera_ reaches its typical state of development as judged by the small size of the skull of the adult male. Skulls of adult females are available, however, from more nearly marginal localities. These, though smaller than in _nevadensis_, show relatively less difference in size when compared with _nevadensis_ than do skulls of males. Even so the females at these marginal localities are smaller than those of _nevadensis_ of comparable age and adequate material of adult female _effera_ from the region where the males attain their extreme of small size probably will show about the same relative difference in size between _nevadensis_ and _effera_ as is known to exist between the adult males of these two subspecies. The small size of a subadult female, no 74631, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Asotin, Washington, constitutes partial basis for this opinion. Of 14 adults examined none showed malformation of the frontal sinuses due to infestation by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 53, arranged within each state by counties from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the collection of the United States National Museum. =Oregon.= _Wasco County_: 4 mi. S The Dalles, 1[74]; Wapinita, 1; Antelope, 2; 7 mi. E Antelope, 5. _Gilliam County_: Condon, 1[46]. _Morrow County_: 10 mi. S Hardman, 1. _Umatilla County_: Umatilla, 2; 15 mi. E Ukiah, 4000 ft., 1[49]. _Union County_: Elgin, 1; 20 mi. E Lehman, 1[46]. _Wallowa County_: Horse Creek, 15 mi. N Paradise, 1; Enterprise, 1[46]; Wallowa Lake, 1[46]; Wallowa Mts., 8300 ft., 1. _Baker County_: Haines, 1[49]; Anthony, 3[2]; Bourne, 2. _Grant County_: Long Creek, 1[46]; Canyon Creek, 1[46]; Strawberry Mts., 2; Silvies, 1[14]. _Crook County_: Prineville, 4. _Deschutes County_: Sisters, 2; Bend, 1. _Lake County_: 3 mi. W Stauffer, 1; Fort Rock, 1[46]. _Harney County_: 25 mi. NW Burns, 1. _Malheur County_: 4000 ft., Ironside, 2[2]; 1-1/2 mi. S Vale, 2. =Washington.= _Walla Walla County_: Prescott, 4 (2[76], 1[60], 1[74]); Ft. Walla Walla, 2 (1[75]); Wallula, 1[76]. _Asotin County_: Asotin, 1. =Mustela frenata washingtoni= (Merriam) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 19, 20, 21, 34, 35 and 36 _Putorius washingtoni_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:18, pl. 4, figs. 3, 3a, 4, 4a, June 30, 1896. _Mustela washingtoni_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98, December 31, 1912. _Mustela frenata washingtoni_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:106, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skin and skull; no. 76322, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Trout Lake, Mt. Adams, Klickitat (?) County, Washington; December 15, 1895; obtained by D. N. Kaegi; original no. 2. The skull is unbroken. The left incisors above are missing. Otherwise the teeth are present and entire. The skin is well made, in brown winter pelage, lacks collector's measurements, has no bones in the feet, but by large size is judged to be a male. _Range._--Altitudinally from near 2000 feet at Trout Lake up to the highest parts of the Cascade Range from Mount Jefferson, Oregon, north to Mount Rainier, Washington; Upper Sonoran Life-zone to Arctic Alpine Life-zone. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. altifrontalis_ in lighter color of upper parts and underparts, latter ranging from Buff-Yellow to Naples Yellow rather than near (14 _a_ to 16 _c_) Ochraceous-Buff, in shallower skull in both sexes (see measurements), in males, a longer preorbital region, narrower skull with shorter bullae, and in females, a smaller skull with interorbital breadth averaging less than 24 per cent of basilar length; from _M. f. nevadensis_ in absence of light color of underparts on ventral face of tail, in skulls of males, by longer preorbital region and narrower skull across mastoid processes and zygomatic arches, in skulls of females, by shorter preorbital region, and smaller bullae (see measurements); from _M. f. effera_ in absence of light color of underparts on ventral face of tail, in skulls of males, by linear measurements averaging 7 (5-12) per cent larger, and relative to basilar length, longer in the preorbital region and narrower across mastoid processes and zygomatic arches; from _M. f. oregonensis_ in absence of frontonasal white patch, longer skull in males, which in percentage of basilar length has, on the average, orbitonasal length amounting to more than 35, mastoid breadth less than 55, and zygomatic breadth less than 63, and in females, smaller skull with least width of palate less than length of P4, upper tooth-rows less than 38-1/2 per cent of basilar length, bullae smaller, averaging less than 13.4 in length. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Fifteen subadult topotypes yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 400 (357-437); length of tail, 149 (122-171); length of hind foot, 47.6 (42-59). Tail averages 59 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot averaging more than basal length. Corresponding measurements of one adult and 3 young from Mount Rainier are: 415 (405-423); 155 (145-164); 51 (50-53). Female: Five adult topotypes yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 349 (330-393); length of tail, 124 (114-133); length of hind foot, 38 (36-39). Tail averages 55 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot averaging about same as basal length. Corresponding measurements of two adults and 6 young from Mount Rainier are: 338 (320-360); 121 (115-132); 36 (34-40). The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes, from Mount Adams, are: Total length, 51; length of tail, 25; length of hind foot, 9.6. Corresponding differences between the specimens from Mount Rainier are: 77; 34; 15. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black or brown (often both colors in same specimen) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to or beyond apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles slightly less than shown in figure 19. _Color._--Upper parts in summer near (14 _n_) Argus Brown or tone 4 of Burnt Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 304; one topotype Buckthorn Brown or tone 3 to 4 of Snuff Brown of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 303. Dark spot at each angle of mouth present or absent, and when present, often fused with color of upper parts, which rarely covers lower lips. Chin, and usually lower lips, white. Remainder of underparts Buff-Yellow to Naples Yellow. In winter, all white except tip of tail which is at all times black, or upper parts near (14) Brussels Brown to near (_j_) Snuff Brown with smoked effect and underparts white, rarely with trace of yellowish. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and usually all of wrists, on medial sides of hind legs anywhere from knee to tips of toes. Least width of color of underparts averaging in ten topotypes, 24 (10-37) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same series averaging 55 (45-60) mm. long, thus longer than hind foot and averaging 37 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. The color of the underparts is not so narrow in the specimens from Mount Rainier and it is believed that the slender bodies used in stuffing the topotypes has accentuated in them the appearance of narrowness of the light-colored underparts. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 22 adult topotypes): See measurements and plates 19-21; weight, 3.5 (2.8-4.7) grams; basilar length, 43.7 (40.0-47.7); zygomatic breadth more or less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth more or less than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and greater than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth more or less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bullae; breadth of rostrum less (except in no. 82180) than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate more (except in no. 81954) than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 2 to 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more or less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more (except in two instances) than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and shorter (except in two instances) than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below m2. Female (based on 11 ad. topotypes): See measurements and plates 34-36; weight, 2.0 (1.8-2.2) grams; basilar length, 37.6 (37.0-38.9); zygomatic breadth less (except in no. 70945) than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate less (except in one specimen) than greatest length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3-1/2 to 5-1/2 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more or less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than rostrum. Compared with _M. f. nevadensis_, the skull of the male of _washingtoni_ averages more slender, as shown by the mastoid and zygomatic breadths and has the preorbital part longer, on the average, as shown by the greater ratio (to the basilar length) of the length of the tooth-rows and orbitonasal length. Also, on the average, the postorbital constriction is longer than in _nevadensis_ and the tympanic bullae are smaller. In females, the skull is lighter, the tooth-rows are shorter, the tympanic bullae are smaller, and the preorbital part of the skull is shorter and narrower as shown by the orbitonasal length and interorbital breadth. Except that the tympanic bullae are actually, although not relatively, smaller in males of _effera_, it differs from _washingtoni_ in the same way as does _nevadensis_ as regards relative proportions, but, of course, the actual difference in size is greater since _effera_ is smaller than _nevadensis_. Comparison of the skull with that of _oregonensis_ is made in the account of that subspecies. _Remarks._--_M. f. washingtoni_ was described and named in 1896 by Merriam as a distinct species. Subsequently, specimens which here are regarded as intergrades between _altifrontalis_ and _nevadensis_, were classified as _washingtoni_. The external measurements given for the specimens from Mount Adams are those recorded on the labels in inches and fractions thereof. Instead of total length there sometimes is written "tip to tip." In the series of 19 winter-taken topotypes the hairs project beyond the end of the caudal vertebrae for an average distance of 28 (19-40) millimeters. If the hairs on the end of the tail were included in the measurements, 28 millimeters should be subtracted from the averages. Probably the measurements should stand as given, since an adult male topotype, no. 226758, U. S. Nat. Mus., taken subsequently by Walter P. Taylor measures 405; 152; 51. _Mustela frenata washingtoni_ is not a strongly marked geographic race. In many features it is intermediate between _M. f. altifrontalis_ and _M. f. nevadensis_. This is especially true of coloration. In the series from Mount Adams and that from Mount Rainier, some individuals have the light color of the underparts extended down the hind legs over the feet and over the proximal face of the ventral third of the tail as in _nevadensis_, whereas others from the same place have the light color of the underparts absent from the tail and extending no farther down the hind limbs than the knees. The light color of the underparts in the series of topotypes is so restricted that the transverse extent at the narrowest place amounts to only 24 (10-37) per cent of the greatest width of the color of the upper parts. This narrowness of the color of the underparts has been likened by Merriam (1896:18) to the condition in _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_. So it is, but it is similar to the condition found also in the geographically adjoining _M. f. altifrontalis_. Of the 37 skulls of subadults and a few adults, 11 had the frontal sinuses malformed as a result of infestation by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 56, arranged within each state by localities from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the collection of the United States National Museum. =Oregon.= Mt. Jefferson, Permilia Lake, 1. =Washington.= _Pierce County_: 5500 ft., Spray Park, Mt. Rainier, 1; Spray Park, 1[74]; 5935 ft., Glacier Basin, Mt. Rainier, 5 (1[10]); 5051 to 5100 ft., Owyhigh Lakes, Mt. Rainier, 7 (1[10]), Tahoma Creek, 1[72]; Nisqually entrance, 1[72]; Longmire, 1[72]; Mt. Rainier Nat'l Park, 2[72]. _Klickitat County_: Trout Lake, S Base Mt. Adams, 35; 3500 ft., Gotchen Creek, Mt. Adams, 1. =Mustela frenata saturata= (Merriam) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 19, 20, 21 and 30 _Putorius saturatus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:21, June 30, 1896. _Mustela saturata_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98, December 31, 1912. _Mustela arizonensis saturata_, Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:102, September 26, 1933. _Mustela frenata saturata_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:106, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 65930, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Siskiyou, Jackson County, Oregon; June 6, 1894; obtained by C. P. Streator; original no. 3905. The skull (plates 19-21, 30) lacks the middle part of each zygomatic arch. The teeth all are present although much worn, probably from gnawing at the trap which captured the animal. The skin, in fresh summer pelage, is fairly well made. _Range._--Transition and Boreal life-zones of Siskiyou and Trinity mountains in southern Oregon and northwestern California. See figures 29 and 30 on pages 221 and 314. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. nevadensis_ in lacking light color of underparts on tail and ankle and in greater average breadth across mastoid processes of skull (see measurements); from _M. f. oregonensis_ in lacking white nasofrontal spot, in having color of underparts interrupted at ankle; from _M. f. munda_ in lacking white nasofrontal spot, in smaller and relatively deeper skull of males and smaller skull of the female. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Four adult males (the type, 1 from Mt. Ashland and 2 from Jackson Lake) yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 414 (402-437); length of tail, 150 (136-160); length of hind foot, 46 (43-50). Tail averages 57 (49-62) per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more or less than basal length. Female: One young from the summit of the Trinity Mountains east of Hoopa and one nontypical adult from 5500 feet elevation on South Fork Mountain, Humboldt County, measure respectively as follows: Total length, 330, 325; length of tail, 115, 123; length of hind foot, 37, 37. Tail is 53 and 61 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. Average differences in external measurements between the two sexes, indicated by the unsatisfactory material available, are: Total length, 86; length of tail, 31; length of hind foot, 9. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black or dark brown and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending as far as apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles, in summer pelage, as shown in figure 19. _Color._--Upper parts, in summer, Brussels Brown to near (_n_) Brussels Brown or lighter than tone 3 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 301, usually darkest on nose and forehead. Chin white. Remainder of underparts Buff-Yellow to Warm Buff. Tip of tail black. Winter pelage unknown. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and sometimes wrists, on medial sides of hind legs only to ankles, but toes sometimes with isolated white markings. Least width of color of underparts in the type and 2 adults from Jackson Lake averaging 35 (30-40) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail averaging 54 (53-55) mm. long; thus longer than hind foot and averaging 37 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 4 adults: Type, Mt. Ashland, 1; Jackson Lake, 2): See measurements and plates 19-21, 30. As described in _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ except that: Weight, 3.8 (3.5-4.3) grams; basilar length, 44.4 (42.6-45.8); zygomatic breadth more or less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth more than postpalatal length; least width of palate less than medial length of P4 (except in one specimen). Female (based on one adult possibly not typical, from 5500 ft., South Fork Mt.): See measurements. As described in _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ except that: Weight, 2.2 grams; basilar length, 38.1; zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 and less than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite. The skull of the male of _saturata_, relative to the basilar length, is broader across the mastoids and narrower across the rostrum and interorbital region than that of _nevadensis_. Skull not known certainly to differ from that of _oregonensis_. Compared with the skull of _munda_, that of the male of _saturata_ is smaller in every part measured except depth of tympanic bullae which averages 3.6 millimeters, rather than 3.5 as in _munda_. Also, the skull of _saturata_ has a less-marked postorbital constriction, is less heavily ridged, less angular, does not have the impressions of the temporal muscles carried so far forward on the frontal bones and is relatively much narrower across the zygomatic arches. _Remarks._--In 1896, Merriam named _M. f. saturata_ as a distinct species on the basis of one specimen, taken by Clark P. Streator at Siskiyou, Oregon, and a second specimen taken the year previously by Allan C. Brooks at Chilliwack, British Columbia. On the basis of these two specimens, Merriam (1896:22) ascribed to the race a range ". . . on the Cascade and Siskiyou mountains of Oregon and Washington, reaching a short distance into British Columbia." Since that time, this name, _saturata_, has been employed for the dark-colored weasels, of the coastal region of Oregon, Washington, and extreme southwestern British Columbia, which here are arranged under the name _M. f. altifrontalis_. _M. f. saturata_ proves to be restricted to the humid mountainous region inland from the coast in northern California and in the Siskiyou Mountains of southern Oregon. Its range is separated by that of _M. f. oregonensis_ from the range of the darker-colored, deeper-skulled, _M. f. altifrontalis_ of the humid costal region proper. On May 5, 1933, Mr. Clark P. Streator, informed the writer that he remembered taking the type specimen of _Mustela frenata saturata_ (Merriam) in the town of Siskiyou, Oregon. The exact place, he said, was reached, at the time of his work there, by going one or two blocks east of the depot, then through a garden into the thick woods where there were springs and numerous burrows of the rodent, _Aplodontia_. Two other weasels labeled as taken at Siskiyou, on September 28 and 29, 1893, by Mr. Streator, are much lighter colored than the type of _saturata_ and have the color of the underparts extended distally on the hind legs to the tips of the toes and in other features of coloration are more like _nevadensis_, the subspecies to which they are referred, than _saturata_. Probably these did not come from exactly the same place that the type specimen of _saturata_ did. Although Mr. Streator does not remember the taking of these particular specimens in 1893, he does remember that on this visit to Siskiyou, he walked southward through the railroad tunnel and collected on the opposite side of the ridge from Siskiyou. Here on more southern exposures, the country was markedly different than in the thick forest at Siskiyou. Probably these two specimens taken in 1893, and referred to _nevadensis_, came from a little way south of Siskiyou and from a different habitat and life-zone than the type specimen of _M. f. saturata_. Of the 6 specimens examined, only one, the type, shows malformation of the frontal sinuses such as result from infestation by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 6, as follows: =California.= _Siskiyou County_: Jackson Lake, 5900 ft., 2, Mus. Vert. Zoöl. _Humboldt County_: South Fork Mt., 5500 ft., 1, Mus. Vert. Zoöl. _County_ in question, Trinity Mts., summit east of Hoopa, 5800 ft., 1, U. S. Nat. Mus. =Oregon.= _Jackson County_: Mt. Ashland, 1, Univ. Oreg.; Siskiyou, 1, U. S. Nat. Mus. =Mustela frenata altifrontalis= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 1, 19, 20, 21, 34, 35 and 36 _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_ Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:94, November 20, 1936. _Putorius (Gale) brasiliensis frenatus_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877 (part). _Putorius saturatus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:21, June 30, 1896 (part). _Mustela saturata_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98, December 31, 1912. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 42093, Mus. Vert. Zoöl.; Tillamook, Tillamook County, Oregon; July 10, 1928; obtained by Alex Walker; original no. 717. The skull is complete and unbroken. P3 on the left side is missing; otherwise the teeth all are present and entire. The skin is well made and the enlarged scrotal pouch shows the collector's sexing of the specimen to have been correct. _Range._--Altitudinally from sea level up to at least 4800 feet (Mount Baker) in the Transition Life-zone of the humid, coastal region of Oregon, Washington and extreme southwestern British Columbia. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. nevadensis_ in tone 4 of Brownish Drab, pl. 302, rather than tones 1-3, of Raw Umber, pl. 301, of Oberthür and Dauthenay of upper parts, in near (14 _a´_ to 16 _c´_) Ochraceous-Buff rather than Buff-Yellow to Straw Yellow of underparts, in that least width of color of underparts amounts to less than 37 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, in absence of color of underparts on ventral side of tail and on hind leg distal to knee, and in greater depth of skull through frontal region; from _M. f. washingtoni_ in darker color of upper parts and underparts, latter near (14 _a_´ to 16 _c_´) Ochraceous-Buff rather than ranging from Buff-Yellow to Naples Yellow, in deeper skull in both sexes (see measurements), in males a shorter preorbital region, broader skull with longer bullae and in females a larger skull with interorbital breadth averaging more than 24 per cent of basilar length; from _M. f. oregonensis_ in frontonasal white patch absent, color above darker (tone 4 of Brownish Drab, pl. 302, rather than tone 2 to 3 of Raw Umber, pl. 301 of Oberthür and Dauthenay), light-colored underparts narrower and not extended distally beyond knee, in females tooth-row shorter, amounting to less than 38 per cent of basilar length. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Eight adult topotypes yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 426 (392-445); length of tail, 160 (148-170); length of hind foot, 47 (42-53). Tail averages 60 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot averages more than basal length. Female: Five adults from Tillamook and Blaine, Oregon, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 347 (320-370); length of tail, 125 (114-131); length of hind foot, 38 (35-44). Tail averages 56 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. The average differences in the external measurements are: Total length, 79; length of tail, 35; length of hind foot, 9. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black, brown or white (often all three colors in same specimen) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to or beyond apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles (in summer pledge) slightly less than shown in figure 19. _Color._--Upper parts, in summer, near (_n_) Argus Brown or tone 4 of Brownish Drab of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 302. Dark spot at each angle of mouth well developed; often fused with color of upper parts which sometimes covers lower lips. Chin white. Remainder of underparts near (14 _a´_ to 16 _c´_) Ochraceous-Buff. In winter, upper parts near (14) Argus Brown with smoked effect and Warm Buff to Naples Yellow below. Tip of tail at all times black. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and usually all of wrists, on medial side of hind legs typically only to knee but sometimes to ankle. Tips of toes of hind feet almost always marked with color of underparts. Least width of color of underparts averaging in a series of 14 males from Blaine, Oregon, 23 (14-36) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in 8 adult males from Blaine, Oregon, averaging 59 (47-70) mm. long; thus longer than hind foot and averaging 37 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 9 adults from Blaine, Tillamook Co., Oregon): See measurements and plates 19-21; weight, 4.4 (3.3-5.3) grams; basilar length, 45.6 (42.4-47.7); zygomatic breadth more or less (usually more) than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth more or less (usually more) than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth less (except in some instances of malformations of frontal sinuses which result from infestation by parasites) than length of upper premolars and more or less than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth more or less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate more or less than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 to 4 (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and more or less than orbitonasal length; anterior margin of masseteric fossa directly below m2. Female (based on 4 adults): See measurements and plates 34-36; weight, 2.2 (2.2-2.3) grams; basilar length, 38.1 (37.8-39.7); zygomatic breadth more or less (less in three of four specimens) than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; relation of postorbital breadth to other measurements in doubt because of malformation of frontal sinuses by parasites; least width of palate not less than greatest length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3-1/2 to 5-1/2 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than rostrum. Compared with the skull of _M. f. washingtoni_ that of each sex of _altifrontalis_ averages slightly larger in every measurement taken, except measurements of teeth which are approximately the same, and is relatively deeper through the frontal region and through the braincase as measured at the anterior margin of the basioccipital. Skulls of females of _altifrontalis_ have a relatively broader interorbital region. Skulls of males of _altifrontalis_ further differ in having relatively, as well as actually, longer tympanic bullae, relatively lesser orbitonasal length and a greater relative breadth across the mastoids and across zygomata. Compared with _M. f. nevadensis_, the skull of the male of _altifrontalis_ averages slightly larger and heavier although the skulls of females are of approximately the same size and weight. Relative to the basilar length, the skulls of both sexes are deeper through the braincase and narrower across the mastoids; the rostrum is broader, especially in males; the tooth-rows are shorter and the interorbital breadth less, especially in females. Comparison with the skull of _oregonensis_ is made in the account of that subspecies. _Remarks._--Until the present study was begun, animals of this race have gone under the name _Mustela saturata_ (Merriam). The United States National Museum has a juvenile taken, in 1858, by Wayne at Astoria, O. T.; the Samuel N. Rhoads collection contained one specimen taken in 1891, at Tacoma, Washington; one in the Bangs' collection was taken at Chilliwack, British Columbia, in 1895, and the Field Museum has one taken on the Olympic Peninsula in 1898. The best material is that collected by Alex Walker, at Tillamook, Oregon. Intergradation with _nevadensis_ is indicated by several specimens. The coloration of the one adult female, no. 90, Chas. R. Conner Mus., from Swamp Creek, Washington, has the color of the underparts extended down the hind legs over the feet, and over the proximal third of the ventral face of the tail as in _nevadensis_ although the other two specimens from the same place have the color pattern of _altifrontalis_. Of the four specimens from British Columbia referred to this subspecies, only the specimen from Chilliwack is typical as regards color pattern. The one from Cultus Lake has the color pattern of _nevadensis_ and might be referred to that race almost as well as to _altifrontalis_. The two specimens from Lihumption Park are intermediate between the two races in tone of color. Neither has the color of the underparts extended onto the tail or continuously over the hind feet as in _nevadensis_ but each does have the color of the underparts less restricted and of lighter hue than in _altifrontalis_. Only one of the specimens, no. 7848 Canad. Nat. Mus., from Lihumption Park is adult and it has a skull which agrees with that of _altifrontalis_ rather than _nevadensis_. After writing the above, a good representation of the weasel population along the eastern side of Puget Sound was made available by friends in that area. Study of the weasels from there shows that their color is intermediate between that of _altifrontalis_ and _nevadensis_. On the whole, they (specimens from Bellingham, for example) resemble one subspecies about as much as the other. In cranial characters some specimens, in certain features, approach _nevadensis_ but most specimens agree with _altifrontalis_ and all are more nearly like _altifrontalis_ to which race all are referred. The color of these animals is to me indistinguishable from that of _washingtoni_. The color of _washingtoni_ is merely intermediate between that of _nevadensis_ and _altifrontalis_. Nevertheless, the race _washingtoni_ has cranial characters (long narrow skull) which set it off from both _altifrontalis_ and _nevadensis_. This shape of skull is not found in the specimens from along the eastern side of Puget Sound; these animals have skulls like that of _altifrontalis_ and when departures from this occur they are in the direction of _nevadensis_ and not _washingtoni_. The above, then, explains why specimens which are colored like those of _washingtoni_ are not referred to that race but instead to the race _altifrontalis_. Of 23 adult skulls examined, 19 have the frontal sinuses malformed as the result of infestation by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 80, arranged within states by counties from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the United States National Museum. =British Columbia.= _Chilliwack_, 1[74], Lihumption Park, 4750 ft., 2[77]; Cultus Lake, 1[77]. =Oregon.= _Clatsop County_: Old Fort Clatsop, 1[74]; Astoria, 1. _Tillamook County_: Tillamook, 12 (7[14], 2[74], 2[2], 1[46]); Netarts, 1[46]; Blaine, 16 (13[14], 1[93], 1[76], 1[59]). _Lane County_: Reed, 1; Mercer, 1[46]. _Curry County_: Langlois, 1[46]. =Washington.= _Whatcom County_: Nooksack River, 2000 ft., 14 mi. E Glacier, 1; Swamp Creek, 2050 ft., Nooksack River, 3[10]; Lookout, 4800 ft., Mt. Baker, 2[10]; Bellingham, 8[25]; 5 mi. S Bellingham, 1[49]. _Skagit County_: Rockport, 300 ft., 1. _King County_: Bothell, 2[94]; N Seattle 1[51]; Seattle, 1[49]; Tye, 1[51], 2 mi. E Skykomish, 1[51]; 7 mi. E Kent, 1[76]; Auburn, 3[94]. _Pierce County_: Tacoma, 1[1]. _Clallam County_: Sequim, 1[49]; Soleduc Riv., near [_sic._] Sappho, 1[49]; Happy Lake, 1[60]; mouth of Boulder Creek, Elwha River, 560 ft., Olympic Mts., 1; Hume's Ranch, 1000 ft., Elwha River, 1; Bogachiel Riv., 1[49]. _Mason County_: Lake Cushman, 2; 4 mi. N Shelton, 1[51]. _Thurston County_: Olympia, 2[49]; Tenino, 1[51]. _Pacific County_: 2-1/2 mi. SE Chinook, 3[74]. =Mustela frenata oregonensis= (Merriam) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 19, 20, 21, 30, 34, 35 and 36 _Putorius xanthogenys oregonensis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:25, June 30, 1896; Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:57, June 9, 1899. _Mustela xanthogenys oregonensis_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:99, December 31, 1912. _Mustela xanthogenys munda_, Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:102, September 26, 1933 (part). _Mustela frenata oregonensis_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:107, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, subadult, skull and skin; no. 32019/43828, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Grants Pass, Rogue River Valley, Josephine County, Oregon; December 19, 1891; obtained by C. P. Streator; original no. 1404. The skull (plates 19-21, 30) is complete and unbroken. P3 on the left side is missing. Otherwise the teeth all are present although worn probably as a result of gnawing at the trap which captured the specimen. The skin, in brown, winter pelage, is fairly well made. Although the label on the skin and the label in the skull vial each give the sex of the specimen as female, and although Merriam (1896:25) regarded the specimen as a female, the present writer regards the specimen as a male. It is as large as other undoubted males and larger than any known female of this subspecies. The labels with the skull and skin give the locality as "Rogue River Valley, Oregon." The listing here of the more restricted locality, Grants Pass, is made on the basis of Merriam's (1896:25) original description of the subspecies. _Range._--Transition and Canadian life-zones along coast of northern California and southern Oregon from Humboldt County, California, north through Curry County, Oregon, thence inland, west of the Cascades, north to the Columbia River. See figures 29 and 30 on pages 221 and 314. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. altifrontalis_ in presence of frontonasal white patch, lighter color above (tone 2 to 3 of Raw Umber, pl. 301, rather than tone 4 of Brownish Drab, pl. 302, Oberthür and Dauthenay), wider extent of light color of underparts which is extended distally beyond knee, and in females, longer tooth-row which amounts to more than 38 per cent of basilar length; from _M. f. munda_ in shorter hind foot of males which is less than 50, and in both sexes, smaller, less rugose skull (see measurements and plates); from _M. f. saturata_ in presence of frontonasal white patch, in having color of underparts extended uninterruptedly over ankle onto foot; from _M. f. nevadensis_ in presence of frontonasal white patch, lack of light color of underparts on ventral face of tail, and longer skull, which relative to its length in males, is shallower through braincase; from _M. f. effera_ in presence of frontonasal white patch, lack of light color of underparts on ventral face of tail, and larger skull with basilar length averaging more than 41.7 in males; from _M. f. washingtoni_ in presence of frontonasal white patch, shorter skull in males, which in percentage of basilar length has, on the average, orbitonasal length amounting to less than 35, mastoid breadth more than 55, and zygomatic breadth more than 63; and in females larger skull with least width of palate more than length of P4, upper tooth-rows more than 38-1/2 per cent of basilar length, bullae larger and averaging more than 13.4 long. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Five males (3 adults and 2 subadults from Eureka, Ferndale, and Carlotta, California) yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 392 (347-430); length of tail, 138 (110-160); length of hind foot, 46 (43-50). Tail averages 54 (46-61) per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more or less than basal length. The type specimen, and an adult from Goldbeach measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 412, 386; length of tail, 155, 137; length of hind foot, 44, 46. Female: Three adults (2 from Fortuna and 1 from Carlotta, California) yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 367 (360-374); length of tail, 130 (123-134); length of hind foot, 40 (39-40). Tail averages 55 (52-57) per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. A subadult from Goldbeach, an adult from 13 mi. SW Grants Pass, and an adult from Medford, measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 316, 344, 294; length of tail, 114, 120, 122; length of hind foot, 36, 40, 38. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes in the vicinity of Carlotta, are: Total length, 25; length of tail, 8; length of hind foot, 6. Corresponding differences, at Goldbeach, are: 70, 23, 10. Probably the females at Fortuna reflect the large size of _munda_ more than do the males at Carlotta and the differences between the measurements of the two sexes probably, therefore, are actually more than are indicated by the figures above. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black, brown or white (often all three colors in same specimen) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles, in summer pelage, as shown in figure 20. _Color._--Upper parts, in summer, near (16 _l_) Brussels Brown or tone 2 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 301, to slightly darker than tone 3 of same plate. Darker on nose and top of head, usually with frontonasal white patch but lacking white bar in front of each ear, except in the type and 2 specimens from Salem. Chin, lower lips, angle of mouth, and usually posterior seventh of upper lip white. Remainder of underparts Pale Orange-Yellow. In winter usually lighter above with underparts Warm Buff to Straw Yellow. Tip of tail at all times black. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and wrists, on medial side of hind leg, typically over ankle in extremely narrow line which widens out over distal phalanges of antiplantar faces of toes but sometimes interrupted at ankle. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in twenty available specimens, 39 (27-54) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in five adults averaging 50 (43-60) mm. long; thus averaging longer than hind foot and 33 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 4 adults and subadults from Eureka, Requa, Goldbeach, and Grant Pass): See measurements and plates 19-21, 30. As described in _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ except that: Weight, 3.5 (3.5-4.1) grams; basilar length, 42.9 (41.8-44.0); least width of palate more or less than medial length of P4. Female (based on 2 adults, one from Carlotta and one from 13 mi. SW Grants Pass): See measurements and plates 34-36. As described in _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ except that: Weight, 2.4 (2.2-2.6) grams; basilar length, 37.7 and 39.5; zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 and less than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla. See under "_Remarks_" for additional data on variation in size of skulls of females. The skulls of the female averages 31 per cent lighter than that of the average male. Because there is much geographic variation between specimens here referred to _oregonensis_, the person who is guided by the present account should keep in mind that results, here reported, of comparisons of the skull with those of other races, were obtained by employing specimens of _oregonensis_ from Carlotta and Eureka, California. These specimens from California are judged to have more of the characters of the subspecies _munda_ than do specimens of _oregonensis_ from more northern localities. Compared with that of _M. f. washingtoni_ the skull of the male is shorter, especially in the preorbital region and is relatively broader across the mastoidal processes and zygomatic arches. The skull of the female is longer in the preorbital region, has a less cylindrical braincase and differs less from the male skull than is the case in _M. f. washingtoni_. Compared with _M. f. effera_, the skull of the male is smaller in every part measured and relative to the basilar length is broader across the mastoids and has relatively shorter tympanic bullae. From _M. f. nevadensis_ the skull of the male differs in the same way except that size is about the same. The skull of the female _oregonensis_ is more heavily ridged and is relatively broader across the mastoids than that of _effera_. From _M. f. saturata_, _oregonensis_ is not surely known to differ in cranial characters. From _M. f. munda_, _oregonensis_ differs in having the skull of both sexes smaller, and on the average, in all parts measured, has a less marked postorbital constriction, relatively narrower interorbital region and relatively more expanded zygomata. From _M. f. altifrontalis_, males of _oregonensis_ differ on the average, in having larger teeth, and relative to the basilar length, a greater mastoid breadth and a shallower braincase as measured at the anterior margin of the basioccipital. Females of _oregonensis_ differ in larger average size of skull, except for breadth of rostrum and interorbital breadth which, therefore, are relatively less in _oregonensis_, as also is the relative depth of the skull measured at the posterior borders of the upper molars and at the anterior margin of the basioccipital. However, skulls of females of _oregonensis_ have relatively longer tooth-rows and are relatively broader across the zygomata and mastoidal processes. _Remarks._--In 1896, Merriam named _oregonensis_ as a subspecies of the California bridled weasel on the basis of a single specimen taken by Clark P. Streator. Three additional specimens were acquired in later years, by workers of Dr. Merriam's bureau, from near the type locality and specimens from farther north in Oregon have been accumulated at the University of Oregon. The most satisfactory material is that saved from Humboldt County by the late H. E. Wilder, which, when brought together, is adequate to give some idea of the range of variation that can be expected in a given population. Of two specimens from Goldbeach, one shows approach to _altifrontalis_ in that the color of the underparts stops at the ankle, and in one, the angle of the mouth is dark colored. Specimens from Eugene and vicinity lack the white facial markings, and in this feature approach the adjoining _washingtoni-effera-nevadensis_ stock. A specimen from 6 miles south of Medford shows approach to _saturata_ in the interruption, on the ankle and lower tibial region, of the color of the underparts. One adult female, no. 1413, Univ. Oregon, from the Rogue River Valley, 13 miles southwest of Grants Pass, stands out prominently, among the other specimens from extreme southern Oregon and northwestern California, by reason of the near (18) Apricot Yellow color of the underparts, but this same color occurs in specimens from the more northerly localities of Buchanan, Eugene, Vida Fish Hatchery, and McKenzie Bridge, as well as in no. 2178, Univ. Oregon, from Cresent Lake. The last mentioned specimen is here referred to _nevadensis_. Two females referred to _oregonensis_ from southern Oregon differ so greatly in size of skull that they challenge one's imagination in any attempt to provide an explanation for so wide a range of variation in one subspecies. One of these, no. 244520, U. S. Nat. Mus., is an adult female from Medford. The other, no. 224034, U. S. Nat. Mus., is a subadult female (though labeled male) from 43 miles northeast of Grants Pass. The skull of the adult from Medford has a basilar length of 41.5, upper tooth-rows, 16.1 in length, and a weight of 2.75 grams, whereas corresponding figures for the subadult are only 33.8, 12.9, and 1.4. Two other adult females are intermediate in size: No. 1413, Univ. Oregon, from 13 miles southwest of Grants Pass, Oregon, approaches the specimen from Medford in size, and the second specimen, no. 34325, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., from Carlotta, California, is smaller. Not only is there a difference in length between the skulls of the two extremes of the females but this difference extends to all other dimensions of their skulls, and is most pronounced in the preorbital region. The differences in breadth of the braincase and other parts of the skull are relatively less than the differences in length. Differences of the same nature, although of lesser degree than found in the females, are to be seen in two males. The skull of an adult no. 51590, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., from 6 miles south of Medford, has a basilar length of 46.4, upper tooth-rows, 17.6 mm. long, and a weight of 4.0 grams, whereas corresponding figures for the subadult type specimen from Grants Pass, are only 43.0, 16.2, and 3.3. The wide range of variation in size of skull of both sexes, together with the considerable variation in color pattern of the specimens here referred to _oregonensis_ raises the suspicion that we are using the name in a composite sense; nevertheless, to recognize more than one subspecies with the material now available would be unwise. A subadult female, of abnormal color, no. 47149, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., taken by Mr. H. E. Wilder at Carlotta, California, on December 20, 1930, in a region where weasels do not turn white in winter, is white, except for the black tip of the tail, but has a suffusion of orange. This specimen, discussed at greater length on page 43, is instructive in that it suggests that there are separate determiners for the brown and red elements of the pelage. It is interesting also as suggesting how natural selection may tend to eliminate from the population a conspicuous color-variation of this kind. At any rate, Mr. Wilder (Ms.) states: "This specimen was picked up in a field, where it evidently had been dropped by a hawk or an owl." The braincase of the skull is crushed in three places as though by a raptor's beak. None of the several other weasels, all normally colored, saved by Mr. Wilder from this general locality gives evidence of having fallen a victim to a raptor. Only 2 skulls of the 12 adults and subadults examined show malformation of the frontal sinuses such as results from the presence of parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 29, arranged within states from north to south by counties. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the collection of the United States National Museum. =California.= _Del Norte County_: Requa, 1[8]. _Humholdt County_: Eureka, 2 (1[74], 1[75]); Ferndale, 1[74]; Fortuna, 2[63]; Carlotta, 6 (3[74], 3[59]); 12 mi. E Bridgeville, 1[59]; 2 mi. W Bridgeville, 1[59]. =Oregon.= _Washington County_: Forest Grove, 1. _Marion County_: Salem, 2. _Benton County_: Buchanan, 1. _Lane County_: McKenzie Bridge, 1[101]; Vida Fish Hatchery, 1[101]; Eugene, 1[101]. _Douglas County_: Anchor, 1. _Curry County_: Gold Beach, 2[60]. _Josephine County_: Rogue River Valley (Grants Pass), 1; 13 mi. SW Grants Pass, 1[101]. _Jackson County_: Medford, 2; 6 mi. S Medford, 1[74]. =Mustela frenata munda= (Bangs) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 1, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 30, 34, 35, 36 and 40 _Putorius xanthogenys mundus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:56, June 9, 1899; Stephens, California mammals, p. 247, 1906. _Mustela frenata_, Audubon and Bachman, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 (Pt. 2):291, 1842 (North California about 40° latitude). _Mustela xanthogenys munda_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:99, December 31, 1912. _Mustela frenata munda_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:107, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skull, os penis and skin; no. 5459, collection of E. A. and O. Bangs, but now in collection of Mus. Comp. Zoöl.; Point Reyes, Marin County, California; June 19, 1896; obtained by C. A. Allen; original no. 931. (See comments under "Remarks," below, on places in California to which the name Point Reyes has been applied.) The skull (pls. 19-21, 30) is complete and unbroken. I1 on each side and right I2 are broken away; p2 and p3 on each side have been aborted and the only alveoli remaining are two for the right p3. Otherwise all teeth are present and entire. The skin is fairly well made and in good condition. Cranially, the type is a "runt"; its small size and the circumstance that the tympanic bulla is longer than the lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer than the rostrum are features which differentiate the type from any other specimen seen of this race. _Range._--Sea level to at least 6,000 feet (South Yolla Bolly Mountain, Trinity County, California); Upper Sonoran and Transition life-zones of the coast and Coast Range of northwestern California from the Golden Gate northward into southern Humboldt and Trinity counties. See figures 29 and 30 on pages 221 and 314. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. oregonensis_ in longer hind foot of males which is more than 50 mm., and in both sexes, larger, more prominently ridged skull (see measurements and plates); from _M. f. saturata_ by presence of nasofrontal white spot, larger and relatively shallower skull of males and larger skull of female; from _M. f. nevadensis_ by presence of well-developed, white, facial markings; absence of color of underparts on ventral face of proximal third of tail; and hind foot of males more than 50; from _M. f. xanthogenys_ by near (_l_) Sudan Brown to near (_l_) Antique Brown rather than Buckthorn Brown colors of upper parts and greater size, and in adult male basilar length more than 45 and hind foot more than 47; from _M. f. nigriauris_ by having inside of ears same color as back rather than much darker than back. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Three adults and two young from Point Arena and Gualala, Mendocino County, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 447 (434-470); length of tail, 167 (150-185); length of hind foot, 53 (50-60). Corresponding measurements of three adults from 5 and 6 miles west of Inverness, Marin County, are: 430 (420-440), 154 (141-160), 48 (48-49). Corresponding measurements of four individuals (3 adults and 1 young of large size) from South Yolla Bolly Mountain, Trinity County, are: 383 (374-400), 134 (130-138); 44 (43-44). The tail averages 60 per cent as long as the head and body in the series from Point Arena, 56 per cent in the series from Point Reyes, and 53 per cent in the series from South Yolla Bolly Mountain. In every specimen except two, length of hind foot less than basal length. The two exceptions are no. 19720, M.V.Z., male adult from Point Arena in which the hind foot is recorded as 60 (probably an error in measurement), and no. 19721, M.V.Z., from the same place, in which the skull has not yet attained its full growth. Female: One adult from Point Arena measures as follows: Total length, 383; length of tail, 134; length of hind foot, 43. Corresponding measurements of an adult from seven miles north of Laytonville, Mendocino County, are: 336, 121, 33 (= 36 on dried skin). Corresponding measurements of an adult from South Yolla Bolly Mountain, Trinity County, are, 326, 113, 37. In these three specimens, the tail is, in the order given, 54, 56, and 53 per cent as long as the head and body. Length of hind foot more than basal length. Differences in external measurements of the two sexes as indicated by the five males and one female from Point Arena, are: Total length, 64; length of tail, 33; length of hind foot, 10. Weights of 2 adult males are 265 and 221 grams and of one adult female 155 grams. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata nigriauris_. _Color._--Spot between eyes, narrow band or spot confluent with color of underparts on each side of head anterior to each ear, chin, lower lips, and rarely posterior third or less of each upper lip white; dark spot posterior to each angle of mouth uniformly present and of large size; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts near (14 _l_) Sudan Brown and tone 4 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 301; occasionally, slightly darker brown on forehead, nose, and about eyes. Underparts near (_a_ to _c_) Ochraceous-Buff and sometimes Orange-Buff. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and wrists, on medial sides of hind limbs over antiplantar faces of toes. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in a series of 5 males from Mendocino County, 57 (46-67) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; 38 (35-40) in 3 males from Point Reyes, Marin County. Black tip of tail in Mendocino County series averaging 53 (46-60) mm., which is same length as hind foot and 32 per cent of length of tail. In Point Reyes males, black tip of tail averages 44 (34-52) mm., which is less than length of hind foot and 45 per cent as long as tail-vertebrae. Several specimens of the smaller, inland variant (see under "_Remarks_") are near (_l_) Antique Brown rather than near (14 _l_) Sudan Brown above and hence do not differ in this respect from _nigriauris_. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 3 adults from Mendocino County): See measurements and plates 19-23, 30. As described in _Mustela frenata nigriauris_ except that: Weight, 6.0 (5.4-6.3) grams; basilar length, 47.6 (46.5-48.2); length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row. Female (based on no. 19723, M.V.Z., from Point Arena): See measurements and plates 34-36, 40. As described in _M. f. nigriauris_ except that: Weight, 3.0 grams; basilar length, 42.3. The skull of the female is 50 per cent lighter than that of the average male. Compared with the skull of the male of _nevadensis_ that of _munda_ averages larger in every part measured and specimens from Point Arena are nearly as heavy again, have relatively more expanded zygomata and mastoid processes but are relatively narrower anteriorly as shown by the breadth of the rostrum, interorbital breadth and postorbital breadth. Also the braincase is less inflated anteriorly, the tympanic bullae are lower and the skull is more angular. Females show the same differences although in different degree. Compared with the skull of the male of _M. f. nigriauris_, that of _munda_ from Point Arena averages larger in every part measured except for the length of the upper tooth-rows. Relative to the basilar length, the skull of _munda_ averages broader across the mastoids and across the zygomata, is deeper through the braincase at the anterior end of the basioccipital, and has a greater development of the lambdoidal crest. _Remarks._--The skin and part skull, no. 536/1849, U. S. Nat. Mus., taken by Lieutenant W. P. Trowbridge at San Pablo Bay, is the first specimen known to have been saved of this subspecies. Since 1899 when O. Bangs diagnosed _munda_ as of small size, the weasel of the humid costal belt north of San Francisco Bay has been regarded as smaller than bridled weasels from farther south in the State. Actually, however, the weasel of the humid costal belt shares with _M. f. pulchra_ the distinction of being one of the two largest weasels in California. _M. f. munda_ may be a composite subspecies, for the variation in facial markings, in coloration otherwise, in external measurements and in size and shape of skull is great. At one time in the course of the present study, manuscript accounts of two subspecies were prepared for the animals now all called _munda_ and there is still much justification for recognizing two subspecies, one, along the coast proper, the larger, darker-colored animal with reduced white facial markings and large, wide, heavily ridged skull from Point Arena, and 6 miles south of Laytonville, Mendocino County, along with the specimens from 5 and 6 miles west of Inverness, Marin County, and the other, an inland race, which is a smaller, lighter-colored animal with more extensive white facial markings and a smaller, narrower, skull, known by specimens from Point Reyes [station?], Nicasio, 15 mi. north of San Rafael, Freestone, Vallejo, and Mount Sanhedrin. The differences between these two lots of specimens are of great degree. However, a female from Fort Bragg proves to be no larger than three females labeled as from Point Reyes. Also, a male from 2 miles south and one mile east of Stewarts Point on the coast has a skull no larger than the animal from Vallejo, whereas the skin alone of an adult female from 3 miles south of Stewarts Point is large and agrees with the specimens from Point Arena. Consequently, no logical ranges can be worked out for the two variants with the material now available. Finally, the type specimen of _munda_ is a "runt," smaller than any other male seen. This specimen, purchased by E. A. and O. Bangs from C. A. Allen, who collected and sold specimens widely, was labeled as from Point Reyes. So far as this place-name is concerned, it might refer to: (1) The point of land by that name which projects out into the Pacific Ocean, (2) an abandoned ranch house bearing that name at the head of Drakes Bay, 6 miles north and 3-3/4 miles east of the actual point, or (3) the railway station by the same name at the head of Tomales Bay, 12 miles east and 4-3/4 miles north of the actual point. Allen, himself, lived near San Geronimo (then Nicasio) about nine miles southeast of the Point Reyes railway station. All these places are in Marin County, but differ markedly as regards climate and flora. The first two are treeless, windswept and have much fog, whereas Point Reyes Station is more often sunny, and is situated in a shallow valley, inland, where the open grass-covered west-facing slopes meet the east-facing wooded ones. From which one of these three places the type specimen came, I do not know. The same may be said of the three female specimens labeled Point Reyes; two of these are in the United States National Museum and one in the Field Museum. The specimens in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy from 5 and 6 miles west of Inverness and those from near the same place in the collection of John Cushing come from within a couple of miles or less of the Point Reyes represented by the abandoned ranch house. These specimens, as remarked above, agree with those from Point Arena in large size, reduced facial markings and wide skull. These are points of difference from the smaller variant suspected of being a recognizable subspecies. It is the smaller variant which the type specimen approaches in size, and with which it agrees in relatively well-developed white facial markings. This suggests that the type specimen came from Point Reyes Station rather than from either of the two other places bearing the name "Point Reyes," from one of which, as just stated, the variant of large size is known. The three females labeled "Point Reyes" also have well-developed white facial markings and are of lesser size than the female of similar age from Point Arena, Mendocino County. The presumption is that these three females also came from Point Reyes Station. The smaller, inland variant seems to agree in size, cranial characters, and coloration with _M. f. nigriauris_ to the southward of San Francisco Bay, but lacks the black on the head which characterizes _nigriauris_. The larger variant, on which the description here used for _munda_ is based, comprises animals which differ from _nigriauris_ in larger size, darker color, reduced white facial markings, and larger, relatively wider skull. Both of the variants mentioned above are sharply distinct from _nigriauris_ on the basis of coloration of the inside of the ear which is blackish in nigriauris like the dark facial markings, and in _munda_ is colored like the back. _M. f. munda_ lacks the dark facial markings; an occasional specimen has at most, a trace of the markings but this does not extend back so far as the ears. This difference, blackish versus non-blackish face, persists eastward of San Francisco Bay to at least as far as the Carquinez Straits, where a specimen of _munda_ is available from 4 miles north of Vallejo and one of _nigriauris_ from Glen Frazer Station on the south shore opposite Vallejo. [Illustration: FIG. 30. Map showing the geographic distribution of subspecies of _Mustela frenata_ in California] Intergradation with _M. f. nevadensis_ and possibly with _M. f. saturata_ is indicated by specimens from South Yolla Bolly Mountain, Trinity County. In them the external measurements and measurements of the skull are intermediate. Also the white frontal spot is much reduced in size. The white bars in front of the ears are absent in three specimens, and weakly developed in the other two. The relative proportions of the skulls as a whole are nearer those of _nevadensis_ or _saturata_ than _munda_. The skull of one of the three adult males and the skull of the adult female suggests _M. f. oregonensis_ in certain features; for example, the dorsal outline of the skull in longitudinal axis is slightly convex as it is in _oregonensis_. None of the specimens shows malformation of the frontal sinuses such as results from infestation by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 37, arranged by counties from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. =California.= _Trinity County_: S. Yolla Bolly Mt., 3[91]; 1/2 mi. S S. Yolla Bolly Mt., 1. _Tehama County_: 2 mi. S S. Yolla Bolly Mt., 1. _Mendocino County_: 6 mi. N Laytonville, 1; Mt. Sanhedrin, 1[87]; Ft. Bragg, 1; Gualala, 1; Point Arena, 5. _Sonoma County_: 2 mi. S and 1 mi. E Stewarts Point, 1; 3 mi. S Stewarts Point P. O., 1; Freestone, 1. _Napa County_: 6 mi. SSW, Napa, 1; 4 mi. N Vallejo, 1. County in question: San Pablo Bay, 1[91]. _Marin County_: 6 mi. W Inverness, 2; 5 mi. W Inverness, 2(1[28]); Point Reyes, 4 (2[91] 1[60], 1[75]); Nicasio, 2 (1[60], 1[75]); Kehoes Ranch, Pierce Point, 1[28]; Drakes Bay, 1[28]; Tomales Point, about 1/2 mi. SW White Gulch, 1; Point Reyes School, 3-3/4 mi. W Inverness, 1; 15 mi. (by road) N San Rafael, 1[52]; Hurley Ranch, 2 mi. W Tomales, 1. No locality more definite than California, 1[7]. =Mustela frenata xanthogenys= Gray Long-tailed Weasel Plates 21, 22, 23, 28, 30, 34, 35 and 36 _Mustela xanthogenys_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 11:118, 1843. _Putorius (Gale) brasiliensis frenatus_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877 (part). _Putorius xanthogenys_, Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:25, June 30, 1896; Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:56, June 9, 1899. _Mustela xanthogenys xanthogenys_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:99, December 31, 1912. _Mustela frenata xanthogenys_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:107, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; skull no. 197a-43.6.4.55, skin no. 234a-42.11.21.4, British Museum (Nat. Hist.); from the bank of Sacramento River below mouth of Feather River, or from north shore of San Francisco Bay, California; taken in "1837 or 1838"; presented by Captain Edward Belcher. The skull (plate 28) lacks the occiput, the right mandible posterior to m1, and the right pterygoid; the right zygomatic arch is fractured. The teeth are not greatly worn. The skin was originally mounted for exhibition (R. I. Pocock in Litt.) but in 1937 when I saw the skin, it was prepared as a conventional study skin. The skin is in fairly good condition; some hair is missing on the hind quarters and the skin of the tail is torn at one place. _Range._--Altitudinally, less than 600 feet (Fair Oaks); Lower Sonoran and Upper Sonoran life-zones of all but southern end of the San Joaquin Valley, and probably Sacramento Valley, California. See figures 29 and 30 on pages 221 and 314. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. nevadensis_ by presence of light facial markings and Buckthorn Brown rather than near (14_n_ to _l_) Brussels Brown color of upper parts; from _M. f. munda_ by Buckthorn Brown rather than near (_l_) Sudan Brown, or near (_l_) Antique Brown color of upper parts and lesser size, in adult males basilar length less than 45 and hind foot less than 47; from _M. f. nigriauris_ by lighter color in same way as from _munda_ and also by having inside of ears same color as back rather than much darker than back; from _M. f. pulchra_ in hind foot of males less than 46 and narrower skull, in males having breadth of rostrum less than 13.9 and mastoid breadth less than 26.0, see comparison of skulls in the account of _pulchra_. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Three adults, from Fresno, Selma and Los Banos, measure, respectively as follows: Total length, 425, 417, 450; length of tail, 152, 154, 180; length of hind foot,--, 43, 44. Tail averages 61 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. Female: Adults from Selma, Los Banos, and 4 mi. SW Turlock, measure respectively as follows: Total length, 357, 365, 395; length of tail, 133, 132, 145; length of hind foot, 40, 38, 41. Tail averages 58 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. The average differences in external measurements between the two sexes, as represented by these six specimens, are: Total length, 65; length of tail, 25; length of hind foot, 3.5. One adult male weighs 274 grams and 2 adult females 182 and 214 grams. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata nigriauris_. _Color._--Spot between eyes, band confluent with color of underparts on each side of head extending anterodorsally anterior to each ear, and posterior half to third of each upper lip white, or whitish tinged with some shade of yellowish; chin and lower lip white; dark spot posterior to each angle of mouth of varying size but uniformly present; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts Buckthorn Brown of Ridgway or a trifle browner than tone 4 of Brown Pink of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 297. Upper parts of uniform color except for slight darkening of head-markings anterior to ears. Underparts Ochraceous-Buff to Warm Buff. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and wrists, on medial sides of hind limbs over antiplantar faces of toes and sometimes tarsal region. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in 9 specimens from Fresno, Selma and Los Banos, 54 (32-74) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in three males (one subadult and 3 adults) averages 55 (50-60) mm. long. Thus longer than hind foot and averaging 34 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 2 adults from Fresno and one from Selma): See measurements and plates 21-23, 30. As described in _M. f. nigriauris_ except that: Weight 3.8 grams; basilar length, 43.7 (43.4-43.9); least width of palate more or less than lateral length of P4; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-rows. Female (no. 2626 W. E. Snyder, from Selma): See measurements and plates 34-36. As described in _M. f. nigriauris_ except that: Weight, 2.5 grams; basilar length, 39.4. The skull of the female is 34 per cent lighter than the average for the three males. Compared with skulls of _nevadensis_ from the Sierra Nevada, those of the two adult males from Fresno differ as follows: M1 wider (transversely); tympanic bullae narrower; preorbital part of skull smaller. Comparison with _pulchra_ is made in the account of that subspecies. Compared with skulls of adult males of _nigriauris_, from Santa Clara County, the two skulls from Fresno are generally smaller and in basilar length, length of tooth-rows and measurements of the teeth fall below the minimum for _nigriauris_. Relative proportions of the skulls are approximately the same. Comparison with _munda_ reveals essentially the same differences as does comparison with _nigriauris_ except that the difference in size is greater. _Remarks._--The name _Mustela xanthogenys_ Gray was long applied to all the weasels of the interior valleys of California and of the coast of that state south of San Francisco Bay. Gray, when he named the species and when referring to it in later accounts, never defined the locality whence the specimen came more definitely than "California." In 1896, Merriam (1896:25) gave the type locality as "Southern California, probably vicinity of San Diego" and later writers have not contradicted him. The type specimen was obtained in the course of the voyage of the British ship Sulphur, under command of Sir Edward Belcher. Examination of Belcher's (1843, vol. 1, p. 129) narrative of the voyage indicates the following places in California at which the specimen of weasel, described by Gray, could have been obtained: Fort Ross, Bodega, vicinity of San Francisco Bay and up Sacramento River to the mouth of the Feather River, Monterey, Santa Barbara, Buenaventura, San Pedro, San Juan, and San Diego. Reginald I. Pocock has kindly compared the type specimen in the British Museum with several specimens sent for that purpose. In the first place, comparison of skulls shows that the type specimen is a member of one of the races north of San Diego. In the second place, comparison of skins shows that the inside of the ears are not blackish but similar in color to the back. In fact, Pocock writes under date of February 12, 1929, regarding the type specimen, that "It is practically uniformly colored from the snout to the base of the tail, there being scarcely a trace of the darkening of the head, or muzzle, observable in your specimens [those sent for comparison]." This character of coloration of the ear excludes all the weasels of the Coast region of California from San Francisco Bay southward, namely, _M. f. latirostra_ and _M. f. nigriauris_. My own examination of this type specimen at a date later than that on which Pocock compared it satisfies me as to the accuracy of his statement above. Accordingly, the name _xanthogenys_ would seem to apply to one of the two subspecies here called _munda_ and _xanthogenys_. Perusal of Belcher's narrative of the voyage (_loc. cit._) shows that little, if any, opportunity was afforded to obtain vertebrate specimens at Fort Ross or Bodega, both localities within the range of the subspecies here called _munda_. Furthermore, the type specimen is smaller than individuals of _munda_ from 5 to 6 miles west of Inverness and from Point Arena with which the animals from Fort Ross and Bodega would be expected to agree in size. Weasels from along the north shore of San Francisco Bay are smaller than those on the coast north of the bay. Possibly the type specimen of _xanthogenys_ came from the north side of San Francisco Bay but probably it came from the bank of the Sacramento River and almost certainly not farther up stream from San Francisco Bay than the junction of the Sacramento and Feather rivers. The statement of Belcher (1843, vol. 1, p. 129), regarding the trip up the Sacramento River as far as Point Victoria, lat. 38°46´47" north, and return to San Francisco Bay, that "Cuyote or jackal--fox, racoon, land otter, weasel, and squirrel were obtained" lends strong probability to the idea that this type specimen was taken along the Sacramento River, possibly in the vicinity of the existing city of Sacramento. Unfortunately no specimens are available from the Sacramento Valley. If some were available, a comparison of them and specimens of _munda_ from along the north side of San Francisco Bay and Carquinez Straits with the type specimen of _xanthogenys_ should determine the correct application of the name. For the present it seems best to retain the name _munda_ and apply the name _xanthogenys_ to the weasels inhabiting the northern part of the San Joaquin Valley and presumably the southern part of the Sacramento Valley. Efforts to obtain specimens of weasels from the Sacramento Valley have been in vain. A juvenal specimen taken five miles south of Fair Oaks, Sacramento County, by Mr. John Fitzgerald, Jr., in December, 1927, was examined at his home and found to agree in coloration with specimens from farther south. Geographically, this specimen probably is more nearly a topotype than any other examined. Most of the specimens examined are immature and adequate adult cranial material has not been seen. Two adults, one of each sex, from Los Banos have skulls of large size which agree with those of _nigriauris_. The same is true of one adult and one young female from 4 miles southwest of Turlock, which, unlike the animals from Los Banos, show a darkening of the head extending in reduced degree even to the inside of the ears, as in _nigriauris_. The slightly darker than average (for _xanthogenys_) color on the back may indicate intergradation with _nevadensis_. Intergradation with _M. f. nevadensis_ is shown by specimens, from the southern part of the Sierra Nevada, mentioned in the account of _nevadensis_. None of the skulls shows malformation of the frontal sinuses such as result from infestation by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number 30, arranged by counties from north to south. =California.= _Sacramento County_: Bank of Sacramento River, 1[7]; 5 mi. S Fair Oaks, 1[29]. _San Joaquin County_: 4 mi. W Stockton, 1[74]. _Merced County_: Tegner School, 4 mi. SW Turlock, 2; Los Banos, 4 (2[74], 1[91] 1[87]). _Fresno County_: Mendota, 1[74]; Biola, 1[30]; Clovis, 1[55]; Fresno, 5 (1[74], 1[91], 2[55], 1[1]); 5 mi. W Fresno, 1[14]; Selma, 3 (2[50], 1[104]); 4 mi. NW Sanger, 1[55]; 5 mi. S Selma, 1[62]. _Tulare County_: Monson, 1[74]; 1-1/2 mi. N Goshen, 1[74]; Milo, 1[91]; 2 mi. N Tipton, 1[74]; Poplar, 2[53]. No locality more definite than California, 1[4]. =Mustela frenata nigriauris= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 22, 23, 24, 34, 35, 36 and 41 _Mustela frenata nigriauris_ Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:95, November 20, 1936. _Putorius xanthogenys_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., 1858, p. 176 (part). _Mustela xanthogenys_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 14(ser. 4):375, 1874 (part?). _Putorius (Gale) brasiliensis frenatus_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877 (part). _Putorius xanthogenys xanthogenys_, Grinnel, Proc. California Acad. Sciences, fourth series, 3:292, August 28, 1913. _Mustela xanthogenys xanthogenys_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:99, December 31, 1912; Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:102, September 26, 1933. _Type._--Male, adult, skeleton and skin; no. 32820, Mus. Vert. Zoöl.; Half Moon Bay, San Mateo County, California; received at Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, May 4, 1922, through A. L. Hagedoorn, after having been in captivity a few days where death occurred owing to injuries received in trap; original no. 1590. The skull has each of the zygomatic arches and the anterior end of the nasals broken through. The only part missing is the central two millimeters of the left zygomatic arch. The teeth all are present and entire. The skeleton appears to be complete except for the bones of the feet, which are preserved within the skin. The skin is well made and in good condition. _Range._--Altitudinally, sea level to more than 4000 feet; Sonoran and Transition life-zones of Coast Range and coast of California from San Francisco Bay south to Point Conception, Santa Barbara County, California. See figures 29 and 30 on pages 221 and 314. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. munda_, _xanthogenys_, and _pulchra_ by having inside of ears darker than back rather than same color as back, and from _xanthogenys_ and _pulchra_ in near (_l_) Antique Brown color of upper parts rather than Buckthorn Brown or near (16 _j_) Buckthorn Brown to near (_h_) Yellow Ocher respectively; from _M. f. latirostra_ by postorbital breadth, of adult males and females, less, rather than more, than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Five adults from Palo Alto, Santa Clara County, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 447 (412-465); length of tail, 167 (147-175); length of hind foot, 46 (45-47). Corresponding measurements of four adults from San Francisco are: 412 (394-435); 153 (145-160); 43.5 (41-46). Corresponding measurements of five adults and subadults from Berkeley, Alameda County, are: 419 (390-448); 148 (135-160); 44 (42-47). Tail averages 59 per cent as long as head and body in series from Palo Alto and in one from San Francisco. The average of 55 for the Berkeley series probably reflects a lesser average age. Length of hind foot less than basal length. The type specimen measures, 415, 150, 43. It is smaller than the mean. Female: A subadult from Palo Alto measures: Total length, 368; length of tail, 126; length of hind foot, 39. An adult and two subadults from Berkeley measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 347, 365, 340; length of tail, 134, 123, 125; length of hind foot, 37, 38.4, 36.5. In these four females the tail averages 55 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes, as represented by specimens from Berkeley, Alameda County, are: Total length, 68; length of tail, 21; length of hind foot, 7. Eight adult males weigh 249 (217-335) grams and one adult female 123 grams. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae brownish like dark color of head and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae mostly color of underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles slightly more than shown in figure 20. _Color._--Spot between eyes, band, confluent with color of underparts, on each side of head extending anterodorsally anterior to ear, and posterior third of each upper lip tinged with color of underparts or, less often, pure white; chin and lower lips white; remainder of sides and top of head posteriorly to, or a little behind, a line connecting posterior margins of ears, blackish; inside of pinna of ear, and sometimes outside of pinna, blackish; dark spot posterior to each angle of mouth present on each side in three-fourths of specimens; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts near (_l_) Antique Brown, and with more yellow than tone 3 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 301. Often with more blackish and red in winter. Underparts near (_a_ to _c_) Ochraceous-Buff or Ochraceous-Salmon. Ochraceous-Salmon in some juveniles. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and wrists, and on medial sides of hind limbs over antiplantar faces of toes. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in 17 adult males (Berkeley, 5; San Francisco, 5; Palo Alto, 7), 55 (40-73) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same series of males averaging 51 (35-60) mm., thus averaging longer than hind foot and 33 per cent of length of tail (Palo Alto and San Francisco, 31 per cent; Berkeley, 35 per cent). In 8 adult females, least color of underparts amounts to 55 (47-62) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail averages 41.5 (28-50) mm., thus averaging longer than hind foot and 32 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on six adults from Stanford Univ. and vicinity): See measurements and plates 22-24; weight (four adults), 5.4 (5.0-5.9) grams; basilar length, 47 (46.1-48.1); zygomatic breadth more than distance between condylar foramen and M1, or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth more than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars (less than distance between posterior borders of P4 and P2) and less than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth not greater than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate less than lateral length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 or 4 (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more or less than (about equal to) length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter (usually shorter) than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below anterior half of m2. Female (based on three adults, Hayward, Palo Alto, and Morro): See measurements and plates 34-36; weight (no. 43574, from Morro) 2.7 grams; basilar length, 41.2 (40.2-42.2); zygomatic breadth more or less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 and more or less than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and less than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate less than lateral length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than rostrum. The skull of the female averages 50 per cent lighter than that of the average male. Comparisons of the skull of the male with those of _M. f. latirostra_, _pulchra_, _xanthogenys_, and _munda_ are made in the accounts of those subspecies. _Remarks._--Like _M. f. latirostra_, _nigriauris_ long bore the name _xanthogenys_. The fairly adequate lot of specimens is divided between the collections of several institutions. The most satisfactory material in any one collection is in the Stanford University Natural History Museum where local specimens have been accumulated over a period of many years. No actual intergrade between _nigriauris_ and _xanthogenys_ has been seen, although the specimens from Los Banos, referred to _xanthogenys_, have large skulls as in _nigriauris_. Intergradation with _latirostra_ is shown by specimens, referred to _latirostra_, from the Los Angeles area. Also the one adult male from 5 miles southeast of Santa Margarita, San Luis Obispo County, is of small size and in this respect approaches _latirostra_. The range of _nigriauris_ is separated from that of _munda_ by San Francisco Bay, Carquinez Straits, and I suppose by the lower part of the San Joaquin River. On the basis of color of the inside of the pinna of the ear, the two subspecies are uniformly distinct. Intergradation is assumed to occur through the subspecies _xanthogenys_. None of the 26 adult and subadult specimens examined for evidences of infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites shows malformation of the sinuses. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 103, arranged by counties from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. =California.= _Contra Costa County_: Glen Frazer Station, 1; 2 mi. W Pinole, 1[13]; 1 mi. E Pinole, 1; Richmond, 1[13]; Lafayette, 1; 7 mi. E Clayton, 1; Moraga Valley, 1; Pinehurst, Redwood Canyon, 1; Concord, 1. _Alameda County_: Berkeley, 11; Oakland, 1; Piedmont, 1; Haywards, 2; near Haywards, 2; 10 mi. E Haywards, 1[91]; Redwood Canyon, 1; Calaveras Dam, 1. _San Francisco County_: San Francisco, 11 (5[8], 2[91], 1[60], 1[7]); Ocean View, 1[68]; Visitation Valley, 1. _San Mateo County_: Moss Beach, 1; Half Moon Bay, 1; Redwood City, 1[87]; Menlo Park, 9 (5[87], 2[68]); no locality more definite than county, 1[8]. _Santa Clara County_: 1/4 mi. N Milpitas, 1; 1/4 mi. S Milpitas, 1; Stanford University, 6 (4[68], 2[91]); Palo Alto, 11 (6[41], 2[60], 1[75], 1[87]). _Santa Cruz County_: 3 mi. E Santa Cruz, 1; 2-1/2 mi. E Santa Cruz, 1; Santa Cruz, 6 (2[91], 1[68], 1[4]). _Monterey County_: 1 mi. E mouth Salinas River, 10 ft., 1[37]; Pacific Grove, 1[8]; Monterey, 2 (1[7]); Carmel, 1[8]; Carmel Valley, 1[68]; Point Lobos, 1; Gonzales, 1. _San Luis Obispo County_: 5 mi. SE Santa Margarita, 1; Morro, 1[91]; 3-1/2 mi. S Oceano, 6. _Santa Barbara County_: Santa Maria, 1[87]; 5 mi. N Las Cruces, 1; 7 mi. W Gaviota, 1; Gaviota, 1. =Mustela frenata latirostra= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 1, 22, 23, 24, 34, 35 and 36 _Mustela frenata latirostra_ Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:96, November 20, 1936. _Putorius xanthogenys_, Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 176, 1858 (part); Stephens, California mammals, p. 246, 1906; Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:25, June 30, 1896 (part). _Putorius (Gale) brasilianus frenatus_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142 (part). _Mustela xanthogenys xanthogenys_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:99, December 31, 1912; Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., 40:102, September 26, 1933. _Mustela arizonensis_, Grinnell and Swarth, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl. 10, 376, October 31, 1913. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 3257, Mus. Vert. Zoöl.; San Diego, San Diego County, California; May 20, 1907; obtained by Frank X. Holzner. Right M1 is missing and the part of the jaw bearing this tooth is broken away. With this exception the skull is complete and unbroken and the teeth are all present and entire. The skin is fairly well made and in good condition except that it is slightly soiled. _Range._--Altitudinally sea level to 8000 feet (Tahquitz Valley, San Jacinto Mountains); Sonoran and Transition life-zones of coast and mountains west of Mohave and Imperial deserts of southern California from Point Conception and Cuyama Valley southward at least to Mexican boundary. See figures 29 and 30 on pages 221 and 314. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. nigriauris_ by having postorbital breadth of adult males and females, more, rather than less, than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; from _M. f. pulchra_ by having tympanic bulla longer than rostrum (orbitonasal length) and by near (_l_) Antique Brown rather than near (16 _j_) Buckthorn Brown to near (_h_) Yellow Ocher color of upper parts. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Six adults and subadults from San Diego yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 439 (428-449); length of tail, 153 (142-160); length of hind foot, 45 (40-47). Corresponding measurements for a series of eight adult males from the vicinity of Los Angeles are: 416 (394-428); 158 (151-166); 44 (40-47). In the series from San Diego the tail averages 54 per cent as long as head and body. In the series from Los Angeles the average is 61 per cent. Length of hind foot in each series, less than basal length. The type specimen measures, 435, 142, 42. Female: No. 5070, adult, from San Diego, measures 367, 141, 38. Nos. 22 and 6748 from Santa Ysabel, measure: 359, 380; 130, 140; 39, 35. No. 7194 from Jamacha measures, 358, 125, 35. Three adult females from Los Angeles yield the following: Total length, 373, 345, 368; length of tail, 150, 122, 134; length of hind foot,--, 41, 41. In no. 5070 the tail is 62 per cent as long as the head and body and in the three from Los Angeles it averages 60 (55-67) per cent. Length of hind foot, in each case, less than basal length. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes as shown by the six males from San Diego and the four females from San Diego County are: Total length, 73; length of tail, 19; length of hind foot, 8. Corresponding differences shown by the eight males and three females from Los Angeles are: 54, 23, 3. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae brownish, like dark color of head and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae mostly color of underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles slightly more than shown in figure 20. _Color._--Spot between eyes, band confluent with color of underparts on each side of head extending anterodorsally anterior to ear, and posterior third of each upper lip tinged with color of underparts or, less often, white; chin and lower lips white; remainder of sides and top of head posteriorly to near line connecting posterior margins of ears, blackish; inside of pinna of ear, and sometimes outside of pinna, blackish; dark spot posterior to each angle of mouth present on each side in three-fourths of specimens; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts near (_l_) Antique Brown, and with more yellow than tone 3 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 301. Underparts Ochraceous-Buff to Warm Buff and in some specimens from Los Angeles and Ventura counties Ochraceous-Orange, especially in young and juveniles. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and wrists and on medial sides of hind limbs over antiplantar faces of toes. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in 15 adult and subadult males from San Diego County, 54 (35-75) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same series of males averaging 54.5 (46-60) mm. long. Thus averaging longer than hind foot and 35 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 6 adults from San Diego County). See measurements and plates 22-24. As described in _M. f. nigriauris_ except that: Weight (4 specimens), 3.9 (3.8-4.0) grams; basilar length 43.8 (41.9-47.0); postorbital breadth more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth not less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 2 to 2-1/2 (including I3) upper incisors; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below m2. Female (based on 4 adults from San Diego County): See measurements. As described in _M. f. nigriauris_ except that: Weight, 2.6 (2.2-2.8) grams; basilar length, 40.0 and 40.1; postorbital breadth more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; length of tympanic bulla more than length of rostrum. The skull of the female averages 34 per cent lighter than that of the average male. The skull of the male of _latirostra_, compared with that of _nigriauris_, is by weight, more than one-fourth lighter, has a lesser basilar length, a lesser mastoid breadth, a lesser zygomatic breadth and a narrower M1. In these features no overlap has been observed between adults from the general vicinities of the type localities of the two forms. In adult males of _latirostra_ the postorbital breadth, with one exception, is more than the combined length of P4 and P3 whereas the reverse is true in adult males of _nigriauris_. Both males and females of _latirostra_ have a generally smaller skull with relatively broader interorbital and postorbital parts and the tympanic bullae are relatively larger, rounder and more inflated. Compared with the skull of the male of _pulchra_ that of _latirostra_ is, by weight, more than one-fourth lighter, has a lesser basilar and orbitonasal length, lesser zygomatic and mastoid breadth and a more nearly flat braincase. In these features no overlap has been observed between adults from the general vicinities of the type localities of the two subspecies. Also, in _latirostra_ the tympanic bulla is longer than the rostrum whereas the opposite is true in _pulchra_. The skull of _latirostra_ is generally smaller and relatively, on the average, has the preorbital part of the skull deeper and broader with longer tooth-rows, although with shorter rostrum, while the zygomatic and mastoid breadths are less. Study of skulls of subadult females of _pulchra_ indicate that females of _latirostra_ and _pulchra_ differ in the same fashion as do males. _Remarks._--This subspecies long has gone by the name _M. xanthogenys_ and the type locality was generally supposed to be in the vicinity of San Diego. This supposition seems to have originated with Merriam's (1896:25) statement that the type locality was "Southern California, probably vicinity of San Diego." Nevertheless, as set forth in the account of _M. f. xanthogenys_ the type specimen concerned now is thought to have come from much farther north. Although 76 Recent specimens are available from southern California, additional adults are needed to understand the geographic variation there. _M. f. latirostra_ may be a composite--made up of more than one geographic race. Specimens from San Diego County differ so much in relative length of the tail that at one stage in the present study it was thought that a difference in this respect existed between the coastal animals and those from farther inland. Material received later did not wholly substantiate this view and because of the uniformly small size of all of the skulls from that county, the animals were later regarded as of the same subspecies. Eventually, even this supposed common feature proved to be inconstant for an adult male from Jamacha, no. 7098, of the San Diego Society of Natural History, and another adult male from San Marcos, no. 8869, collection of Ralph Ellis, were later examined and found to have skulls as large as those of average-sized, adult males of _nigriauris_. Despite these puzzling local variations, it is established that the long-tailed weasels of southern California are smaller than those from farther north. Also, the southern animal averages smaller in weight and size of skull, and the skull is differently proportioned. Specimens in series from Los Angeles County definitely are intermediate in size and shape of skull between _latirostra_ from San Diego County and _nigriauris_ from, say, Santa Clara County, but definitely more closely resemble _latirostra_ from San Diego County than they do _nigriauris_. A skull of a young animal, not here identified to subspecies, from Potholes, in the Colorado River Valley, 10 miles northeast of Bard, Imperial County, California, may have closest relationship to _M. f. latirostra_. Additional comment on this specimen is offered in the account of _M. f. neomexicana_. From the asphalt pits of Rancho La Brea, in Los Angeles County, a total of 57 skulls have been examined, more than half of which are reasonably complete. I have been unable to learn whether these came from pits regarded by students of the deposit as wholly Recent, from pits regarded as of Pleistocene age, or from both. Suffice to say that only two specimens were found which could be distinguished from skulls of the subspecies of weasel living in that area today. These two specimens, lent to me by Professor Chester Stock, were with other skulls received from the Los Angeles Museum of History, Art and Science and bore identifying numbers as follows: 16/20-27, the anterior part of the skull of an adult, and 16, the skull posterior to the cribiform plate of a subadult or possibly young individual. The latter has a mastoid breadth of 28.0 millimeters, a tympanic bulla 16.1 long and other measurements in proportion. It is larger than any specimen of weasel, of any subspecies, seen from California and in the subgenus _Mustela_ seems to be exceeded in size only by certain individuals of _M. f. texensis_. _M. f. neomexicana_ attains relatively large size and comparisons were made with individuals of that subspecies. However, the young specimen from Rancho La Brea differs from _neomexicana_ in that the tympanic bullae rise less steeply on the medial sides and the inferior lip of the external auditory meatus is less developed laterally. Age considered, the sagittal crest is less developed and the mastoid processes project more abruptly from the skull. The anterior part of the skull of the adult, no. 16/20-27 is larger than any specimen seen of _M. f. latirostra_ or adjoining subspecies, and among California-taken specimens is equaled in size only by the largest males of _M. f. munda_ from the northwest coastal district in Mendocino County. This adult from Rancho La Brea differs from _neomexicana_, sex and age taken into account, in greater postorbital breadth, lesser rostral width in comparison with the interorbital breadth, and in having the temporal ridges at the anterior end of the sagittal crest spread out into a Y-shaped, rather than a T-shaped, pattern. All these differences from _neomexicana_ are features of agreement with the California bridled weasels of the subspecies _latirostra_, _nigriauris_, and _munda_. The same is true of the characters which set apart the young specimen from _neomexicana_. In summary: of 57 weasel skulls examined from the asphalt pits at Rancho La Brea, Los Angeles County, all but two are indistinguishable from the skulls of the Recent weasel living in that region today. These two skulls agree in qualitative characters with animals of the California coastal subspecies now living from Los Angeles northward to Humboldt County, but are larger. For the time being these two may be thought of as giants of the same type of animal inhabiting the Los Angeles region today. Only one of 41 adult and subadult skulls examined for malformation of the frontal sinuses shows infestation by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 142, listed by counties from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. =California.= _Santa Barbara County_: Rincon Point, 1. _Ventura County_: Cuyama Valley, 2200 ft., 1[91]; Nordhoff, 3[59]; Santa Paula, 1[59]; Ventura, 7. _Los Angeles County_: near Owensmouth, 1[24]; Cahuenga, 1[91]; Llano, 10 mi. E Littlerock, 1; Flint Ridge, Pasadena, 1[59]; Pasadena, 3; Lankershim, 1[24]; 1 mi. S Lankershim, 1[24]; Duarte, 1[59]; Covina, 1[59]; Claremont, 1[91]; El Monte, 4 (2[75], 1[24]); Montebello, 1; Alhambra, 6 (5[2], 1[91]); El Nogal, 2[8]; Gardena, 1[26]; Palos Verdes Estate, 3; Rancho La Brea asphalt deposits, 57[70]^{ and }[92]. _San Bernardino County_: San Bernardino Valley, 1[75]; San Bernardino, 4 (2[20], 1[91]); Redlands, 2 (1[38]); Bluff Lake, 2 (1[59], 1[33]). _Riverside County_: West Riverside, 1; Arlington, 800 ft., 1[17]; 3-1/2 mi. E and 1/2 mi. N Beaumont, 2600 ft., 1; Banning, 1[91]; Cabazon, 1[91]; San Jacinto Plain, 1[20]; Tahquitz Valley, 8000 ft., 1; Elsinore, 1[1]. _San Diego County_: Twin Oaks, 1[91]; San Marcos, 2 (1[87], 1[41]); Escondido, 1; Witch Creek, 1[91]; Ballena, 1[20]; Santa Ysabel, 3 (2[20], 1[87]); Julián, 1; La Jolla, 1; Lakeside, 1[91]; El Cajon, 1[91]; El Vido (not found on map), 1[91]; San Diego, 9 (1[91], 1[20], 1[87], 1[32]); Jamacha, 2[87]; Chula Vista, 1[20]. =Mustela frenata pulchra= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 22, 23 and 24 _Mustela frenata pulchra_ Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:98, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skeleton and skin; no. 16668, Mus. Vert. Zoöl.; Buttonwillow, Kern County, California; April 30, 1912; obtained by J. Grinnell; original no. 1953. The skull (plates 22-24) is complete and unbroken (a fracture in the right jugal has healed). All teeth are present and entire. The skeleton lacks the os penis, left fibula, shaft of left tibia and the distal three or four caudal vertebrae. Some of the bones of the feet distal to the radius and tibia are with the skeleton, and the remainder probably are in the skin. The skin is fairly well made and in good condition, except for the left hind leg which was torn when the animal was captured. A well-developed scrotal pouch shows the specimen to have been a male. _Range._--Altitudinally around 300 feet in San Joaquin Valley to 2500 feet at Isabella; Upper Sonoran and Lower Sonoran life-zones of southern end of San Joaquin Valley and in mountains at southern end of Valley, California. See figures 29 and 30 on pages 221 and 314. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. nevadensis_ in presence of light facial markings, and from _M. f. nevadensis_ and _M. f. inyoensis_ in near (16 _j_) Buckthorn Brown to near (_h_) Yellow Ocher rather than near (14 _n_ to _l_) Brussels Brown color of upper parts, and greater size with hind foot more than 40 in females and basilar length averaging more than 46.0 in males; from _M. f. latirostra_ in having rostrum (orbitonasal length) longer than tympanic bulla and from _M. f. latirostra_ and _M. f. nigriauris_ by color of upper parts as stated above rather than near (_l_) Antique Brown, and by having inside of ears same color as back rather than much darker than back; from _M. f. xanthogenys_ in hind foot of males more than 46 and broader skull which in males has breadth of rostrum more than 13.9 and mastoid breadth more than 26.0. _Description._--_Size._--Male: The type specimen and five other adults yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 454 (428-477); length of tail, 178 (153-184); length of hind foot, 50 (47-55). Tail averages 65 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot approximately equal to basal length. The type specimen measures, 460, 184, 49. Female: Three subadult topotypes yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 399 (383-411); length of tail, 154 (140-161); length of hind foot, 42 (41-42). Tail averages 63 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 55; length of tail, 24; length of hind foot, 8. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata nigriauris_. _Color._--Spot between eyes, band confluent with color of underparts, on each side of head extending anterodorsally anterior to each ear, posterior third of each upper lip, lower lips and chin white or more often darker than Ochraceous-Buff and therefore same color as belly; dark spot posterior to each angle of mouth present but small; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts near (16 _j_) Buckthorn Brown to near (_h_) Yellow Ocher and from tone 2 to 4 of Brown Pink of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 297, but with a trifle more reddish brown. Upper parts of uniform color except for occasional slight darkening of nose, forehead, and areas around eyes. Underparts darker (_a_) than Ochraceous-Buff. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes, onto antipalmar faces of feet and wrists, on medial sides of hind limbs over antiplantar faces of toes, tarsal region and sometimes in diluted fashion on proximal third of underside of tail. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in 6 male topotypes, 55 (43-81) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in same series of males averaging 58 (53-63) mm. long; thus averaging longer than hind foot and 33 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 6 ads., type and 5 topotypes): See measurements and plates 22-24. As described in _M. f. nigriauris_ except that: Weight (6 ads.), 5.3 (4.5-6.1) grams; basilar length, 47.6 (46.0-48.6); (one skull, no. 335, with postorbital breadth more than distance between posterior borders of P4 and P2); interorbital breadth more or less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 2 to 3-1/2 (including I3) upper incisors; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and shorter than rostrum. Female: Adult skull of typical female not seen. As compared with the skull of the type specimen of _inyoensis_, skulls of adult males of _pulchra_ are larger throughout, relatively broader, especially in the preorbital part of the skull, have more inflated tympanic bullae, and are less convex in dorsal outline. Comparison of the skull with that of _latirostra_ has been made in discussion of that subspecies. Comparison of skulls of adult males of _nigriauris_ and _pulchra_ shows that those of _pulchra_ average larger in every measurement taken except those of m1, M1, P4, and depth of skull at posterior borders of upper molars. The basilar length is only slightly more and it follows that, relative to this length, other measurements of the skull are relatively, as well as actually, larger. In no one measurement is there an entire lack of overlap, but the skulls of adult males, and probably adult females, may be distinguished from those of _nigriauris_ by the combination of the following mentioned, average differences: Tympanic bullae larger in each of three dimensions; preorbital and interorbital parts of skull broader and notably heavier; interorbital breadth greater; zygomatic arches more expanded laterally; mastoid processes more prominent. As compared with _xanthogenys_, differences of similar nature, but of greater degree, distinguish _pulchra_. As compared with those of _nevadensis_ (represented by specimens from Mono Co., Calif.), skulls of adult males of _pulchra_ average larger in every measurement taken and no overlap exists in basilar length, orbitonasal length, mastoid breadth, zygomatic breadth, length of tympanic bulla, or depth of skull at either the anterior margin of the basioccipital or at the posterior margins of the upper molars. Relatively, the preorbital portion is about the same size in the two forms. _Remarks._--The best material of this big weasel was obtained in 1910 and 1911 by John Wimmer and forwarded to the California Academy of Sciences through John R. Rowley, although in 1905, one specimen had been obtained by A. S. Bunnell for the collections of the United States Bureau of Biological Survey, another by J. Grinnell for the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy in 1912, and in 1933, another by L. M. Huey, for the San Diego Society of Natural History. The males from the type locality are relatively uniform in size and shape of skull. The one exception is no. 137935, U. S. Nat. Mus., slightly younger than the others. Its skull is relatively more slender than any of the others and does not display several of the differential characters. The male, no. 127566, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Alila (= Earlimart) is intermediate in cranial features between _pulchra_ and _xanthogenys_ as known from specimens taken in the vicinity of Fresno. The skull of the female, no. 127565, from the same place, is too young to provide diagnostic characters. Since the skull of an adult female of topotypical _pulchra_ is unknown, doubt attaches to the identification of the adult, female specimen, no. 115895, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Delano. It has a relatively broad skull in comparison with the adult female of _xanthogenys_ from Los Banos. The adult female, no. 9998, San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., from 2 mi. SW Simmler, shows approach to _nigriauris_ in slightly reduced size. The skin alone from Coalinga, a male, taken on April 10, 1935, measures 462, 179, 47. The adult female, with crushed skull, from 4 miles east of Coalinga, measures 350, 129, 40. In size, these specimens agree better with _pulchra_ than with _xanthogenys_. The skin alone from 3 miles south of Coalinga is unsexed and without external measurements. Skulls of adults from Coalinga are needed to permit of more positive identification of the subspecies found there. The female from 4 miles east of Coalinga, taken on February 21, 1936, is in process of molt on the underparts, and the longer hair which is near (20´) Naples Yellow contrasts strongly with the incoming shorter hair which is near (10 _c_) Salmon-Orange. The skin alone, no. 16270, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., from Isabella, was made up from a decayed animal and is of but little use. It is referred to _pulchra_ purely because of geographic nearness of Isabella to the type locality of _pulchra_. The most that can be told from the specimen is that it is a relatively light-colored, bridled weasel. The fact that the color is slightly darker than in _pulchra_ may or may not indicate intergradation with _nevadensis_. No. 54103/41042, U. S. Nat. Mus., consisting of crushed bits of skull and the skin of the head, is from Willow Spring, Kern County. This marginal locality is really in the Mojave Desert rather than in the San Joaquin Valley. The light color of the skin of the head suggests _pulchra_, but it is realized that a complete specimen might show the animal there to be unlike _pulchra_. None of the skulls shows evidence of having had the frontal sinuses infested by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 18, listed by counties from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. =California.= _Fresno County_: Coalinga, 1[23]; 4 mi. E Coalinga, 1; 3 mi. S Coalinga, 1[8]. _Tulare County_: Alila (= Earlimart), 2[91]. _Kern County_: Delano, 1[91]; Buttonwillow, 9 (6[8], 2[91]); Isabella, 1; Willow Spring, 1[91] _San Luis Obispo County_: 2 mi. SW Simmler, 1[87]. =Mustela frenata inyoensis= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 22, 23 and 24 _Mustela frenata inyoensis_ Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:99, November 20, 1936. _Putorius xanthogenys_, Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:25, June 30, 1896 (part). _Mustela xanthogenys xanthogenys_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:99, December 31, 1912. _Type._--Male, adult, skull (with skeleton) and skin; no. 25907, Mus. Vert. Zoöl.; Carl Walter's Ranch, 2 mi. N Independence, Inyo County, California; June 26, 1917; obtained by A. C. Shelton; original no. 3143. The skull (plates 22-24) is complete and unbroken. All teeth are present and entire. The skin is well made and in good condition. _Range._--From 3700 feet (Lone Pine) to at least 4000 feet (Alvord); Lower Sonoran Life-zone of the floor of Owens Valley in Inyo County, California. See figures 29 and 30 on pages 221 and 314. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. nevadensis_ in presence of white facial markings; from _M. f. pulchra_ in near (_l_) Brussels Brown rather than near (16 _j_) Buckthorn Brown to near (_h_) Yellow Ocher color of upper parts and basilar length of less than 45 in males; from _M. f. latirostra_ in brownish rather than blackish color of inside of ear and orbitonasal length of more than 15. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Two adults, the type specimen and no. 25392/32805, measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 423 and 390; length of tail, 170 and 145; length of hind foot, 42 and 44. Tail is 67 and 59 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. Female: No. 12400, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., which is young, has the following measurements: Total length, 390; length of tail, 150; length of hind foot, 39. Tail is 63 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. The differences in external measurements between the two sexes, as represented by the male type specimen and by the young female, are: Total length, 33, length of tail, 20; length of hind foot, 3. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black or dark brown and reaching beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles (in summer pelage) slightly less than shown in figure 19. _Color._--Large spot between eyes, band confluent with color of underparts, on each side of head extending anterodorsally anterior to each ear, upper throat, chin, lower lips and in some specimens part or all of upper lips white; patch between eyes and bars in front of ears tinged with some shade of yellowish in one specimen; dark spot posterior to each angle of mouth present in four of five specimens; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts, in summer, near (_l_) Brussels Brown or tones 1 to 2 of Raw Umber of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 301; slightly darker brown on forehead, nose and about eyes. In winter near (_j_) Snuff Brown or lighter than Brussels Brown with a smoked effect. Underparts Buff-Yellow, winter and summer. Color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over toes onto antipalmar faces of feet and wrists and on medial sides of hind legs over antiplantar faces of toes. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in 5 available specimens 34 (24-42) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail, in two adult males, averaging 53 (45 and 60) mm. Thus longer than hind foot and averaging 34 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on the type): See measurements and plates 22-24. As described in _M. f. nigriauris_ except that: Weight, 4.4 grams; basilar length, 44.7; postorbital breadth not less than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; length of tympanic bulla less than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row. Female: Adult unknown. Compared with the skull of the male of _nevadensis_, no single difference not covered by individual variation in _nevadensis_ has been detected. Selected differences of _inyoensis_ in comparison with _latirostra_ are larger size, less inflated tympanic bullae and relative narrowness of the postorbital, interorbital and preorbital parts of the skull. Comparison of the skull with that of _M. f. pulchra_ is made in the account of that subspecies. _Remarks._--Although two specimens of this subspecies were taken during the Death Valley Survey conducted by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, only three additional individuals are known to have been saved as study specimens since that time. _M. f. inyoensis_ as now known may be thought of as closely similar to _M. f. nevadensis_ except for the presence of well-developed white facial markings like those found in the weasels of the San Joaquin Valley and coastal region of California south of San Francisco Bay. The nonwhite areas of the head are almost the same color as the back and not distinctly blackish as in _M. f. latirostra_ and _M. f. nigriauris_. The one specimen in the winter coat, no. 25392/32805, U. S. Nat. Mus., from Lone Pine, is brown rather than white. The brown has the pale smoke-tinge common in the winter pelage of subspecies whose members are either brown or white in winter. The range of this subspecies is thought to include the floor and lower elevations of Owens Valley although it may occur in limited numbers southwestward along the base of the Sierra Nevada and through the mountains in places of low elevation like Walker Pass its range may meet that of _pulchra_. The type specimen was taken in an alfalfa field by ranch hands, who, according to A. C. Shelton (MS), stated that the species was common at the type locality. None of the five specimens shows infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 5, listed by localities from north to south. =California.= _Inyo County_: Alvord, 4000 ft., 1 (U. S. Nat. Mus.); 2 mi. N Independence, 1 (Mus. Vert. Zoöl.); Lone Pine, 3 (2 in Field Mus. Nat. Hist. and 1 in U. S. Nat. Mus.). =Mustela frenata neomexicana= (Barber and Cockerell) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 1, 22, 23, 24, 34, 35 and 36 _Putorius frenatus neomexicanus_ Barber and Cockerell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1898:188; Lantz, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 19:178, 1905. _Mustela frenata neomexicana_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:100, December 31, 1912; Bailey, Animal Life of Carlsbad Cavern, p. 97, 1928; Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:108, November 20, 1936. _Mustela frenatus neomexicanus_, Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 35:19, September 5, 1913. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 10475, Mus. Comp. Zoöl.; Armstrong's Lake, Mesilla Park, Dona Ana County, New Mexico; February 1, 1898; obtained by A. C. Tryson; original no. 58 of C. M. Barber. The skull is imperfectly cleaned but unbroken. The right upper incisors, right P2 and left p3 are broken away. The skin is indifferently stuffed but in a good state of preservation except that the distal part of the tail is missing. The animal's coat is ragged, and this imperfect appearance is heightened by injury to the posterior part of the body, probably at the time of capture. _Range._--From 3800 feet (type locality) to 9000 feet (Cloudcroft, N. Mex.); Upper Sonoran and Lower Sonoran life-zones of northern México, southeastern Arizona, New Mexico and western Texas, panhandle of Oklahoma, southeastern Colorado and southwestern Kansas. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. frenata_ and _M. f. texensis_ by Buckthorn Brown rather than Brussels Brown color of upper parts, mastoid breadth of adult males ordinarily more, rather than less, than postpalatal length; from _M. f. leucoparia_ by Buckthorn Brown rather than Argus Brown color of upper parts, distance from anterior margin of tympanic bulla to foramen ovale less, rather than more, than four-fifths height of tympanic bulla; from _M. f. arizonensis_ and _M. f. nevadensis_ by Buckthorn Brown, rather than near (14 _n_) Brussels Brown or, in winter, white color of upper parts, in presence of white frontal spot continuous with color of underparts, in basilar length of more than 46 mm. in males and 40 mm. in females; from _M. f. longicauda_ by Buckthorn Brown rather than near (_h_) Clay Color of upper parts, by presence of white facial markings on Argus Brown head, and by length of tooth-rows amounting to less than 37 per cent of basilar length; from _M. f. primulina_ by Buckthorn Brown rather than Brussels Brown color of upper parts, in presence of white frontal spot and broad white bands on side of head, in anteriorly truncate rather than anterolaterally rounded bullae and zygomatic breadth of more than 30 in males and 24 in females. _Description._--_Size._--Male: The type specimen (see Barber and Cockerell, 1898:188) measured: Total length, 500; length of tail, 205; length of hind foot, 50. Tail 70 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. Female: No. 21779 from Tombstone, Arizona, measured: Total length, 419; length of tail, 165; length of hind foot from dried skin, 41 (probably 43 in flesh). Tail 65 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes, as known from these two individuals, are: Total length, 81; length of tail, 40; length of hind foot, 7. Compared with _M. f. frenata_, the size, proportions of parts and difference in size of the two sexes, appears to be about the same. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae colored like upper parts [in the type specimen some of the "long bristles of the upper lip" are white as pointed out by Barber and Cockerell (_op. cit._: 188)] and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae colored like underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles as shown in figure 20. _Color._--Broad white bands on sides of head, extending anterodorsally anterior to each ear, confluent with white spot between eyes and with color of underparts; posterior half or all of each upper lip edged with white; usually few white hairs on top of head between ears; remainder of top of head near Argus Brown of Ridgway and Chocolate, tone 4, of Oberthür and Dauthenay; dark spot posterior to each angle of mouth usually absent; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts varying, in different specimens, from Buckthorn Brown to Dresden Brown of Ridgway, and Brown Pink (tones 3 to 4, pl. 297, of Oberthür and Dauthenay); underparts Antimony Yellow or near (_c_) Warm Buff of Ridgway, and Brown Pink (tone 1, pl. 297, of Oberthür and Dauthenay); color of underparts extends distally on legs over forefeet and hind feet. Least width of color of underparts averaging 46 (41-55) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; black tip of tail 35 to 45 mm. long in females; 43 to 68 mm. long in males and averaging 21 (20-36) per cent as long as tail-vertebrae. No specimen of this subspecies in the white winter coat has been seen. Animals taken in midwinter are available from Mesilla Park, Willcox, and 10 miles east of Roswell. From _M. f. frenata_, _neomexicana_ differs in: upper parts and underparts much lighter colored; white facial markings more extensive; color of underparts more extended onto feet. From _M. f. leucoparia_, _neomexicana_ differs as follows: above and below, much lighter colored, but white facial markings less extensive and color of underparts less extended onto feet and legs. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on adults: the type; no. 131582 from Berino, New Mexico; and no. 1485 from Seward Co., Kansas): See measurements and plates 22-24. As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_ except that: Weight, 6.2 (4.9 and 7.5); basilar length, 49.3 (48 and 50.5); mastoid breadth more than postpalatal length; least width of palate less than length of P4; anterior margin of masseteric fossa directly below m2 or heel of ml. Female (based on three adults): See measurements and plates 34-36. As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_ except that: Weight, 3.1 (2.6-3.5) grams; basilar length, 42.7 (40.8-45.5); zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 and more or less than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla. The skull of the female averages 50 per cent lighter than that of the male. As compared with the skull of the male of _M. f. frenata_, that of _neomexicana_ is decidedly more angular and ridged. The postorbital constriction is narrower, the mastoid breadth greater (it is less than the postpalatal length in some subadult males), the sagittal crest much higher with impressions of the temporal and masseter muscles carried farther forward on the frontals, rostrum shorter and tympanic bullae wider and more inflated. Similar, though less marked, differences exist between the females. As compared with _M. f. leucoparia_ and _perotae_, the same differences as noted above between _frenata_ and _neomexicana_ exist. In addition the tympanic bullae are so far removed from the foramen ovale that the distance from the anterior end of each bulla to the foramen ovale, instead of being less than the height of tympanic bullae, is in _leucoparia_ more than four-fifths this height and in _perotae_ more than the entire height. Also, in _perotae_, the squamosal, anterior to each tympanic bulla, is ventrally convex rather than ventrally concave as in _neomexicana_. Compared with _M. f. longicauda_, _neomexicana_ is relatively narrower in the interorbital region, has relatively shorter tooth-rows, a V-shaped rather than a U-shaped interpterygoid space and in males has the interorbital region flat rather than convex and the sagittal crest is higher. The same differences are to be noted in comparison with _nevadensis_ but here the difference in relative length of tooth-row is less. The same differences exist also in comparison with _M. f. arizonensis_ except that its interorbital breadth, relative to the rest of the skull, is about the same. Difference in size is especially marked here; even females of _neomexicana_ average larger than males of _arizonensis_. _Remarks._--When Barber and Cockerell named this subspecies in 1898, they had three specimens. Only two others are known to have been taken before this time. These are a skeleton, without corresponding skin, taken at Lozier, Texas, in 1890 by Wm. Lloyd, and no. 21779/36482, U. S. Nat. Mus., taken on April 6, 1893, by R. D. Lusk at Tombstone, Arizona. On the back of a label recently attached to the last mentioned specimen the name C. K. Worthen appears and probably signifies that the specimen was purchased from this dealer in vertebrate specimens. _M. f. neomexicana_ has a large geographic range. The old male from Liberal, Seward County, Kansas, extends the known range far to the northeast. Geographically, this occurrence is logical for the southwestern desertlike conditions extend to this part of Kansas. Probably the subspecies occurs in southeastern Colorado and in the panhandle of Oklahoma where conditions are similar. Bailey (1905:198) lists _neomexicana_ as a member of the mammalian fauna of Texas. As stated by him (_loc. cit._:198) this inclusion is based on geographic grounds and not on actual specimens. Strecker (1926:13) also includes _neomexicana_ in his list of Texas mammals but writes me, under date of January 9, 1928, that "I included _Mustela frenata neomexicana_ as a Texas mammal on the strength of its being mentioned by Bailey. . . ." On better ground, Bailey (1928:97) lists the subspecies as occurring in southeastern New Mexico at Carlsbad Cavern. However, Bailey (_loc. cit._) knew of the existence of weasels just below El Paso and at Langtry, Texas. An unsexed skeleton, no. 167891, in the United States National Museum, from Lozier, Texas, is not certainly identifiable to subspecies. If, as I think, the animal is a female, its skull is intermediate between that of _frenata_ and _neomexicana_ although when all features are considered it is seen to be nearest the latter. The large size (basilar length of 46.5 mm.) may reflect some relationship to _texensis_. The field notes of the collector furnished me by Dr. H. H. T. Jackson (MS), describe the color as brownish yellow above and sulphur below. The admission of this subspecies to the list of mammals of Texas is made certain by the female (no. 1572, Texas Cooperative Research Collection) taken on July 28, 1940, 1-1/2 mi. NW Kent, Texas, by C. E. Scull. The skull alone from Durango (City of), extends the known range far to the south. This skull is typical of _neomexicana_. Skins from the same place would be especially interesting as showing the approach, if any, in color, of _neomexicana_ to _M. f. leucoparia_. Mr. D. D. Stone of Casa Grande, Arizona, writes, under date of February 2, 1927, that a weasel was seen by an acquaintance of his in a field near Chandler, Maricopa County, Arizona. Probably this was _neomexicana_. If so, its range extends much farther west than collected specimens show. Actual intergradation with _M. f. frenata_ is not shown by the material at hand. The two females from Albuquerque, although typically _neomexicana_ as regards color, have smaller, less prominently ridged skulls than females of _neomexicana_ of the same age from farther south and approach _M. f. nevadensis_. Probably the geographic ranges of _M. f. neomexicana_ and _M. f. latirostra_ do not meet; the only evidence of the existence of weasels in all of the large area, comprising western Arizona and the deserts of eastern California, which intervenes between the ranges of the two subspecies is the skull of a young individual, no. 68842, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., from 10 miles northeast of Bard, Imperial County, California. There, on December 29, 1932, Jack C. vonBloeker, Jr., retrieved the weathered skull with some of the vertebrae attached, from the top of a wood rat's nest beneath a mesquite tree near the west bank of the Colorado River. The idea that the carcass may have been washed down the river from far upstream gains no support from a comparison of the specimen itself for the tympanic bullae are larger than in _nevadensis_ and the skull is larger than the largest males seen of _arizonensis_, the two upriver races. On the basis of size the skull could be either a male of _latirostra_ or a female of _neomexicana_. These two subspecies, like _arizonensis_ and the skull in question, have much inflated bullae. However, the immaturity of the specimen conceals any other diagnostic cranial features, and prevents referring it certainly to either _neomexicana_ or _latirostra_. In any event the specimen provides no evidence of intergradation between the two forms last mentioned. Speculating on its identity, I should say that it might be either an intergrade between _arizonensis_ and _nevadensis_, from southern Utah or northwestern Arizona, or a member of an unnamed race resident in the lower part of the valley of the Colorado River. Whereas _M. f. panamensis_ and _M. f. aureoventris_ are the darkest-colored weasels and occur in regions of heavy rainfall, _M. f. neomexicana_ is the lightest-colored American weasel and occurs in an extremely arid region where the rainfall and humidity are slight. According to Barber and Cockerell (1898:189) "The type specimen was shot in the grass on the shore of Armstrong's Lake. . . ." Bailey (1928:97) found the tracks of one of these animals "in the great pit at the west entrance to" Carlsbad Cavern and supposes they "hunt the cave walls for mice and other small game." Data on the label attached to no. 230973 states that the specimen was taken, two miles west of Willcox, Arizona, in a prairie dog town. Only two of the 23 skulls show evidence of infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 28, arranged alphabetically by states and from north to south by counties in each state. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the United States National Museum. =Arizona.= _Graham County_: Safford, 1. _Cochise County_: 2 mi. W Willcox, 1; Willcox, 1; 8000 ft., Chiricahua Mts., 1; 6000 ft., Pinery Canyon, Chiricahua Mts., 1[33]; Tombstone, 1; Sulphur Spring Valley, 1[74]. =Durango.= "Durango City," 1. =Kansas.= _Seward County_: Liberal, 1[93]. =New Mexico.= _Bernalillo County_: 3 mi. NW Albuquerque, 2. _Lincoln County_: 7800 ft., South Fork Eagle Creek, White Mts., 1. _Chaves County_: Pecos River, 10 mi. E Roswell, 8[74]; Dexter, 1[74]. _Otero County_: Cloudcroft, 9000 ft., 1[90]. _Dona Ana County_: Mesilla Park, 2 (1[75], 1[7]); Berino, 2. =Texas.= _Culberson County_: 1-1/2 mi. NW Kent, 1[90]. _Terrel County_: Lozier, 1. =Mustela frenata texensis= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 22, 23 and 24 _Mustela frenata texensis_ Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:99, November 20, 1936. _Mustela frenata_, Strecker, The Baylor Bull., 27:14, September, 1924. _Mustela frenata frenata_, Strecker, The Baylor Bull., 27:12, August, 1926 (part). _Type._--Male, adult, skull with skin of head, neck and tail; no. 14821, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.; Kerr County, Texas; September 17, 1897; obtained by H. P. Attwater. The skull (plates 22-24) and dentition are complete and unbroken. The preserved parts of the skin are not stuffed. _Range._--Lower Sonoran and possibly Upper Sonoran life-zones of central Texas. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela frenata arthuri_ in possessing white facial markings and postorbital breadth less than distance between posterior borders of P4 and P2; from _M. f. frenata_ in larger size of body and skull, the basilar length of which in adult males is more than 52.5; from _M. f. neomexicana_ in Brussels Brown rather than Buckthorn Brown color of upper parts and basilar length of skull more than 52.5. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Measurements taken from the dried skins of a young male, no. 15476, Mus. Comp. Zoöl., from Kerr County, Texas, and a subadult male, no. 2017, Baylor Univ. Mus., from 5 mi. N Waco, Texas, are, respectively, as follows: Total length, 600 and more than 510; length of tail, 200 and 225; length of hind foot, 52 and 52. Female: Skins unknown. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_. _Color._--As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_. _Skull and teeth._--Adult male: See measurements and plates 22-24. As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_ except that: Weight, 8 grams; basilar length 54; least width of palate less than length of P4; anterior margin of masseteric fossa anterior to middle of m2. Female: Skull unknown. _Remarks._--The type specimen, taken by the veteran collector of Texan mammals, H. P. Attwater, appears to have been the first one of these animals to find its way into the collection of any museum or naturalist. The second specimen from Kerr County was secured by, or through, the well-known commercial collector, F. B. Armstrong. Two trade skins, from Kerr County, taken on December 10, 1938, are in the Texas Cooperative Research Collection, as is also the skeleton of a young animal from Fredericksburg. The two other specimens from McLennan County (both males contrary to the statement of Strecker, 1924:14), owe their preservation to the alertness of John K. Strecker, Curator of the Baylor University Museum, who has given a complete account of their history. The range of this subspecies is thought to include much of central Texas. The preserved parts of the skin of the type specimen show it to have been generally large. The part of the tail preserved measures 226 millimeters and the skin of the head and neck is correspondingly large. The skin alone, no. 427, from near Waco, Texas, has, as now stuffed, a body 365 millimeters long. Individuals of this race attain larger size than those of any other American member of the subgenus _Mustela_ with the possible exception of _Mustela frenata macrophonius_ from Veracruz, México. In addition to large size, _texensis_ and _macrophonius_ are analogous in that each has a small geographic range at the northern end of an extensive range of its similarly colored southern relative from which it differs mainly in size. Each of the two groups, _goldmani_ and _macrophonius_ on the one hand and _perotae_, _frenata_ and _texensis_ on the other, has relatively uniform color, color pattern and body proportions over a large region but at its northern extremity develops a "giant" population, _M. f. macrophonius_ and _M. f. texensis_, respectively. The skull of the type specimen of _M. f. texensis_ is the largest one seen of any American weasel. The type specimen of _M. f. macrophonius_ has a basilar length that is greater by one-tenth of a millimeter but in every other measurement taken the skull of _M. f. texensis_ is the larger. Its weight, 8 grams, also shows it to be larger. The broad, white bands in front of the ears are confluent with the white patch between the eyes on both sides in two specimens and on one side only in one other specimen. A white patch between the ears is present in four specimens. The dark spot at each angle of the mouth is absent on both sides in four specimens and on one side only in one other specimen. Thus out of a possible twelve cases, the broad bands in front of the ears are confluent with the spot between the eyes in five cases. Four of the six specimens have a white spot between the ears. The dark spot at each angle of the mouth is present three out of a possible twelve times. The skull of no. 2017, from five miles north of Waco, is smaller than either of the two skulls seen from Kerr County and in this respect approaches _M. f. frenata_. There is no actual evidence of intergradation with any other subspecies but intergradation probably does take place with _M. f. neomexicana_ and possibly with _M. f. arthuri_ and _M. f. primulina_. Strecker (1924:14) remarks that of the two specimens obtained near Waco, one was taken in a trap baited for mink and the other was shot in a hen house. None of the four skulls had the frontal sinuses infested with parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 7, arranged by counties from north to south. =Texas.= _McLennan County_: 5 mi. N Waco, 1[3]; Erath, 1[3]. _Gillespie County_: Fredericksburg, 1[90]. _Kerr County_: 4[75]; 1[2]; and 2[90] trade skins. =Mustela frenata frenata= Lichtenstein Long-tailed Weasel Plates 1, 22, 23, 24, 36, 37, 38 and 40 _Mustela frenata_ Lichtenstein, Darstellung neuer oder wenig bekannter Säugethier, 1832, pl. 42, and corresponding text, unpaged; Seton, Lives of game animals, 2:576, 1929. _Mustela brasiliensis_ Sevastianoff, Mem. de l'Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg, 4:356-363, tab. 4, 1813, name on plate only, the description being in the text (not of Gmelin, 1788); Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1865:114. _Putorius frenatus_, Baird Mamms. N. Amer., p. 173, 1858; Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:26, pl. 3, figs. 1, 1a, 1b, June 30, 1896; Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 25:198, October 24, 1905. _Putorius (Gale) brasiliensis aequatorialis_ Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877, part? ("merely as a substitute for Gray's [supposedly] preoccupied name" that is, _aureoventris_). _Putorius (Gale) brasiliensis frenatus_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877 (part). _Putorius mexicanus_ Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877, [_nomen nudum_, cited by Coues in synonymy as "_Putorius mexicanus_, Berlandier, MSS. ic. ined. 4 (Tamaulipas and Matamoros)"]. _Putorius brasiliensis frenata_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:219, April 17, 1891. _Putorius brasiliensis frenatus_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 6:197, May 31, 1894; Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:9, February 25, 1896; Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 8:74, April 22, 1896. _Mustela frenata frenata_, Strecker, The Baylor Bull., 27:12, August, 1926; Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:108, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin; no. 991, Berlin Zool. Mus., México City, México; June, 1829; obtained by F. Deppe. The specimen once mounted, now is remade into a study skin and lacks the distal part of the tail. The skull (plates 36-38, 40) lacks the basicranial region. _Range._--Altitudinally, sea level (Brownsville, Texas) to 7600 feet (Tlalpam, México); from southern Texas as far south as México City; Lower Sonoran to at least Transition life-zone. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. perotae_ in nonextension of blackish over anterior fourth of neck, least width of color of underparts more than 37 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; height of tympanic bulla more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; from _M. f. leucoparia_ by restricted white facial markings that cover less than half surface of head in front of ears, by nonextension of black of head onto anterior half of neck and by wider (more than 7.8) tympanic bullae; from _M. f. neomexicana_ by Brussels Brown rather than Buckthorn Brown color of upper parts and mastoid breadth less than postpalatal length; from _M. f. texensis_ by smaller size of body and skull (basilar length in adult males less than 52.5); from _M. f. arthuri_ by white facial markings and postorbital breadth less than distance between posterior borders of P4 and P2; from _M. f. tropicalis_ by nonextension of blackish over anterior fourth of neck, least width of underparts more than 37 per cent of greatest width of upper parts, postorbital breadth of adult males less than distance between posterior borders of P4 and P2. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Fifteen adults and subadults from Brownsville, Texas, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 485 (430-556); length of tail, 202 (165-250); length of hind foot, 48 (40-55). Averages believed to be reliable but extremes probably are not. Tail averages 71 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot less than basal length. Corresponding measurements of an adult male (topotype, no. 50826) from Tlalpam, México, are: 505, 203, 53. Another adult male, from Miquihuana, Tamaulipas, México, measures: 520, 215, 52. Female: Six adults, subadults and young from Brownsville, Texas, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 420 (362-456); length of tail, 173 (126-200); length of hind foot, 41 (40-46). Tail averages 70 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more (with possible exception of no. 36362/48732 U. S. Nat. Mus.) than basal length. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 65; length of tail, 29; length of hind foot, 7. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black and reaching beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as underparts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles as shown in figure 20. _Color._--Spot between eyes, broad band, confluent with color of underparts, on each side of head extending anterodorsally anterior to each ear, and posterior two-thirds to one-half of each upper lip, white; remainder of sides and top of head, posteriorly to line connecting posterior margins of ears, blackish; dark spot posterior to angle of mouth present on both sides in about half the specimens; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts Brussels Brown; chin white; remainder of underparts near (16´_a_) Ochraceous-Buff (same color in juveniles and young), which color extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs over forefeet and on medial sides of hind legs to feet and sometimes onto upper sides of toes. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in a series of seventeen males from Brownsville, Texas, 47 (extremes 38-53) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail, in same series, averaging 49 (extremes 40-55) mm. long, thus about equal to length of hind foot and averaging 24 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on ten adults from Brownsville): See measurements and plates 22-24; weight (three adults, one topotype and two from Brownsville, Texas), 6.2 (5.3-7.2) grams; basilar length, 49.8 (48.2-51.3); zygomatic breadth more than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoidal breadth less than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars (less than distance between posterior borders of P4 and P2) and not greater (usually less) than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth not greater than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate more or less than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 or 4 (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter (usually longer) than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa just behind m2. Female (based on two adults from Brownsville, Texas): See measurements and plates 36-38, 40; weight, 3.4 (3.3-3.5) grams; basilar length (six, adult to young) 43.3 (41.3-47.3); zygomatic breadth more or less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 and more than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth less than length of upper premolars and more or less than (about equal to) width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate less than outside length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 2 to 3-1/2 (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than rostrum. The skull of the female averages 45 per cent lighter than that of the average male. Comparison of the skull with those of _M. f. arthuri_, _tropicalis_, _perotae_, _leucoparia_ and _neomexicana_ has been made in accounts of those subspecies. As compared with _M. f. texensis_ (known only from males), the only difference detected is smaller size. _Remarks._--As Merriam (1896:27) has said: "In 1813 a Russian naturalist, Sevastianoff, gave the name '_Mustela brasiliensis_' to a weasel brought to St. Petersburg by Capt. A. J. Krusenstern on his return from a voyage around the world. The animal was said to have come from Brazil, but no definite locality was given." This name was long applied by many European naturalists to American weasels which had white facial markings, and several American naturalists adopted the name. However, Lichtenstein in 1832 applied the name _Mustela frenata_ to the weasels of the vicinity of México City and that name was used for bridled weasels from México and the southwestern United States by most subsequent German writers and by several Americans. In 1896 Merriam (1896:27) showed that Sevastianoff's _Mustela brasiliensis_, 1813, although probably the same as _Mustela frenata_, was preoccupied by Gmelin's _Mustela brasiliensis_, 1788, applied to an otter and that Lichtenstein's name must be used as the next available one. Since that time, 1896, _frenata_ has been the name applied to the large bridled-weasels of Texas and the high table land of México south to México City. It may be added that in 1937 search by the writer among the specimens and records at the Russian Academy of Sciences, in Leningrad, failed to reveal any trace of the type specimen of Sevastianoff's _Mustela brasiliensis_. The geographic range of this subspecies is relatively large and, as might therefore be expected, specimens show geographic variation. The specimens from Tlalpam, which Merriam (_op. cit._:27) regards as topotypes, differ in certain respects from specimens from Texas. The skull of the adult male "topotype," no. 50826, differs from any other adult male seen in that the basilar length, the length of the upper tooth-rows, the orbitonasal length, the ratio of the same to the basilar length, the mastoidal breadth, the zygomatic breadth, the depth of the skull at the posterior margins of the upper molars, and the length and breadth of M1, are greater. The height of the tympanic bullae is less than the average height for these structures in more northern specimens. The specimens from Tlalpam have also larger external measurements than the average of more northern specimens. All of these features show an approach to the subspecies of more southern distribution. On the other hand, the blackish of the head is not more intense or more extended posteriorly onto the neck than in specimens from Brownsville, Texas. The skin, with skull crushed, no. 767, in the Paris Museum, from 3200 meters elevation near Toluca, does have the black color of the head extended 30 millimeters posteriorly to the ears. In this feature, and also in the extensively white face on which the white bar in front of each ear connects with the frontal spot, as well as with the color of the underparts, the specimen resembles _leucoparia_. Better material from the western part of the state of México may show the range of _leucoparia_ to extend eastward almost or quite to Toluca. An adult male, taken on July 15 at Miquihuana, Tamaulipas, is unique in several respects. The top of its head is black, rather than blackish, and this color extends posteriorly on the top and sides of the neck almost halfway to the shoulders. All of the upper parts are much more darkly colored than in other specimens of this race. The least width of the color of the underparts is 63 per cent of the greatest width of the color of the upper parts; thus the color of the underparts is considerably more extensive than in any other specimen seen. The underparts are more intensely colored than in the average specimen. The mastoidal breadth is greater than in any other adult male and amounts to more than the postpalatal length. On available maps the elevation of Miquihuana is given as 1892 meters (about 6200 feet). Thus the dark colors can hardly be ascribed to more tropical conditions than those under which animals from Brownsville, Texas, live. Brownsville is only a few feet above sea level and only 235 miles farther north. The difference noted, therefore, seems to be of geographic significance. However, there is from Alvarez, San Luis Potosí, approximately 115 miles south of Miquihuana, a young (nearly subadult) female, no. 21968, which is as light colored as specimens from Brownsville, Texas, or Tlalpam, México. The only distinctive feature of this specimen is the much greater extent of its white facial markings; they are more extensive even than in the specimen from Miquihuana. Finally, the series from Brownsville, Texas, indicates that the animal there is smaller than _frenata_ from the vicinity of México (city). The skull is similarly proportioned except that relative to the basilar length the orbitonasal length is more. Several other measurements of the skull of the adult male from Tlalpam, as pointed out above, are actually, although not relatively, greater than in any specimen from Brownsville. The similarities between specimens from the two localities, Tlalpam and Brownsville, are striking; since the two localities lie at opposite, extreme ends of the range more geographic variation would be expected. All that is known of the characters of populations from intermediate localities is that the one specimen from Alvarez shows no peculiarities whereas the one from Miquihuana suggests the existence there of a geographic variant. None of the specimens seen shows actual intergradation with _M. f. neomexicana_ or with _M. f. arthuri_ but it is supposed that frenata intergrades with each of these subspecies. The difference between _frenata_ and _arthuri_ is greater than between _frenata_ and _neomexicana_. Bailey (1905:198) records tracks of a weasel seen just below El Paso which he supposed had been made by a weasel of the _neomexicana_ type. He also cited the taking of a weasel at Langtry which suggested to him (_op. cit._) ". . . a continuous range from the country of _frenatus_ up the Rio Grande to the type locality of _neomexicanus_ at Mesilla Valley," New Mexico. Other records of occurrence in Texas cited by Bailey, in addition to those provided by specimens examined by the writer, are San Diego, Beeville, and Port Lavaca. The Port Lavaca record is the easternmost one assigned to the subspecies _frenata_; possibly specimens from there would be referable to _arthuri_. The series of thirty-four specimens from Brownsville, Texas, permits measuring the amount of individual and age variation in several features. For instance, the material is sufficient to show that external measurements of subadults and those that fall in the upper part of the category designated as "young" may be included with the measurements of adults, because the mentioned measurements are not appreciably greater in adults. The series of skulls, although not providing more than six of any one age, shows the range of variation in size and proportion of certain parts and enables the student the better to evaluate cranial characters of nearby races known from only a few specimens. For example, not one of the twenty skulls of males from Brownsville and immediate vicinity is as large as either of the two specimens of _texensis_ from Kerr County. The white facial markings vary much in size and shape. In the series of thirty-four skins from Brownsville the broad white bands in front of the ears are confluent with the white patch between the eyes on both sides in three specimens and on one side only in six other specimens. These bands are confluent with the color of the underparts in all but two specimens. In one specimen the connection is lacking on both sides and in the other on one side only. A white patch between the ears is present in two specimens. The dark spot at each angle of the mouth is absent on both sides in eleven specimens and absent on one side only in ten others. In six other specimens from parts of Texas north of Brownsville, the broad white bands in front of the ears are confluent with the white patch between the eyes on both sides in one specimen. A white spot between the ears is present in one specimen. The dark spot at each angle of the mouth is absent on both sides in six specimens and on one side only in three other specimens. In eleven specimens from México, the broad white bands in front of the ears are confluent with the white spot between the eyes on both sides in two specimens and on one side only in one other specimen. The white spot between the ears is present in one specimen. The dark spot at each angle of the mouth is absent on both sides, in six specimens, and on one side only in one other specimen. Thus, in 51 specimens the broad bands (one in front of each ear) are confluent with the white patch between the eyes in nineteen out of 100 instances, and not with the color of the underparts in three instances. A white spot between the ears is present in four specimens. The dark spot at each angle of the mouth is present 47 out of a possible 98 times. Four juvenal specimens from Brownsville, Texas, with their dates of capture and probable age, are as follows: no. 58574, [F], three weeks old, taken on February 15; no. 17318/24239, [M], four weeks old, taken on March 16; no. 45899, [F], forty days old, taken on May 21; no. 21778/36481, [M], thirty days old, taken on October 20. In the order given, the dates of birth of these four juveniles would be approximately as follows: January 25, February 15, April 1, and September 20. The dates of birth of other specimens less than three months old as judged by the stage of development of the skull, and reckoning backward from the dates of capture, are as follows: April 1, April 30, May 25, October 12, and December 21. Thus, young appear to be brought forth at Brownsville, Texas, in the fall, winter and spring, that is to say from the latter part of September until the latter part of May. _Mustela frenata frenata_ is either free of the parasites that infest the frontal sinuses of most weasels, or withstands their presence remarkably well, for only one skull shows a definite pathological condition of the frontal sinuses. Allen (1896:74) quotes H. P. Attwater, with respect to this species in Bexar County, Texas, as follows: "Not common, but occasionally met within the chaparral and cactus lands, where Wood Rats, Rabbits and Quail abound. They were frequently met with around San Antonio during the great 'Tramp Rat' [= _Sigmodon hispidus texianus_, see Bailey (1905:116)] invasion of 1889-90." _Specimens examined._--Total number, 63, arranged by counties, and in México by states, from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the collection of the United States National Museum. =Texas.= _Bexar County_: San Antonio, 2 (1[2]). _Goliad County_: Charco, 1. _Nueces County_: Corpus Christi, 1[2]. _San Diego County_ (not found), 1. _Hidalgo County_: La Hacienda, 1. _Duval County_: San Diego, 2[7]. _County_ in question: Lower Rio Grande, 1. _Cameron County_: Brownsville, 34 (3[2], 4[1], 3[93], 2[75], 1[59], 1[60], 1[4]); no locality more definite than county, 2. =Nuevo León.= Río Ramis, 20 mi. NW Montemorelos, 1[90]. =Tamaulipas.= Matamoros, 6; Miquihuana (now in Nuevo León), 1[75]. =San Luis Potosí.= Alvarez, 1[75]. =México=: Region montagneuse des environs de Toluca, Nevada Toluca, 3200 M., 1[84] =Distrito Federal.= City of México, 2 (1[4]); Tlalpam, 2. No locality more definite than México, 4 (1[4], 3[7]). =Mustela frenata leucoparia= (Merriam) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 1, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 36, 37 and 38 _Putorius frenatus leucoparia_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:28, June 30, 1896. _Putorius brasiliensis frenatus_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 2:165, October 21, 1889. _Putorius frenatus frenatus_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 22:259, July 25, 1906. _Mustela frenata leucoparia_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:100, December 31, 1912; Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:108, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 34914/47179, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, México; July 27, 1892; obtained by E. W. Nelson; original no. 2960. The skull (plates 29 and 30) lacks most of the braincase; a fragment, consisting of the supraoccipital and the coalesced frontals and parietals remains. The rostrum, left zygomatic arch, palate, left pterygoid, left glenoid fossa and right postorbital process are intact. The teeth all are present and entire. The lower jaw lacks the right coronoid process and the lateral part of the articular condyle. The skin is well made and in good condition. It differs from an adult male topotype (36855, U. S. Nat. Mus.) and other referred specimens in having: the black of the head extended farther posteriorly on the neck, the maximum amount of white on the head, and a white stripe 50 mm. long extending down the middle of the nape from a point between the ears more than half way to the shoulders. _Range._--Sonoran and Transition life-zones of mountains west of México (city) in Michoacán and Nayarit. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. goldmani_ in least width of color of underparts more than 47 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, hind feet colored like underparts rather than like upper parts; postorbital constriction less than, rather than more than, combined length of upper premolars; from _M. f. macrophonius_ by same details of coloration as from _goldmani_ and by ventrally concave rather than ventrally convex pretympanic part of squamosal; from _M. f. perotae_ by least width of color of underparts more than 40 per cent of greatest width of color up upper parts; height of tympanic bulla more than three-fifths distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; from _M. f. frenata_ by white facial markings that cover half of surface of head in front of ears, by extension of black of head onto neck halfway to shoulders and by narrower (less than 7.8) tympanic bullae; from _M. f. neomexicana_ by Argus Brown rather than Buckthorn Brown color of upper parts and distance from anterior margin of tympanic bulla to foramen ovale more, rather than less, than four-fifths of height of tympanic bulla. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Two adults and one young from Los Reyes and Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 514 (510-523); length of tail, 206 (196-215); length of hind foot, 55 (52-58). Tail averages 67 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more than basal length. Female: One adult from Artenkiki, Jalisco, and one subadult from Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 412, 400; length of tail, 159, 159; length of hind foot, 41, 42. Tail averages 64 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot equal to or greater than basal length. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 108; length of tail, 47; length of hind foot, 13. _Mustela frenata leucoparia_ has a greater total length and length of tail than either _M. f. frenata_ or _goldmani_. The hind foot is longer than that of _frenata_ and approximately the same as in _goldmani_. Relative to the body length, the tail averages longer than that of _goldmani_ and shorter than that of _frenata_. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_. _Color._--Broad white bands on sides of head, extending anterodorsally anterior to each ear, confluent with white spot between eyes and with color of underparts; posterior third of each upper lip white; remainder of sides and top of head, and neck posteriorly to point halfway to shoulders from ears, black; no dark spots at angles of mouth; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts Argus Brown; chin white and sometimes also chest, neck and medial sides of hind legs; remainder of underparts near (16´) Ochraceous-Buff (near (_a_) Ochraceous-Buff in juvenal female), which color extends distally over all of each foreleg (except its lateral face proximally from about middle of forearm) and on medial side of hind leg and over most of upper side of each foot. Least width of color of underparts averaging, in eight specimens, 54 (extremes 44-61) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; black tip of tail averaging, in four males, 52 (extremes 38-78) mm. long, thus averaging 25 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. As compared with _M. f. frenata_ and _goldmani_: white facial markings more extensive; color of underparts less restricted and more extended on legs; black tip of tail relatively of about same extent as in _frenata_ and thus much less than in _goldmani_; black color of head extending farther posteriorly than in _frenata_ but not so far as in _goldmani_. _Skull and teeth._--Male (adult): See measurements and plates 24-26, 29, 30. As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_ except that: Weight (no. 128972) 6.3 grams; basilar length, 51.2; interorbital breadth less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4 or 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla more or less than (about equal to) distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; anterior margin of masseteric fossa anywhere from slightly anterior, to slightly posterior, to m2. Female (based on no. 26153): See measurements and plates 37-39. As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_ except that: Weight, 3.6 grams; basilar length, 44.5; zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1, or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4 or 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla not more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row or than length of rostrum. The skull of the female is 43 per cent lighter than that of the male. Comparison of the skull with those of _M. f. perotae_, _goldmani_ and _neomexicana_ has been made in the accounts of those subspecies. As compared with that of _frenata_ the main difference is the less inflated tympanic bulla, the height of which is approximately equal to, rather than decidedly more than, distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale. _Remarks._--The first specimen known to have been preserved is the alcoholic in the British Museum of Natural History, taken in September, 1891, on the Río Santiago in Jalisco, by D. A. C. Buller. The other known specimens of this white-faced weasel are divided between the American Museum and the United States National Museum. The two referred specimens from Jalisco were the last of several helpful ones collected in México and Central America by J. H. Batty, and these two were taken less than three months before Batty's tragic death in Chiapas (see Allen, J. A., 1906:191). The five specimens from Michoacán were taken by Nelson or Nelson and Goldman together. Merriam had only three of these when he named the subspecies and remarked (1896:29) that "This form is the poorest subspecies described in the present paper." Although the form is not strongly marked, the two additional specimens from Michoacán and better comparative material than Merriam had confirm several of the differential characters ascribed to it by him and indicate the existence of still other characters. _M. f. leucoparia_ occurs in the Sonoran and Transition life-zones. No. 27258 from Los Masos, and no. 26153 from Artenkiki (see specimens examined for other spellings) approach true _frenata_ in coloration. Each of these specimens has a few white hairs between the ears and the white patch between the eyes is confluent on one side only with the lateral white bands on the side of the head. No. 27258 from Los Masos has a dark spot at each angle of the mouth. The 7 other specimens are relatively uniform in coloration. Each has the white spot between the eyes confluent on both sides with the extensive white areas on each side of the face. None has a dark spot at either angle of the mouth. Of these 7 specimens, the type specimen and three others have white hairs forming a median line between the ears and a fifth specimen has a white spot behind each ear. _M. f. leucoparia_ is most like _M. f. frenata_. Unlike _frenata_, _leucoparia_ has tympanic bullae that are less inflated, narrower and less projected, at their anterior margins, from the cranium. In these characters _leucoparia_ is intermediate between _M. f. frenata_ and _M. f. goldmani_. The latter subspecies has the least inflated, narrowest and least projecting tympanic bullae of the three. The black color of the head extends, on the average, farther posteriorly than in _M. f. frenata_ but not so far as in _M. f. goldmani_. The general color, too, is intermediate between that of _M. f. frenata_ and that of the much darker _M. f. goldmani_. The white facial markings are more extensive than in either _M. f. frenata_ or _M. f. goldmani_. This applies to both the white area between the eyes and the one on each side of the head between the ear and eye. _M. f. neomexicana_, whose range possibly meets that of _M. f. leucoparia_, also has more extensive white facial markings than _M. f. frenata_ but less extensive markings than _M. f. leucoparia_. On the basis of skulls alone, specimens of _frenata_ from Tlalpam and those of _leucoparia_ from Los Reyes can hardly be distinguished. This fact, and the circumstance that the specimens from the northern part of the range of _leucoparia_ closely resemble _frenata_ in color, constitute sufficient evidence for regarding the two as only subspecifically distinct. The female, no. 26153 from Artenkiki, as mentioned above, approaches true _frenata_ in coloration. On this account it is not to be regarded as typical and it was because no other skulls of adult females were available that this one was used for comparison with females of allied races. _M. f. leucoparia_ is, then, a subspecies of the large, temperate-zone group and is unique in possessing the maximum extent of white facial markings. None of the seven skulls shows signs of having had the frontal sinuses infested with parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 8, all from México. Localities are listed by states from north to south. Specimens from Michoacán are in the United States National Museum; one from Río Santiago is in the British Museum of Natural History; all others are in the American Museum of Natural History. =Nayarit.= Tepic, 1. =Jalisco.= Río Santiago, 1; Los Masos, 1; "Artenkiki" (J. A. Allen, 1906, p. 238, writes "Artenkikil" and, on p. 259, "Artenkiki."), 1. =Michoacán.= Zamora, 1; Los Reyes, 1; Pátzcuaro, 3. =Mustela frenata perotae= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 36, 37 and 38 _Mustela frenata perotae_ Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:100, November 20, 1936. _Putorius frenatus_, Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11: pl. 3, fig. 2, June 30, 1896. _Type._--Female, adult, skull and skin; no. 54278, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; 12,500 feet, Cofre de Perote, Veracruz, México; May 26, 1893; obtained by E. W. Nelson; original no. 4864. The skull (plates, 37-39) lacks the right zygomatic arch. Left p2 is missing. The skin is fairly well made and in good condition except that the extreme tip of the tail has been broken off and there are two holes in the right hind leg. The underparts show the beginning of a spring molt. _Range._--From 7500 (?) feet (Perote) to 13,500 feet (Popocatépetl), Upper Sonoran, Transition and Boreal life-zones of mountains along Puebla-México boundary, eastward to western central Veracruz and south into Oaxaca. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. frenata_, its nearest relative, in extension from head of blackish onto anterior fourth of neck; restriction of color of underparts (least width of same less than 37 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts), height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; from _M. f. macrophonius_ and _M. f. goldmani_ in presence of, rather than absence of, color of underparts on hind feet; upper parts (black) Brussels Brown rather than Argus Brown or darker; from _M. f. tropicalis_ in larger size (adult female with total length more than 400, basilar length more than 40, weight of skull more than 3 grams); postorbital breadth less than combined length of upper premolars; m1 more than 5.4 long; from _M. f. leucoparia_ in white facial markings so restricted that spot between eyes is not confluent with white stripe in front of ear, or, if so, narrowly (less than 4 wide) confluent; color of upper parts extending onto antipalmar face of forefoot, least width of color of underparts not more than 40 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; height of tympanic bulla not more than three-fifths distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale. _Description._--_Size._--Male: A nontypical specimen from Cerro San Felipe, Oaxaca, measures: Total length, 500; length of tail, 205; length of hind foot, 52. Female: The type specimen, measures: Total length, 418; length of tail, 160; length of hind foot, 45. In this male the tail is 70, and in the female, 62 per cent as long as the head and body. In each the hind foot is longer than the basal length. The differences in external measurements between these two specimens, representing the two sexes, are: Total length, 82; length of tail, 45; length of hind foot, 7. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_. _Color_ (based on type specimen).--Color and color pattern as described in _Mustela frenata frenata_ except that: blackish of sides and top of head extends one-fourth of way back to shoulders from ears; throat and breast as well as chin white; remainder of underparts near (16´ _c_) Ochraceous-Buff; least width of color of underparts equals 36 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; black tip of tail equal to 28 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on a referred specimen from Cerro San Felipe which certainly is nontypical): See measurements. As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_ except that: Weight, 4.9 grams; basilar length, 49.2; postorbital breadth more than distance between posterior borders of P4 and P2; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla. Female (based on type specimen, an adult): See measurements and plates 37-39. As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_ except that: Weight 3.4 grams; basilar length, 43.5; zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth less than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 5 or 6 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla one-half to three-fifths distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer than rostrum. The skull of the female is 33 per cent lighter than that of the nontypical (and smaller than average) male from Cerro San Felipe. Comparison of the skull with that of _M. f. tropicalis_ is made in the account of that subspecies. Compared with the skull of _M. f._ _macrophonius_, that of the female of _perotae_ is more flattened, has the longitudinal dorsal outline distinctly concave rather than flat just behind the postorbital processes, and much wider tympanic bullae. Accordingly, the basioccipital is slightly narrower in _perotae_. The more marked postorbital constriction of the type specimen of _perotae_ possibly is due to its relatively greater age. As compared with the skull of _M. f. leucoparia_, that of the female of _perotae_ has less inflated tympanic bullae, the height of each being half as great as distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale, whereas, in _leucoparia_ (as represented by no. 26153) the two distances are equal. As compared with that of _M. f. frenata_, the skull of the female of _perotae_ differs mainly in the lesser inflation of the tympanic bullae and their relative position. The height of each bulla is in _perotae_ only half as much as, but in _frenata_ more than, the distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale. The anterior margin of the bulla is much less projected from the floor of the braincase in _perotae_. The squamosal anterior to each bulla is convex ventrally in _perotae_ but flat or concave ventrally in _frenata_. _Remarks._--The type specimen and a juvenal female from the town of Perote were taken in the spring of 1893 by E. W. Nelson. Of these two, the type specimen was mentioned and figured by Merriam (1898:30, fig. 16 [= fig. 15], pl. 3, fig. 2) as _Putorius frenatus_. The referred nontypical specimen from Cerro San Felipe, Oaxaca, was referred by Merriam (op. cit.:29) to _Putorius frenatus goldmani_ with the comment that it was intermediate ". . . both in coloration and cranial characters, between typical _frenatus_ and _goldmani_;. . . ." No other published references to this subspecies, or specimens of it, have been seen. In 1941 and 1942, W. B. Davis and associates took four specimens along the boundary between the states of Puebla and México. Although the specimen from Cerro San Felipe, Oaxaca, is referred to _Mustela frenata perotae_, to the description of which it answers best, that specimen, on account of its structural characters and geographic position relative to adjacent races, is in reality an intergrade between several of the adjacent races. Some of its intermediate characters are pointed out in the discussion of _M. f. goldmani_. In the specimens from 45 and 55 kilometers ESE of México (city) the black color of the top of the head does not extend so far behind the ears as in the holotype of _M. f. perotae_ and in this feature the two specimens show intergradation between the two subspecies, _perotae_ and _frenata_. The type specimen taken on May 26, is acquiring new hair on the belly and lower sides which appears to be the result of a normal molt. As would be expected from its geographic position, _M. f. perotae_ resembles _M. f. frenata_ of northern México and the high mountain forms of southern México more than it does the lowland tropical forms. This is true as regards size of entire animal, proportions of its parts, and size, general angularity and major proportions of its skull. The marked postorbital constriction, convex supralacrymal face of rostrum, width of tympanic bullae and angularity of the braincase place it nearest _M. f. frenata_ as does also the color and color pattern. The ventrally convex squamosal anterior to each tympanic bulla and the slight degree of projection from the cranium of the anterior margin of each tympanic bulla are intermediate in degree between the condition in _M. f. macrophonius_ and that in _M. f. frenata_. Thus _M. f. perotae_ combines several characters of _M. f. frenata_ on the one hand with some of _M. f. macrophonius_ on the other and in some features, for instance in the size, shape and degree of inflation of the tympanic bullae, presents intermediate stages of development. On the eastern plain below the high mountain, Cofre de Perote, there ranges the similarly colored, smaller, tropical weasel, _Mustela frenata tropicalis_. Between _M. f. perotae_ and _M. f. tropicalis_ there is marked differentiation in the skulls with much less differentiation in coloration. The differences in typical skulls of the two subspecies are so pronounced that one would, at first glance, hardly believe it possible for direct intergradation to occur between them on the sides of this mountain. Merriam (1896:30) thought that it did not. The two skulls figured by him (_op. cit._:31) are a topotype of _M. f. tropicalis_ from Jico and the one which now is the type specimen of _M. f. perotae_. They show the great difference in size and proportions and are females of comparable ages, not of different ages as I suspected before examining the skulls. However, despite this marked difference in the skulls, there is some, although not conclusive, evidence of intergradation furnished by a young female from Xuchil, Veracruz. This specimen is described in connection with _M. f. tropicalis_ (see p. 366). None of the seven skulls shows marked deformity of the interorbital region, but two of the three adults appear to have had these parts infested with nematodes. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 7, all from México, listed by localities from north to south. Specimens from Veracruz and Oaxaca in the United States National Museum; remainder in Texas Cooperative Research Collection. =México=: Monte Río Frío, 45 Km. ESE México City, 1; 55 Km. ESE México City, 1; N slope Mt. Popocatépetl, 13,555 ft., 1. =Puebla.= Río Otlati, 8700 ft., 1. =Veracruz.= Cofre de Perote, 12,500 ft., 1; Perote, 1. =Oaxaca.= Cerro San Felipe, 10,000 ft., 1. =Mustela frenata goldmani= (Merriam) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 1, 24, 25, 26 and 30 _Putorius frenatus goldmani_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:28, June 30, 1896; Elliot, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 18:236, December 9, 1905. _Mustela frenata goldmani_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:100, December 31, 1912; Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:109, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 77519, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Pinabete, Chiapas, México; February 10, 1896; obtained by E. A. Goldman (on attached label collectors recorded as Nelson and Goldman); original no. 9279. The skull (plates 24 and 30) has the rostrum badly injured. All the right, and part of the left nasal, the upper part of the right maxilla, the postorbital process and intervening area of frontals are missing. Each zygomatic arch is broken but the parts are present and attached to the skull. The frontal and interorbital regions are greatly malformed owing to parasites that infested the sinuses. Right I2 and I3, right and left i3, and the medial parts of the paraconid and protoconid of right m1 are missing. The light facial markings are less extensive than in any of the referred specimens. These markings consist of a separate spot between the eyes and a white line, confluent with the color of the underparts, on each side of the head, that extends from the base of the ear to above the eye. The dark color of the underparts is represented at the angles of the mouth by a spot on the left side and a similar dark area, confluent with the dark color of the face, on the right side. The large size, characters of the skull, and scrotal pouch on the skin prove the specimen to be a male as stated on the label. _Range._--Two thousand five hundred feet (El Cipres, Guatemala) to 9500 feet (near Tecpám, Guatemala), Upper Tropical Life-zone of mountains and western coasts of southern México, Guatemala and Salvador. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition_ (characters based on males).--Differs from _M. f. nicaraguae_ and _M. f. perda_ by larger size (total length of adult males more than 489), least width of color of underparts not less than 26 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, weight of skull of adult male more than 5 grams; from _M. f. macrophonius_ by smaller size (total length of adult males less than 540), skull of male with basilar length less than 52.5 and weight less than 6 grams; from _M. f. perotae_ (typical specimens of same sex not available) by darker color of upper parts which are Argus Brown or darker rather than Brussels Brown; nonextension of color of underparts onto hind feet; from _M. f. leucoparia_ in least width of color of underparts not more than 37 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; color of underparts not extended onto hind feet; black tip of tail two-fifths rather than one-fourth as long as tail-vertebrae; height of tympanic bulla less than four-fifths distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Four adults yield average and extreme measurements as follows: Total length, 508 (500-512); length of tail, 196 (185-207); length of hind foot, 55.5 (54-58). Tail averages 63 (59-67) per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more than basal length. Female: Typical specimen unknown. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black and reaching beyond ear; carpal vibrissae wholly or in part of same color as upper parts and reaching as far as hypothenar pad; hairiness of foot-soles distinctly less than that shown in figure 20 on page 60. _Color._--Spot between eyes, band, confluent with color of underparts, on each side of head extending anterodorsally anterior to each ear and posterior third of each upper lip, white; remainder of sides and top of head and neck posteriorly to or slightly behind shoulders, black; dark spots at angles of mouth usually absent; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts Argus Brown or near (_n_) Argus Brown; chin, throat and breast white; remainder of underparts near (16' _c_) Ochraceous-Buff; color of underparts extending distally on posterior sides of forelegs onto medial toes and on hind legs to points between knees and heels. Least width of color of underparts, in five adult males, averaging 28 (extremes 26-33) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; black tip of tail, in four adult males, averaging 40 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on five adults): See measurements and plates 24-26, 30; weight, 5.4 (5.3-5.5) grams; basilar length, 49.9 (49.6-51.3); zygomatic breadth (except in no. 12523 from Salvador) more than or equal to distance between condylar foramen and M1 or between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla. Mastoid breadth less than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth more or less than length of upper premolars and greater than width of basioccipital measured from median margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate more or less than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of five upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and shorter than or equal to length of rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa immediately behind m2. Female: Typical skull unknown. Comparison of male skull with that of _M. f. perda_ made in discussion of that form. Comparison with that of _M. f. nicaraguae_ shows similar differences, some of which are more pronounced. For example, squamosals anterior to tympanic bullae more convex ventrally and these bullae project less from braincase than in _M. f. perda_; thus the difference in these features is greater between _goldmani_ and _nicaraguae_ than between _goldmani_ and _perda_. As compared with the skull of the male of _M. f. macrophonius_, each one of the skulls of the adult males of _M. f. goldmani_ is smaller in every measurement taken, with two exceptions. The width of the tympanic bullae was more in three specimens of _M. f. goldmani_ as was also the depth of the same in three specimens. Relative to the basilar length all but two of these measurements average less in _goldmani_; the exceptions are the zygomatic breadth and depth of the skull at the anterior margin of the tympanic bullae which average more. Relative to the basilar length, the orbitonasal length and depth of the skull at the posterior margin of M1 are less in each skull of _goldmani_. Thus, excepting the width and height of the tympanic bullae and the relative zygomatic breadth and relative depth of the braincase posteriorly, the skull of _goldmani_ is shorter and relatively as well as actually narrower and lighter throughout. As compared with the skull of the male of _M. f. leucoparia_, that of _M. f. goldmani_ averages a trifle shorter and no skull of _goldmani_ equals that of _leucoparia_ in actual or relative zygomatic and mastoid breadths or length or height of tympanic bullae. In depth, the skull of _goldmani_ averages actually and relatively greater. Its teeth are smaller. The squamosal anterior to each tympanic bulla is convex ventrally whereas it is concave ventrally in _leucoparia_ as in _frenata_. _Remarks._--When Merriam (1896:28) named this subspecies, he had only one specimen but he called attention to the more important diagnostic characters, which additional specimens show pertain to the race as a whole. _M. f. goldmani_ in typical form occurs in high mountains of the Upper Tropical Life-zone and is most closely related to _M. f. frenata_ and _M. f. macrophonius_. The altitude at which the two specimens were taken, twenty miles southeast of Teopisca in Chiapas, is not known. Merriam (1896:28) states that the type specimen was obtained at "about 8200 feet." The specimen taken by Stirton in Salvador comes from 8000 feet and the one obtained by Barber in Guatemala from 9500 feet. The specimen from Dueñas, the skin alone of a young animal, is not instructive. As regards size, _goldmani_ is larger than the immediately adjacent subspecies from the Lower Tropical Life-zone but is smaller than _M. f. leucoparia_ or _macrophonius_. As compared with _M. f. frenata_, _goldmani_ is longer, has an actually as well as relatively shorter tail, and a much longer hind foot. The most outstanding difference in externals from _frenata_ is the naked foot soles. Molting probably takes place twice each year although actual proof of this is lacking. In number 133254 from twenty miles southeast of Teopisca, taken on May 12, the molt is well advanced. Another specimen from the same place still retains the winter coat. In color, _goldmani_ is much darker than _frenata_, has less extensive white facial markings, longer black tip on tail, more restricted color of underparts, and lacks the extension of color of the underparts onto the hind feet. Of the adult males from the high mountains, the type specimen from Chiapas is lightest, and the one from Salvador is darkest. This progressively darker color to the southward probably is geographic variation. In total length and relative and actual length of tail, the specimen from Salvador is the smallest of the five adult males from the higher mountains. In addition to its darker color and smaller size, no. 12523 from Salvador shows certain distinctive cranial characters. The zygomatic breadth is less than, rather than more than, or equal to, the distance between the condylar foramen and M1 or than that between the anterior palatine foramen and the anterior margin of the tympanic bulla. This difference appears to be correlated with geographic position, since no. 15953 from Guatemala has the three distances about equal and therefore is intermediate in this respect between the specimen from Salvador and those from Chiapas, in which the zygomatic breadth is greater than the other two measurements. Also in the greater depth of the skull and smaller size of the teeth, this specimen from Salvador approaches the subspecies of the Lower Tropical Life-zone. It has, however, the longest, highest and widest tympanic bullae of any of the five specimens. The amount of ventral convexity of the squamosal in front of each tympanic bulla appears not to be greater than in the other specimens. As indicative of intergradation with _perotae_, _leucoparia_ and possibly _frenata_, there is the specimen from Cerro San Felipe, Oaxaca. The degree of restriction of the color of the underparts is intermediate between that of _goldmani_ and _leucoparia_. The same is true as regards the amount of projection from the braincase of the anterior margins of the tympanic bullae. The squamosal immediately anterior to each tympanic bulla is flat instead of ventrally convex as in _goldmani_ or ventrally concave as in _leucoparia_ and _frenata_. In accordance with the custom adopted in this paper of referring every specimen to some one subspecies, this specimen from Cerro San Felipe is referred to _Mustela frenata perotae_, to the description of which it most nearly answers. Possibly _goldmani_, as here constituted, is a composite form. The specimens from the high mountains closely resemble one another. However, a specimen, no. 68541 from "Finca El Cipres," Guatemala, which place Mr. G. Goodwin tells me is at an elevation of 2500 feet, approximately 5 miles north of Retalhuleu, has a basilar length of 47.3 and is correspondingly small in other parts. This suggests the existence of a small, lowland race on the western side of the central divide corresponding to _perda_ and _tropicalis_ on the eastern side. From only a few miles away, at San Sebastian, there is available, the adult skull of a still smaller animal. This skull only, no. 41026, in the Berlin Zoological Museum, has a basilar length of 46.1, zygomatic breadth of 27.4, and other cranial measurements notably smaller than those of specimens from the high mountains. A skin-only, no. 12038, collection of Donald R. Dickey, from La Cebia, altitude 2150 feet, near the city of San Salvador, seemingly represents an animal smaller than typical _goldmani_. This specimen from La Cebia has the light color of the underparts extended distally on the hind legs to the tips of the toes as in _M. f. tropicalis_. However, the upper parts are darker and resemble those of _M. f. goldmani_. A fourth specimen from only 3500 feet elevation, on the south side of Volcano Tajumulco, Guatemala, no. 41768, Field Museum of Natural History, a subadult male, measures only 490 in total length and has the least color of the underparts so restricted as to amount to only 22 per cent of the greatest width of the color of the upper parts. Both these features are suggestive of the lowland races. These four specimens indicate that the lowland population on the western side of the divide is smaller than the mountain population. The juvenile from Carolina and a young male from Finca Cipres, however, both closely resemble individuals of _goldmani_ from the higher mountains. All these animals here are referred to _goldmani_. More specimens may reveal an amount and a pattern of geographic variation in weasels of this region that will require application of another subspecific name. The female, no. 68540, from Puebla agrees remarkably well with the skull of the female, no. 132528, of _macrophonius_. Differences displayed by the specimen from Puebla are its slightly narrower braincase and longer space between the foramen ovale and anterior end of the tympanic bulla. Considering the far eastern location of Puebla (just north of Río Motagua, at 89° W, according to a sketch map provided by Mr. G. G. Goodwin), this specimen might be expected to show some approach to the small lowland races. Actually, however, it displays the characters of _goldmani_ better than does the subadult female from Volcano San Lucas, which is nearer the metropolis of _goldmani_, and I assume at a higher elevation than Puebla. Concerning this weasel Merriam (1896:29) says: "Mr. E. W. Nelson writes me that this fine weasel is found sparingly in the forest about Pinabete, Chiapas, at an altitude of 7000 to 8000 feet (2100 to 2500 meters). The type specimen was shot in the afternoon while hunting on a heavily wooded hill slope. It was heard making long, slow leaps over the dry, crisp leaves. Coming to a log, it stood up and rested its fore feet on the log, in which position it was shot by Mr. Goldman." The specimen taken by R. A. Stirton in Salvador comes from an elevation of 8000 feet in the rain forest of the Upper Tropical Life-zone. Mr. Stirton tells me that one morning on visiting his traps set for small rodents, he found in one the partly eaten remains of a _Heteromys_. Leaving these remains as found he placed a steel trap beside them and on the following morning found the male weasel in the trap. At least three of the ten specimens had the frontal sinuses infested with parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 15, listed by localities from north to south, and unless otherwise indicated in the American Museum of Natural History. =México=: _Chiapas_: 20 mi. SE Teopisca, 2[91]; Pinabete, 1[91]. =Guatemala=: Puebla, 1; Finca Porvenir, 3500 ft., S slope Volcan Tajumulco, 1[60]; Sierra [=? Cerro] Santa Elena, 9500 ft. (near Tecpám), 1[60]; Carolina, 1; Volcano San Lucas, 1; "Finca El Cipres," 1; "Finca Cipres," 2500 ft., 1; Finca San Isidro, San Sebastión, Dept. Retalhuleu, 1[4]; Dueñas, 1[7]; no locality more definite than Guatemala, 1[7]. =El Salvador=: Los Esesmiles, 8000 ft., Chalatenango, 1[59]; La Cebia, 2150 ft., near San Salvador, 1[59]. =Mustela frenata macrophonius= (Elliot) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 24, 25, 26, 30, 37, 38 and 39 _Putorius macrophonius_ Elliot, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 18:235, December 9, 1905. _Mustela macrophonius_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:100, December 31, 1912. _Mustela frenata macrophonius_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:109, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 14063, Field Mus. Nat. Hist.; Achotal, Veracruz, México; January 15, 1904; obtained by Edmund Heller and Charles M. Barber; original no. 3424. The skull (plates 24-26, 30) is complete and unbroken. Excepting right P2, which has been aborted or broken away, all the teeth are present. The skin is well made and in good condition. As shown by the scrotal pouch, the specimen is a male. _Range._--Tropical Life-zone, probably into Boreal life-zones, of mountains along eastern border of southern Veracruz. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. frenata frenata_ and _M. f. perotae_ and _M. f. leucoparia_ in lacking color of underparts on hind feet and in larger skull (skulls of adult males with basilar length more than 52.5); from _M. f. goldmani_ by larger size of skull (see above) and entire animal and wider tympanic bullae; from _M. f. tropicalis_ and _M. f. perda_ by larger size (total length of adult males more than 510), postorbital breadth amounting to less than combined length of upper premolars. _Description._--_Size._--Male: External measurements of the type specimen, an adult, are: Total length, 598; length of tail, 246; length of hind foot, 59. Tail 70 per cent as long as body; length of hind foot more than basal length. Female: The skin, without field collector's measurements, of an adult female from Pérez, Veracruz, shows this sex to be correspondingly large. Because the skin is understuffed and because the hind feet are skinned out, reliable measurements can not be obtained from the dried skin. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata goldmani_ except that all carpal vibrissae are of same color as upper parts and that hairiness of foot-soles is halfway between that shown in figures 20 and 21. _Color._--As in darkest individuals of _M. f. goldmani_, thus, color of upper parts on posterior part of back near (_n_) Argus Brown. Color of underparts near (12) Mikado Orange in a juvenile, extending distally on posterior sides of forelegs onto inner toes and on hind legs to points between knees and heels. Least width of color of underparts 28 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail 34 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on type specimen): See measurements and plates 24-26, 30. As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_ except that: Weight, 6.9 grams; basilar length, 54.1; zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or that between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; interorbital breadth less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4 to 6 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below posterior half of m2. Female (based on no. 132528): See measurements and plates 37-39. As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_ except that: Weight, 3.6 grams; basilar length, 43.5; zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 and more or less than (in the single specimen, equal to) that between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; least width of palate more or less than (about equal to) outside length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4 or 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale. The skull of the female is 48 per cent lighter than that of the male. Comparison of the skull with that of _M. f. goldmani_ is made in the account of that subspecies. Similar differences probably exist between males of _perotae_ and _macrophonius_. As compared with skulls of males of _M. f. tropicalis_ and _perda_, the skull of the male of _macrophonius_ is larger in every measurement taken. The postorbital constriction is less, rather than more, than the combined length of the upper premolars. Relative to the basilar length, the following measurements are less than in any specimen of _tropicalis_ or _perda_: length of tooth-rows; orbitonasal length; depth of skull at posterior border of upper molars; and depth of skull at anterior margin of basioccipital. _Remarks._--This large weasel appears to have escaped the notice of naturalists until the spring of 1903 when J. Friesser obtained an adult female and juvenal male at Pérez for the collection of the United States Bureau of Biological Survey. These specimens were tentatively referred to _Mustela tropicalis_. In the following January, Edmund Heller and Charles M. Barber obtained the adult male that was made the type specimen by Elliot who did not see, or if he did, did not mention, the specimens from Pérez. He did, however, refer a young female from Xuchil, Veracruz, to his _Putorius macrophonius_. This young female is here referred to _Mustela frenata tropicalis_. The extent of the geographic range of this subspecies is not well known. _Mustela frenata macrophonius_ and _M. f. texensis_ are the largest American weasels. The basilar length in the type specimen is greater by one-tenth of a millimeter than in the type specimen of _M. f. texensis_. The other cranial measurements taken are greater in _M. f. texensis_. The skull of the female from Pérez is one of the largest skulls examined of that sex. The juvenal male has teeth as large as those of the type specimen and the skull is the largest for its age of any seen. Although the skin of the female is understuffed and hence does not provide reliable measurements, it shows that the female is also large. The white bands in front of the ears are confluent with the white patch between the eyes on one side only in one specimen. It is the juvenal male. These bands are not confluent with the color of the underparts on either side in the female and on one side only in the adult male. None of the specimens has a white patch between the ears. The dark spot at each angle of the mouth is present only in the juvenile where it occurs on each side. Of the three specimens, the juvenile is the darkest and the adult male the lightest. The white facial markings are most extensive in the juvenal male and the least extensive in the adult female. _M. f. macrophonius_ most closely resembles _M. f. goldmani_ but in the relatively flattened braincase, deep constriction of the postorbital region and general angularity of the skull approaches _M. f. perotae_ and _M. f. frenata_. Only one of the three skulls, that of the female, shows evidence of infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites, and this did not result in malformation of the interorbital region. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 3, all from México, listed by localities from north to south. =Veracruz.= Achotal, 1 (Field Mus. Nat. Hist.); Pérez, 2 (U. S. Nat. Mus.). =Mustela frenata tropicalis= (Merriam) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 25, 26, 27, 30, 37, 38 and 39 _Putorius tropicalis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:30, pl. 3, figs. 5, 5a, 6, 6a, text fig. 16, June 30, 1896; Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:68, March 22, 1902. _Putorius frenatus_, Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:27, June 30, 1896. _Mustela tropicalis tropicalis_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:100, December 31, 1912; Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:99, April 28, 1916. _Mustela frenata tropicalis_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:109, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 54994, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Jico, Veracruz, México; July 9, 1893; obtained by E. W. Nelson; original no. 5195. The skull (plates 25-27, 30) is complete. All the upper incisors, except the second and third on the left side, are missing. The right upper canine is broken. The skin is well made and in good condition. _Range._--Up to 5000 feet (as now known) in Tropical Life-zone of Veracruz, México. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. frenata_ and _M. f. perotae_ in least width of color of underparts not exceeding 36 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts and in postorbital breadth exceeding length of upper molar and premolar tooth-rows; from _M. f. macrophonius_ and _M. f. perda_ in least width of color of underparts averaging more than 29 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; and from _M. f. perda_ by longer tympanic bullae which in males are more than 14.9; and from _M. f. macrophonius_ by lesser basilar length (not more than 48) and in postorbital breadth exceeding length of upper molar and premolar tooth-row. _Description._--_Size._--Male: The type specimen and no. 12764/11058, a subadult, from Jalapa, Veracruz, measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 444, 442; length of tail, 175, 160; length of hind foot, 50, 47. The tail is 65 and 57 per cent as long as the head and body. The hind foot is more or less than (approximately equal to) the basilar length. Female: Merriam (1896:31) gives the measurements of a female topotype (probably no. 54993, U. S. Nat. Mus., which has no measurements written on the attached label) as: Total length, 333; length of tail, 121; length of hind foot, 37. The length of the tail amounts to 57 per cent of the length of the body. The length of the hind foot of no. 54993, U. S. Nat. Mus. is the same as the basal length. The differences in external measurements between the male and the female topotypes are: Total length, 111; length of tail, 54; length of hind foot, 13. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata frenata_ except that carpal vibrissae do not reach apical pad of fifth digit and hairiness of foot soles is less. _Color._--As described in _M. f. frenata_ except that: Blackish of head extends half way or more from ears to shoulders; upper parts near (14) Brussels Brown or slightly faded tone 2 of Maroon of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 341; underparts of juvenal pelage near (_a_) Ochraceous-Buff. Least width of color of underparts averaging (in three specimens from Jico and one from Jalapa) 34 (extremes 30-37) per cent of greatest width of color of underparts. Black tip of tail, in two male topotypes, 57.5 (55 and 60) mm. long; thus longer than hind foot and in each individual comprising 34 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. As compared with _M. f. frenata_: White facial markings slightly less extensive; blackish (not black) of head extending onto neck; upper parts slightly darker; ventral side of tail noticeably darker; color of underparts more restricted, averaging approximately one-third rather than nearly one-half width color of upper parts; black tip of tail one-third rather than one-fourth length of tail and much longer than hind foot. Similar differences of lesser amount exist between _perotae_ and _tropicalis_. _M. f. perda_, _macrophonius_ and _goldmani_ bear the opposite relation to _tropicalis_. That is to say, in the latter: White facial markings slightly more extensive; blackish of head less extended over neck; upper parts markedly lighter; color of underparts less restricted and black tip of tail shorter. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on type specimen and a subadult, no. 11058, from Jalapa): See measurements and plates 25-27, 30. As described in _Mustela frenata perda_ except that: Weight 4.7 (4.6 and 4.7) grams; basilar length 46.7 (45.5 and 47.8); zygomatic breadth more or less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; least width of palate more than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4 (including I3) upper incisors; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below middle of m2 or posterior to that tooth. Female (based on no. 54993 and no. 1060): See measurements and plates 37-39. As described in _Mustela frenata perda_ except that: Weight (of 54993) 2.2 grams; basilar length, 37.5 (36.0-39.0); zygomatic breadth more or less than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; least width of palate more than greatest length of P4; height of tympanic bulla equal to one-third to three-fourths of distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale. The skull of the adult female is 53 per cent lighter than that of the type specimen, a male. Comparison of the skulls of males and females with those of _M. f. perda_, the nearest relative, has been made in the discussion of that subspecies. Some of the features that readily distinguish skulls of _M. f. tropicalis_ from those of _M. f. frenata_, _perotae_ and _macrophonius_ are as follows: Weight less than 4.8 grams; basilar length less than 48; postorbital breadth more than length of upper M-Pm tooth-row. The skulls of male _frenata_, _perotae_ and _macrophonius_ are much larger, heavier, and are decidedly more angular with more constricted postorbital region the least width of which is less than the length of the upper premolars. In _frenata_ the anterior margins of the tympanic bullae are protruded much farther from the braincase. The skull of the female of _M. f. tropicalis_ is smaller, weighing less than 3 grams; basilar length less than 41; postorbital breadth more than length of upper molar and premolar tooth-row. _Remarks._--This subspecies was originally described by Merriam as a full species. Later he described _Putorius tropicalis perdus_ as another subspecies. Allen (1916) placed _P. t. perdus_ in synonymy but named _Mustela tropicalis nicaraguae_ as new. In the present paper all three forms are recognized but are regarded as only subspecifically distinct from the other bridled weasels of México and Central America. The limits of the geographic range of _tropicalis_ are fairly well known on the south and west but the only specimen available from the tropical coastal region north of Jico, is a young female from a point 50 miles south of Victoria. Thus, how far north along the coast it ranges toward Matamoros, where _M. f. frenata_ occurs, is not known. The three specimens from Jico, a young female from Jalapa and another adult collected by J. Potts and labeled as coming from México City, are assumed to be typical. The latter specimen certainly came from an elevation lower than that of México City because _M. f. frenata_ occurs there. Although the female from Jalapa, agrees well with specimens from Jico, a male, no. 12764/11058, from Jalapa, has a relatively broader skull, as in _perda_, although the tympanic bullae are short as in _tropicalis_. The resemblances to _perda_ in features of coloration are: slightly darker upper parts, and the termination just below the knees of the color of the underparts. There are three specimens labeled as from Orizaba that indicate intergradation with _perotae_ as does also the coloration of the juvenal female from 5 kilometers north of Jalapa. The specimens labeled as from Orizaba are old, poorly-prepared skins, only two of which have partial skulls. The size and coloration of the skins suggest _perotae_ as do also the partial skulls in some respects although the skulls show greater resemblance to those of _tropicalis_. The topotype, female, no. 54993, was figured by Merriam (1896, fig. 16, p. 31) along with that of what now is the type specimen of _M. f. perotae_. Merriam called attention to the great difference in size between the skulls of the two sexes of _M. f. tropicalis_ and compared the condition to that found in _noveboracensis_. Although the skull of the female from Jico is fully adult, it probably is exceptionally small. The young female from Xuchil is indistinguishable in coloration from the juvenal female of _M. f. perotae_ from Perote, but in size of skull and size of teeth is intermediate between the female of tropicalis from Jalapa and the females from Cofre de Perote. There is then, indication of intergradation with _M. f. perotae_ as well as with _M. f. perda_. _M. f. tropicalis_ differs from _M. f. perotae_ and _M. f. frenata_ in about the same way that _M. f. perda_ differs from _M. f. goldmani_ and _M. f. macrophonius_. _M. f. tropicalis_ and _perda_ each is smaller and more intensely colored than _goldmani_ and _macrophonius_, and inhabits the lowland to the east of their highland relative. At least five of the nine skulls have the frontal sinuses infested by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 13, all from México, listed by localities from north to south. Unless otherwise indicated specimens are in the collection of the United States National Museum. =Tamaulipas.= 50 mi. S Victoria, 1[71]. Near? México City, 1. =Veracruz.= Jico, 3; 5 km. N Jalapa, 1[90]; Jalapa, 2 (1[2], 1[75]); Xuchil, 1[60]; Orizaba, 4 (2[75], 1[4]). =Mustela frenata perda= (Merriam) Long-tailed Weasel Plates 25, 26, 27, 30, 37, 38 and 39 _Putorius tropicalis perdus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15:67, March 22, 1902. _Putorius (Gale) brasiliensis frenatus_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877 (part). _Mustela tropicalis perda_, Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:100, December 31, 1912. _Mustela tropicalis tropicalis_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:99, April 28, 1916. _Mustela frenata perda_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:109, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, subadult, skull and skin; no. 100041, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Teapa, Tabasco, México; March 31, 1900; obtained by E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman; original no., 14074. The skull (plates 25-27, 30) is unbroken and all the teeth are present and entire. The skin is well made and in good condition. _Range._--Fifty feet (Chichén Itzá) to 4000 feet (San Vicente) in Lower Tropical Life-zone south from southern Veracruz through southern México into Guatemala. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. nicaraguae_ in lesser extent of color of underparts (not more than 22 per cent of greatest extent of color of upper parts), black tip of tail more than 38 per cent of length of tail, and broader skull (in adult males, mastoid breadth more than 23.9 and zygomatic breadth more than 27.4); from _M. f. tropicalis_ in more restricted color of underparts (least width of color of underparts less than 28 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts) and shorter tympanic bullae, which in males are less than 15; from _M. f. goldmani_ by total length not exceeding 489, least width of color of underparts not exceeding 24 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts, weight of adult skull less than 5 grams and basilar length less than 48.5. _Description._--_Size._--Male: The type specimen and another subadult from San Vicente, Chiapas, measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 473 and 443; length of tail, 184 and 169; length of hind foot, 51 and 51.5. The tail is 62 and 64 per cent as long as the head and body. The length of the hind foot is greater than the basal length. Female: Estimates made from the dried skin of no. 218036 are: Total length, 375; length of tail, 140; length of hind foot, 40. The hind foot of no. 65422 from Catemaco also measures 40. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 83; length of tail, 37; length of hind foot, 11. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata goldmani_ except that hairiness of foot soles is slightly less. _Color._--As described in _Mustela frenata goldmani_ except that: back near (_n_) Argus Brown or Carbon Brown, tone 3, of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 342; underparts Ochraceous-Buff. Least width of color of underparts, in four specimens, averaging 20 (extremes 18-22) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; black tip of tail, in two subadult males, averaging 48 (extremes 46-49) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on type specimen and subadult no. 132997 from San Vicente): See measurements and plates 25-27, 30; weight 4.4 grams (same for each); basilar length 45.7 (45.3 and 46.1); zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth less than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth more or less than (approximately equal to) length of upper premolars and greater than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum not greater than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate less than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4-1/2 to 5-1/2 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below middle of m2. Female (based on two subadults, nos. 65422 and 218036): See measurements and plates 36-39; weight, 2.4 (2.3-2.5) grams; basilar length, 40.5 (40.4-40.6); zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth more than length of upper premolars or than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate more than outside length of P4 and less than inside length of same; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 5 or 6 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla equal to one-third to one-half distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and more or less than (about equal to) length of rostrum. The skull of the female averages 48 per cent lighter than that of the male. Comparison of the skull of the male with that of _M. f. nicaraguae_ has been made in the account of that subspecies. The skull of the male as compared with that of _M. f. tropicalis_ has shorter tympanic bullae, deeper braincase at anterior margin of basioccipital, lesser zygomatic and palatal breadth and smaller P4 and m1. The skull of the female is larger in every measurement taken except those reflecting width of the preorbital portion. This part is actually narrower but probably mainly because the females of _perda_ are younger than those of _tropicalis_. Features in which three skulls of subadults of _M. f. perda_ differ from the five adults of _M. f. goldmani_ and show no overlap are: lesser basilar length, lesser weight, greater relative length of upper tooth-rows, greater relative width of rostrum, greater relative length of rostrum, lesser mastoid and zygomatic breadths, lesser width, length and height of tympanic bullae; lesser outside length of P4 and greater relative depth of braincase at anterior margin of basioccipital and at posterior margin of M1. Features in which _perda_ averages less are: length of tooth-rows, interorbital breadth, orbitonasal length, relative zygomatic breadth, length of m1, outside and inside lengths of P4, width and length of M1, and depth of skull at posterior margin of M1. Features in which _perda_ averages more than _goldmani_ are: relative interorbital breadth, relative mastoid breadth and depth of skull at anterior margin of basioccipital. The length of the inner half of M1 averages the same. As compared with _goldmani_, the skull of the male of _perda_ is shorter, otherwise generally smaller, but relatively broader except across the zygomatic arches, and relatively deeper. The anterior margins of the tympanic bullae project slightly less from the braincase and the squamosals immediately in front of these bullae are slightly more convex ventrally. _Remarks._--Described by Merriam in 1902 as a subspecies of _Putorius tropicalis_, the form _perda_ was regarded by Allen (1916:99) as not subspecifically distinct from _P. t. tropicalis_. This is the eastern, lowland subspecies of the Tropical Life-zone, corresponding to _M. f. goldmani_ of the higher mountains just as _M. f. tropicalis_ corresponds to _M. f. frenata_ and _perotae_ of the high mountains and table land. The difference in size between _perda_ and _nicaraguae_ and between _perda_ and _tropicalis_ is slight. _M. f. perda_ is slightly less richly colored than _M. f. nicaraguae_ but has the color of the underparts more restricted and has a longer black tip on the tail. In these respects it is second only to _M. f. panamensis_ among Central American weasels. Evidence of intergradation with _goldmani_ is furnished by the specimens from Cobán, Guatemala, and the nearby locality San Cristóbal in Verapaz, Guatemala. Reduced size as compared with _goldmani_ suggests affinity with _perda_ but the greater width of the light-colored underparts, which averages 24 (extremes 18-32) per cent of the greatest width of the color of the upper parts, shows approach to _goldmani_. Farther north, in Chiapas, however, specimens of _perda_ from San Cristóbal and San Vicente are readily distinguishable from those of _goldmani_ taken a few miles away at Pinabete and near Teopisca. The latter two localities are, however, several thousand feet higher than San Cristóbal (Chiapas) and San Vicente. Two of the nine skulls (only 3 adult) examined for malformation of the frontal sinuses reveal infestation by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 18, listed by localities from north to south, and unless otherwise indicated in the United States National Museum. =Veracruz.= Catemaco, 1. =Tabasco.= Teapa, 2 (1[7]). =Chiapas.= San Cristóbal, 1; San Vicente, 1; no locality more definite than state, 1. =Yucatán.= Chichén-Itzá, 1[76]. =Guatemala=: Cobán, 2 (1[7], 1[4]); Finca la Providenci, S. Cristóbal, Verapaz, 3[76]; central Guatemala, 1; no locality more definite than Guatemala, 5 (2[7]). =Mustela frenata nicaraguae= Allen Long-tailed Weasel Plates 1, 25, 26, 27 and 30 _Mustela tropicalis nicaraguae_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:100, April 28, 1916. _Putorius tropicalis_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 24:661, 1908. _Mustela frenata nicaraguae_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:109, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, subadult, skull and skin; no. 30754, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Matagalpa, Nicaragua; April 16, 1910; obtained by W. B. Richardson; original no., 712. The skull (plates 25-27, 30) of the type specimen lacks the entire right zygomatic arch. Otherwise it is complete. The teeth all are present and unbroken. The skin is complete and unfaded but only partly stuffed. _Range._--Honduras and Nicaragua. Altitudinal and zonal limits unknown. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. costaricensis_ and _M. f. goldmani_ in shorter black tip of tail (not more than 35 per cent of length of tail) and lesser width (usually not more than 7 mm.) of tympanic bulla; from _M. f. perda_ in greater extent of color of underparts (22 or more per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts), shorter black tip on tail (not more than 35 per cent as long as tail) and narrower skull, the mastoid breadth in adult males being less than 23.9 and the zygomatic breadth less than 27. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Average and extreme measurements of five subadults and one young (four from Matagalpa and one from San Rafel del Norte) are: Total length, 450 (420-480); length of tail, 178 (150-190); length of hind foot, 48 (46-50). Tail averages 65 (extremes 56-69) per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot (measurements from dried skins) more than basal length. Female: Measurements unrecorded. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata goldmani_, except that hairiness of foot soles (between that shown in figures 20 and 21) is less, slightly less even than in _M. f. perda_. _Color._--As described in _Mustela frenata goldmani_ except that: Back near (_n_) Argus Brown, or Carbon Brown, tone 4 of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 342. Underparts Ochraceous-Buff. Least width of color of underparts, in four males, young, subadult and adult, 24 (extremes 22-26) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; the corresponding per cent in one female is 32; black tip of tail, in two subadult males, averaging 29 (extremes, 28-30) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae; corresponding per cent in one female, 36. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on type specimen, one adult topotype [?] and one subadult from San Rafel del Norte): See measurements and plates 25-27, 30. As described in _Mustela frenata perda_ except that: Weight, 4.2 grams (estimated for adults); basilar length 45.0 (44.8-45.5); interorbital breadth more or less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of four to five upper incisors; length of tympanic bulla not less than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below anterior margin of m2 or posterior to that tooth. Female: Skull unknown. Comparison of the skull of the male with that of _M. f. costaricensis_ is made in the account of that subspecies. As compared with that of _M. f. perda_, which it most closely resembles, the skull of the male has a narrower, shorter rostrum, lesser interorbital breadth, lesser mastoid and zygomatic breadths and slightly shallower braincase, measured at anterior margin of basioccipital. The tympanic bullae are slightly less projected, at their anterior margins, from the braincase and the squamosal, directly anterior to each, is a little more convex ventrally. The skull of _M. f. nicaraguae_ is, then, slightly shorter than that of _M. f. perda_ and relatively narrower. _Remarks._--When naming this form, Allen (1916:100) characterized it as "Similar to _M. tropicalis tropicalis_ but general coloration much darker and the white face markings somewhat reduced in area." In the sentence preceding the one quoted, _Putorius tropicalis perdus_ was placed as a synonym of _Putorius tropicalis tropicalis_. _M. f. nicaraguae_ and _M. f. perda_ are nearly alike in color and color pattern but differ in cranial characters. _M. f. perda_ and _M. f. tropicalis_ are widely different in color and more especially in color pattern but differ only slightly in cranial characters. The aggregate difference between _perda_ and _nicaraguae_ is less than that between _perda_ and _tropicalis_. All three are lowland forms and each is smaller than the adjacent highland forms, namely, _M. f. goldmani_, _macrophonius_, _perotae_ and _frenata_. The weasels from Honduras definitely are not typical of _nicaraguae_ as it is known from the specimens from Nicaragua itself. The specimens from the state of Tegucigalpa, Honduras, are larger. Some are darker than topotypical _nicaraguae_. The dorsal outline of the skull is more nearly flat (less convex) in some. In these and several other differential features studied, the average of specimens from Tegucigalpa is intermediate toward _goldmani_, but everything considered the animals seem best placed with _nicaraguae_ rather than with _goldmani_ or _perda_, to which latter also, they show some resemblance. With better material from Nicaragua and additional specimens from Salvador (here referred to _goldmani_) a restudy of all the material now referred to the three races named would be profitable. Aims of this restudy might be to determine if a highland race additional to _goldmani_ should be recognized and if the lowland races _perda_ and _nicaraguae_ differ from one another in the way that the existing specimens indicate. In the five males from Matagalpa, the narrow white band in front of each ear is confluent with the color of the underparts on one side only in one specimen and on both sides in two specimens. None of these bands is confluent with the white patch between the eyes. A dark spot at the angle of the mouth is present on one side in one specimen. The corresponding area is dark colored in all other specimens but not separated from the color of the upper parts. In the specimen from San Rafel del Norte the white bands are not confluent with the color of the underparts. The female from Mambacho has the mentioned bands confluent with the color of the underparts. This female approaches _M. f. costaricensis_ in the dark color of the upper parts but has more extensive white facial markings than some specimens from much farther north. Like a female seen of _M. f. costaricensis_, this one has a "frosted" nape but the white hairs on the back of the neck are less numerous than in the female of _M. f. costaricensis_. _M. f. nicaraguae_ in typical form, then, is thought of as a small, lowland, tropical subspecies only slightly differentiated from _M. f. perda_. By reason of its intermediate characters, it constitutes a link between the lowland forms, and the larger animals called _M. f. goldmani_ and _M. f. costaricensis_. None of the four skulls from Nicaragua shows signs of infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 16, listed by localities from north to south. Specimens are in the American Museum of Natural History, unless otherwise indicated. =Honduras=: Alto Cantoral, 2; Cerro Grande La Paz, 1. La Flor Archaga, 1[75]; Comayagüela, 1[75]; vicinity of Tegucigalpa, 2; no locality more definite than Honduras, 1[4]. =Nicaragua=: San Rafel del Norte, 1; Matagalpa, 6; Ma[o]mbacho, 1. =Mustela frenata costaricensis= Goldman Long-tailed Weasel Plates 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 30 _Mustela costaricensis_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 25:9, January 23, 1912. _Mustela brasiliensis_, Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 14(ser. 4):374, 1874. _Putorius (Gale) brasiliensis frenatus_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877 (part). _Putorius affinis_, Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:31, June 30, 1896 (part). _Mustela affinis costaricensis_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:101, April 28, 1916; Lönnberg, Arkiv för Zool., 14(no. 4):16, 1921. _Mustela frenata costaricensis_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:109, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Male, young, skull and skin; no. 13770/37149, U. S. Nat. Mus.; San José, Costa Rica; obtained by C. H. Van Patten. The skull (plates 28-30) is complete and unbroken. All teeth are present and unworn. The skin apparently has been remade. It lacks the distal two-thirds of the tail. The head is somewhat shrunken. The color is possibly faded but if so only to a slight degree. Otherwise, the skin is in good condition. The orange color of the underparts is so intense as to suggest that the full, adult pelage has not been acquired. No white markings are present on the face. There is no sex mark on the label attached to the skin but the size and proportions of the skull and the scrotal pouch on the skin prove that the specimen is a male. The presence of sutures on the dorsal face of the rostrum and the short, wide, and low sagittal crest show the specimen to be young. _Range._--Costa Rica. Altitudinal and zonal range unknown. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _M. f. panamensis_ in lighter color of upper parts (tone 2 rather than tone 4 of Reddish Black of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 344) and longitudinally flat interorbital region of skull; from _M. f. nicaraguae_ in darker color of upper parts (of Oberthür and Dauthenay, tone 2 of pl. 344 rather than tone 4 of pl. 342) and greater width (more than 7) of tympanic bulla. _Description._--_Size._--Male: No collector's measurements available of fully grown animals. Estimated measurements of adult males: Total length, 470; length of tail, 165; length of hind foot (taken from dried skins of 3 adults), 52 (50-52). Tail estimated to average 55 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more or less than (about equal to) basal length. _Female_: A subadult or adult, from the Candelaria Mountains, and a subadult from Irazú, measure, respectively: Total length, 370, 385; length of tail, 130, 150; length of hind foot, 40, 31. Tail 59 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot probably about equal to basal length. The estimated differences in external measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 92; length of tail, 25; length of hind foot, 16 (probably average difference is less). _Externals._--As described in _M. f. panamensis_ (figure 21) except that foot soles are slightly more hairy. _Color._--As described in _Mustela frenata panamensis_ except that: back is near Reddish Black, tone 2 of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 344; chin, lips, and throat white or whitish; remainder of underparts near (_c_) Ochraceous-Buff; color of underparts rarely extending distally onto toes of forefeet. Least width of color of underparts, in eleven specimens, averaging 23 (10-36) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; black tip of tail, in six specimens, averaging 36 (31-38) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on 2 adults, no. 3.2.1.6. from vicinity of San José and no. 11408, U. S. Nat. Mus., from "Costa Rica"): See measurements and plates 25-30; weight, 5.9 grams; basilar length 49 +; zygomatic breadth more than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth less than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth in undiseased skulls less than length of upper premolars (less than distance between posterior borders of P2 and P4) and less than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth more or less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum more or less (about equal to) length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate less than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; tympanic bulla longer or shorter than (about equal to) lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than (about equal to) rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa directly below posterior border of m2. Female: Skull of adult unknown. Comparison of the skull of the male with that of _M. f. panamensis_ has been made in the account of that subspecies. As compared with that of _M. f. nicaraguae_ the skull of _M. f. costaricensis_ is heavier and in every measurement taken is larger. The skull is generally more massive and it follows that most measurements of depth and width are greater in relation to the basilar length as well as actually greater. The individual teeth are larger and the tympanic bullae wider and at their anterior ends are more projected from the braincase. Indeed the skull is more like that of _M. f. goldmani_ than like that of _M. f. nicaraguae_. _Remarks._--The half dozen ill-prepared skins, with partial skulls inside, of this form in the United States National Museum long were referred either to _Mustela brasiliensis_ or _Mustela affinis_. It was not until 1912 when Goldman studied these specimens that the distinctive characters of the Costa Rican weasel were recognized and made the basis of the name _costaricensis_. _M. f. costaricensis_ is well differentiated from _M. f. nicaraguae_ and _M. f. goldmani_ which occur to the northward and from _M. f. panamensis_ which occurs to the southward and is a large, heavy-skulled, dark-colored animal with white facial markings restricted or absent. In the type specimen and the female from the Candelaria Mountains the white facial markings are only narrow facial bars or a few white hairs, but in the young male from Cervantes there is a well developed bar 6 millimeters wide on each side of the face and a separate nasofrontal spot, 10 x 12 mm. The young female from Cachí has a V-shaped frontonasal spot, on the right side of the face a white bar 5 mm. wide and 17 mm. long connected with the color of the underparts, and on the left side a white spot in front of the ear and another between the ear and eye. White facial markings were not recorded in the other specimens. The color of the upper parts is only a little less dark than those of _M. f. panamensis_. Owing to the numerous white hairs on the dorsal side of the neck, the nape of the female from the Candelaria Mountains has a frosted appearance not present in other specimens. _M. f. costaricensis_ is a large animal and among its geographic neighbors is approached in size only by a specimen of _panamensis_ from Boquete, Panamá. Also the young male from Cervantes suggests _panamensis_ in the less flattened interorbital region, but even so is more like _costaricensis_. The small size of two young males, one from Navarro and the other from the vicinity of San José, is suggestive of _M. f. nicaraguae_. However, the large size of most of the specimens and the configuration of the skull are more as in _M. f. goldmani_ than in _M. f. nicaraguae_ and thus suggest that the known specimens are of high mountain subspecies. The long black tip of the tail is another point of resemblance to _M. f. goldmani_, the high mountain subspecies to the north. Perhaps in the lowlands of Costa Rica, there are weasels of another subspecies. Of the eight skulls examined for malformation of the frontal sinuses, each of the two adults and two subadults shows signs of having the frontal sinuses infested with parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 14, listed by localities from north to south. =Costa Rica=: Irazú (Frasu or Irasu on label), 3000 M., 1[4]; Cervantes, 1[2]; San José, 1[91]; vicinity of San José, 2[7]; Azahar Cartago, 1[78]; Tucurrique, 1[7]; Cachí, 1[7]; El Muñco [= Muñeco?] (Río Nivarro [= Navarro?]), 4000 ft., 10 mi. S Cartago, Caribbean Slope, 1[76]; Navarro, 1[91]; Candelaria Mts., 1[75]; no locality more definite than Costa Rica, 3[91]. =Mustela frenata panamensis= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 1, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 30 _Mustela frenata panamensis_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 45:139, September 9, 1932; Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:109, November 20, 1936. _Mustela brasiliensis_, Alston, Biol. Cent. Amer., Mammalia, p. 78, 1879. _Putorius affinis_, Bangs, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoöl., 39:49, April, 1902; Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:143, July 10, 1914. _Mustela affinis_, Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 25:10, January 23, 1912; Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:143, July 10, 1914. _Mustela affinis costaricensis_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:101, April 28, 1916; Goldman, Smithsonian Miscel. Col., 69 (no. 5): 161, 1920. _Type._--Female, subadult, skull and skin; no. 170970, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Río Indio, Canal Zone, near Gatún, Panamá; February 17, 1911; obtained by E. A. Goldman; original no. 20897. The skull is complete and unbroken. The left lower incisor is broken off but all the other teeth are present and entire. The skin is well made and seems to be in faded, worn, first, adult pelage. _Range._--Sea level (type locality) to 5800 feet (Boquete, see Bangs [1902:49]); Upper Tropical and Lower Tropical life-zones of Panamá. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from both _M. f. meridana_ and _M. f. costaricensis_ in darker tone (tone 4 of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 344) of color of upper parts and in convex dorsal outline of skull (Compare figures of mentioned subspecies on plates 25-27). _Description._--_Size._--Male: Two adults from Boquete in the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy, nos. 10112 and 10113, measure, respectively, as follows: Total length, 480 and 400; length of tail, 170 and 143; length of hind foot, 52 and 43. Hind feet of two other adult males measure 46 on dried skins. Tail, in two specimens mentioned above, is 55 and 56 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot, in each of three adults, slightly longer than basal length. Corresponding measurements of no. 178970 from Mt. Pirre are: 422, 164, 50. Tail 64 per cent (same per cent as in young male, no. 137514 from Boquete) as long as head and body, and hind foot longer than basal length. Female: An adult and a young from Chiriquí, nos. 18434 and 18435 (Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia), measure, respectively: Total length, 372, 389; length of tail, 138, 144; length of hind foot, 42, 41. The type specimen measures: Total length, 408; length of tail, 159; length of hind foot, 46.5. Tail 64 per cent as long as head and body, and hind foot longer than basal length. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes from the vicinity of Boquete are: Total length, 59; length of tail, 15; length of hind foot, 6. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black and extending beyond posterior border of ear; carpal vibrissae wholly, or in part, black and extending as far as hypothenar pad; hairiness of foot-soles as shown in figure 21. _Color._--Usually, posterior fourth of each upper lip and sometimes few hairs in front of ear, white; sides and top of head and neck posteriorly to, or behind, shoulders, black; dark areas at angles of mouth confluent with color of upper parts; tip of tail, black; remainder of upper parts near (_n_) Bay of Ridgway and Reddish Black, tone 4, pl. 344 of Oberthür and Dauthenay; chin and lips, whitish; remainder of underparts Warm Buff or near (16´ _c_) Ochraceous-Buff; near (12) Salmon-Orange in juveniles and small young; color of underparts extending distally on posterior sides of forelegs to wrists, but not to soles, and on hind legs to or slightly below knees. Least width of color of underparts, in seven specimens, averaging 18 (extremes 11-28) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts; black tip of tail, in five adults and subadults, averaging 45 (extremes 41-50) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on three adults from Boquete): See measurements and plates 25-30; weight, 5 (4.5-5.4) grams; basilar length, 45.2 (42.8-48.3); zygomatic breadth more or less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth less than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth more than length of upper premolars and more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth not less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum approximately same (more or less than) length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate less than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4-1/2 to 5-1/2 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more or slightly less than (approximately equal to) length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row or length of rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa directly below posterior fourth of m2. Female (based on subadult, type specimen and one adult from Siola): See measurements; weight, 3.3 and 2.1 grams; basilar length, 41.3 and 39.3; zygomatic breadth more than distance between condylar foramen and M1 and more or less than (about equal to) that between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth more than combined length of upper premolars or than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate more than length of P4 (less in the adult); anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of five upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than (about half) distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla less than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row or than rostrum. The skull of the one adult female from Chiriquí is 58 per cent lighter than the average of the two adult males. The skull of the male of _M. f. panamensis_ as compared with that of _M. f. meridana_, is heavier and averages larger in nearly every measurement taken. Relative to basilar length, tooth-rows, orbitonasal length, interorbital breadth and zygomatic breadth averaging narrower. Mastoid breadth always narrower. Tympanic bullae longer, narrower, and usually slightly less protruded. P4 and m1 larger. Dorsal outline of skull, viewed laterally, more convex. Postorbital breadth actually and relatively greater. Postorbital processes, mastoid processes, and sagittal crest not so well developed. Differences between skulls of females, in so far as known, similar to those described between males. As compared with _M. f. costaricensis_, _M. f. panamensis_ has a lighter skull averaging smaller in every measurement taken except interorbital breadth, which is greater. Relative to basilar length, width of rostrum, interorbital breadth and depth of skull at plane of upper molars, less. Tympanic bullae shorter, narrower, less protruded. P4, M1, and m1 larger. Dorsal outline of skull, viewed laterally, more convex. Postorbital breadth relatively and actually greater. Postorbital processes, mastoid processes, sagittal crest and lambdoidal crest less developed. No skull of an adult female of _M. f. costaricensis_ is available for comparison. _Remarks._--This subspecies had not been recognized by previous workers because specimens from Panamá were supposed to be _Mustela affinis_ Gray up until 1916, when Allen (1916:100) restricted the type locality of _M. affinis_ to Bogotá, Colombia. At that time Allen referred specimens from Panamá to _Mustela affinis costaricensis_, and Goldman (1920:161) followed Allen. The specimens examined show much variation. Part of this is geographic variation. For instance the specimens from Boquete approach _M. f. costaricensis_ in size more than do those from farther south. Too few adult females have been seen to ascertain the amount of secondary sexual variation. Bangs (1902:49) suggested that the sex of no. 10113 was wrongly recorded and that it was not really a male. If so, this would reduce the range of apparent variation in size of males from Boquete by half and bring it into accord with the amount normally existing in adult males from one locality. No. 10113 is adult but the skin shows no mammae which would prove it to be a female instead of a pigmy male. Although even smaller than 10113, the type specimen is so much larger than females of _M. f. meridana_ that I have wondered if it is correctly sexed. However, the fact that it was sexed by E. A. Goldman, a collector of wide experience, lessens the possibility that a mistake was made. The color of the underparts is more restricted in _panamensis_ than in any other subspecies of the species. Excluding the specimen from Mt. Pirre, the least width of color of the underparts averages 16 (extremes 6-24) per cent of greatest width of the color of the upper parts. This feature, together with the black color, imparts an appearance to the Panamá weasel that is strikingly like that of a mink. _M. f. panamensis_ is one of the two blackest weasels; _M. f. aureoventris_ is the other. Each of these subspecies occurs in a region of heavy rainfall and there clearly is a positive correlation between high humidity and intensity of color. The black tip of the tail, as regards extent, here reaches the maximum attained among Central and South American weasels. The foot soles are less hairy than in any other member of the subgenus _Mustela_. The tympanic bullae are lower and less inflated than in any other subspecies of the species. Adequate specimens from central and southern Panamá may reveal the existence of one or more additional subspecies since animals from each of the three localities now represented differ from those from the other two and some of these differences are correlated with geographic position. However, specimens from all three localities agree in several features. For example all of them have the dorsal outline of the skull highly convex, transversely, and, more especially, longitudinally. In this respect they are sharply differentiated from any other American weasel. Nevertheless, _M. f. panamensis_ is clearly a link between the North and South American subspecies and _panamensis_ intergrades with the adjacent subspecies. The large size of the skull and teeth and the slightly more ventrally projected tympanic bullae of no. 10112 from Boquete approach features seen in _M. f. costaricensis_. The smaller size of skull and teeth of no. 178970 from Mt. Pirre are points of resemblance to _M. f. meridana_. The type specimen was selected from a region where _M. f. panamensis_ is thought to have its distinctive characters well developed. The specimen is not adult and, therefore, does not show as many differential characters as does a nontypical adult from Boquete. Nevertheless, the majority of the above mentioned differential characters are shown by the type specimen and an adult from the same place would, it is judged, show all the differential characters better than would an adult from Boquete. Of the 11 skulls examined, 6 show no signs of having had the frontal sinuses infested with parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 19, listed by localities from north to south and unless otherwise indicated in the United States National Museum. =Panamá=: Boquete, 10 (3[75], 1[8], 1[2], 3[4], 1[7]); Río Gariche [é], 5300 ft., 1[1]; Siola, 1[1]; Chiriquí, 1[7]; Río Indio, near Gatún, 1; Mt. Pirre, 3 (2[1]); Calovébora, 1[7] (locality not found, possibly misspelling of Calovébora); no locality more definite than Panamá, 1[4]. =Mustela frenata meridana= Hollister Long-tailed Weasel Plates 25, 26, 27, 37, 38 and 39 _Mustela meridana_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:143, July 10, 1914. _Putorius affinis_, Robinson and Lyon, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 24:147, October, 1901; Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 30:256, December 2, 1911. _Mustela affinis_, Osgood, Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ. 155, zoöl. ser. 10:61, January 10, 1912. _Putorius macrurus_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 31:92, April 19, 1912. _Mustela affinis affinis_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:100, April 28, 1916 (part). _Mustela affinis costaricensis_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:101, April 28, 1916 (part). _Mustela frenata meridana_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:110, November 20, 1936; Hall, Physis, 16:175, 1939. _Type._--Male, subadult, skull and skin; no. 123341, U. S. Nat. Mus., 1630 meters elevation, Montes de Mérida, near Mérida, Venezuela; August 14, 1903; obtained by S. Briceno. The skull (plates 25 and 26) lacks the right exoccipital condyle and posterior half of the right zygomatic arch. The teeth all are present, unworn and entire. The skin is well made and complete. _Range._--Near sea level (San Julián) to 8500 feet (Montes de Culata, Mérida, Venezuela), and 9000 feet (Santa Elena, Colombia). Temperate to Subtropical life-zones of Venezuela and northern and western Colombia. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela africana stolzmanni_ by absence of median, longitudinal, abdominal stripe of same color as upper parts, presence of p2 and two roots, rather than one root, on P2; from _M. frenata panamensis_ in lighter color of upper parts (tone 3 rather than tone 4, pl. 344, Reddish Black, Oberthür and Dauthenay), flat rather than convex dorsal outline of skull immediately behind postorbital processes (see pl. 27); from _M. f. affinis_, in males, by lesser average breadth and length of skull and greater actual and relative size (see measurements) of facial part of skull; from _M. f. aureoventris_, in males, by lighter upper parts (tone 3 rather than tone 4, pl. 344, Reddish Black, Oberthür and Dauthenay) and by smaller skull and teeth (basilar length less than 45, length of m1 less than 6.3, width of M1 less than 4.8, outside length of P4 less than 5.7). _Description._--_Size._--Male: Average and extreme measurements of topotypes (as recorded by collectors on labels, and so uniform as to show them not to be accurate to within more than 5 mm.) are as follows: Total length, 434 (410-460); length of tail, 164 (150-180); length of hind foot, 50 (no variation in collectors' measurements). Tail averages 61 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more than basal length. Corresponding measurements of no. 22191, a young male from Mérida, measured by Osgood or Conover, are 439, 165, 54. The adult male no. 18703, from Páramo de Tama (eastern boundary of Venezuela) has the following measurements written on the label by Osgood: 404, 150, 47. Female: Average and extreme measurements of topotypes (as recorded by collectors on labels and so uniform as to show them not to be accurate to within more than 5 mm.) are as follows: Total length, 347 (320-370); length of tail, 128 (120-130); length of hind foot, 40 (no variation in collectors' measurements). Tail averages 57 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more than basal length. Two females, adult no. 11034 and young no. 11033 from Cincinnati, Santa Marta, Colombia, measured by M. A. Carriker, Jr., measure, respectively, as follows: 371, 330; 140, 140; 38, 36. No. 14463, adult, from Río Zapata, Colombia, measured (by J. H. Batty), 315, 138, 39. No. 32182, adult, from Mira Flores, Cauca, Colombia, measured (by W. B. Richardson), 375, 150, 43. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes, at Mérida, are: Total length, 87; length of tail, 36; length of hind foot, 10. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black (few rarely white) and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae colored like underparts or upper parts, and not extending beyond apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot soles slightly greater than shown in figure 21. _Color._--As described in _Mustela frenata panamensis_ except that: Posterior fourth of each upper lip rarely, and small spot in front of ear usually, white; black of head proper not extending back of ears and grading insensibly into color of upper parts; anterior half of upper parts of adults "frosted" with numerous white hairs (tick bites?), upper parts near (_n_) Bay or tone 2 of Reddish Black (pl. 344, Oberthür and Dauthenay) or tone 3 in freshest, unfaded pelage. Least width of color of underparts (in ten males from Mérida) 20 (17-23) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail, in same series, 60 to 75 mm. long, thus longer than hind foot and 41 (40-44) per cent as long as tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on type specimen and seven topotypes, five adults and three subadults): See measurements and plates 25-27; weight, 4.1 (3.8-4.3) grams; basilar length, 43.6 (42.3-44.3); zygomatic breadth more than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth less than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth greater than length of upper premolars or than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth not less than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum greater than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate greater than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4 to 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more or less than (approximately equal to) alveolar length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and shorter than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa posterior to m2 and confined to posterior third (34 per cent average, 32 minimum, 37 maximum) of mandible. Female (based on four adult topotypes): See measurements and plates 37-39; weight (no. 143665), 2.3 grams; basilar length 37.2 (36.3-38.2); zygomatic breadth more or less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth (sinuses badly infested with parasites) more than length of upper premolars or width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate more than length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as combined width of 4 to 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than (one half to three fourths of) distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row. The skull of the female is 44 per cent lighter than that of the average male. Comparisons of the skull with those of _M. f. panamensis_ and _affinis_ have been made in the accounts of those subspecies. As compared with the skull of the male of _M. f. aureoventris_, that of _meridana_ averages smaller in every measurement taken. Indeed, none of the skulls of _meridana_ equals that of _aureoventris_ in basilar length, length of tooth-rows, length of tympanic bulla, depth of skull at anterior margin of basioccipital or at posterior margin of upper molars, or measurements of teeth. Relative to the basilar length, most of the measurements are greater in _meridana_. Exceptions are the relative length of the tooth-rows, and the two measurements of depth of the skull which average less. _Remarks._--In 1914 when Hollister named this weasel he compared it with _M. f. affinis_ and most of the differential characters which he ascribed to _meridana_ were merely "more than" or "less than" in _affinis_. In _affinis_, Hollister included specimens from Chiriquí, Panamá, and the coast of Venezuela. The specimens from these three places were referred by Allen (1916:101) to _Mustela affinis costaricensis_, and he restricted (_op. cit._:100) the type locality of _Mustela affinis affinis_ to Bogotá, Colombia, and synonymized _Mustela meridana_ with _M. a. affinis_. Hollister probably would not have named _meridana_ had he had specimens from Bogotá for comparison and had he regarded them as topotypes of _affinis_ for the difference is slight. Nevertheless, within the large geographic range of _M. f. meridana_ there is some geographic variation. There is more of such variation in the color of the pelage than in shape and size of the skull. The specimen from San Julián is darker than the average and in this respect approaches true _panamensis_. San Julián is situated at a relatively low elevation on the coast of Venezuela. _M. f. meridana_ so closely resembles _M. f. affinis_ that the writer has no quarrel with anyone who would synonymize _meridana_. However, as represented by topotypes, the two races unquestionably are, _on the average_, different, and specimens from the southeastern part of the range of _affinis_ probably are individually distinguishable from topotypes of _meridana_. Variation in the skulls of the series from Mérida is relatively small. This applies to both males and females. The external measurements recorded by native collectors are not accurate to within more than five millimeters but, considering this, variation in external measurements also seems to be slight. The difference in size of the two sexes appears to be uniformly greater than in weasels from Central America. The twenty-six topotypes show that the color and color pattern are relatively uniform. All are of nearly the same tone except juveniles or young which are, as in the case of _panamensis_, much brighter colored on the underparts. Also, the young have darker-colored upper parts. The adults, without exception, have numerous white hairs scattered over the back of the head, neck and between the shoulders. I have no trustworthy evidence to support the suggestion that these white hairs are the results of tick bites or that they are caused by other parasites which damage the hair follicles. The white facial markings vary relatively little in the 45 specimens carefully examined in this regard. Also, the variation in color pattern of the two sides of the head is small. Indeed, within rather narrow limits, the color of the two sides of the head is the same in every specimen except two. In these two the white spots anterior to the ears are confluent with the color of the underparts. Only one specimen, no. 21342, has a white spot between the eyes and this spot is small. Ten of the twenty-six specimens have a definite white spot or band in front of each ear. Two specimens have such a spot on one side only. The dark spots at the angles of the mouth are present on two sides in three specimens and on one side only in three others. The mentioned spots are, then, present nine out of a possible fifty-two times. When the spots are absent, dark color usually is present in the required area but is confluent with the color of the upper parts. A young male from San Julián, Robinson and Lyon (1901:147) state ". . . was shot . . . as it ran over some bowlders in a ravine. Its eyes shone with the same greenish light as do the eyes of our common weasel, and it emitted the same strong odor." No. 14463, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., from Río Zapata, Colombia, according to data on the label, was "taken in timber belt in valley in balk hills" and the native name is Cosonebi. Two specimens taken on the Páramo de Tama, head of Tachira River, Venezuela and Colombia are commented on by Osgood (1912:61) as follows: "One . . . was caught in a steel trap baited with birds and set by the side of a rushing mountain stream. . . . The other was shot in midday as it came prowling about our 'house' in the clearing. . . ." Of the thirty-three skulls before me, twelve have the frontal sinuses malformed by parasites. These twelve include most of the adults for few of the subadults and fewer of the young show pathologic conditions in the frontal region. _Note on localities._--Several of the localities in Colombia mentioned in "Specimens examined" are described and located by Chapman (1917:640-656, pl. 41) in his "Distribution of Bird-life in Colombia." Place names for Colombia on labels, not found on any map, or duplicated names of which I can not certainly select one, are Río Barrotow, Río Oscuro, Río Zapata, Río Japata, Guasca and El Baldro. Sonson may or may not be the town of that name situated some eighty miles northwest of Bogotá and on the east flank of the Central Andes west of the Magdalena River on the drainage of the Cauca River. In Venezuela most of the specimens from Mérida are labeled 1630 meters, Montes de Mérida. San Julián is some seven miles east of La Guaira (see Robinson and Lyon, 1901:136). San Esteban is located a little way back from the coast between Puerto Cabello and Valencia. Páramo de Tama is on the Venezuelan-Colombian border near the source of the Tachira River (see Osgood, 1912:35). Mt. Duida is shown as at 3° 30´ N and 65° 40´ W by Chapman (1931:13) and Mt. Auyán-tepui as near 5° 15´ N and 62° 50´ W by Chapman (1937:760). _Specimens examined._--Total number, 78, arranged by localities from north to south and unless otherwise indicated in the British Museum of Natural History. =Venezuela=: San Julián, 1[91]; Carácas, 2; Galipare, Cerro del Avila, 6500 feet, 1; San Esteban, 1[2]; Mérida, 45 (10[91], 14[2], 10[4], 2[60], 2[14], 1[78]); Páramo de Tama, 1[60]. =Colombia=: Páramo de Tama, 1[60]; Cincinnati, 3[9]; Valdiva, 3800 ft., 1; Medellín, 2; 7200 ft., Barro Blanco, 1[2]; Santa Elena, 9000 ft., 1[2]; Santa Elena, 1[2]; Sonson, 2 (1[91], 1[2]); Mt. Auyan-tepui, 1[2]; Pueblo Rico, 5200 ft., 1[91]; Mira Flores, 1[2]; Jerico, near Cauca River, 1; Tornel, 20 mi. NE Quitichao, 1; Mt. Duida, 1[2]; El Tambo, Cauca, 1[78]; El Baldro, 1[2]; Río Japata, 2[2]; Río Zapata, 4500 ft., 1; Río Oscuro, 3300 ft., 1; Río Barrotow, 3300 ft., 1; Guasca, 1[75]; no locality more definite than Colombia, 1. =Mustela frenata affinis= Gray Long-tailed Weasel Plate 30 _Mustela affinis_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 14(ser. 4):375, 1874. _Putorius (Gale) brasiliensis frenatus_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877 (part). _Putorius affinis_, Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:31, June 30, 1896. _Mustela affinis affinis_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:100, April 28, 1916; Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:220, May 31, 1916. _Mustela frenata affinis_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:110, November 20, 1936; Hall, Physis, 16:175, 1939. _Type._--Male, adult, skull with skin; no. 54.1.11.3 (skull originally numbered 195d, later 54.6.3.4), Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.; Colombia [given as new Granada in original description]; purchased from Mr. S. Stevens. Type locality restricted by Allen (1916:99) to Bogotá, Colombia. The skin is in a good state of preservation and has been made over into a conventional study specimen from a mount on exhibition. Exposure to light when mounted probably accounts for the faded color. The skull (plate 30) lacks the middle 9 mm. of the right zygomatic arch, occiput, basioccipital and posterior two-thirds of the left tympanic bulla. The teeth all are present and entire. _Range._--Four thousand six hundred feet (Quetame) to 9154 feet (El Carmen), Tropical to Temperate life-zones of eastern Andes of Colombia. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela africana stolzmanni_ by absence of median, longitudinal, abdominal stripe of same color as upper parts, by presence of p2 and by two roots rather than one root on P2; from _M. frenata meridana_, in case of males, by, on average, greater breadth and length of skull and lesser actual and relative size (see measurements) of facial part of skull; from _M. f. aureoventris_ by lighter-colored upper parts (tone 2 rather than tone 4, pl. 344, Reddish Black of Oberthür and Dauthenay); from _M. f. macrura_ by darker color (Reddish Black, tone 2, pl. 344, Ober. and Dauth., rather than Chocolate, tone 3, pl. 343, Ober. and Dauth.). _Description._--_Size._--Male: Measurements in life, estimated from dried skins, are: Total length, 455; length of tail, 175; length of hind foot, 52. Proportions of parts supposedly as described in _Mustela frenata meridana_. Female: Estimates from two dried skins: Total length, 365; length of tail, 135; length of hind foot, 43. Proportions of parts supposedly as described in _Mustela frenata meridana_. The estimated differences in external measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 90; length of tail, 40; length of hind foot, 9. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata meridana_. _Color._--As described in _Mustela frenata panamensis_ except that: posterior fourth of each upper lip and spot in front of each ear white in approximately half of the specimens; black of head proper not extending back of ears and grading insensibly into color of upper parts; upper parts near (_n_) Bay, or tone 2 of Reddish Black (pl. 344, Oberthür and Dauthenay). Least width of color of underparts (in five males from vicinity of Bogotá) 24 (15-29) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail, in same series, 60 to 75 mm. long, thus longer than hind foot and averaging 38 per cent as long as tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on three adults and two subadult topotypes): See measurements and plate 30. As described in _Mustela frenata meridana_ except that: Weight, 4.5 grams (estimated); basilar length 45.8±; interorbital breadth not greater than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla (type as in _meridana_ where interorbital breadth is more than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla); least width of palate not less than length of P4; masseteric fossa confined to posterior two-fifths (38 to 40 per cent; average 39 per cent) of mandible and not extended anteriorly to middle of m2. Female: No adults examined. As compared with _M. f. meridana_ the skull of the male is larger, to the average amount of 2.2 mm. in basilar length and 1.2 mm. in zygomatic breadth of adults; length of tooth-rows and mastoid breadth average greater but relatively less; breadth of rostrum, interorbital breadth and orbitonasal length average actually and relatively less. Thus the skull of _affinis_ is longer and broader, but the facial region is actually, as well as relatively, smaller. As compared with the skull of the male of _M. f. aureoventris_, that of _M. f. affinis_ is about the same in basilar length. However, in no specimen of _affinis_ are the measurements of length of tooth-rows or breadth of rostrum, actually, or relatively, as great as in _aureoventris_. The same is true of all measurements taken of M1, P4 and m1. The specimens from the vicinity of Quito and north of there, although referred to _macrura_, are nearly as dark as typical _affinis_, approach _affinis_ in cranial characters, and indicate intergradation of _affinis_ with _macrura_. _Remarks._--_Mustela affinis_ was named by John Edward Gray in 1874 (p. 375) on the basis of a specimen from New Granada. Although usually synonymized with _Mustela brasiliensis_ by later authors until 1896 when Merriam (1896:31) applied the name to weasels from Costa Rica, nearly all the South American and several of the Central American weasels have, at one time or another, had Gray's name, _affinis_, applied to them. Gray, in 1865 (p. 115) when giving measurements of _Mustela aureoventris_, probably mentioned the specimen, that later became the holotype. In 1916 (p. 98) Allen restricted the type locality to Bogotá, Colombia. Allen's action was a necessary procedure in clearing up the systematics of South American weasels and was based on good grounds. As set forth by Allen (_loc. cit._), and more in detail by Chapman (1917:642), Bogotá has long been the shipping point for Colombian vertebrate specimens, many of which were obtained in the mountains to the east. Allen (1916A:220) quotes Thomas as saying that the type specimen was purchased from Stevens at about the same time that a number of Colombian birds were purchased from the same dealer. Also, specimens from Bogotá agree with Gray's description of the type specimen. _Mustela frenata affinis_, as here defined, constitutes one of the several slight geographic variants met with, on the sides of, and between, the three north and south mountain chains of Colombia. The others are lumped under the name _Mustela frenata meridana_. _M. f. affinis_, in common with specimens from the northern part of the range of _macrura_ has large teeth. Weasels of all of the region from Quito to Bogotá have large teeth. To the north there is the smaller-toothed _meridana_ and to the south the smaller-toothed _macrura_ grading into the still smaller-toothed _agilis_, and _boliviensis_. Two skins, without corresponding skulls, from Caqueta are lighter colored than any others of _affinis_; possibly the skins are faded by exposure to light. Since they probably come from an elevation of less than 1000 feet in the Amazonian region, they may pertain to another subspecies. Complete, unbroken, skulls of _affinis_ are needed to ascertain the degree to which _affinis_ and _meridana_ differ in cranial features. The several specimens from the immediate region of Bogotá show well the color and the color pattern but lack collectors' measurements. None of the ten skulls examined shows malformation of the frontal region due to infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites. Possibly three of the four adults were infested, although not severely. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 27, arranged by localities from north to south and unless otherwise indicated in the United States National Museum. =Colombia=: El Carmen, 1[2]; W. Cundinamarca, 1[7]; Muzzo [= Muzo?], 1[4]; Bogotá, 1; Castillo, near Bogotá, 1[7]; Fambrias, near Bogotá, 1[75]; Bogotá district, 1[2]; Choachí, 9 (1[75], 2[7], 1[84]); Páramo de Choachí, 2 (1[2], 1[84]); Laguna del Verjón (= City of Bogotá), 1[75]; Quetame, 2[2]; Fusagasuga, 1; Caqueta, 2[2]; no locality more definite than Colombia, 3 (1[7]). =Mustela frenata aureoventris= Gray Long-tailed Weasel Plates 27, 28 and 29 _Mustela aureoventris_ Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1864:55, pl. 8, 1864; Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1865:115, 1865. _Putorius (Gale) brasiliensis_ var. _aequatorialis_ Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877, part? ("merely as a substitute for Gray's [supposedly] preoccupied name," that is, _aureoventris_). _Mustela affinis costaricensis_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:101, April 28, 1916 (part). _Mustela macrura_, Lönnberg, Arkiv för Zool., 14 (no. 4):11, 1921 (part ?). _Mustela frenata aureoventris_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:110, November 20, 1936; Hall, Physis, 16:175, 1939. _Type._--Probably female, juvenile, skull with skin, no. 64.6.6.3 (formerly 1432a), British Mus. Nat. Hist.; probably Subtropical Life-zone of western Ecuador (locality given as Quito, probably because received from that place). The skin, once exhibited as a mount, has lost some hair from the back and other parts of the body and is not suitable for remaking into a conventional study specimen. The skull lacks the occiput, basioccipital, premaxillae, upper incisors, two of the lower incisors, all of the canines, premolars 2/2 on both sides, right P3, left p3, and has the left jugal mesially defective. The premolars present are not all fully emerged. _Range._--Pacific coastal regions of Ecuador and Colombia; Subtropical and Tropical life-zones. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela africana stolzmanni_ by absence of median, longitudinal, abdominal stripe of same color as upper parts, by presence of p2 and by two rather than one root on P2; from _Mustela frenata macrura_ by Reddish Black, tone 4, plate 344 rather than Chocolate, tone 3, pl. 343 (of Oberthür and Dauthenay), or slightly darker color of upper parts; from _M. f. affinis_ and _M. f. meridana_ by darker color (tone 4 rather than tone 2, Reddish Black of Ober. and Dauth.) of upper parts and larger size of teeth (M1 with length more than 2.4 and breadth more than 4.7; P4 with outside length more than 5.9; length of m1 more than 6.2). _Description._--Unless otherwise stated, information concerning this subspecies is derived from the one referred specimen available, a young male, no. 34677, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. _Size._--Male: Total length, 470; length of tail, 160; length of hind foot, 50. Tail 51 per cent as long as head and body. Female: Not known. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black and reaching beyond ear. Carpal vibrissae reaching to or beyond apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot soles slightly less than shown in figure 20. _Color._--Sides and top of head and neck posteriorly to shoulders black; white facial markings represented by only five white hairs anterior to right ear, one anterior to left ear and three far back on forehead; dark areas at angles of mouth confluent with color of upper parts; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts near (_n_) Bay or Reddish Black, tone 4 of Oberthür and Dauthenay, pl. 344; chin whitish; remainder of underparts Warm Buff, deep orange in juvenile, type specimen, according to Gray (1864, pl. 8); color of underparts extending distally on posterior sides of forelegs to wrists but not reaching foot soles and on hind legs to or slightly below knees. Least width of color of underparts equal to 15 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail equal to 27 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. In color, no. 34677 is, to me as it was to Allen (1916:101), indistinguishable from the darkest specimens (nos. 178970 and 10112) of _M. f. panamensis_. Therefore, _M. f. aureoventris_ is one of the two darkest subspecies of weasels. _Skull and teeth._--Male: See measurements and plates 27-29; weight, 4.3 grams; basilar length, 45.8; zygomatic breadth approximately equal to distance between condylar foramen and M1 and to distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth less than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth more than length of upper premolars and greater than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth greater than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less (at least in young specimen) than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate seldom if ever greater than length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of three (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla not greater than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and shorter than orbitonasal length; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below anterior half of m2. Skulls of males of _M. f. aureoventris_, and _Mustela frenata macrura_ from the vicinity of Quito so closely resemble one another as not to be distinguished with the material now available, although the teeth of _aureoventris_ are larger. Comparisons of the skulls of males with those of _M. f. meridana_ and _affinis_, which are readily distinguishable from those of _aureoventris_, have been made in the accounts of those subspecies. Female: Skull of adult unknown. _Remarks._--This subspecies of the Tropical Life-zone, or at least the Subtropical Life-zone, of Ecuador, in certain cranial characters resembles _Mustela frenata macrura_ of the Temperate Life-zone. The two differ markedly in color. Nevertheless, a large number of the specimens collected in Ecuador are intermediate in color as well as in zonal distribution. The type specimen is young or a juvenile. The measurements of no. 34677 from Gualea indicate an animal similar in size to _M. f. affinis_. Gray (1864:55) states that the type specimen measures "Length of body and head 6 inches, of tail 4-1/2 inches." The plate (pl. 8) accompanying Gray's original description (_loc. cit._) is marked one-half natural size and represents the animal as having a head and body length of eight and one-half inches. One year later Gray (1865:115) gives the measurements of this species as "Length of body and head 12, tail 8 inches." Since he had at this time another specimen, larger than the type specimen (which specimen later, probably, became the type of _Mustela affinis_ Gray), the larger measurements probably were taken from it. Geographically, and as regards cranial characters, _Mustela frenata aureoventris_ is most closely related to _M. f. affinis_ and to the northern section of _M. f. macrura_, but in color to _M. f. panamensis_. _M. f. aureoventris_ and _M. f. panamensis_ are the two darkest-colored subspecies and each occurs in a region of extremely heavy rainfall. There is a skin only, no. 32620, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., from Munchique, obtained on June 1, 1911, which is appreciably darker than specimens of _M. f. affinis_ in corresponding pelage and is intermediate between _M. f. affinis_ and _M. f. aureoventris_ in color as it is geographically. The specimen measures 495, 202, 52. The name _Mustela aureoventris_ Gray has been regarded by most authors as preoccupied by _Mustela auriventer_ Hodgson (1841:909). However, the writer is not of this opinion and agrees with Thomas (1920:224) that "The name _aureoventris_ is not invalidated by the _auriventer_ of Hodgson, as, apart from 'one-letterist' differences, its first half comes from the adjective _aureus_, while Hodgson's name is based on the substantive _aurum_, so that not only the spellings but the derivations are different." The spelling of Gray's name should be _aureoventris_ for this is the spelling in the original description which in pagination precedes the colored plate of the animal that is labeled _Mustela aureoventris_. _Putorius brasiliensis_ var. _aequatorialis_ Coues (1877:142) is the only name known to the writer that has been proposed as a substitute for _Mustela aureoventris_ Gray. Thomas (1920:224) treats _Mustela macrura_ Taczanowski as a synonym of _Mustela aureoventris_ Gray. Allen (1916:101) also treats the two names as applying to the same kind of weasel but regards _aureoventris_ as preoccupied and therefore uses the name _macrura_. Taczanowski's original description (1874:311) and plate of _Mustela macrura_ indicate an animal that is lighter colored than _M. f. affinis_. Gray's original description (1864:55) and plate of _aureoventris_ indicate an animal that is darker colored than _M. f. affinis_. Indeed Gray (1865:115) in speaking of the type of _aureoventris_ as compared with an adult from New Granada [= Colombia] that probably later became the type specimen of _Mustela affinis_, states: "The young from Quito is much darker than the adult;. . . ." Comparison of the plates accompanying the original descriptions of _aureoventris_ and _macrura_ well illustrate the difference stated in the written descriptions. My examination of the type specimens of _M. macrura_ and _M. f. aureoventris_ shows them to have been fairly accurately portrayed in the plates accompanying the original descriptions. Accordingly the two names are used for the two kinds of animals which appear, however, to be only subspecifically distinct. Comparison of Gray's plate (1864, pl. 8) with the available specimens from South America indicates that the name _aureoventris_ is based on an individual that is lighter colored than no. 34677 Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., from Gualea, Ecuador, but on one which resembles no. 34677 more than it does the lighter-colored specimens from the Temperate Zone of Ecuador and northern Perú. Because Quito, Ecuador, is in the Temperate Life-zone and because the available specimens from this zone in Ecuador and northern Perú are distinctly lighter colored than Gray's plate representing the type of _aureoventris_ shows this specimen to be, it is judged to have come from an altitude lower than that of Quito (9350 feet, according to Chapman, 1926:717); probably it came from the Subtropical Life-zone of Ecuador. Indeed Gray (1864:55) did not say that the specimen was collected or obtained at Quito but that it was ". . . received from Quito. . . ." Chapman (1926:717) has pointed out that Quito, since 1846 has been the distributing point for bird skins which specimens ". . . come from the vicinity of the city, from the 'Napo' region on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes, and from Nanegal, Gualea, and other localities on the Pacific side rarely below the Subtropical Zone." It is also pointed out that only some of the specimens are labeled with their approximate place of capture and that even then these localities cannot be accepted as definite; they indicate mainly whether the specimen is from the eastern or western side of the Andes. The above mentioned considerations and information gained by study of the specimens cause me to think that the type is an intergrade tending toward the lighter-colored _Mustela f. macrura_ of the Temperate Zone although sufficiently dark to be referred to the dark subspecies represented by no. 34677 Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., from Gualea, Ecuador. The skull of no. 34677 shows no infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 3, as follows: =Ecuador=: Gualea, 1, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. =Colombia=: 8325 ft., Munchique, 1, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. In the British Museum of Natural History, the type, (1). =Mustela frenata helleri= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 27, 28 and 29 _Mustela frenata helleri_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 48:143, August 22, 1935; Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:110, November 20, 1936; Hall, Physis, 16:175, 1939. _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 24133, Field Mus. Nat. Hist.; 3000 feet, Hacienda San Antonio, Río Chinchao, Perú; August 22, 1922. Obtained by Edmund Heller. Original no. 6589. The skull (plates 27-29) is complete and unbroken. The teeth all are present, entire and but slightly worn. The skin is well made, unfaded, and in good condition. _Range._--Three thousand feet (type locality) to 6700 feet (Ambo), Tropical and Subtropical life-zones of eastern Perú. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela africana stolzmanni_ by absence of median, longitudinal, abdominal stripe of same color as upper parts, presence of p2 and two roots rather than one root on P2; from _Mustela frenata macrura_ by darker color (Carbon Brown, tone 3, pl. 342 rather than Chocolate, tone 3, pl. 343, Oberthür and Dauthenay) of upper parts. _Description._--_Size._--Male: Measurements of the type specimen and topotype, no. 24132, are, respectively, as follows: Total length, 382, 418; length of tail, 152, 164; length of hind foot, 52, 48. Tail 66 and 65 per cent as long as head and body. Hind foot more than basal length. Female: Measurements of two referred females, no. 24134 from Ambo and no. 24136 from Huanuco, are, respectively, as follows: Total length, 328 and 303; length of tail, 118 and 103; length of hind foot, 39 and 38.5. Tail 56 and 51 per cent as long as head and body. Hind foot shorter than basal length. The average differences in external measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 85; length of tail, 49; length of hind foot, 11. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae black and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae same color as upper parts and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot-soles as shown in figure 20. _Color._--Rarely a few white hairs anterior to each ear; posterior fifth of each upper lip white; top of head, posteriorly to slightly behind ears, black, grading into color of upper parts of body; dark spots at angles of mouth absent; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts near (_n_) Argus Brown and Carbon Brown, tone 3 (pl. 342, Oberthür and Dauthenay); chin whitish; remainder of underparts Warm Buff; color of underparts extends distally on posterior sides of forelegs to wrists but not reaching foot-soles and on hind legs to slightly below knees. Least width of color of underparts 24 per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts in each of two males and 19 to 30 per cent in three females. Black tip of tail longer than hind foot and averaging 40 (39-42) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on type specimen and adult no. 24132): See measurements and plates 27-29. As described in _Mustela frenata macrura_ except that: Weight, 4.5 (4.2 and 4.8); basilar length, 44.6 (44.0-45.3); zygomatic breadth more than distance between condylar foramen and M1 or than between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum more or less than (approximately equal to) length of tympanic bulla; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla less than length of rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa posterior to m2 by length of that tooth. Female (based on nos. 24134 to 24136): See measurements. As described in _Mustela frenata macrura_ except that: Weight, 1.7 (1.5-1.9) grams; basilar length, 36.5 (35.3-38.1); zygomatic breadth less than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; least width of palate more or less than (approximately equal to) outside length of P4; length of tympanic bulla less than length of rostrum. The skull of the female averages 62 per cent lighter than that of the male. The skull of the male is generally large and heavy as are the teeth. Comparison with _macrura_ is made in the account of that subspecies. From males of _affinis_ those of _helleri_ differ in: skull shorter; breadth of rostrum and interorbital breadth actually and relatively greater. _Remarks._--The five specimens examined of this subspecies were taken by Edmund Heller for the Field Museum of Natural History in 1922 and 1923. It is to honor his contributions to mammalogy that the subspecies is named _helleri_. No. 24135 is the specimen carried as a pet for some time by Mr. and Mrs. Heller and of which Mrs. Heller (1924:481) has given an account. This subspecies is insufficiently known, especially as to geographic range; probably it occupies a considerable range in the Tropical Life-zone along the eastern base of the Andes. The three females, two from Ambo and one from Huanuco, come from a much higher altitude than do the two males and the climate is said to be arid at Ambo and Huanuco. The skulls of the females are 62 per cent lighter and correspondingly smaller in measurements, than those of males. This difference is more than that found in any other South American weasel and it may be that the females are of a subspecies other than _helleri_. The type specimen has a broad skull with major proportions strikingly like those of _Mustela stolzmanni_. Possibly the similar climatic conditions under which the two live have left their impress in similar fashion in this part of each of the two species. The teeth, tympanic bullae, and certain other parts of the skull are, however, so differently proportioned as to show that the skulls represent two species. The referred male has a much longer skull than the type specimen and the relative proportions of breadth and depth of the two skulls differ widely. Judging from large series of weasels examined from localities outside the range of _M. f. helleri_, the two skulls probably represent almost the maximum of individual variation occurring in one subspecies. The dark color is as might be expected since _helleri_ inhabits the humid Tropical Zone. None of the five skulls shows signs of having had the frontal sinuses infested by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 5, all in the Field Museum of Natural History. =Perú=: 3500 ft., Hacienda Buena Vista, Río Chinchao, 1; 3000 ft., Hacienda San Antonio, Río Chinchao, 1; Huanuco, 1; Ambo, 2. =Mustela frenata agilis= Tschudi Long-tailed Weasel Plates 27, 28, 29, 39 and 40 _Mustela agilis_ Tschudi, Fauna Peruana, p. 110, 1844; Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1865:113, 1865; Taczanowski, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1874:311, 1874; Taczanowski, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1881:648, 1881; Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:104; April 28, 1916; Thomas, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 58-224, 1920. _Mustela macrura_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:103, April 28, 1916. _Mustela frenata agilis_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:110, November 20, 1936; Hall, Physis, 16:176, 1939. _Type._--No type specimen, or type locality more restricted than cold, barren highlands of the Cordillera [referring to Perú] designated. _Range._--High, barren Cordillera of Perú (see Tschudi, orig. descr.); as here restricted, Temperate Life-zone and higher in western Andes and intermountain valleys of Perú. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela frenata macrura_ by lighter color (Chocolate, tone 2 rather than 3, pl. 343, Oberthür and Dauthenay) of upper parts; length of upper tooth-rows, in females, less than 13; inside length of P4 more than 4.6; from _M. f. aureoventris_ by smaller teeth (maximum size just given for _agilis_); from _M. f. boliviensis_ by lighter color, upper parts being Chocolate, tone 2, pl. 343, rather than tone 4 or darker of Carbon Brown, pl. 342 (Oberthür and Dauthenay). _Description._--_Size._--Male: The stuffed skin of an adult, from Lima, measures: Total length, 460; length of tail, 125; length of hind foot, 45.7. A skin alone from Huarochirí has a body, as now stuffed, 277 mm. long. The tail is missing and the bones of the hind feet have been removed. Female: The mounted specimen, no. 565, Mus. Polonais d'Hist. Nat., yields measurements, taken by me, as follows: Total length, 250; length of tail, 75; length of hind foot, 32.5. The female, no. 21147, from Macate, measures, 300, 102, 34. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae, either dark-or light-colored and extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae either dark-or light-colored and extending to apical pad of fifth digit; hairiness of foot soles as shown in figure 20. _Color._--Tschudi's description of the color is, in substance, as follows: Head, back and tail reddish gray; base of hair gray, followed by broader grayish-yellow ring and then reddish-brown tip; nose simply dark brown or upper lips edged with white; throat, breast, belly and higher parts of inner sides of extremities whitish gray, at times wholly gray, bases of hairs always gray; feet darker than body, almost chestnut brown; tail darker on tip than at base; ears externally dark brown, internally whitish. No. 565 possibly somewhat faded from exposure to light, has all the upper parts near (14´ _j_) Ochraceous-Tawny or Cinnamon, and tone 4 of Oberthür and Dauthenay, plate 323; posterior half of each upper lip white; no other white facial markings present; dark spot at each angle of mouth (one spot confluent with color of upper parts); tip of tail probably black (tip missing); underparts white, belly probably originally with slight tinge of yellow or allied color; color of underparts extending distally on forelegs to feet and onto upper sides of toes and on hind legs to just above heels. Least width of color of underparts equal to about one-fourth of greatest width of color of upper parts. No. 21147, subadult, from Macate, has a white band confluent with the underparts extending anterodorsally anterior to each ear and the posterior third of each upper lip white. Top of head near (_n_) Mars Brown, and Carbon Brown, tone 3 (pl. 342, Ober. and Dauth.); tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts near (16" _j_) Tawny-Olive, and Chocolate (tone 2, of pl. 343 of Ober. and Dauth.) or Raw Umber (tone 3 of pl. 301 of Ober. and Dauth.); anterior half of underparts, including posterior sides of forelegs and antipalmar faces of forefeet, white; remainder of underparts tinged with Warm Buff and extended on posterior legs almost to ankles. No. 8.1.10.1., male adult, from Lima, is also light colored, and as described in no. 21147, except that left side of head has a white spot rather than bar; posterior eighth of each upper lip white; white frontonasal spot present, 11 x 11 mm.; antipalmar faces of forefeet spotted with brown color of upper parts; color of underparts extending distally on hind legs along medial side of foot to point halfway between heel and tip of inner toe. No. 13257 from Huarochirí in color and color pattern closely resembles no. 21147. It differs from no. 21147 in slightly lighter color of upper parts, entirely white underparts, less extension of color of underparts onto forefeet, few white hairs instead of white band in front of each ear; color of underparts more restricted. In each of the four specimens, the least width of the underparts, expressed as a percentage of the upper parts, is as follows: no. 13257, 11 per cent; no. 21147, 29 per cent; no. 565, 31 per cent; no. 8.1.10.1., nineteen per cent. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on no. 8.1.10.1.): See measurements and plates 27-29. As described in _Mustela frenata macrura_ except that: Weight 4.1 grams; basilar length, 42.5; zygomatic breadth more than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth less than postpalatal length; tympanic bullae shorter than rostrum. Female (based on no. 21147): See measurements and plates 39 and 40. As described in _Mustela frenata macrura_ except that: Weight (no. 21147, subadult), 1.5 grams; basilar length, 35.2; least width of palate less than outside length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as combined width of five upper incisors; no. 565 answers to the same description but differs from no. 21147 in greater basilar length and larger tympanic bullae which are slightly more projected, at their anterior margins, from the braincase. To judge from the skull of the female from Macate and the skull of the male from Lima, the skull and teeth of _agilis_ are smaller than in any other South American subspecies of _Mustela frenata_, except _M. f. boliviensis_. _Remarks._--Tschudi almost certainly used the name _Mustela agilis_ in a composite sense. His statement (see quoted matter below) about the marked variation in color of this species, as represented by the skins carried by the Indian women as purses, indicates that the forms here designated as _Mustela macrura_, _M. helleri_ and possibly others additional to the one here called _agilis_ were included by him under the name _Mustela agilis_. Taczanowski took account of _Mustela agilis_ when he described other species from Perú. Allen (1916:104) and Thomas (1920:224) were not convinced that _Mustela agilis_ and _Mustela macrura_ were distinct species or subspecies. Search on August 28, 1937, in the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle, at Neuchatel, Switzerland, by Mr. Théodore Delachaux, assistant there, and the writer, revealed no trace of weasels from Tschudi's collection, although some other specimens of mammals that he figured in the "Fauna Peruana" are preserved in that Museum. Not only were the collections of specimens examined but the new catalogue and old catalogue of mammals were vainly searched for mention of weasels deposited by Tschudi. Later, at the British Museum of Natural History, on page 105 of a personal notebook, of the late Mr. Oldfield Thomas, record was found of his fruitless search for the same specimens of _Mustela_ in May, 1902, at Neuchatel. Although Tschudi certainly used the name _Mustela agilis_ in a composite sense, as subspecies are at present understood, his description most nearly applies to the light-colored animals from western Perú--the lightest colored of any South American weasels seen. They are of approximately the same color as North American subspecies inhabiting semiarid regions, for example _Mustela frenata longicauda_ of the Great Plains. Another, but in my opinion less weighty, justification for applying Tschudi's name _agilis_ to these light-colored weasels of western Perú is that by one line of reasoning, Taczanowski in naming _macrura_ (_jelskii_ is a synonym of it) from farther eastward in Perú, and that Hall in naming _helleri_ from still farther eastward, and _boliviensis_ to the southeastward, geographically restricted the application of the name _agilis_. Hall's action did this because he recognized geographic variation and employed the subspecies concept. Taczanowski, however, proposed his name _macrura_ for a kind of animal which he indicated was specifically (as opposed to subspecifically) distinct from _agilis_ and his account (1881:649) of _jelskii_ indicates that he thought _Mustela agilis_ Tschudi might occur in the same place as the animals which he named as new kinds. Thus, we can not credit Taczanowski with _intent_ to restrict the name _agilis_ geographically, even though later authors may choose to rule that his naming of _macrura_ in effect did so restrict the application of _Mustela agilis_ Tschudi. The equivalents in millimeters given by Allen (1916:104) for Tschudi's measurements of 9 to 10 inches entire length, and tails of 4 inches to 4 inches and 4 lines, apparently are based on the London scale in use today. If Tschudi employed the Rhine scale also of eight lines to the inch, but one which has the foot longer by an amount of 20 millimeters, or the Leipzig scale in which the foot is 22 millimeters shorter than the London foot, the measurements recorded by Tschudi differ in one direction or the other from those computed by Allen. However, knowledge of which scale Tschudi employed would not help much, if any, in more precise application of the name _agilis_ because he does not indicate whether his measurements are of male or female animals; animals of the two sexes of the same subspecies differ more in external measurements than animals of the same sex of different subspecies of Peruvian weasels. Specimen no. 565, in the Polish Museum of Natural History, without definite locality, is provisionally referred to this subspecies. The specimen is intermediate in several respects between the female from Macate and the one of _macrura_ from Cutervo. Tschudi (1844:111-112) has given the following account: "_Lebensweise und geographische Verbreitung_. Das peruanische Wiesel lebt auf den kalten, öden Hochebenen der Cordillera an sonnigen Steinhaufen und Felsen gewöhnlich in Gesellschaft von 8-12 Stücken. Diese Thierchen sind so ausserordentlich behende und scheu, dass bei dem leisesten Geräusche die ganze Schaar mit Blitzesschnelle verschwindet. Es ist uns auch nie gelungen, eines derselben zu erlegen. Die Indianer aber verstehen es, dieselben lebendig einzufangen und zu zähmen. Ein sehr zahmes sahen wir bei einer uns befreundeten Dame in Tarma; gegen alle Fremden biss es mit Wuth und liess sich nicht anfassen, während es sich von seiner Herrin Alles gefallen liess; sie öffnete ihm den Mund und steckte ihm den Finger hinein, ohne dass es eine böse Miene dazu machte, während es bei der geringsten Bewegung, die wir machten, es zu ergreifen, grimmig auf uns lossprang. Wenn es eingeschüchtert wurde, versteckte es sich in den Busen seiner Gebieterin und kroch ihr bald nachher zum Aermel heraus. An den Wänden und Meublen kletterte es mit grosser Behendigkeit und schlüpfte durch so kleine Ritzen und Löcher, dass wir fast an der Möglichkeit dieses Hindurchdringens gezweifelt haben würden, wenn wir es nicht selbst mit angesehen hätten. Wenn es unartig war, wurde es mit einer Schnur an seinem kleinen Halsbande festgebunden; dadurch vermehrte sich sein Zorn, so dass es zuweilen gegen die Dame auffuhr. Mehrmals verschwand es während 8-10 Tagen und kam dann plötzlich wieder zum Vorschein. Seine Nahrung bestand in Gemüse und Fleisch, besonders aber liebte es Zuckerbrod in Milch aufgeweicht; einmal machte es sich an einen Kanarienvogel, den es auch tödtete. Es erhielt seine Strafe und verschwand dann für immer. Die Indianer sollen dieses Wiesel zum Fange der Viscacha abrichten (davon weiter unten). Sie nennen es Comadreja, auch Ardilla. ([footnote] Ardilla ist spanisch und heisst Eichhörnchen. Mit diesem Namen werden sehr verschiedene Thiere bezeichnet; ausser dem Sc. variabilis und der Galictis agilis auch noch mehrere Nager und einige Didelphysarten.) Die Indianerinnen verfertigen sich aus dem kleinen Felle Geldbeutel. Des Sonntags trifft man unter den vielen tausend Punaindianerinnen die nach den grossen Dörfern der Sierra kommen, um ihre Einkäufe zu machen, kaum ein halbes Dutzend, die nicht solche Börsen mit sich führten, und dann kann man auch die verschiedensten Farbennuancen, die bei dieser Species vorkommen, beobachten." None of the three skulls referred to this subspecies shows infestation of the frontal sinuses by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 4. =Perú=: Macate, 1 (Field Mus. Nat. Hist.); Huarochirí, 1 (Mus. Comp. Zool.); Lima, 1 (British Mus. Nat. Hist.); no locality more definite than Perú, 1 (Mus. Polonais d'Hist. Nat.). =Mustela frenata macrura= Taczanowski Long-tailed Weasel Plates 1, 27, 28, 29, 30, 37, 38, 39 and 40 _Mustela macrura_ Taczanowski, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1874:311, pl. 48, May 19, 1874; _ibid_., 1881:647, May 17, 1881; _ibid_., 835, November 15, 1881; Lönnberg, Arkiv för Zool., 8 (no. 1):21, 1913 (?); Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:143, July 10, 1914; Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:101, April 28, 1916; Lönnberg, Arkiv för Zool., 14 (no. 4):11, 1921. _Putorius (Gale) braziliensis frenatus_, Coues, Fur-bearing animals, p. 142, 1877. _Mustela jelskii_ Taczanowski, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1881:647, May 17, 1881. _Mustela affinis_, Lönnberg, Arkiv för Zool., 8 (no. 1):21, July 12, 1913. _Mustela aureoventris_, Thomas, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 58:224, 1920. _Mustela frenata macrura_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:110, November 20, 1936; Hall, Physis, 16:176, 1939. _Type._--Male, adult, mounted skin, with skull separate; no. 561, Mus. Polonais d'Hist. Nat. (Warsaw, Poland); Lake Junín, central Perú; 1873; obtained by M. Jelski. The skull (plates 27-29, 30), mounted with the skin but removed by me for study, lacks the right jugal, the basisphenoid, the basioccipital and parts of each exoccipital bearing the exoccipital condyles. The right tympanic bulla, although detached from the skull, is preserved separately. The teeth all are present and entire. The skin is fairly-well mounted, in a good state of preservation, and shows no fading due to exposure to light. _Range._--Altitudinally, 3200 (Guainche) to at least 12000 feet (Pichincha); Upper Subtropical and Temperate life-zones of central Perú and Ecuador north from the states of Apurimac and Cuzco, Perú, to San Antonio, northern Ecuador. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela africana stolzmanni_ by absence of median, longitudinal, abdominal stripe of same color as upper parts; presence of p2 and two roots rather than one root on P2; from _Mustela frenata helleri_, _M. f. affinis_ and _M. f. aureoventris_ by lighter color of upper parts which are Chocolate tone 3, pl. 343, Oberthür and Dauthenay, whereas, with reference to the same color standard, the colors are: in _helleri_, Carbon Brown, tone 3, pl. 342; in _affinis_, Reddish Black, tone 2, pl. 344; in _aureoventris_, Reddish Black, tone 4, pl. 344; from _M. f. agilis_ by darker color (Chocolate, tone 3 rather than 2, pl. 343, Oberthür and Dauthenay) of upper parts, length of upper tooth-rows, in females, more than 13, inside length of P4 more than 4.6; from _M. f. boliviensis_ by lighter color of upper parts which are as above rather than tone 4 of Carbon Brown, pl. 342 of Oberthür and Dauthenay, and larger size (in males, hind foot more than 45 and m1 more than 5.6). _Description._--_Size._--Male (measurements as recorded by Taczanowski in the original description, for two specimens, type and topotype, with correction of the length of tail of his "female" [= male]): Total length, 420, 415; length of tail, 150, 145; length of hind foot, 51, 51. An adult from Yana Mayo, Río Tarma, was measured by Hendee as 394, 134. Hind foot relaxed measures, 47. Tail 55 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot more than basal length. Female (based on measurements given by Taczanowski (1881:647) of no. 564): Total length, 323; length of tail, 120; length of hind foot, 37. Tail 59 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot approximately equal to basal length. Differences in external measurements of the two sexes are: Total length, 87; length of tail, 23; length of hind foot, 13. _Externals._--Longest facial vibrissae extending beyond ear; carpal vibrissae color of either upper parts or underparts; hairiness of foot-soles as shown in figure 20. _Color._--(Based on specimens from Cutervo and south thereof). Rarely few white hairs between eyes and in front of ears; top of head posteriorly to slightly behind eyes, near (_n_) Chestnut-Brown (Ridgway) and Carbon Brown, tone 2 or darker (pl. 342, Oberthür and Dauthenay); posterior half of upper lip rarely white; dark spots at angles of mouth absent; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts near (_l_) Russet (Ridgway) and Chocolate, tone 3 (pl. 343, Ober. and Dauth.); underparts white or whitish on medial sides of forelegs, otherwise cream color with tinge of Ochraceous-Buff; color of underparts extended distally on posterior sides of forelegs to just below elbow (in type specimen) or onto forefeet (in specimen from Yana Mayo) and on medial sides of hind legs to points between knees and ankles. Least width of color of underparts averages (in six skins) 17 (14-21) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail longer than hind foot and averaging 36 (32-49) per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on type specimen and no. 562): See measurements and plates 27-30; weight, not known; basilar length, 43.2 (40.8 and 45.5); zygomatic breadth more or less than distance between condylar foramen and M1 and more than that between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; mastoid breadth more or less than postpalatal length; postorbital breadth more than length of upper premolars and greater than width of basioccipital, measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; interorbital breadth more than distance between foramen opticum and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; breadth of rostrum less than length of tympanic bulla; least width of palate more than inside length of P4; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 4 (including I3) upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla not more than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than rostrum; anterior margin of masseteric fossa below or behind m2. Female (based on no. 564, from Cutervo, Perú, type specimen of _Mustela jelskii_ Taczanowski): See measurements and plates 37-40; weight, not known; basilar length, 38±; zygomatic breadth less than distance between condylar foramen and Ml and not greater than that between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; postorbital breadth more than alveolar length of upper premolars and (probably) more than width of basioccipital measured from medial margin of one foramen lacerum posterior to its opposite; least width of palate more than inside length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of at least 5-1/2 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla more than length of lower molar and premolar tooth-row and longer or shorter than rostrum. As compared with that of _helleri_, the skull of the male of _macrura_ from Junín southward has a lesser mastoid breadth, notably smaller teeth, and a flatter skull which averages lighter throughout. The skulls of females available indicate that the skull and teeth are larger than in _agilis_. _Remarks._--Seven years after Taczanowski named this subspecies, he applied the name _jelskii_ to a female taken farther north than the original examples of _macrura_. As indicated in synonymy, various other names have been applied to animals included by the present author in this subspecies. _Mustela frenata macrura_ intergrades with _M. f. affinis_ as shown by practically all the referred specimens from north of Junín. As one proceeds northward the color of the weasels becomes progressively darker and the teeth become larger until the conditions found in _affinis_ are met with near the northern border of Ecuador. From the material available it appears that the light-colored upper parts found in _macrura_ characterize weasels of, at least, the Temperate Zone, from Marcapata, Perú, to near Quito, Ecuador. West of the range of _macrura_ there exists the still lighter-colored subspecies, _M. f. agilis_. Immediately adjacent on the north, east, and south, darker-colored weasels occur. So far as color is concerned, the geographic range of the subspecies _M. f. macrura_ is not difficult to define. However, the small size of the teeth characterizes only that part of this light-colored subspecies from Junín southward including the subspecies _boliviensis_ at the southern extremity of the range of the species. From Cutervo northward the light-colored weasels of the Temperate Zone have teeth similar in size to those of the darker, more northern _affinis_. To designate the slightly larger-toothed, light-colored animals from Ecuador as a subspecies distinct from _affinis_ and _macrura_ is one solution but at present it seems best to refer all of these light-colored animals to _macrura_. The type specimen and topotype no. 562 differ more in the amount of inflation of the tympanic bullae than adult males of comparable ages from a given locality usually do. In other respects, the differences between the two skulls are not greater than those ordinarily found in specimens from the same locality. No. 562 has the tympanic bullae greatly, relative to the other South American weasels, inflated posteriorly. Otherwise, the bullae agree with those of the type specimen. Specimens from southwestern Ecuador, average large, and include the largest specimens of the species _Mustela frenata_ seen from South America. A subadult male, no. 61406, in the American Museum of Natural History, is the largest. Its external measurements are 482, 191, 56. The basilar length of the skull is 48.2 and the zygomatic breadth is 30.3. Although not so large as this specimen, the corresponding measurements of specimens from Alamor, El Chiral, and even from as far away as Sigsig also are distinctly large. The skull of the female from Ollantaytambo and that of the male from Marcapata have teeth equally as small as do the specimens from Lake Junín. The skin alone, no. 194328, from Ollantaytambo has the color of the underparts extended over the entire upper sides of the forefeet. The male from Marcapata has less of this color on the forefeet and is in this respect intermediate between the specimens from Lake Junín and the one from Ollantaytambo. In size of teeth the female, type specimen of _M. jelskii_, from Cutervo, shows an approach to the larger-toothed weasels of the northern part of the range of _macrura_. The specimens in the Riksmuseum from the vicinity of Quito, Ecuador, have been rather fully described by Lönnberg (1921:11-17) and need little comment here, except to say that they show, as he suggested, that the weasel of the Temperate Zone of Ecuador is an intermediate link between _M. f. macrura_ and _M. f. affinis_. The adult female and juvenal male labeled as from Ambato have little left of the skulls except some of the teeth and the assignment of the specimens to the subspecies _macrura_ is made mainly on geographic grounds. These two specimens probably are part of the shipment of birds and mammals of which Chapman (1926:703) speaks as follows: "A small collection of native-made skins purchased by the American Museum from a commission merchant in New York City as from 'Ambato' proved to be from the eastern slope of the Andes." Another skin in the same Museum, labeled by a native collector as from "Baeza arriba" [= above Baeza] is so dark colored and has the color of the underparts so much restricted, as to suggest that it belongs to the race _aureoventris_. Possibly, therefore, it was taken not at Baeza, Ecuador, which I find to the eastward of Quito at 77° 55' W and O° 25' S, but at some place of the same name on the Pacific Slope, unless the locality has been altogether wrongly recorded on the label. If the specimen was taken near the Baeza above referred to, then it gives evidence of an unnamed race of _Mustela_ on the eastern slope of the Andes, characterized by its dark color. Unfortunately the specimen is young and its skull therefore offers insufficient basis for the judging of its subspecific relationships. Other specimens, in the British Museum of Natural History, recorded as taken "near Quito" and here tentatively listed under _macrura_, mostly, include specimens so dark colored as to lead me to think they came from country, lower than Quito, adjacent to the range of _aureoventris_. Nematodes taken from the right frontal sinus of no. 562 from Junín proved to belong to the superfamily Oxyuriodea according to Professor W. B. Herms and Mr. O. L. Williams, who have independently identified them. Because these worms had been dried fifty-five years in the mounted specimen and were later boiled in cleaning the skull, a more accurate determination was impossible and whether or not they pertain to the same species found in North American weasels cannot be said. Of 18 adult skulls examined for this type of infestation, 13 were found affected as judged by the evident malformation of the frontal region. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 74, arranged by localities from north to south and unless otherwise indicated in the American Museum of Natural History. =Ecuador=: Ibarra, 6600 ft., and 7500 ft., 2[7]; San Antonio, 8000-8500 ft., 5 mi. N Quito, 4 (2[7], 2[78]); Nono, 10000 ft., 1; Mindo, 1[78]; Zambiza, 8000-8100 ft., NE Quito, 4 (2[78], 2[95]); Carapungo, 8500 ft, NE Quito, 1[78]; Panecillo, 10000 ft., near Quito, 2[78]; Guapulo, 8800 ft., 3 mi. E of Quito, 1[78]; Pichincha, 10500 ft., and 12000 ft., 2 (1[78], 1[95]); San Ignacio, 11500 ft., Pichincha, 1; Santa Rosa, 9600 ft., Río Pita, 2; near Santa Rosa, 9000 ft., 1; Río San Rafel, 9000 ft., 1; N side Quito, 9000 ft., 1[78]; Quito, 1[4]; near Quito, 5[7]; Nára Papallacta, 11000 ft., 1[78]; below Papallacta, 9000 ft., 1[78]; Chillo Valley, 1[78]; "Hacienda Hda," 10000 ft., Pintag, Valencia, 1; Baeza arriba, 1; Ambato, 2; San Francisco, 8000 ft., E of Ambato, 1; Chunchí, Pagma Forest, 6400 ft., 1[1]; Canar, 2600 M., 1[7]; Malletura, 7600 ft., 1; Contrayerbas, 11000 ft., 1; Sisig, 8500 ft., 3[7]; El Chiral, 1; Almor, 1; Guainche, 3200 ft., 1; no locality more definite than Ecuador, 4[95]; "Received from Quito," 1[7]; Quisaya, 6000 ft. (locality not found), 1[7]; La Carolina (locality not found), 1[78]. =Perú=: La Lejía, 1; Huancabamba, 4 (2[75]); Cutervo, 9000 ft., 1[73]; Condechacha, 7000 ft., Río Utcubamba, 1[7]; San Pedro, 8600-9400 ft., S of Chachapoyas, 1; Celendín, 1[7]; Junín, 2[73]; Yana Mayo, Río Tarma, 1[7]; Ollantaytambo, 9000 ft., 3 (1[7], 2[91]); Ocabamba, 1[7]; Anta Cuzco, 3400 and 3500 M., 2[4]; Marcapata, 1[91]. =Mustela frenata boliviensis= Hall Long-tailed Weasel Plates 28, 29 and 30 _Mustela frenata boliviensis_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 51:67, March 18, 1938. _Mustela frenata macrura_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:110, November 20, 1936; Hall, Physis, 16:176, 1939 (part). _Type._--Male, adult, skull and skin; no. 72587, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.; Nequejahuira, 8000 feet, Bolivia; May 19, 1926; obtained by G. H. H. Tate; original no. 4135 (see plates 28-30). _Range._--As now known 8000 to 9500 feet in the Andes from Limbaní, Perú, south to Nequejahuira, Bolivia; upper Subtropical and Temperate life-zones. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela africana stolzmanni_ by absence of median, longitudinal, abdominal stripe of same color as upper parts; presence of p2 and two roots rather than one root on P2; from _Mustela frenata macrura_ by darker color of upper parts (tone 4 or darker of Carbon Brown, pl. 342 rather than tone 3 of Chocolate, pl. 343, Oberthür and Dauthenay) and lesser size (in males hind foot less than 45 and m1 less than 5.6); from _Mustela frenata agilis_ by darker color of upper parts (as given above rather than tone 2 of Chocolate, pl. 343, of Oberthür and Dauthenay). _Description._--_Size._--Male: The type and two young specimens from Limbaní, Perú, measure respectively, as follows: Total length, 383, 368, 304; length of tail, 140, 132, 115; length of hind foot, 43, 44, 41. Tail 55 per cent as long as head and body. Length of hind foot approximately equal to basal length. Female: Unknown. _Externals._--As described in _Mustela frenata macrura_. _Color._--Top of head blackish posteriorly to behind ears; upper lips same color as upper parts of head; dark area at angle of mouth not separated from upper parts as a distinct spot; tip of tail black; remainder of upper parts near (n) Mars Brown of Ridgway and tone 4 or darker of Carbon Brown (pl. 342, Oberthür and Dauthenay); underparts Cream-Colored with strong wash of Ochraceous-Buff; whitish on insides of forelegs to just below elbow; color of underparts extended distally on forelegs over ankles onto antipalmar faces of inner toes, and on hind legs to knees. Least width of color of underparts averages 15 (11-19) per cent of greatest width of color of upper parts. Black tip of tail in type longer than hind foot and amounting to 36 per cent of length of tail-vertebrae. _Skull and teeth._--Male (based on the type): See measurements and plates 28-30. As described in _Mustela frenata macrura_ except that: Weight, 2.8 grams; basilar length, 41.6; zygomatic breadth less than distance between anterior palatine foramen and anterior margin of tympanic bulla; anterior margin of tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 5 upper incisors. Female: Skull unknown. _Remarks._--Apparently the first specimens of this race to find their way into a zoölogical collection were the two young males taken on February 17, 1904, at Limbaní, by Geo. Ockenden (sic). _M. f. boliviensis_ is smaller than any other South American weasel except possibly _agilis_. Better material of the two races probably will show even _agilis_ to be larger. Early in my study of _Mustela_ after examination of the one young specimen, from Limbaní, in the United States National Museum, an account of this race was drawn up, but the account was discarded for want of satisfactory material and the animal was referred to _macrura_. Then, in 1937, when the two other specimens were studied, the race was formally characterized as different from previously recognized kinds. The collector has noted on the labels of the two young from Limbaní that they were shot in the afternoon when running together beneath bushes. The frontal sinuses of the type are malformed as a result of infestation by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 3, as follows: =Perú=: Carabaya, Limbaní, 2 (one in U. S. Nat. Mus. and one in Berlin Zool. Mus.). =Bolivia=: Nequejahuira, 1 Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. =Mustela frenata (?) gracilis= (Brown) Plates 39 and 40 _Putorius gracilis_ Brown, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 9(pt. 4):182, pl. 17, 1908. _Mustela gracilis_, Hay, Iowa Geol. Surv. Bull., 23:32, 1914; Hay, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 322A:252, October 15, 1924; Hay, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 390(vol. 2):528, 1930. _Mustela frenata gracilis_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:112, November 20, 1936. _Type._--Adult skull without lower jaws, probably of a female, no. 12431, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.; from Conard Fissure, four miles west of Willcockson, Newton County, Arkansas; obtained sometime in the period 1903 to 1905 inclusive. (See plates 39 and 40.) _Range._--Known only from the Pleistocene deposit in Conard Fissure, at the type locality in northern Arkansas. _Description._--Skull. Probably female (based on the type): See measurements and plates 39 and 40; weight unknown; basilar length, 38.1; least width of palate less than greatest length of P4; tympanic bulla as far posterior to foramen ovale as width of 3 to 5 upper incisors; height of tympanic bulla less than distance from its anterior margin to foramen ovale; length of tympanic bulla less than length of rostrum. _Comparison and remarks._--The type specimen was the only individual referred by Brown (1908) to this species. The remaining material of weasels from this deposit was referred by Brown to his _Putorius cicognanii angustidens_. Examination of the original materials convinces the writer, too, that the specimens, except no. 12431, _are_ of the species _erminea_ [= _cicognanii_ of Brown]. No. 12431 itself may possibly be _erminea_ but is far more probably of the species _frenata_. The uncertainty is due to the fact that an occasional skull alone of a subadult male _erminea_ is extremely difficult certainly to distinguish from a skull alone of an adult female _frenata_. This is true among Recent specimens in the northern Mississippi Valley today; more exactly in Iowa and southern Minnesota the females of _frenata_, oftentimes intergrades between the subspecies _Mustela frenata longicauda_, _M. f. noveboracensis_ and _M. f. primulina_, by only the skulls are next to indistinguishable from certain, unusually slender skulls of male _erminea_. At other places where the ranges of the two species meet, this difficulty is not so often encountered. Also, the type of _gracilis_ has the skull broken in such a way that the postglenoid length in relation to the length of the skull as a whole could not be accurately determined in this particular skull. The type specimen of _gracilis_ surely is an adult and because of its small size is thought to be a female. Of known long-tailed weasels of the species _frenata_, _gracilis_ is structurally nearest to _M. f. primulina_ which occurs in the same region today and to _M. f. noveboracensis_, the long-tailed weasel of the eastern United States. _M. gracilis_ differs from _noveboracensis_ and agrees with _primulina_ in possessing well-marked temporal ridges which fuse to form a low sagittal crest, in having the mastoid processes projecting farther, laterally, beyond the braincase, in having the anterior ends of the tympanic bullae produced below the squamosal rather than on the same plane with the squamosal, and in having the bullae more inflated anteromedially. _M. gracilis_ differs from both _noveboracensis_ (97 [M] and 56 [F] with skulls of comparable age) and _primulina_ (64 [M] and 24 [F] with skulls of comparable age) in that the zygomatic breadth amounts to less than 58 per cent of the basilar length. Another difference from any one of the skulls of females of _primulina_ is the longer rostrum, which, when measured from the posterior base of the postorbital process of the frontal to the anterior end of the nasal on the same side, amounts to more than 35 per cent of the basilar length. As pointed out by Brown (1908:182) this specimen represents the extreme of slender skull among known kinds of American weasels. Selected measurements of no. 12431, the type specimen of _Mustela gracilis_, are as follows: Basilar length of Hensel, 38.1 mm.; length of upper tooth-rows, 14.3 to 14.4; breadth of rostrum, 11.0; interorbital breadth, 8.5; orbitonasal length, 13.6; mastoid breadth, 18.2; length of tympanic bulla, 13.0; breadth of tympanic bulla, 6.3; depth of tympanic bulla, 3.25; outside length of P4, 4.5; inside length of P4, 4.7; breadth of M1, 3.4; length of inner moiety of M1, 1.8; depth of skull at anterior margin of basioccipital, 12.2; depth of skull at posterior borders of last upper molars, 11.3; distance from foramen ovale to tympanic bulla, 3.6 mm. =MUSTELA AFRICANA= Desmarest Tropical Weasel (Synonymy under subspecies) _Type._--_Mustela africana_ Desmarest, Nouv. Dict. d'Hist. Nat., vol. 19, p. 376. 1818. _Range._--Known from the headwaters of the Amazon in eastern Perú and from near the mouth of the same river, on its southern side in Brazil, all within the Tropical Life-zone. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela frenata_, the only geographically adjacent species of the genus, by: presence of thenar pad on forefoot; presence of a longitudinal, median, abdominal stripe of same color as upper parts; upper lips being broadly edged, entirely round, with color of underparts; failure of longest facial vibrissae to reach posterior margin of ear; absence of p2; relative flatness (see pl. 29, fig. i and pl. 39, fig. _h_) of tympanic bullae. _Characters of the species._--Size large (total length of adults approximately 500 mm.); foot-soles naked; thenar pad present on forefoot; length of claws, measured on concave sides, less than one and one-fourth times depth of claws measured at bases; longest facial vibrissae not reaching posterior margin of ear; tail relatively long haired; tail at all ages terminating in point as is characteristic of only juveniles and very young of _Mustela frenata_ and _M. erminea_; tip of tail, and muzzle, only slightly darker than remainder of upper parts; upper lips broadly edged with color of underparts; pelage coarse, harsh and sparse; longitudinal, median, abdominal stripe of same color as upper parts present; skull broad and deep; braincase large, rounded, and much inflated anteriorly; palatal region wide; tympanic bullae less inflated than in any other American species of the subgenus; angle of lower jaw reduced; dental formula 3 1 2-3 1 -, -, ---, -; teeth heavy; medial lobe of M1 but slightly larger than 3 1 2 2 lateral lobe. See plates 28, 29, 30, 39 and cranial measurements. _Geographic variation._--The reddish versus chocolate color of the upper parts constitutes the only variation of a geographic nature so far detected. _Remarks._--One of the most noteworthy of the several unique characters of this large, tropical weasel is the longitudinal, median, abdominal band. The species exhibits the minimum degree of development of certain features that become progressively less apparent as one proceeds southward from Central America. The relative uniformity of the coloration of the upper parts (reduction in intensity of black color on the muzzle and tip of the tail) and the reduction of the tympanic bullae are two cases in point. Viewed dorsally the general outline of the skull is most nearly matched by that of the skull of _Mustela frenata meridana_ from Venezuela or that of _M. f. helleri_ from Perú. However, the resemblance is not close. The tympanic bullae, although unique among American weasels, are more like those of _M. f. meridana_ from Venezuela than like those of any other kind. The great postorbital width (relatively less in _M. africana_ than in several South American subspecies of _Mustela frenata_) and small angular process of the mandible are characters, in varying degrees, also common to all South American weasels. Structurally _M. africana_ clearly is more nearly like other subspecies of _M. frenata_ from South America than it is like any species or subspecies from North America. _Mustela africana_ is the most primitive of the American weasels. The distinctive cranial and dental characters, excepting the reduction in number of premolars, are of a primitive nature. For example, the relatively wide postorbital region, the large braincase that is inflated anteriorly, and the flattened, tympanic bullae, are points of resemblance to the holarctic _Mustela erminea_, which species is regarded as nearest the original stem form; also the mentioned characters correspond to ontogenetic stages passed through by other weasels. Mostly on these accounts, one is led to look upon _M. africana_ as a migrant from North America. It may have become isolated from its original stock, by a water barrier in the Central American region, for a length of time sufficient to permit of a degree of differentiation to develop between it and the North American weasels which prevented crossbreeding with the _frenata_ stock when that stock, at a later time, reached South America. This assumption is suggested only by evidence from the Recent specimens. No remains of true weasels (subgenus _Mustela_) have been recorded from deposits in South America older than the Recent period. The alternate possibility, that _M. africana_ intergrades with some race of _M. frenata_ in western or northern South America, has been considered and regarded as highly improbable. Cabrera (1940:15) has made the distinctive structural characters of _Mustela africana_ basis of the generic name _Grammogale_ to include the one species _africana_. I am inclined to accord _Grammogale_ only subgeneric rank. It is possibly significant that _Mustela africana_ is intermediate in several respects between _Lyncodon_ and typical _Mustela_. The median, longitudinal, abdominal band of the same color as the upper parts in _M. africana_ and the relative uniformity of the coloration of its upper parts might be considered as an intermediate stage between the dark, bicolored (black muzzle and tail tip and brown body) upper parts and light-colored underparts of the North American weasels on the one hand and the light, unicolored upper parts and dark-colored underparts of the Patagonian weasel (_Lyncodon_) on the other hand. The number of premolars, 2-3 ---, is also intermediate between the numbers 2 3 2 - and - of the North American _Mustela_ and the Patagonian 3 2 _Lyncodon_, respectively. The American _Mustela_ and the Patagonian _Lyncodon_, respectively. The more medially, as opposed to anteriorly, directed medial cusp of P4 (characteristic of approximately half of the specimens examined), and the structure of the skull in general of _M. africana_ also seem to be morphologically intermediate between those parts of _Mustela_ and _Lyncodon_. On the chance that _Lyncodon_ is closely enough related to _Mustela_, to be included in a group with _Mustela_ rather than in a group with _Grisonella_, it is worth noting that _Lyncodon lujanensis_ Ameghino (1889:324, 325), from the villa of Lujan and at the city of Córdoba, at each place in the Pampean [= Pleistocene] formation of Argentine (see also Cabrera, 1928:263) is the first and only fossil form of this group recorded from the whole of South America. Actually, however, _Lyncodon_ seems to me to be as nearly related to _Grisonella_, if not more so, than to _Mustela_. If _Lyncodon_ is more closely related to _Grisonella_ and _Grison_ than to _Mustela_, then the above remarked intermediacy in characters of _M. africana_ has more of interest as a tendency to parallelism than it has of phylogenetic import. Appraisal of phylogenetic relationships would require appraisal of the ancestral stem forms of the _Grison_ stock and the _Mustela_ stock. None of either is known from deposits of the Pliocene, the period of time immediately preceding the Pleistocene. None of the skulls of _Mustela africana_ seen or figured has the nasomaxillary sutures entirely obliterated and the specimens would, judged on this character alone and by analogy with North American species, be regarded as young and subadult. However, the sutures close at what seems to be a later age than in _M. frenata_ and _M. erminea_. The condition of the mammae in the type specimen of _M. stolzmanni_ and in the specimen from Moyobamba, indicate that they have borne young. North American weasels old enough to bear young lack visible traces of the nasomaxillary sutures. I have examined no skulls of _africana_ with greatly worn teeth and hence cannot say if the sutures are obliterated in advanced age. If available data be correct, this species is unique within the genus in that the two sexes are of approximately the same actual size and of the same relative proportions in the body and in the skull. There was no difference between individuals said to be of different sexes from Pará, described and figured by Goeldi (1904:61-62, pls. 1, 2). The undoubted female, type specimen of _Mustela africana stolzmanni_, is as large as the undoubted male, no. 37475, of the same species, but of a different subspecies, from Pará, Brazil. All the specimens of _M. a. africana_ that I have handled are labeled male and those of _M. a. stolzmanni_ female. More material may show that the female is smaller than the male, as is the case in all near relatives of _M. africana_. Little has been recorded concerning the habits of this species. Tate (1931:254) states that a live individual which he saw in a cage at Pará had been captured "swimming in the salt water of the estuary about half a mile away from the shore." On the label of the specimen from Moyobamba, there appears: "caught in Willow tree." _Subspecies examined._--All described forms, of which there are two. =Mustela africana africana= Desmarest Tropical Weasel Plates 28, 29, 30 and 41 _Mustela africana_ Desmarest, Nouv. Diction. d'Hist. Nat., 19:376, 1818; Cabrera, Bol. Real Soc. Españ. de Hist. Nat., 13:429, November, 1913; Cabrera, Bol. Real Soc. Españ. de Hist. Nat., 14:175, pl. 1, March, 1914. _Putorius (Mustela) brasiliensis paraensis_, Goeldi, Zool. Jahrb. abt. f. systematik, geogr. u., Biol., 10:556, pl. 21, September 15, 1897, type from Pará, Brazil, near Pará, Ward of Marco da Legoa, Brazil; Goeldi, Bol. do Mus. Paraense, 3:195 [translation of orig. descr.], August, 1901. _Putorius paraensis_, Goeldi, Bol. do Museu Goeldi, 4:61, pls. 1, 2, 1904. _Mustela affinis paraensis_, Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:143, July 10, 1914. _Mustela paraensis_, Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:105, April 28, 1916; Tate, Journ. Mamm., 12:253, August 24, 1931. _Mustela stolzmanni paraensis_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:111, November 20, 1936; Hall, Physis, 16:167, pl. 1, figs. 1-4, 1939. _Type._--Male, adult or subadult, mounted; no. 848, Paris Museum; from the "Cabinet de Lisbonne 1808," originally from South America as determined from the characters of the animal; probably came from Brazil, and for the present assumed to be from Pará. On August 25, 1937, the skull was in the mounted skin and the specimen was in the position shown in the figure published by Cabrera (1914, pl. 1). Except for the loss of the distal part of the tail, and fading because of exposure to light, the specimen was in good condition. See also under remarks. _Range._--Known from the south side of the Amazon River, near its mouth at Pará and Cametá, Río Tocantins, in the Tropical Life-zone of Brazil. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela frenata_, the only other geographically adjacent species of the genus, in presence of median, longitudinal, abdominal stripe of same color as upper parts and naked foot-soles, in absence of p2 and in reduced size of tympanic bullae (see pls. 29 and 30) and from _Mustela africana stolzmanni_ by lighter color of upper parts which although near Chestnut-Brown are in adults 10' _l_ (darker in yg. M. C. Z., no. 30802), instead of 11' _n_ as in _M. a. stolzmanni_. _Description._--_Size._--This is a relatively large weasel. Goeldi (1897:559) gives the total length of the type specimen of his _P. b. paraensis_, a female, as 520 mm. (495 in the flesh) and, by computation from his figures, the length of the tail as 200 (205 in the flesh). These measurements probably include the hairs on the tip of the tail as probably also do the measurements given of two other specimens (see Goeldi, 1904:62). One of these specimens, a female, measured: Total length, 520; length of tail, 200. The other specimen, a male, measured: Total length, 510; length of tail, 200. The skin of no. 37475, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., a male, has the following measurements written on the attached label: Total length, 548; length of tail, 234; length of hind foot, 56. The hairs project 20 mm. beyond the tip of the last vertebra of the tail and probably are included in the measurements of total length and length of tail. Collectors' measurements of a young male from Cametá, and a subadult labeled as male, from Pará Murutucu, are respectively as follows: 500, 430; 210, 190; 50 and 54. _Externals._--Foot-soles naked, except for a few scattered hairs on ventral sides of interdigital membranes; length of claws, measured on concave sides, not more than one and one-fifth times depth of claws measured at bases; carpal vibrissae not extending beyond apical pad of first digit (not beyond hypothenar pad except in one young specimen); longest facial vibrissae not extending to posterior margin of ear; superior genal tuft not found, hairiness of foot-soles as shown in figure 22. _Color._--Upper parts near (10 l) Chestnut-Brown and relatively uniform since tip of tail and muzzle are only slightly darker than remainder; underparts with longitudinal stripe of same color as upper parts extending along median line of belly from throat or breast posteriorly to within 40 to 50 millimeters of anus. Underparts otherwise near (20" _a_) Olive-Ocher (lips and chin whiter in one young specimen). Color of underparts extends distally on median sides of forelegs to bare foot-soles and on median side of hind legs two-thirds of distance from knee to ankle. Upper lips broadly edged with whitish, which color passes posteriorly below and not touching eye to ventral margin of concha of ear. An inverted, basally broad, V-shaped extension passes upward 4 millimeters, just posterior to the eye. _Skull and teeth._--See measurements (plates 28-30). Male: (based on 3 adult and subadult topotypes and figures and descriptions published by Goeldi, 1897 and 1904.) Weight, 7.0 grams; basilar length, 45.8 (44.6-47.8); skull broad and deep; braincase large, rounded, and much inflated anteriorly; distance from postorbital process to anterior, nasal notch approximately equal to breadth across exoccipital condyles; palatal region wide; tympanic bullae less inflated than in any other species; mastoid bone, laterally, concave; length of upper tooth-rows in adults and subadults less than breadth of palate measured between two outer margins of fourth upper premolars; alveolar distance between C1 and P4 less than length of P4; teeth heavy; medial lobe of M1 only slightly larger than lateral lobe; deuterocone of P4 heavy and often inclined mesially; p2 absent (P2 present above on both sides in only one of seven specimens seen or described); lower jaw heavy; masseteric fossa not extending anteriorly to posterior fourth of talonid of m1; paraconid of m1 low and base of cleft between it and protoconid relatively low on tooth. Female: No skull examined but from figures published by Goeldi (1904, pl. 2), apparently as described in the male. _Remarks._--Desmarest in 1818 gave a remarkably good description of this animal which he named as a new species, _Mustela africana_, but mistakenly indicated that the single specimen known to him came originally from Africa. Until 1913 the name was applied, wrongly, to weasels of northern Africa or to those of the Azores Islands and St. Thomas Island. In that year Cabrera (1913:429) identified the species with the one later named _Putorius (Mustela) brasiliensis paraensis_ by Goeldi (1897:556, pl. 21) from Pará, Brazil. Despite Cabrera's clear identification in 1913, and his later mention of the correct application of the name _Mustela africana_, it was not correctly employed by other authors, including myself who even as late as 1936 (p. 111) instead used Goeldi's name. In 1937 Mr. Cabrera called my attention to his published account of _Mustela africana_ and so permitted me to examine the type specimen in the Paris Museum, whither I was bound when I received Mr. Cabrera's letter. My own examination of the specimen fully confirmed the conclusions published by Cabrera (1913:429). As a matter of historical interest, however, it is worth noting that Cabrera (1913) originally supposed the type specimen to have been taken as booty of war from Portugal by the French and that Cabrera later, at the request of P. Trouessart, pointed out (1914:176) that the specimen had been acquired in exchange ("a cambio") since according to Dr. Trouessart the Museum register showed that offer had been made to Portugal to return this and other specimens but that Portugal had replied that it had nothing to reclaim. Dr. P. Rode in August, 1937, at the Paris Museum, gave it to me as his opinion that the specimen had been an outright gift from the "Cabinet de Lisbonne" to E. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire on his trip to Portugal in 1808 when he was given also from the same cabinet several primates, all from Brazil. Of the labels attached to the pedestal on which the specimen is mounted, that of most ancient appearance is glued to the bottom of the stand and bears in a hand apparently written before Trouessart's entries on the same label, the information "Du Cabinet de Lisbonne 1808" and "J. H. S. 1809." The opened mouth of the mounted specimen permits one to determine that P2 is absent on each side above. The stuffed scrotal pouch and hair projecting downward about the preputial opening clearly show the animal to have been a male. The least faded portions of the mounted specimen, its sides, are of the same reddish color as characterizes adults from Pará and not of the darker chocolate color of specimens of _M. stolzmanni_ from Perú. The specimen is indistinguishable from topotypes of _P. paraensis_ of Goeldi and his name will have to fall as a synonym of _Mustela africana_ Desmarest. Goeldi gave an extended description, with figures of the skull, head, and entire animal, when he named _paraensis_. As his account shows, he was unaware that Taczanowski had described a similar weasel from the headwaters of the Amazon, or for that matter that any weasel excepting _Mustela affinis_ Gray, had been found in South America. Goeldi's later account of additional specimens (1904:61, pls. 1, 2) gives much useful information about the animal. Photographs of several specimens and photographs and detailed measurements of several skulls are presented by him. Pará, and Cametá, Brazil, places from which _Mustela africana africana_ is known, are nearly 2000 miles from the localities in eastern Perú and eastern Ecuador from which _M. a. stolzmanni_ is known, and no specimens, from intermediate localities, are available to show actual intergradation of the two. However, the similarity in structure of the two weasels is so great as to indicate close affinity. Furthermore, it is understood that environmental conditions at and between the two localities are similar. These considerations, in the light of our knowledge of actual intergradation of geographic races of weasels in other places, cause me to treat, with a feeling of assurance, _M. africana_ [= _P. paraensis_ Goeldi] and _M. stolzmanni_ Taczanowski as subspecies of a single species. M. Rodolpho Legueira Rodríguez writes me, under date of June 16, 1928, that the type specimen of _Putorius (Mustela) brasiliensis paraensis_ Goeldi is stuffed and preserved in a "vitrine" at the Museum Goeldi (Museum Paraense) De Historia Natural e Ethnographia, Pará, Brazil. The one young specimen seen, that from Cametá, is darker colored than any of the four older specimens examined. It is almost exactly the Chestnut Brown of Ridgway (1912) and therefore approaches closely in color the adult specimens of _M. a. stolzmanni_. This same tendency to greater richness of color in young than in adults is seen also in _Mustela frenata_. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 5, all from eastern Brazil, as follows: Pará, 2 (1[2], 1[7]); Pará Murutucu, 1[7]; Río Tocantins, Cametá, 1[75]; type specimen, 1[84]. =Mustela africana stolzmanni= Taczanowski Tropical Weasel Plates 39 and 40 _Mustela stolzmanni_ Taczanowski, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1881:835, November 15, 1881; Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 35:105, April 28, 1916. _Mustela stolzmanni stolzmanni_, Hall, Carnegie Instit. Washington Publ. 473:111, November 20, 1936; Hall, Physis, 16:167, pl. 1, figs. 5, 6, 1939. _Type._--Female, adult, mounted skin, with skull separate; no. 563, Mus. Polonais d'Hist. Nat. (Warsaw, Poland); Yurimaguas, Perú; 1880; obtained by J. Stolzmann. The skull (plate 40), mounted with the skin but removed by me for study, consists of the premaxillae, maxillae, two halves of the lower jaw and dentition. Of these parts, right m2, left coronoid process, right P4 and M1 and adjacent part of maxilla are lost. The skin is well mounted, in a good state of preservation and shows no fading due to exposure to light. Inguinal mammae are distinctly shown on the skin and prove that the specimen is a female. Except for a few scattered hairs on the lower throat, a spot six by eight millimeters on the medial side of the region of the olecranon of the left foreleg and another of similar size in the left axilla, the underparts are, excepting the ventral longitudinal, abdominal stripe, unmarked by color of the upper parts. _Range._--Known from the Tropical Life-zone of eastern Ecuador and Perú from Jatun Yacu south to Valle del Perené. See figure 29 on page 221. _Characters for ready recognition._--Differs from _Mustela frenata_, the only other geographically adjacent species of the genus, in presence of median, longitudinal, abdominal stripe of same color as upper parts and naked foot soles, in absence of p2 and in reduced size of tympanic bullae (see pls. 28, 29, 30, 39 and 40) and from _Mustela africana africana_ by darker color of upper parts which, although near Chestnut Brown, are 11' _n_ instead of 10' _l_ as in _M. a. africana_. _Description._--_Size._--Male: unknown. Female: Taczanowski (1881:836) gives, among others, the following measurements of the type specimen: Total length, 523, length of body, 260; length of tail without hair, 190 (with hair 224); length of hind foot, 54. Whether or not the measurements were taken from the animal when in the flesh I do not know. Allowing for shrinkage of hind feet and changes due to the posture of the now mounted specimen, I get from it essentially the same measurements. Collectors' measurements of a subadult from Moyobamba and a young female from Valle del Perené, are respectively, as follows: 469, 415; 184, 160; 57, 52. My own measurements of the dry hind feet on the skins are respectively, 48 and 49. _Externals._--As described in _M. a. africana_ except that the length of the concave sides of the claws are approximately one and one-fourth times the depth; thus the claws are relatively longer than in _M. a. africana_. _Color._--As described in _M. a. africana_ with the following noted exceptions: Upper parts near (11' _n_) Chestnut-Brown; area of lighter ventral coloration on the throat and sides of head less strongly tinged with yellow; pelage more dense, finer and softer than in _M. a. africana_. _Skull and teeth._--Male: Skull unknown. Female: See measurements and plate 39 and 40. As described in male of _Mustela africana africana_ except that: Weight, 4.7 grams. As contrasted with _M. a. africana_, the dentition of the lower jaw is lighter; the transverse diameter of m2 is 1.2 mm. in the type and also in the specimen from Moyobamba as against 1.5 to 1.7 in three male topotypes of _M. a. africana_. _Remarks._--After the Polish naturalist, Stolzmann, in the course of his explorations in Perú, obtained the single specimen which was made the type, no other naturalist, so far as known, visited the type locality until thirty-two years later when Wilfred H. Osgood and M. P. Anderson spent more than a month collecting at Yurimaguas (see Osgood, 1914:147), but secured no topotypes of this little-known weasel. C. O. Schunke took the second specimen in the Valle del Perené in April, 1921; L. Rutter on January 25, 1924, took the third specimen, and W. Clark-MacIntyre took the fourth specimen on the Jatun Yacu. This obscure place name is shown on the map (fig. 4, page 827) published by Brown (1941) and is the stream flowing from the west to the town of Napo. Napo is situated at approximately 1° 2' S and 77° 49' W. In the female from Moyobamba there are only 3 pairs of mammae. One pair is inguinal and two pairs are on the posterior part of the abdomen. Taczanowski (1881:836) relates that this species was taken in the forest to which it appears to be restricted since the inhabitants of the village did not know of the animal. He points out also that the previously known Peruvian species [_M. f. macrura_ and _M. f. agilis_] live in the treeless territory of eight to eleven thousand feet altitude whereas _M. stolzmanni_ was found in the humid forest of the great plain of the Maynas at an elevation of 500 feet or less above sea level. The frontal sinuses of the specimens seen reveal no malformation as a result of infestation by parasites. _Specimens examined._--Total number, 4, as follows: =Ecuador=: R. Tatun [= Jatun] = Yacu, 1, Mus. Comp. Zoöl. =Perú=: Yurimaguas, 1 in Mus. Polonais d'Hist. Naturelle, Warsaw; Moyobamba, 2700 ft. [6° S, 77° W], 1 in Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.; Valle del Perené, 1200 meters, 1 in Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. EXPLANATION OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS APPEARS ON PAGE 417 [Illustration: FIG. 31. Four views of the skull and a lateral view of the left lower jaw to show points between which measurements of the skull were taken. Based on _M. f. primulina_, from 3 mi. E Bergman, Boone County, Arkansas, obtained December 12, 1933, by B. G. Roberts; ad. [F]. 62854 Mus. Vert. Zoöl. × 1-2/5.] EXPLANATION OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS Basilar length (of Hensel).--From the anteriormost border of the foramen magnum to a line connecting the posterior margins of the alveoli of the first upper incisors. F to F' on fig. 31. Condylobasal length.--Least distance from a line connecting the posteriormost parts of the exoccipital condyles to a line connecting the anteriormost projections of the premaxillary bones. Length of tooth-rows.--Least distance between a line connecting posterior borders of upper molars and a line connecting anterior faces of middle upper incisors. G to G' on fig. 31. Breadth of rostrum.--Least distance from lateral base of hamular process of lacrimal bone to corresponding point on opposite side of skull. B to B' on fig. 31. Interorbital breadth.--Least distance across top of skull between orbits (eye sockets). O to O' on fig. 31. Orbitonasal length.--Distance on anterior part of skull from posterior margin of base of postorbital process of frontal bone to posteriormost part of anterior border of nasal bone on same side of skull. A to A' on fig. 31. Mastoid breadth.--Greatest distance across mastoid bones perpendicular to long axis of skull. E to E' on fig. 31. Zygomatic breadth.--Greatest distance across zygomatic arches of cranium perpendicular to long axis of skull. D to D' on fig. 31. Tympanic bulla: Length.--From posterior face to most anterior part of anterior border. H to H' on fig. 31. Breadth.--From bottom of pit immediately posterior to external auditory meatus to medial face of bulla at right angle with longitudinal axis of skull. J to J' on fig. 31. Depth.--Least distance from ventral face of basioccipital, excluding median ridge, to line touching ventralmost points of the two bullae. L to L' on fig. 31. m1, Length.--Greatest length which rarely or never is alveolar length. P4.-- Lateral.--Length from posterior margin of tooth to anteriormost part of the protocone (anterolateral cusp). Medial.--Length from the posterior margin of tooth to anteriormost part of the deuterocone (anterointernal cusp). M1.-- Breadth.--Distance from medial edge of crown to lateral margin of crown, approximately at a right angle with longitudinal axis of the skull. Length.--Greatest diameter, anteroposteriorly, of the inner lobe or inner half of the tooth. Depth of skull at anterior margin of basioccipital.--Measured from anterior end of ventral face of basioccipital, excluding median ridge, vertically to dorsal face of parietal excluding sagittal crest. K to K' on fig. 31. Depth of skull at posterior borders of Ms1.--Measured from ventral face of palatine bones at posterior edge of upper molars to dorsal face of frontals in plane of postorbital processes of frontals. S to S' on fig. 31. TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS ================================================================================= Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela frenata average} {45.1 16.6 13.7 maximum} [M] ad. 10 Adirondacks, New York {47.0 17.4 14.6 minimum} {43.2 15.9 13.0 average} {44.7 16.3 13.7 maximum} [M] ad. 10 Massachusetts {47.0 16.8 14.9 minimum} {43.3 15.9 13.1 average} {44.0 16.3 13.2 maximum} [M] ad. 10 Liberty Hill, Connecticut {46.0 17.4 14.4 minimum} {41.5 15.2 12.1 average} {44.4 16.5 13.3 maximum} [M] ad. 10 Beaver Dam, Wisconsin {46.1 17.7 14.1 minimum} {40.6 15.6 12.3 average} {43.0 15.6 13.0 maximum} [M] ad. 10 Washtenaw Co., Michigan {45.4 16.5 13.4 minimum} {39.7 14.7 11.6 average} {37.5 13.4 10.7 maximum} [F] ad. 8 Adirondacks, New York {39.8 14.5 11.2 minimum} {36.4 12.8 9.8 average} {36.5 13.4 10.5 maximum} [F] ad. 5 Massachusetts {38.1 14.0 11.0 minimum} {35.2 13.0 10.0 average} {37.3 13.5 10.8 maximum} [F] ad. 6 Maryland {37.9 14.1 11.2 minimum} {36.8 13.0 10.4 average} {37.2 13.4 10.6 maximum} [F] ad. 5 Beaver Dam, Wisconsin {37.6 13.7 11.3 minimum} {37.0 12.9 10.0 average} {36.5 13.1 10.5 maximum} [F] ad. 9 Washtenaw Co., Michigan {37.5 13.7 11.0 minimum} {35.9 12.8 9.8 Mustela frenata A. N. S. P. 4137 [M] ad. Washington Co., Maine 45.8 16.5 13.3 M. C. Z. 7267 [M] ad. Moose Head Lake, Maine 44.9 16.6 14.5 M. C. Z. 5501 [M] ad. Bucksport, Maine 46.9 17.1 14.4 M. C. Z. 9142 [M] ad. Bucksport, Maine 45.0 16.1 14.0 av 45.7 16.6 14.1 M. C. Z. 9101 [F] sad. Bucksport, Maine 37.7 14.0 11.6 M. C. Z. 9122 [F] sad. Bucksport, Maine 38.2 13.8 11.5 Mustela frenata average} {44.8 16.8 13.5 maximum} [M] ad. 10 Douglas Co., Kansas {46.0 17.8 14.1 minimum} {43.8 16.2 12.9 average} {44.7 16.5 13.2 maximum} [M] ad. and sad. 8 Boone Co., Arkansas {46.5 17.1 14.0 minimum} {42.5 15.6 12.6 average} {38.9 14.4 11.3 maximum} [F] ad. and sad. 11 Douglas Co., Kansas {40.7 15.3 12.0 minimum} {37.6 13.8 10.8 average} {39.3 14.1 11.4 maximum} [F] ad. and sad. 6 Arkansas {40.1 14.6 11.9 minimum} {38.8 13.7 11.0 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- noveboracensis 10.9 15.3 23.3 26.7 15.4 7.8 3.5 5.9 5.3 5.5 4.3 2.4 14.1 12.7 11.9 15.9 24.7 28.0 16.2 8.4 4.0 6.2 5.7 5.9 4.5 2.7 14.5 13.3 10.4 14.8 22.0 25.3 14.6 7.0 3.1 5.5 4.9 4.9 4.0 1.9 13.5 12.2 11.3 15.7 23.2 26.5 15.4 7.7 3.4 5.9 5.2 5.5 4.4 2.4 14.1 12.7 12.0 16.7 25.6 28.2 16.4 8.2 3.7 6.3 5.5 5.9 4.7 3.0 14.7 13.0 10.5 14.8 21.8 25.1 14.3 7.3 3.1 5.6 5.0 5.2 4.0 2.0 13.5 12.0 10.9 15.3 22.4 26.3 15.0 7.5 3.3 5.8 5.1 5.4 4.2 2.2 14.3 12.6 12.0 16.4 23.5 28.0 15.9 8.0 3.6 6.3 5.6 6.1 5.0 2.5 15.2 13.2 9.7 14.2 20.8 24.0 14.4 6.9 3.0 5.3 4.6 5.0 3.7 2.0 13.4 11.7 10.6 15.6 23.0 26.3 15.2 8.0 5.8 5.3 5.5 4.3 2.4 13.9 12.6 11.3 16.4 23.8 27.4 16.2 8.2 6.1 5.7 5.8 4.6 2.7 14.5 13.2 9.8 13.7 22.1 23.9 14.2 7.7 5.6 4.7 5.1 3.9 2.1 13.0 11.8 10.2 14.9 22.0 24.9 14.7 7.6 5.6 5.0 5.3 4.2 2.2 13.4 11.9 11.0 15.7 22.8 26.1 15.2 7.9 6.0 5.3 5.6 4.5 2.5 14.2 12.3 9.6 13.8 21.1 23.5 14.1 7.3 5.0 4.7 4.9 3.8 1.9 12.6 11.5 8.7 12.9 18.7 20.9 13.5 6.5 2.8 4.8 4.3 4.6 3.5 1.7 11.4 10.2 9.3 13.4 19.3 22.1 14.3 7.0 2.9 5.2 4.7 5.0 3.7 1.9 12.1 10.8 7.9 12.1 17.5 20.0 12.6 5.9 2.5 4.5 4.0 4.2 3.2 1.7 10.3 9.4 8.5 12.9 18.5 20.1 13.3 6.3 2.3 5.0 4.3 4.5 3.5 1.8 11.4 10.0 8.6 13.3 19.6 20.8 13.9 6.9 2.7 5.1 4.5 4.7 3.7 2.0 11.6 10.4 8.3 12.1 17.2 19.3 12.8 5.6 2.0 4.9 4.2 4.4 3.3 1.4 11.0 9.6 8.6 13.0 18.8 21.0 13.1 6.6 4.9 4.4 4.7 3.6 1.9 11.9 10.9 8.9 13.5 19.6 21.7 13.5 6.8 5.2 4.6 4.9 4.1 2.3 12.6 11.4 8.5 12.8 18.2 20.1 13.0 6.4 4.7 4.2 4.5 3.1 1.4 11.6 10.3 8.8 13.0 18.7 21.0 13.5 6.5 4.9 4.5 4.6 3.5 1.8 11.6 10.2 9.7 13.5 19.5 21.7 13.8 6.8 5.0 4.5 4.8 3.7 2.1 12.3 10.3 8.0 12.0 17.6 20.2 13.1 6.1 4.9 4.4 4.3 3.3 1.5 10.8 9.8 8.4 12.6 18.5 20.5 13.2 6.3 4.8 4.3 4.5 3.5 1.8 11.8 10.3 8.8 13.1 19.1 21.3 13.8 6.7 5.0 4.5 4.7 3.7 2.0 12.2 10.7 7.8 12.0 18.1 19.5 12.9 6.0 4.6 4.1 4.3 3.3 1.5 11.3 10.0 occisor 11.0 16.2 24.5 27.5 15.7 8.5 3.5 6.2 5.6 5.9 4.6 2.8 13.3 13.0 11.8 15.6 24.2 27.7 15.2 7.7 3.1 6.0 5.2 5.6 4.2 2.4 14.2 13.0 11.0 15.8 24.0 28.0 16.4 8.0 4.0 6.0 5.8 6.1 4.5 2.6 14.7 13.2 11.2 15.3 24.2 27.4 15.8 7.3 2.8 6.1 5.3 5.6 4.3 2.4 14.5 12.6 11.3 15.7 24.2 27.7 15.8 7.9 3.4 6.1 5.5 5.8 4.4 2.6 14.2 13.0 9.1 13.0 19.0 21.7 14.1 6.3 2.6 5.2 4.6 4.6 3.8 2.1 12.5 10.5 9.2 13.6 19.5 21.8 13.6 6.5 2.5 4.6 4.3 4.5 3.5 1.7 12.3 10.3 primulina 10.6 14.9 24.0 27.2 15.5 8.3 3.4 6.1 5.5 5.8 4.6 2.4 14.2 12.8 11.5 15.4 24.9 28.2 16.3 8.8 3.9 6.6 5.9 6.1 4.7 2.6 14.8 13.2 10.0 14.3 23.2 26.2 14.4 8.0 3.0 5.8 5.2 5.5 4.3 2.2 13.6 12.0 10.5 15.0 24.1 26.9 15.5 8.1 3.6 6.0 5.5 5.6 4.3 2.2 14.2 12.3 11.8 16.3 24.8 27.7 16.4 8.8 4.2 6.5 6.0 6.2 4.9 2.5 14.6 13.0 9.7 14.1 22.8 26.1 14.9 7.5 3.1 5.8 5.2 5.2 4.0 2.0 13.9 11.7 8.6 12.9 20.3 22.6 13.5 6.9 2.9 5.2 4.8 5.0 3.5 1.8 12.6 11.2 9.2 13.4 21.4 23.8 15.1 7.5 3.3 5.7 5.2 5.4 4.2 2.1 13.5 11.7 7.9 12.4 18.8 21.1 13.0 6.3 2.5 4.8 4.5 4.6 3.4 1.5 11.7 10.0 8.7 13.1 20.3 23.1 14.0 6.9 2.9 5.2 4.8 5.0 3.8 1.9 12.5 10.7 8.8 13.7 21.0 23.8 14.5 7.2 3.0 5.5 5.0 5.3 4.2 2.0 13.0 11.8 8.5 12.6 19.8 22.5 13.5 6.5 2.8 5.0 4.5 4.7 3.5 1.7 12.3 10.3 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS--_Continued_ ================================================================================ Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela frenata U. S. N. M. 246345 [M] ad. Convent, Louisiana 43.4 15.4 13.7 M. V. Z. 37515 [M] sad. Remy, Louisiana 43.8 16.4 12.7 M. V. Z. 38901 [M] sad. Springville, Louisiana *45.0 *16.5 Mustela frenata M. V. Z. 47165 [M] ad. Talbot Co., Georgia 50.1 18.3 15.0 M. V. Z. 47144 [M] ad. Talbot Co., Georgia 49.2 18.3 13.8 M. V. Z. 47166 [M] ad. Talbot Co., Georgia 48.5 17.6 14.6 M. V. Z. 47167 [M] ad. Talbot Co., Georgia 45.8 17.3 14.2 M. V. Z. 47147 [M] ad. Talbot Co., Georgia 48.1 18.0 14.0 av. 5 48.3 17.9 14.3 M. V. Z. 41023 [M] ad. Thomas Co., Georgia 48.8 17.5 14.9 M. V. Z. 41025 [M] ad. Grady Co., Georgia 44.8 16.9 13.2 M. V. Z. 40934 [M] ad. Grady Co., Georgia 47.8 17.4 14.1 M. V. Z. 40935 [M] ad. Grady Co., Georgia 47.4 18.0 13.6 av. 4 47.2 17.5 14.0 U. S. N. M. 223880 [M] ad. Okefinokee Swamp 49.0 18.8 14.2 Cornell 198 [M] ad. Okefinokee Swamp 47.3 18.0 14.0 Cornell 652 [M] ad. Okefinokee Swamp 47.0 17.0 13.8 U. S. N. M. 180802 [M] ad. Autaugaville, Alabama 46.5 17.3 13.4 M. V. Z. 51527 [F] ad. Talbot Co., Georgia 43.5 16.4 12.5 M. V. Z. 41024 [F] ad. Thomas Co., Georgia 42.7 16.0 12.0 M. V. Z. 41022 [F] ad. Thomas Co., Georgia 44.0 16.1 12.8 Mustela frenata F. S. M. 49387 [M] ad. Apopka, Florida 49.8 18.6 15.1 A. N. S. P. 9379 [F] ad. Tarpon Springs, Florida 44.2 16.6 13.8 A. N. S. P. 8515 [F] yg. Pasco Co., Florida 15.9 11.8 Mustela frenata M. V. Z. 53795 [M] ad. Elk River, Minnesota 49.2 19.1 15.9 Walker A23 [M] ad. Elk River, Minnesota 49.0 18.7 15.9 Walker A37 [M] sad. Elk River, Minnesota 48.7 18.9 15.2 Dickey A865 [M] sad. Elk River, Minnesota 46.8 17.6 15.4 Dickey A846 [M] sad. Elk River, Minnesota 46.1 18.0 14.2 Dickey 11548 [F] ad. Elk River, Minnesota 42.3 16.4 13.1 Walker A174 [F] ad. Elk River, Minnesota 43.2 16.2 13.8 Dickey 9688 [F] ad. Elk River, Minnesota 43.2 16.8 12.7 U. S. N. M. 188410 [F] ad. Elk River, Minnesota 43.0 16.2 13.2 av. 4 42.9 16.4 13.2 Mustela frenata A. M. N. H. 15875 [M] ad. Red Deer, Alberta 46.5 18.6 15.1 N. M. C. 8060 [M] ad. Sweet Grass Hills, Alberta 45.5 18.1 15.5 F. M. N. H. 7021 [M] ad. Canadian Nat. Park, Alberta 46.8 17.8 13.8 F. M. N. H. 8567 [M] ad. Calgary, Alberta 44.7 17.2 13.9 U. S. N. M. 75725 [M] ad. St. Albert, Alberta 46.5 18.3 15.0 av. 5 46.0 17.9 14.7 N. M. C. 6968 [F] ad. Daysland, Alberta 43.7 16.8 13.1 U. S. N. M. 68731 [F] ad. S. Edmonton, Alberta 42.5 16.0 13.4 A. M. N. H. 16044 [F] ad. Blindman River, Alberta 40.0 15.1 12.2 M. V. Z. 53792 [F] ad. Grafton, North Dakota 42.8 16.5 13.6 U. S. N. M. 75483 [F] ad. Wingard, Sask. 42.3 16.9 12.9 av. 5 42.3 16.3 13.0 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- arthuri 11.5 14.5 22.3 26.6 15.4 7.7 3.3 5.4 4.9 5.1 3.7 2.0 14.8 12.4 10.9 15.0 22.3 25.5 15.5 7.5 3.7 4.9 5.7 5.8 4.2 2.3 14.2 12.4 15.5 16.0 8.3 5.8 5.5 5.7 4.6 2.5 olivacea 12.5 16.5 26.7 30.8 17.2 9.2 4.0 6.8 6.2 6.2 4.7 2.5 15.0 13.8 11.7 16.9 26.0 29.0 17.9 9.4 4.2 6.8 6.0 6.3 4.8 2.8 15.5 13.4 11.5 16.5 27.0 30.9 17.5 9.8 4.3 6.8 5.7 6.0 4.5 2.5 15.6 13.2 11.5 16.2 25.7 29.4 15.9 8.7 4.1 6.1 5.6 6.0 4.9 2.3 15.4 13.7 10.9 16.9 26.2 28.9 17.2 8.8 4.2 6.1 5.7 6.2 4.6 2.3 14.5 13.2 11.6 16.6 26.3 29.8 17.1 9.2 4.2 6.5 5.8 6.1 4.7 2.5 15.2 13.5 11.9 16.0 27.3 31.2 17.9 8.7 4.2 6.4 5.9 6.3 4.9 2.5 17.0 13.4 10.9 15.5 24.7 28.3 16.8 8.8 3.9 6.2 5.7 5.8 4.3 2.4 15.0 13.3 12.1 15.5 25.1 29.1 17.9 8.8 4.5 6.6 6.0 6.0 4.7 2.6 15.0 14.2 11.7 16.2 24.1 29.1 15.8 8.5 4.5 6.4 5.7 6.0 4.6 2.2 15.0 13.5 11.7 15.8 25.3 29.4 17.1 8.7 4.3 6.4 5.8 6.0 4.6 2.4 15.5 13.6 11.6 14.6 26.1 30.4 16.5 8.6 4.4 6.1 5.7 6.0 4.6 2.4 15.6 13.2 11.4 16.3 26.8 29.8 17.2 8.8 4.3 6.5 5.8 6.3 4.6 2.5 14.8 13.2 11.8 16.0 25.8 30.5 17.3 8.6 4.5 6.2 5.8 6.0 4.5 2.5 15.5 13.6 10.7 16.3 25.5 29.2 15.6 8.3 3.7 6.8 5.8 6.1 4.9 2.6 14.5 13.2 9.8 14.5 22.4 25.7 15.5 7.8 3.8 5.8 5.6 5.8 4.2 2.2 13.5 12.3 9.6 14.7 22.8 26.0 15.8 8.0 3.9 5.8 5.0 5.4 4.1 2.1 14.4 12.2 10.6 15.3 23.4 25.8 15.3 8.2 3.6 6.1 5.7 5.8 4.4 2.1 13.2 12.0 peninsulae 12.2 15.8 27.8 31.4 17.6 10.2 4.8 6.3 5.9 6.2 4.7 2.4 15.3 14.6 11.0 15.8 23.7 27.1 16.4 8.4 4.3 6.3 5.7 5.7 4.1 1.9 13.3 12.9 9.6 14.2 6.4 5.7 5.9 4.6 2.0 12.3 spadix 11.9 17.1 28.0 31.7 15.9 9.5 3.6 6.9 6.5 6.7 5.4 2.7 15.5 14.0 13.5 16.5 28.1 32.1 16.4 9.7 4.0 6.8 6.2 6.7 4.9 2.0 15.9 15.0 11.9 16.5 27.0 29.9 15.5 9.2 3.8 6.6 6.1 6.5 5.0 3.0 15.0 13.8 16.7 26.1 15.2 8.4 3.3 6.2 5.5 5.9 4.3 2.3 10.6 15.5 24.9 28.2 14.8 8.5 3.7 6.6 5.9 6.6 4.8 2.9 15.1 12.8 10.7 15.0 22.9 27.0 13.8 7.7 3.1 6.6 5.6 5.6 4.4 2.1 13.0 12.3 10.8 15.3 24.5 26.8 14.5 8.6 3.7 5.8 5.3 5.5 4.5 2.1 13.9 13.2 10.5 15.0 23.3 25.6 15.2 7.6 3.2 5.9 5.4 5.7 4.1 2.0 14.0 12.2 10.7 14.9 23.3 26.0 14.7 8.1 3.3 5.7 5.3 5.6 4.3 2.4 13.8 12.8 10.7 15.1 23.4 26.4 14.6 8.0 3.3 6.0 5.4 5.6 4.3 2.2 13.7 12.6 longicauda 12.1 15.3 25.3 30.8 15.2 8.9 3.4 6.9 6.3 6.5 4.9 2.6 15.0 14.6 12.2 15.5 31.0 6.9 6.3 6.6 5.0 2.5 13.8 11.4 16.0 25.7 30.4 15.7 8.7 3.9 6.3 5.7 5.9 4.4 1.9 15.5 13.4 11.3 14.8 24.8 29.7 15.5 8.7 3.6 6.0 5.4 5.6 4.3 2.4 15.0 13.4 12.4 15.6 25.0 29.4 15.2 8.3 3.4 6.6 6.2 6.4 4.6 2.0 16.0 13.6 11.9 15.4 25.2 30.3 15.4 8.6 3.6 6.5 6.0 6.2 4.6 2.3 15.4 13.8 14.9 24.0 26.1 14.7 8.3 3.1 5.7 5.2 5.4 4.3 2.0 13.3 12.2 10.3 14.3 24.1 26.7 14.5 8.8 3.3 5.6 5.4 5.5 4.3 2.3 14.0 12.5 8.8 13.2 22.5 24.5 13.4 8.2 2.8 5.6 5.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 12.8 11.5 10.5 14.9 23.2 26.1 15.3 8.0 2.8 6.1 5.4 5.6 4.3 2.4 14.0 12.3 9.8 15.5 23.3 25.9 14.8 8.3 3.2 6.4 5.9 6.1 4.8 2.4 14.3 12.1 9.9 14.6 23.4 25.9 14.6 8.3 3.0 5.9 5.4 5.5 4.3 2.2 13.7 12.1 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS--_Continued_ ================================================================================= Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela frenata M. V. Z. 44568 [M] sad. Barkerville reg., B. C. 48.8 19.1 17.2 M. V. Z. 43817 [M] sad. Isaacs Lake, British Columbia 48.8 19.5 15.8 Cowan 443 [M] ad. Quesnel, British Columbia 46.6 17.7 14.5 N. M. C. 2676 [M] ad. Lillooet, British Columbia 47.5 18.5 14.3 N. M. C. 2695 [M] ad. Lillooet, British Columbia 45.0 17.5 15.9 M. C. Z. 9058 [F] ad. Source Kettle River, B. C. 41.7 16.4 12.8 M. V. Z. 62791 [F] ad. Beaverfoot Range, B. C. 42.0 16.4 13.5 Mustela frenata U. S. N. M. 186451 [M] ad. Custer, South Dakota 40.9 15.0 13.8 A. M. N. H. 7440/9136 [M] ad. Hill City, South Dakota 41.0 15.6 13.7 A. M. N. H. 7441 [F] ad. Black Hills, South Dakota 37.6 14.1 12.2 Mustela frenata M. V. Z. 55211 [M] ad. near Parks, Arizona 40.4 15.5 12.5 M. V. Z. 65231 [M] ad. Alpine, Arizona 39.6 15.1 12.2 U. S. N. M. 248993 [M] ad. Kaibab Plat., Arizona 40.4 15.6 12.9 A. M. N. H. 2490/1886 [F] ad. S. F. Forest, Arizona 35.5 13.8 10.8 Mustela frenata average} {43.6 16.6 13.7 maximum} [M] ad. 25 Sierra Nevada, California {46.1 17.6 14.9 minimum} {40.6 15.2 12.5 average} {43.7 16.5 13.9 maximum} [M] ad. 10 S and SW Colorado {44.6 17.3 14.8 minimum} {41.6 16.0 12.8 average} {38.2 14.7 11.8 maximum} [F] ad. 10 California {39.5 15.1 12.4 minimum} {36.7 13.9 11.0 average} {38.5 14.8 12.2 maximum} [F] ad. 14 Colorado {39.7 15.4 13.1 minimum} {36.1 14.0 11.1 Mustela frenata average} {40.5 15.2 12.3 maximum} [M] ad. 6 NE Oregon {41.8 16.4 12.7 minimum} {39.3 14.4 11.9 U. S. N. M. 212423 [F] ad. Vale, Oregon 37.4 Mustela frenata average} {43.7 16.7 13.7 maximum} [M] ad. 22 Mt. Adams, Washington {47.7 18.0 15.4 minimum} {40.0 15.6 12.5 average} {37.7 14.3 11.5 maximum} [F] ad. 11 Mt. Adams, Washington {39.0 14.9 12.0 minimum} {37.1 13.3 10.8 Mustela frenata U. O. 3709 [M] ad. Mt. Ashland, Oregon 45.8 17.2 14.1 U. S. N. M. 65930 [M] ad. Siskiyou, Oregon 42.6 15.9 14.0 M. V. Z. 13778 [M] ad. Jackson Lake, California 45.5 18.0 13.2 M. V. Z. 13779 [M] ad. Jackson Lake, California 43.8 16.9 12.7 av. 4 44.4 17.0 13.5 M. V. Z. 52144 [F] ad. S. Fork Mt., California 38.2 14.7 10.8 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- oribasus 13.0 17.7 28.5 32.2 17.4 9.8 3.2 6.8 6.2 6.4 5.3 2.8 15.5 14.6 12.0 17.3 28.4 31.7 15.9 9.7 4.0 6.9 6.3 6.4 5.3 2.9 15.5 13.7 10.1 15.9 26.4 30.7 15.8 9.2 3.9 6.2 5.8 6.1 4.6 2.5 15.0 13.1 10.3 15.9 25.5 30.1 15.2 9.1 3.8 6.4 5.9 6.3 4.6 2.5 15.0 13.1 11.8 15.9 25.6 31.0 15.2 8.9 3.0 6.2 5.6 6.1 4.7 2.9 15.0 13.4 10.5 14.8 24.9 26.7 14.3 8.2 2.8 6.1 5.5 5.7 4.5 2.5 14.0 12.6 10.2 15.1 24.4 27.0 14.3 8.1 3.1 5.9 5.5 5.6 4.3 2.2 14.0 12.3 alleni 11.0 14.1 22.0 27.7 13.7 7.9 3.0 5.7 4.9 5.3 3.9 2.5 14.3 12.3 11.0 13.9 23.3 25.7 13.6 8.3 2.3 5.1 4.8 5.2 4.2 1.9 13.7 12.0 9.1 13.2 22.3 23.1 13.8 7.3 3.1 5.5 4.9 5.0 3.6 1.8 12.2 10.5 arizonensis 14.2 23.3 26.0 14.3 8.9 3.1 5.7 5.2 5.5 4.0 2.2 13.5 12.1 9.7 13.7 22.4 25.6 13.7 8.3 3.2 5.4 4.9 5.1 4.0 2.1 14.0 11.4 9.8 14.5 22.9 26.3 14.1 8.4 3.2 5.8 5.5 5.5 4.0 1.7 14.8 12.0 8.6 12.9 19.9 21.7 13.3 7.7 2.9 4.8 4.6 4.7 3.6 1.6 12.3 10.3 nevadensis 10.7 15.1 23.9 28.0 15.0 8.4 3.4 5.9 5.4 5.6 4.3 2.2 14.4 12.5 12.0 16.2 26.1 31.4 15.9 9.0 4.0 6.4 5.8 6.1 4.8 2.7 15.2 14.8 9.9 14.0 22.1 25.0 14.4 7.8 2.9 5.5 4.9 5.1 3.9 1.8 13.7 11.6 10.6 15.0 24.2 27.9 15.1 8.6 3.5 6.1 5.5 5.7 4.5 2.1 14.5 12.6 11.1 16.4 25.3 29.3 15.8 9.2 4.0 6.8 5.9 6.0 4.8 2.6 15.6 13.0 9.9 13.8 23.1 26.5 14.4 8.2 3.0 5.7 5.2 5.3 4.0 1.9 13.9 12.1 9.2 13.4 20.9 23.1 13.4 7.3 2.9 5.2 4.8 5.0 3.8 1.7 12.3 11.0 9.9 14.2 21.8 23.4 14.1 7.9 3.2 5.6 5.2 5.4 4.1 2.0 13.0 11.8 8.6 12.6 20.1 22.4 12.7 6.8 2.6 4.9 4.5 4.7 3.6 1.5 11.4 10.0 9.3 13.4 20.6 23.1 13.4 7.6 2.8 5.4 4.9 5.1 3.9 1.9 12.9 11.1 10.2 14.4 22.1 24.6 13.9 8.1 3.2 5.6 5.3 5.4 4.1 2.3 13.8 11.8 8.5 12.5 19.8 22.0 12.9 7.0 2.5 5.1 4.3 4.6 3.4 1.7 12.0 10.6 effera 9.6 13.7 22.1 25.6 14.1 7.8 3.3 5.5 5.0 5.3 3.9 2.0 13.5 11.8 10.0 14.4 23.3 27.3 15.0 8.4 3.5 5.9 5.3 5.8 4.1 2.6 14.3 12.2 9.2 13.1 20.5 25.0 12.3 7.2 3.2 5.0 4.7 5.0 3.6 1.6 12.6 11.4 9.2 19.5 22.0 13.1 6.9 3.0 5.4 4.9 5.0 3.7 1.8 12.3 washingtoni 10.5 15.5 23.4 27.0 14.6 8.0 3.1 5.9 5.4 5.6 4.3 2.2 14.4 12.6 12.0 16.5 26.4 29.6 15.8 8.7 3.4 6.5 6.0 6.1 4.8 2.6 15.8 13.7 9.0 14.5 22.1 24.6 13.5 7.6 2.7 5.4 4.9 5.0 4.0 1.7 13.1 11.5 8.8 12.8 20.2 22.5 12.9 7.2 2.8 5.1 4.7 4.8 3.9 1.9 12.2 10.4 9.3 13.2 21.1 24.5 13.6 7.7 3.0 5.6 4.9 5.0 4.2 2.1 13.0 11.0 8.2 12.1 19.4 21.3 12.3 6.8 2.3 4.7 4.4 4.2 3.4 1.7 11.2 9.8 saturata 11.1 15.8 26.0 27.9 15.1 8.9 3.9 6.1 5.5 5.9 4.3 2.3 14.2 12.6 10.9 14.4 24.5 27.7 14.7 8.5 4.0 5.7 5.0 5.5 4.1 1.9 14.8 12.4 10.0 16.2 24.7 27.4 14.6 8.7 3.2 6.3 5.9 6.2 4.6 2.5 14.6 12.8 9.9 15.3 24.2 26.9 15.1 8.6 3.3 5.6 5.2 5.5 4.0 2.2 14.2 12.3 10.2 15.4 24.9 27.5 14.9 8.7 3.6 5.9 5.4 5.8 4.3 2.2 14.5 12.5 8.1 13.5 19.8 21.8 12.4 7.2 2.7 5.0 4.6 4.9 3.7 1.8 12.2 10.4 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS--_Continued_ ================================================================================= Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela frenata average} {45.8 17.5 14.2 maximum} [M] ad. 10 Tillamook Co., Oregon {48.0 18.9 15.0 minimum} {42.4 16.1 13.2 Walker 392 [F] ad. Blaine, Oregon 39.7 15.1 12.8 Walker 185 [F] ad. Blaine, Oregon 37.8 13.9 11.9 Walker 89 [F] ad. Blaine, Oregon 38.3 14.3 11.3 Walker 45 [F] ad. Tillamook, Oregon 37.8 14.1 11.0 Mustela frenata M. V. Z. 11747 [M] ad. Eureka, California 44.0 16.8 13.2 C. A. C. 3907 [M] ad. Requa, California 41.8 16.0 13.5 F. M. N. H. 9595 [M] ad. Gold Beach, Oregon 43.0 16.9 13.1 U. S. N. M. 32019 [M] sad. Grants Pass, Oregon 42.9 16.3 13.7 M. V. Z. 34325 [F] ad. Carlotta, California 37.8 14.7 10.8 U. O. 1413 [F] ad. 13 mi. S Grants Pass, Oregon 39.4 14.7 12.0 Mustela frenata M. V. Z. 19720 [M] ad. Point Arena, California 49.0 18.5 15.2 M. V. Z. 19722 [M] ad. Point Arena, California 48.5 18.9 14.4 M. V. Z. 19718 [M] ad. Gualala, California 45.7 17.2 13.7 av. 3 47.7 18.2 14.4 M. V. Z. 19714 [M] ad. 6 mi. W Inverness, California 48.2 18.4 13.9 M. V. Z. 19715 [M] ad. 6 mi. W Inverness, California 48.2 18.9 14.5 M. V. Z. 19716 [M] ad. 5 mi. W Inverness, California 46.5 17.5 13.8 av. 3 47.6 18.3 14.1 F. M. N. H. 9598 [M] ad. Nicasio, California 46.5 18.5 14.0 M. C. Z. 8632 [M] ad. Nicasio, California 44.2 17.8 14.0 M. C. Z. 5459 [M] ad. Point Reyes, California 39.7 15.5 13.3 M. V. Z. 40302 [M] ad. 4 mi. N Vallejo, California 45.8 17.7 13.0 av. 4 44.1 17.4 13.6 M. V. Z. 19723 [F] ad. Point Arena, California 42.3 16.0 12.3 U. S. N. M. 135010 [F] ad. Point Reyes, California 38.7 15.3 11.0 F. M. N. H. 9597 [F] ad. Point Reyes, California 39.5 15.2 11.1 U. S. N. M. 91764 [F] ad. Point Reyes, California 38.7 15.4 12.0 Mustela frenata Walker 1440 [M] ad. 5 mi. W Fresno, California 43.9 16.5 13.8 A. N. S. P. 11863 [M] ad. Fresno, California 43.4 16.8 12.9 Wisconsin U. 4232 [M] ad. Selma, California 43.7 16.2 13.3 Snyder 2626 [F] ad. Selma, California 39.4 15.0 12.0 M. V. Z. 79640 [F] ad. Tegner School, California 43.4 16.5 12.6 Mustela frenata Stanford U. 863 [M] ad. Palo Alto, California 48.1 18.7 15.0 F. M. N. H. 6559 [M] ad. Palo Alto, California 48.0 18.7 13.9 Stanford U. 1651 [M] ad. Menlo Park, California 47.1 17.8 13.3 Stanford U. 487 [M] ad. Palo Alto, California 46.5 18.3 13.4 F. M. N. H. 7031 [M] ad. Palo Alto, California 46.1 18.1 14.5 Stanford U. 236 [M] ad. Menlo Park, California 46.1 17.8 13.5 av. 6 47.0 18.2 13.9 M. V. Z. 5851 [F] ad. Hayward, California 40.7 15.3 11.8 M. V. Z. 30327 [F] ad. Palo Alto, California 41.2 16.2 11.1 U. S. N. M. 43574 [F] ad. Morro, California 42.2 16.1 12.2 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- altifrontalis 11.2 15.9 25.1 29.2 15.6 8.5 3.5 6.1 5.5 5.7 4.5 2.5 15.4 13.6 12.0 16.8 26.0 31.6 16.5 9.0 3.6 6.5 6.0 6.0 4.9 2.8 16.2 14.0 10.0 14.8 23.9 26.0 15.0 7.7 3.2 5.6 5.0 5.2 4.0 2.1 14.5 12.4 10.1 13.7 21.8 24.0 13.8 7.7 5.2 5.0 5.0 3.7 1.9 13.5 11.8 9.5 13.4 20.8 22.7 13.4 7.3 2.8 4.9 4.5 4.7 3.2 1.5 12.6 10.7 9.5 12.7 19.8 22.7 13.2 7.0 3.1 4.4 4.7 3.8 1.9 13.4 11.3 8.6 12.5 20.1 23.2 13.0 7.3 4.9 4.7 4.8 3.8 2.0 13.5 11.0 oregonensis 10.7 15.3 24.3 28.0 14.6 8.3 3.4 6.0 5.4 5.8 4.3 2.2 13.6 12.7 10.9 14.0 22.9 26.6 14.2 7.6 3.1 5.8 5.3 5.4 4.0 2.2 13.4 12.3 10.5 15.5 23.4 26.2 15.1 8.2 3.3 5.8 5.2 5.5 4.4 2.0 14.7 12.5 10.5 15.7 23.2 26.5 15.2 8.8 4.0 5.5 4.8 5.2 4.3 2.1 14.0 12.5 8.8 13.0 20.7 23.2 13.4 7.5 2.2 5.3 5.0 5.5 4.0 1.8 13.7 11.0 9.7 13.9 21.5 24.0 14.2 7.6 2.7 4.8 4.4 4.7 3.7 1.9 12.6 10.8 munda 11.7 16.8 27.5 33.2 16.2 9.3 3.6 6.5 5.6 6.0 4.8 2.6 14.2 14.2 10.5 17.2 26.8 32.+ 16.0 8.5 3.8 6.5 5.6 6.2 5.0 2.9 14.7 13.8 10.5 15.5 26.4 31.7 15.5 8.5 3.1 6.5 5.7 5.8 4.9 2.3 13.4 14.2 10.9 16.5 26.9 32.7 15.9 8.8 3.5 6.5 5.7 6.0 4.9 2.6 14.1 14.1 11.3 17.2 26.2 30.5 15.7 8.5 3.5 6.5 5.6 6.0 4.8 2.6 14.2 14.2 11.4 16.6 26.5 30.0 16.3 8.7 3.5 6.3 5.6 6.2 5.0 2.9 14.7 13.8 11.0 15.9 25.2 30.3 15.4 7.9 3.5 6.1 5.7 5.8 4.9 2.3 13.4 14.2 11.2 16.6 26.0 30.3 15.8 8.4 3.5 6.3 5.7 6.0 4.9 2.6 14.1 14.1 10.5 15.4 25.2 30.5 15.0 8.8 3.5 6.9 5.9 6.3 5.2 2.7 15.2 13.0 11.4 16.9 24.4 27.6 15.7 8.2 3.7 6.4 5.7 5.9 5.0 2.6 12.6 13.7 9.0 13.4 23.1 26.5 13.7 7.7 3.2 6.1 5.1 5.5 4.4 2.5 13.6 12.1 10.7 15.9 24.4 26.9 15.1 8.0 2.8 6.3 5.7 6.2 4.8 2.3 14.5 13.0 10.4 15.4 24.3 27.9 14.9 8.2 3.3 6.4 5.6 6.0 4.9 2.5 14.0 13.0 12.2 14.0 23.6 25.5 14.5 8.3 2.9 5.0 5.2 4.0 1.9 13.4 11.3 8.7 14.5 21.0 23.7 13.0 7.5 3.0 5.1 4.9 5.4 3.9 2.3 12.9 10.8 8.2 13.1 20.2 22.8 12.7 6.8 2.7 5.3 4.9 5.0 3.9 1.9 14.7 10.8 9.7 12.7 21.7 24.7 13.7 7.4 2.9 5.5 5.0 5.3 4.2 2.0 13.2 11.7 xanthogenys 10.4 14.1 23.8 28.5 14.7 7.9 3.2 5.7 5.2 5.3 4.2 2.1 14.8 12.6 10.0 14.8 24.0 27.5 14.5 7.5 5.8 5.3 5.5 4.4 2.0 13.7 12.7 9.9 14.5 23.7 27.1 15.2 8.5 3.7 5.8 5.3 5.4 4.2 2.2 13.8 12.3 8.9 13.2 21.3 24.3 13.7 7.2 5.3 4.0 13.0 11.4 9.3 15.1 22.8 24.9 15.0 7.5 3.0 5.6 5.5 5.9 4.5 2.0 13.3 12.2 nigriauris 11.2 17.5 32.9 15.5 6.5 6.4 6.7 5.2 2.4 14.3 11.0 16.2 27.0 29.6 15.7 8.7 3.4 6.2 5.8 6.0 4.8 2.7 14.0 14.1 9.8 14.9 25.6 30.0 15.0 8.0 3.3 6.5 6.0 6.5 4.6 2.4 14.6 13.8 11.0 16.1 25.2 31.1 15.1 8.0 2.9 6.3 5.7 6.0 4.9 2.5 14.5 14.3 10.7 15.1 26.0 29.5 14.9 8.3 2.4 6.3 6.0 6.1 4.6 2.6 15.0 13.2 10.4 15.5 29.6 15.6 8.5 6.0 5.6 5.7 4.8 2.5 14.0 10.7 15.9 26.0 30.5 15.3 8.3 3.0 6.3 5.9 6.2 4.8 2.5 14.5 14.0 8.8 13.9 21.8 24.9 14.2 7.9 3.0 5.2 4.9 4.9 4.1 1.8 12.4 11.0 8.6 14.3 21.7 24.8 13.4 7.8 3.0 5.3 5.0 5.4 4.1 2.1 12.6 11.0 8.9 14.2 22.7 24.3 15.1 8.1 2.9 5.5 5.4 5.6 4.2 2.0 13.2 11.4 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS--_Continued_ ================================================================================= Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela frenata M. V. Z. 3257 [M] ad. San Diego, California 44.4 17.8 13.4 U. S. N. M. 52701 [M] ad. El Vido, California 43.7 16.9 12.7 U. S. N. M. 52702 [M] ad. El Cajon, California 43.2 16.7 13.9 M. V. Z. 3258 [M] ad. San Diego, California 42.5 16.6 14.1 Stephens 20 [M] ad. San Jacinto Plain, California 41.9 16.9 13.1 S. D. M. 7098 [M] ad. Jamacha, California 47.0 18.5 15.6 av. 6 43.8 17.2 13.8 Stephens 22 [F] ad. Santa Ysabel, California 40.1 15.5 11.7 Stephens 19 [F] ad. Ballena, California 40.0 15.0 12.3 S. D. M. 6748 [F] ad. Santa Ysabel, California 42.0 16.1 12.9 S. D. M. 7194 [F] ad. Jamacha, California 39.8 15.0 11.8 av. 4 40.5 15.4 12.2 Mustela frenata C. A. S. 335 [M] ad. Buttonwillow, California 48.6 18.8 15.2 C. A. S. 337 [M] ad. Buttonwillow, California 48.6 18.8 15.0 M. V. Z. 16668 [M] ad. Buttonwillow, California 48.1 18.8 14.8 U. S. N. M. 137935 [M] ad. Buttonwillow, California 47.2 18.2 14.0 C. A. S. 336 [M] ad. Buttonwillow, California 47.0 18.3 14.5 C. A. S. 338 [M] ad. Buttonwillow, California 46.0 17.4 14.7 av. 6 47.6 18.4 14.7 Mustela frenata M. V. Z. 25907 [M] ad. 2 mi. N Independence, Calif. 44.7 17.3 13.3 Mustela frenata A. M. N. H. 14821 [M] ad. Kerr Co., Texas 54.0 19.2 16.0 M. C. Z. 15476 [M] yg. Kerr Co., Texas 53.3 18.9 16.3 Baylor U. 2017 [M] sad. 5 mi. N Waco, Texas 52.0 18.3 16.5 Mustela frenata Kansas U. 1485 [M] ad. Liberal, Kansas 50.5 17.9 15.4 U. S. N. M. 131582 [M] ad. Berino, New Mexico 47.7 17.5 15.0 U. S. N. M. 36482 [F] ad. Tombstone, Arizona 45.5 16.5 12.8 U. S. N. M. 230973 [F] ad. Willcox, Arizona 42.5 15.1 12.9 U. S. N. M. 225629 [F] ad. Albuquerque, New Mexico 40.8 15.0 12.4 Mustela frenata M. C. Z. 240 [M] ad. Brownsville, Texas 49.4 17.4 14.9 A. N. S. P. 724 [M] ad. Brownsville, Texas 50.1 17.9 15.5 U. S. N. M. 58684 [M] ad. Brownsville, Texas 48.2 17.3 14.2 U. S. N. M. 63857 [M] ad. Brownsville, Texas 48.6 18.0 13.7 U. S. N. M. 44976 [M] ad. Brownsville, Texas 50.9 18.0 av. 5 49.4 17.7 14.6 A. M. N. H. 24405 [F] ad. Brownsville, Texas 47.3 16.2 12.5 U. S. N. M. 58685 [F] sad. Brownsville, Texas 41.3 15.0 11.8 U. S. N. M. 36362/48732 [F] sad. Brownsville, Texas 42.5 15.4 12.5 av. 3 43.7 15.5 12.3 B. Z. M. 991 [F] ad. México 15.5 B. Z. M. 992 [F] ad. México 13.9 10.7 M. C. Z. 20841 [M] ad. Miquihana, Nuevo León 50.2 18.0 15.3 U. S. N. M. 50826 [M] ad. Tlalpam, D. F. 51.3 18.3 15.1 Mustela frenata U. S. N. M. 125972 [M] ad. Los Reyes, Michoacán 51.2 17.5 15.0 U. S. N. M. 34914/47179 [M] ad. Pátzcuaro, Michoacán 18.7 14.3 A. M. N. H. 26153 [F] ad. Artenkiki, Jalisco 44.5 16.0 12.7 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- latirostra 10.2 15.0 23.5 27.6 15.6 8.4 3.9 6.0 5.5 5.5 4.3 2.2 14.0 12.8 9.9 14.3 24.0 14.7 8.7 4.0 5.7 5.6 5.6 4.2 2.0 14.2 13.4 10.0 15.0 24.0 27.2 15.1 8.2 4.2 5.8 5.3 5.5 4.2 2.5 14.0 12.5 12.1 14.7 24.0 28.7 15.1 8.1 3.9 5.9 5.6 5.5 4.4 2.5 14.3 13.5 10.6 14.0 24.0 28.2 14.7 8.0 3.2 6.0 5.5 5.7 4.2 2.1 14.0 12.9 11.3 16.8 24.8 29.2 16.7 8.9 3.8 6.0 5.8 6.2 4.8 2.2 14.0 13.2 10.7 15.0 24.1 28.2 15.3 8.4 3.8 5.9 5.6 5.7 4.4 2.3 14.1 13.1 9.3 13.1 21.9 24.5 14.2 8.0 3.0 5.3 4.8 5.1 4.1 2.0 14.0 11.3 9.3 13.5 21.6 23.5 13.7 8.1 3.2 5.1 4.9 5.0 4.0 2.1 12.0 11.2 9.4 14.2 22.0 24.5 14.0 7.8 3.0 5.8 5.3 5.7 4.5 2.0 13.4 11.5 9.1 13.7 20.2 23.7 13.7 7.0 2.9 5.2 4.8 4.9 3.9 1.9 12.6 11.5 9.3 13.6 21.4 24.1 13.9 7.7 3.0 5.4 5.0 5.2 4.1 2.0 13.0 11.4 pulchra 11.6 17.2 27.4 31.4 16.7 9.1 3.6 6.6 5.9 6.4 5.1 2.7 16.2 13.7 11.8 17.2 27.1 32.7 16.6 9.0 3.5 6.6 6.3 6.3 5.0 2.4 16.5 14.3 12.0 17.1 27.7 31.2 16.4 9.2 3.6 6.4 5.7 5.9 5.1 2.8 15.2 14.0 10.3 16.0 26.1 29.5 15.6 8.5 3.3 6.0 5.6 5.9 4.1 2.0 15.0 12.9 11.5 16.5 27.0 29.5 15.5 9.1 3.2 6.3 5.6 5.9 5.0 2.3 15.0 13.0 11.3 16.1 26.3 32.6 15.9 8.9 3.7 6.1 5.7 5.8 4.6 2.2 15.0 13.3 11.4 16.7 26.9 31.1 16.1 9.0 3.5 6.3 5.8 6.0 4.8 2.4 15.5 13.5 inyoensis 10.8 15.9 25.3 29.5 15.9 9.0 3.7 6.0 5.7 5.9 4.6 2.4 15.0 13.2 texensis 12.6 17.2 28.6 35.1 17.5 8.0 3.5 6.9 6.5 6.7 5.0 2.5 16.7 15.1 12.8 18.3 28.2 34.8 18.0 8.3 4.0 6.4 6.3 6.5 4.8 2.4 16.0 15.0 13.5 16.7 29.2 18.0 9.1 6.6 6.3 6.4 4.9 2.6 16.3 15.6 neomexicana 12.4 16.4 28.3 35.0 17.0 9.0 4.0 6.3 5.9 6.0 4.9 2.4 15.5 14.3 11.1 15.9 26.3 31.2 16.5 7.9 3.4 6.4 5.7 6.3 4.7 2.5 15.8 13.5 9.7 15.5 22.3 26.6 15.2 7.5 3.3 5.9 5.6 5.9 4.5 2.2 13.8 12.0 9.9 14.0 22.6 26.5 14.5 7.0 3.1 5.5 5.3 5.6 4.1 1.8 14.0 12.0 9.4 13.3 21.6 24.5 14.5 7.5 3.0 5.2 4.7 5.0 3.9 1.8 13.0 11.0 frenata 11.6 15.4 25.9 33.0 16.7 7.9 4.3 5.9 5.9 6.1 4.5 2.1 15.0 13.8 12.3 15.5 27.0 32.2 16.5 8.5 4.1 6.5 6.2 6.3 4.8 2.7 16.0 14.0 11.0 15.3 27.2 31.0 16.6 8.3 4.2 6.3 5.9 6.1 4.8 2.7 15.5 13.5 11.1 16.5 26.0 31.0 16.0 8.2 4.8 6.5 5.7 6.1 4.8 2.6 15.0 13.6 16.9 26.9 16.6 7.9 3.4 6.5 5.6 6.1 4.7 2.3 16.0 13.4 11.5 15.9 26.6 31.8 16.3 8.2 4.2 6.4 5.9 6.2 4.7 2.5 15.5 13.7 10.0 14.6 5.9 5.4 5.4 4.1 2.1 12.2 9.5 12.8 22.7 27.0 14.0 6.9 3.3 5.5 5.2 5.4 4.1 2.0 14.0 11.7 10.0 14.3 23.8 26.7 14.3 7.5 3.2 5.9 5.5 5.7 4.2 2.0 13.5 11.8 9.8 13.9 23.3 26.9 14.2 7.2 3.3 5.8 5.4 5.5 4.1 2.0 13.8 11.9 12.2 13.8 22.8 27.0 13.7 5.7 5.2 5.5 4.4 2.2 12.7 8.9 12.9 21.1 13.0 6.6 2.9 4.9 4.5 4.7 3.7 1.7 12.3 10.8 12.1 16.3 28.0 32.0 16.9 8.8 3.3 4.6 2.2 15.0 12.1 17.5 27.7 33.5 16.3 8.4 3.5 6.7 5.9 6.4 4.7 2.7 15.3 14.6 leucoparia 12.0 16.0 28.3 32.9 16.0 7.7 3.5 5.9 5.7 5.7 4.3 2.2 15.5 14.0 16.8 6.8 6.5 6.8 5.0 2.6 14.3 10.0 14.4 22.4 26.3 15.0 7.0 3.2 5.9 5.5 6.0 4.5 2.1 14.0 11.9 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS--_Continued_ ================================================================================= Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela frenata U. S. N. M. 68197 [M] ad. Cerro San Felipe, Oaxaca 49.2 17.3 13.9 U. S. N. M. 54278 [F] ad. Type specimen 43.5 15.5 12.3 Mustela frenata U. S. N. M. 133253 [M] ad. 20 mi. SE Teopisca, Chiapas 50.4 18.0 15.0 U. S. N. M. 133254 [M] ad. 20 mi. SE Teopisca, Chiapas 49.6 17.5 13.8 U. S. N. M. 77519 [M] ad. Pinabete, Chiapas 50.7 18.3 F. M. N. H. 15953 [M] ad. near Tecpám, Guatemala 50.0 17.0 13.5 Dickey 12523 [M] ad. Los Esesmiles, Salv. 51.3 17.5 14.5 av. 5 50.4 17.7 14.2 Mustela frenata F. M. N. H. 14063 [M] ad. Achotal, Veracruz 54.1 19.2 15.6 U. S. N. M. 132528 [F] ad. Pérez, Veracruz 43.5 15.3 12.5 Mustela frenata U. S. N. M. 54994 [M] ad. Jico, Veracruz 47.8 17.2 13.7 A. M. N. H. 12764/11058 [M] sad. Jalapa, Veracruz 45.5 16.8 13.7 M. C. Z. 6514 [M] sad. Orizaba, Veracruz *46.0 16.4 13.2 U. S. N. M. 54993 [F] ad. Jico, Veracruz 36.0 13.0 11.0 U. S. N. M. 1060 [F] ad. México 39.0 14.0 11.0 M. C. Z. 2605 [F] yg. Jalpa, Veracruz 38.7 13.8 10.3 F. M. N. H. 14050 [F] yg. Xuchil, Veracruz 39.0 14.2 11.6 Mustela frenata U. S. N. M. 100041 [M] sad. Teapa, Tabasco 46.1 17.0 14.4 U. S. N. M. 132997 [M] sad. San Vicente, Chiapas 45.3 16.7 13.9 U. S. N. M. 132996 [M] sad. San Cristóbal, Chiapas 16.9 13.3 av. 3 45.7 16.9 13.9 U. S. N. M. 218036 [F] sad. State of Chiapas 40.0 14.6 11.6 U. S. N. M. 65422 [F] sad. Catemaco, Veracruz 40.4 14.5 11.5 Mustela frenata A. M. N. H. 30754 [M] sad. Matagalpa, Nicaragua 44.8 17.2 12.8 A. M. N. H. 28331 [M] ad. Matagalpa, Nicaragua 44.8 16.7 13.6 A. M. N. H. 29280 [M] sad. San Rafel Del Norte 45.5 17.2 13.5 Mustela frenata U. S. N. M. 11408 [M] ad. Costa Rica *49.0 18.3 15.2 B. M. 3216 [M] ad. Vic. San José, Costa Rica 49.3 18.6 15.0 U. S. N. M. 13770/37149 [M] yg. San José, Costa Rica 48.2 18.0 14.0 N. H. R. S. 1-138 [M] ad. Azahar Cartago, Costa Rica 47.8 17.4 14.9 B. Z. M. A 59.13 [F] sad. Irazú, 3000M., Costa Rica 38.8 14.4 12.5 Mustela frenata M. C. Z. 10112 [M] ad. Boquete, Panamá 48.3 17.1 15.0 A. M. N. H. 18848 [M] ad. Boquete, Panamá 44.5 16.3 14.0 M. C. Z. 10113 [M] ad. Boquete, Panamá 42.8 15.8 14.0 av. 3 45.2 16.4 14.3 U. S. N. M. 170970 [F] sad. near Gatún, Panamá 41.3 15.3 12.5 A. N. S. P. 18434 [F] ad. Siola, Panamá 39.3 14.2 11.3 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- perotae 11.7 15.9 25.0 29.2 15.5 6.8 2.5 6.1 5.3 5.8 4.1 2.1 15.5 13.3 10.3 14.0 23.2 25.5 15.0 7.0 2.0 5.7 5.2 5.7 4.1 2.1 12.0 13.7 goldmani 12.5 15.9 26.5 32.3 15.6 7.1 2.9 6.4 5.9 6.2 5.0 2.5 16.5 13.7 10.9 16.2 26.4 31.8 15.8 7.4 3.0 6.1 5.5 5.8 4.5 2.5 15.0 13.7 26.5 31.8 15.3 7.5 2.9 6.6 5.8 6.1 5.0 2.4 16.0 12.0 16.1 26.2 31.5 15.5 7.0 5.9 5.6 6.0 4.5 2.2 11.7 16.2 26.7 30.6 15.8 7.7 3.1 6.3 5.5 5.8 4.5 2.3 16.5 14.1 11.8 16.1 26.5 31.6 15.6 7.3 3.0 6.3 5.7 6.0 4.7 2.4 16.0 13.8 macrophonius 12.9 17.8 28.5 33.6 16.8 7.6 2.9 7.1 6.4 6.8 5.2 2.9 16.8 15.3 10.2 14.5 23.1 26.5 15.0 6.5 2.6 5.5 5.2 5.7 4.1 1.9 14.2 12.2 tropicalis 10.7 15.8 24.5 28.2 15.5 6.3 2.9 6.2 5.6 5.9 4.5 2.2 15.5 13.7 11.4 16.0 24.0 30.0 15.4 6.7 3.0 6.4 5.7 5.9 4.7 2.2 15.2 13.6 15.5 15.0 8.0 6.3 5.7 6.0 5.0 2.5 16.5 14.5 9.2 12.1 19.8 22.6 12.4 6.1 2.5 5.0 4.5 4.7 4.0 1.7 12.5 11.6 9.6 21.0 22.5 4.9 4.6 4.9 3.9 1.9 11.5 8.3 12.6 19.4 12.7 5.8 4.9 4.5 4.6 3.5 1.5 13.7 10.9 9.3 13.0 20.5 23.5 13.5 6.1 5.3 4.9 5.3 4.4 2.0 15.3 11.5 perda 11.1 15.3 24.4 28.5 14.9 6.6 2.2 6.4 5.5 6.0 4.6 2.5 16.4 13.8 12.0 15.5 24.0 27.4 14.5 6.7 2.8 5.5 5.1 5.4 4.2 2.2 15.8 13.0 10.6 16.0 6.4 5.5 6.0 4.5 2.5 13.0 11.2 15.6 24.2 28.0 14.7 6.7 2.5 6.1 5.4 5.8 4.4 2.4 16.1 13.3 9.4 13.5 20.2 23.2 13.0 5.6 2.1 5.2 4.8 5.0 3.7 1.7 13.2 11.4 9.1 13.2 21.2 23.0 13.7 6.5 2.1 4.8 4.7 5.2 3.8 1.9 14.2 10.8 nicaraguae 10.5 15.0 23.4 25.5 14.0 6.5 2.9 6.3 6.0 6.3 4.6 2.5 15.5 13.4 11.5 15.2 22.7 26.8 15.2 6.7 5.8 5.1 5.5 4.4 2.4 14.7 13.4 11.0 15.5 23.5 27.4 14.2 6.8 6.3 6.0 6.3 4.7 2.5 15.5 13.1 costaricensis 9.4 *18.0 26.0 30.5 15.0 7.5 6.5 5.9 6.4 5.0 2.6 16.7 14.2 12.7 16.9 25.9 31.3 15.3 7.3 2.9 6.6 6.0 6.5 4.9 2.5 16.8 15.1 11.7 16.0 24.8 29.0 15.0 7.2 2.7 7.0 6.0 6.5 4.8 2.9 16.5 14.0 11.7 15.5 24.3 *30.1 15.1 7.5 6.6 5.9 6.2 4.8 2.5 10.1 14.2 20.0 23.6 12.8 6.3 2.9 4.9 4.7 5.0 3.7 1.8 13.7 11.5 panamensis 12.5 15.7 25.1 28.3 14.1 7.0 2.7 6.3 5.7 5.9 4.5 2.5 16.7 14.0 12.0 15.0 22.5 29.1 14.4 6.1 2.7 6.2 5.7 6.0 4.5 2.3 16.0 13.5 12.0 15.5 27.1 13.6 5.5 6.1 5.4 5.7 4.3 2.2 15.8 13.5 12.2 15.4 23.8 28.2 14.0 6.2 2.7 6.2 5.6 5.9 4.4 2.3 16.3 13.7 10.4 14.3 23.0 26.8 12.5 6.1 5.7 5.3 5.5 4.1 2.1 15.5 12.5 9.4 12.5 20.1 22.5 13.0 6.0 5.0 4.6 5.0 3.7 2.0 13.2 10.8 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS--_Continued_ ================================================================================= Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela frenata A. M. N. H. 33154 [M] ad. Mérida, Venezuela 44.3 16.7 14.2 U. S. N. M. 137517 [M] ad. Mérida, Venezuela 43.4 16.0 14.1 U. S. N. M. 172959 [M] ad. Mérida, Venezuela 44.0 16.5 14.1 A. M. N. H. 24309 [M] ad. Mérida, Venezuela 44.2 16.1 13.7 A. M. N. H. 33155 [M] ad. Mérida, Venezuela 42.3 16.7 13.8 av. 5 43.6 16.4 14.0 U. S. N. M. 123341 [M] sad. Mérida, Venezuela 43.5 16.9 13.8 U. S. N. M. 137516 [M] sad. Mérida, Venezuela 43.6 16.2 13.5 U. S. N. M. 143667 [M] sad. Mérida, Venezuela 15.4 12.5 U. S. N. M. 143666 [F] ad. Mérida, Venezuela 38.2 14.1 11.9 U. S. N. M. 143665 [F] ad. Mérida, Venezuela 36.4 13.4 11.5 A. M. N. H. 24308 [F] ad. Mérida, Venezuela 36.3 13.4 11.4 A. M. N. H. 24311 [F] ad. Mérida, Venezuela 37.7 13.9 11.4 av. 4 37.2 13.7 11.6 A. M. N. H. 21343 [F] sad. Mérida, Venezuela 37.3 13.6 11.1 A. M. N. H. 24310 [F] sad. Mérida, Venezuela 35.0 12.6 11.1 Mustela frenata U. S. N. M. 241314 [M] ad. Choachí, Colombia *46.0 17.4 13.6 U. S. N. M. 239946 [M] ad. Choachí, Colombia 16.1 12.7 A. M. N. H. 35805 [M] ad. Quetame, Colombia 45.5 16.6 13.7 av. 3 45.8 16.7 13.3 U. S. N. M. 241313 [M] yg. Bogotá, Columbia 44.7 16.7 13.9 U. S. N. M. 241315 [M] yg. Choachí, Columbia 45.1 16.7 13.5 Mustela frenata A. M. N. H. 34677 [M] yg. Gualea, Ecuador 45.6 17.6 14.0 Mustela frenata F. M. N. H. 24133 [M] ad. Rio Chinchao 44.0 16.4 14.5 F. M. N. H. 24132 [M] ad. Rio Chinchao 45.3 17.0 13.9 F. M. N. H. 24136 [F] ad. Huanuco, Perú 35.3 13.0 10.5 F. M. N. H. 24135 [F] sad. Ambo, Perú 36.1 13.6 10.9 F. M. N. H. 24134 [F] sad. Ambo, Perú 38.1 14.0 10.6 Mustela frenata B. M. 8.1.10.1 [M] ad. Lima, Perú 42.5 16.0 13.4 F. M. N. H. 21147 [F] ad. Macate, Perú 35.2 12.7 10.0 M. P. H. N. 565 [F] ad. Perú *36.0 12.6 10.7 Mustela frenata M. P. H. N. 561 [M] ad. Junín, Perú 45.5 16.6 14.0 M. P. H. N. 562 [M] ad. Junín, Perú 40.8 15.0 13.6 B. M. 26.2.1.2 [M] ad. Yana Mayo, Perú 42.6 15.9 13.0 U. S. N. M. 148528 [M] ad. Marcapata, Perú 16.0 M. P. H. N. 564 [F] ad. Cutervo, Perú *38.0 13.8 11.2 A. M. N. H. 60508 [M] ad. El Chiral, Ecuador 45.5 17.1 13.8 A. M. N. H. 61406 [M] sad. Guainche, Ecuador 48.2 17.3 14.5 N. H. R. S. 2 [M] ad. Panecillo, Ecuador 48.0 16.8 13.3 N. H. R. S. 5 [M] ad. San Antonio, Ecuador 44.0 16.3 14.0 N. H. R. S. 7 [M] ad. Carapungo, Ecuador 46.8 17.4 13.5 N. H. R. S. 14 [M] ad. Nára Papallacta, Ecuador 45.4 17.3 14.1 N. H. R. S. 10 [F] ad. Guapulo, Ecuador 37.9 13.5 11.3 Mustela frenata A. M. N. H. 72587 [M] ad. Nequejahuira, Bolivia 41.6 15.3 12.2 B. Z. M. 602 [M] yg. Limbaní, Perú 42.4 15.5 U. S. N. M. 137513 [M] yg. Limbaní, Perú 40.3 15.2 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- meridana 12.0 15.0 23.9 28.5 13.0 6.6 3.0 6.2 5.4 5.6 4.4 2.5 15.0 13.4 11.8 15.2 23.5 27.4 13.8 6.5 2.4 6.0 5.5 5.7 4.1 2.3 15.6 13.3 11.6 15.4 23.6 28.0 13.9 7.0 6.2 5.6 5.7 4.7 2.4 15.7 12.9 11.5 15.4 23.6 27.3 14.2 6.4 2.3 5.9 5.2 5.6 4.5 2.3 15.3 13.0 11.5 15.5 23.0 27.6 13.5 6.5 2.6 5.8 5.4 5.6 4.3 2.1 15.5 13.7 11.7 15.3 23.5 27.8 13.7 6.6 6.0 5.4 5.6 4.4 2.3 16.0 13.3 12.1 15.1 23.0 27.5 13.2 6.0 5.5 5.7 4.5 2.5 11.4 15.5 23.4 27.9 13.4 6.4 2.2 5.6 5.2 5.7 4.2 2.3 16.0 13.0 10.5 15.4 25.0 13.2 5.5 5.0 5.3 4.2 2.3 15.0 13.2 9.7 13.2 20.3 23.0 12.4 5.9 1.8 9.9 13.0 20.1 23.4 12.1 5.9 2.0 9.7 11.8 18.8 22.0 11.7 5.5 2.0 4.9 4.5 4.6 3.5 1.6 10.5 9.8 13.8 19.5 12.1 5.9 1.8 4.9 4.7 4.9 3.7 1.8 13.0 11.2 9.8 13.0 19.7 22.8 12.1 5.8 1.9 9.2 13.2 19.2 22.5 11.9 5.6 2.1 5.1 4.6 4.8 3.5 1.7 13.5 11.1 8.7 12.0 19.3 21.8 11.5 5.8 1.8 4.7 4.4 4.7 3.5 1.6 13.8 11.4 affinis 11.8 15.6 29.5 6.1 5.9 6.1 4.4 2.3 13.9 10.8 14.3 27.7 6.0 5.3 5.7 4.5 2.1 13.0 11.0 15.3 6.4 5.8 5.5 5.7 4.4 2.0 13.3 11.2 15.1 28.6 6.0 5.6 5.8 4.4 2.1 13.4 12.3 15.6 23.9 29.0 5.9 5.7 5.7 4.4 2.5 11.5 15.2 23.9 28.7 14.0 6.9 5.9 5.6 5.8 4.5 2.1 13.5 aureoventris 11.8 15.4 23.8 28.3 15.1 6.8 2.7 6.7 6.0 6.4 5.0 3.0 17.0 14.3 helleri 12.5 14.9 24.5 29.1 14.4 6.5 2.4 6.2 5.8 5.9 4.6 2.5 16.0 14.0 11.7 15.5 24.5 29.0 14.4 6.5 2.4 5.8 5.5 5.8 4.5 2.5 16.0 13.7 8.9 12.1 17.9 20.8 11.8 4.7 2.0 4.7 4.4 4.6 3.5 1.6 11.8 10.0 9.0 12.4 18.8 22.4 11.8 5.0 1.9 4.7 4.4 4.6 3.6 1.7 12.6 10.5 9.1 12.6 19.8 22.2 12.0 5.4 2.0 4.7 4.6 4.6 3.5 1.5 13.9 11.0 agilis 11.1 14.9 23.1 28.2 13.8 6.9 2.6 5.8 5.5 5.8 4.5 2.2 14.8 12.9 8.4 12.0 18.0 20.6 12.4 5.0 1.7 4.4 4.1 4.4 3.2 1.5 13.0 10.3 9.2 12.5 18.1 21.5 13.0 5.8 2.2 4.8 4.1 4.5 3.5 1.9 12.0 11.7 macrura 11.6 15.1 23.8 29.0 14.5 6.2 5.5 5.4 5.5 4.3 2.1 15.7 13.2 11.3 15.1 22.9 26.5 14.5 7.5 2.7 5.8 5.0 5.1 4.0 2.0 14.6 12.9 10.2 15.0 21.8 26.2 13.5 7.0 2.5 5.8 5.5 5.6 4.4 2.3 14.6 12.3 14.5 5.7 5.0 5.2 4.3 2.1 9.5 13.0 18.1 *23.0 4.9 4.6 4.9 3.6 1.9 11.7 11.5 14.5 24.2 23.2 15.0 7.0 2.3 5.9 5.6 6.0 4.8 2.6 16.4 13.8 12.3 15.7 25.6 30.3 15.6 7.2 3.0 6.1 5.2 5.4 4.5 2.3 15.7 13.9 14.8 14.5 7.0 6.0 5.4 5.7 4.3 2.2 11.9 14.8 23.5 28.0 14.2 7.0 2.9 5.8 5.1 5.4 4.3 2.1 16.8 14.1 11.1 14.9 23.7 29.0 14.6 7.0 2.9 6.2 5.8 6.2 4.5 2.3 16.0 14.2 12.6 15.8 24.5 29.9 14.3 7.1 2.6 6.1 5.4 5.6 4.3 2.5 17.5 9.5 9.5 12.7 19.7 22.5 12.4 5.9 2.0 5.1 4.5 4.7 3.7 1.7 12.9 11.3 boliviensis 10.0 14.7 22.2 25.0 13.4 7.4 2.2 5.3 5.0 5.2 4.4 2.2 14.8 12.4 5.5 5.0 5.4 4.2 2.2 5.1 4.8 5.1 3.9 1.9 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS--_Continued_ ================================================================================= Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela africana A. M. N. H. 374.75 [M] sad. Pará, Brazil 47.8 17.2 14.3 B. M. 5.1.25.1. [M]? sad. Pará, Brazil 44.9 16.4 13.0 B. M. 26.1.8.10. [M]? ad. Pará, Brazil 44.6 16.4 13.3 Mustela africana B. M. 24.12.12.24. [F] ad. Moyobamba, Perú 45.8 16.9 13.5 M. P. H. N. 563 [F] ad. Yurimaguas, Perú 17.5± A. M. N. H. 61813 [F] yg. Val. d. Perené, Perú 44.6 16.0 13.0 Mustela erminea M. C. Z. 10012 [M] ad. Pt. Barrow 43.3 15.9 15.2 F. M. N. H. 35894 [M] ad. Pt. Barrow 41.8 15.6 15.3 A. N. S. P. 6909 [M] ad. Pt. Barrow 42.3 15.1 14.8 A. N. S. P. 6910 [M] ad. Pt. Barrow 16.2 16.0 N. M. C. 2445 [M] ad. Salirochet River 42.8 15.7 15.4 av. 5 42.5 15.7 15.3 F. M. N. H. 35895 [F] ad. Pt. Barrow 35.4 13.1 12.7 M. V. Z. 43286 [F] ad. Pt. Barrow 35.4 12.9 12.0 U. S. N. M. 243489 [F] sad. Alatna River 37.0 13.4 11.9 U. S. N. M. 243493 [F] sad. 16 mi. below Bettles 36.2 13.0 12.0 U. S. N. M. 180459 [F] ad. N. Fk. Kuskokim 35.3 12.9 11.2 U. S. N. M. 242205 [F] ad. Fairbanks 34.5 12.4 11.5 U. S. N. M. 157306 [F] sad. Bear Creek 36.9 13.5 12.6 U. S. N. M. 157305 [F] sad. Bear Creek 35.2 12.5 11.4 av. 8 35.8 12.9 11.8 Mustela erminea M. C. Z. 29831 [M] ad. Ymer Is. 41.6 15.6 15.3 C. Z. M. 1245 [M] ad. Danmarks Havn. 40.7 15.0 14.7 C. Z. M. 1246 [M] ad. Danmarks Havn. 39.0 14.1 13.8 C. Z. M. 1247 [M] ad. Danmarks Havn. 41.0 15.2 14.5 C. Z. M. 1248 [M] ad. Danmarks Havn. 42.3 15.5 15.5 C. Z. M. 1249 [M] ad. Danmarks Havn. 42.2 15.8 15.0 C. Z. M. 1871 [M] ad. Scoresby Sd. 42.4 15.3 15.3 av. 7 41.3 15.2 14.9 C. Z. M. 1060 [F] ad. Turner Sd. 35.9 13.0 12.5 B. Z. M. 43965 [F] ad. Kap Hoegh 37.8 13.4 12.7 Mustela erminea C. M. 6688 [M] ad. Prairie Point *39.9 14.5 13.5 average} {37.5 13.8 13.1 maximum} [M] 1 ad. and Southampton Isl. {39.9 14.5 13.5 minimum} 10 sad. {35.7 13.1 12.6 C. M. 8474 [F] ad. Minnimunnek Pt. 32.6 11.9 11.3 average} {34.2 12.4 11.7 maximum} [F] 1 ad. and Southampton Isl. {35.1 13.0 12.7 minimum} 4 sad. {32.6 11.9 11.3 Mustela erminea U. S. N. M. 107496 [M] ad. Kadiak 43.2 15.4 14.9 F. M. N. H. 7290 [M] ad. Kadiak Id. 42.1 14.9 14.0 U. S. N. M. 98042 [F] ad. Kadiak 33.0 12.0 10.2 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- africana 12.9 15.4 26.4 32.2 16.9 8.2 2.8 6.6 5.8 6.2 4.7 2.4 17.8 14.9 10.2 14.2 23.3 26.8 14.4 7.0 2.7 5.9 5.4 5.5 4.5 1.8 16.4 13.7 10.9 14.4 24.4 29.4 14.4 6.7 2.5 6.0 5.6 5.7 4.5 1.8 15.5 13.6 stolzmanni 12.0 14.6 23.5 28.8 14.5 6.2 2.6 5.9 5.4 4.9 4.3 1.8 16.5 13.9 6.0 5.8 5.6 4.4 2.3 11.0 15.4 24.1 28.9 15.7 7.0 2.8 6.2 5.6 5.9 4.5 2.2 16.8 13.4 arctica 12.0 16.2 23.5 27.6 15.5 8.4 5.6 5.1 5.1 3.9 2.0 13.3 13.2 13.3 16.0 23.2 27.6 15.1 8.5 6.0 5.2 5.3 4.0 2.2 14.1 13.5 11.6 15.3 22.9 26.2 15.2 8.4 5.9 5.1 5.3 4.1 2.4 14.5 12.5 12.7 16.7 5.7 5.4 5.7 4.3 2.1 13.0 16.0 23.5 28.5 15.2 8.0 5.6 5.0 5.2 4.0 2.0 14.3 13.3 12.5 16.0 23.3 27.5 15.3 8.3 5.8 5.2 5.3 4.1 2.1 14.1 13.1 10.3 13.3 19.3 23.0 12.7 7.2 5.0 4.5 4.8 3.5 1.7 12.0 10.5 10.0 13.2 18.8 21.8 12.6 6.7 4.6 4.2 4.3 3.2 1.8 11.4 10.3 9.4 13.5 19.4 22.0 13.2 7.2 4.7 4.3 4.5 3.3 1.7 11.9 10.6 9.4 13.0 19.1 21.8 12.9 7.2 5.0 4.2 4.5 3.3 1.8 11.9 10.3 8.8 12.8 18.9 20.7 12.7 7.0 4.7 4.3 4.5 3.3 1.8 10.5 9.7 9.3 13.0 18.0 12.7 6.8 4.8 4.3 4.5 3.3 1.7 11.8 10.2 9.5 13.6 18.7 20.9 13.0 6.9 4.8 4.4 4.5 3.3 1.8 11.4 10.2 9.6 12.8 17.8 20.5 12.6 6.3 4.8 4.2 4.4 3.3 1.6 11.2 10.1 9.3 13.1 18.7 21.2 12.9 6.9 4.8 4.3 4.5 3.3 1.7 11.5 10.2 polaris 12.0 13.0 22.3 26.1 14.8 8.0 5.8 5.2 5.7 4.1 2.2 13.7 12.3 11.9 14.9 22.3 25.5 14.6 7.8 5.9 5.1 5.6 3.9 2.0 13.4 12.2 10.9 14.2 21.3 24.7 14.5 7.3 5.3 4.8 5.0 3.7 1.9 12.0 11.2 11.5 14.4 22.3 26.7 14.4 7.6 5.7 5.1 5.5 4.1 2.0 13.1 12.1 12.0 15.3 23.2 27.9 15.1 8.1 5.8 5.5 5.8 4.0 2.3 13.8 12.8 12.2 15.1 23.2 28.0 15.2 8.1 5.9 5.2 5.7 4.2 2.3 13.7 12.4 12.3 15.6 15.4 8.3 5.7 5.1 5.3 3.9 2.0 14.4 12.8 11.8 14.9 22.4 26.5 14.9 7.9 5.7 5.2 5.5 4.0 2.1 13.4 12.3 10.1 12.9 19.6 22.6 13.6 7.1 5.0 4.5 4.7 3.6 1.7 12.3 10.3 10.4 13.2 19.3 22.4 13.9 7.0 4.8 4.2 4.5 3.7 1.8 12.1 10.9 semplei 11.5 14.6 21.5 24.8 14.1 7.9 5.0 4.6 4.7 3.6 2.0 14.0 11.6 10.6 13.8 20.2 23.6 13.6 7.2 5.1 4.7 4.9 3.6 2.0 13.4 11.0 11.5 14.8 21.5 24.8 15.0 7.9 5.3 4.9 5.0 3.7 2.3 14.0 11.6 9.7 12.7 19.2 22.2 12.9 6.4 4.8 4.4 4.5 3.4 1.8 12.3 10.5 9.2 12.2 18.5 21.2 12.2 6.6 4.4 3.9 4.2 3.0 1.5 11.9 9.8 9.5 12.6 18.8 20.9 12.8 6.7 4.5 4.1 4.3 3.1 1.6 12.1 10.1 9.9 13.1 19.4 21.5 13.4 7.0 4.3 4.3 4.5 3.3 1.7 12.4 10.4 9.2 12.2 18.1 20.1 12.2 6.6 4.6 3.9 4.2 3.0 1.5 11.9 9.6 kadiacensis 11.1 14.9 22.1 26.0 15.1 7.6 5.5 5.1 5.1 3.8 2.0 14.0 12.2 10.9 14.4 21.6 26.0 14.1 7.1 5.7 5.2 5.2 3.8 1.7 13.5 11.5 8.0 11.3 16.9 19.4 11.5 6.0 4.4 4.0 4.0 2.8 1.4 11.5 8.9 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS--_Continued_ ================================================================================= Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela erminea average} {40.9 14.3 12.5 maximum} [M] ad. 6 3 mi. S Big Isl. {43.7 15.0 13.2 minimum} {39.6 13.8 11.7 average} {40.2 14.1 12.2 maximum} [M] sad. 7 3 mi. S Big Isl. {41.5 14.7 12.6 minimum} {38.4 13.6 12.0 U. S. N. M. 136112 [F] ad. Willow River 33.0 11.5 8.8 M. C. Z. 242866 [F] sad. 3 mi. S Big Isl. 32.3 11.0 9.0 U. S. N. M. 129703 [F] ad. Ft. Resolution 34.2 12.0 10.4 U. S. N. M. 110682 [F] sad. 15 mi. above Smith Landing 33.8 11.3 9.8 U. S. N. M. 235959 [F] ad. Athabasca Delta 33.1 11.7 9.3 M. C. Z. 18776 [F] ad. Athabasca Delta 31.5 10.8 8.9 av. 6 33.0 11.4 9.4 Mustela erminea M. V. Z. 53789 [M] ad. Ogdensburg, N. Y. 36.6 12.9 11.5 U. S. N. M. 32240/44066 [M] sad. Amsterdam, N. Y. 36.7 12.9 11.5 A. M. N. H. 67869 [M] ad. Berlin, N. Y. 36.2 12.5 10.2 A. M. N. H. 67868 [M] ad. Berlin, N. Y. 34.8 12.1 9.8 A. M. N. H. 15841 [M] ad. Schoharie, N. Y. 33.8 11.7 9.7 Cornell 494 [M] sad. Cascadilla Creek, N. Y. 34.8 12.2 10.4 C. M. 7461 [M] sad. Pymatuning Swamp 34.2 12.0 9.6 C. M. 10264 [M] sad. 3-1/2 mi. W Linesville 37.6 13.2 11.0 M. V. Z. 53788 [M] sad. Lopez, Penn. 36.5 12.6 10.7 av. 9 35.7 12.5 10.5 U. S. N. M. 135570 [F] ad. Lake George 33.3 11.8 9.3 B. S. N. 994 [F] sad. Cattaraugus 31.4 10.8 9.2 C. M. 7460 [F] sad. Pymatuning Swamp 32.0 10.9 9.2 C. M. 10252 [F] sad. 3 mi. NW Linesville 32.7 11.2 9.5 av. 4 32.4 11.2 9.4 Mustela erminea F. M. N. H. 18134 [M] ad. Aitkin, Minn. 40.3 14.1 12.7 F. M. N. H. 18135 [M] ad. Aitkin, Minn. 14.1 12.5 F. M. N. H. 18130 [M] ad. Aitkin, Minn. 40.7 15.0 12.2 F. M. N. H. 18133 [M] ad. Aitkin, Minn. 39.3 13.9 11.2 F. M. N. H. 18131 [M] ad. Aitkin, Minn. 38.5 13.4 11.2 F. M. N. H. 7222 [M] ad. Aitkin, Minn. 13.6 12.4 F. M. N. H. 18127 [M] sad. Aitkin, Minn. 38.4 13.1 11.1 F. M. N. H. 18129 [M] sad. Aitkin, Minn. 39.4 13.7 11.1 F. M. N. H. 18132 [M] sad. Aitkin, Minn. 39.3 14.3 11.5 F. M. N. H. 18441 [M] sad. Aitkin, Minn. 40.2 14.0 12.0 F. M. N. H. 18440 [M] sad. Aitkin, Minn. 38.8 13.8 11.3 F. M. N. H. 7219 [M] sad. Aitkin, Minn. 13.9 11.9 av. 12 39.4 13.9 11.8 average} {37.9 13.2 11.4 maximum} [M] ad. 5 and Elk River {39.5 13.9 12.6 minimum} sad. 5 {34.8 12.0 10.5 Walker 377 [F] ad. Deer 31.8 11.0 9.0 Walker 11 [F] ad. Grand Maris 32.7 10.8 Wisc. U. 8681 [F] ad. T. 61N, R. 26W 32.9 10.8 9.2 Wisc. U. 8679 [F] ad. T. 61N, R. 26W 33.6 11.6 9.8 Walker A 58 [F] ad. Elk River 32.8 11.5 9.9 av. 5 32.8 11.1 9.5 Wisc. U. 8691 [F] ad. Fisher Lake 31.5 10.6 9.5 Wisc. U. 8674 [F] ad. Gordon 32.8 11.5 9.8 Snyder 2637 [F] ad. Beaver Dam 32.9 11.0 9.8 Snyder 993 [F] ad. Beaver Dam 34.1 11.3 9.4 Snyder 2999 [F] ad. Beaver Dam 31.9 10.8 9.2 av. 5 32.6 11.0 9.5 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- richardsonii 10.2 13.5 21.2 24.2 14.9 7.9 5.3 4.7 4.8 3.8 2.1 13.0 11.9 11.1 14.0 22.2 25.5 15.5 8.3 6.0 5.0 5.2 4.2 2.3 14.2 11.4 9.4 12.9 20.0 22.9 14.2 7.2 4.9 4.5 4.6 3.7 2.0 12.5 12.3 9.8 14.0 20.6 23.3 14.6 7.7 5.2 4.7 4.9 3.7 2.1 13.6 11.8 10.4 14.2 21.5 24.4 15.1 8.2 5.5 4.9 5.0 3.8 2.5 14.5 12.2 9.5 13.7 20.0 22.0 13.7 7.0 5.0 4.5 4.7 3.5 2.0 12.8 11.4 7.6 11.4 15.9 18.0 12.5 5.7 4.0 3.8 3.9 2.7 1.5 11.6 8.9 7.2 11.7 16.6 17.7 12.3 6.5 4.0 3.7 3.9 3.0 1.5 10.0 8.8 8.2 11.5 17.2 19.7 12.3 6.5 4.2 4.0 4.2 3.2 1.7 12.0 9.6 7.4 11.0 16.5 18.3 12.1 6.0 4.2 3.8 3.9 2.9 1.5 11.2 9.3 7.3 11.0 15.7 18.1 11.6 5.6 4.0 3.8 3.8 3.0 1.6 10.5 8.6 7.6 11.2 16.3 18.3 11.6 6.3 3.8 3.7 3.8 3.1 1.6 11.0 8.7 7.6 11.3 16.4 18.3 12.1 6.3 4.0 3.8 3.9 3.0 1.6 11.1 9.0 cicognanii 9.1 13.2 18.5 21.7 13.3 7.0 4.7 4.4 4.5 3.4 1.8 12.3 10.4 9.4 13.3 19.1 21.5 13.7 6.9 4.6 4.4 4.5 3.4 2.0 13.2 10.8 8.9 12.7 18.8 20.6 12.9 6.7 4.3 3.8 4.0 3.3 1.9 11.5 10.0 8.2 12.7 17.4 19.8 12.3 6.3 4.5 3.9 4.1 2.9 1.7 11.5 9.7 7.7 11.9 17.3 20.0 11.8 6.4 4.2 3.8 4.0 2.9 1.5 11.8 9.5 8.3 12.5 17.9 19.3 12.4 6.6 4.4 4.1 4.2 3.0 1.6 12.2 10.3 8.1 12.8 17.3 19.0 11.9 6.4 4.3 3.9 4.2 3.0 1.9 11.5 9.2 8.9 12.7 18.8 20.6 12.9 7.2 4.9 4.3 4.5 3.5 2.0 12.6 10.6 8.6 12.6 18.6 20.3 13.1 6.8 4.5 4.1 4.3 3.2 1.6 10.9 9.9 8.6 12.7 18.2 20.3 12.7 6.7 4.5 4.1 4.3 3.2 1.8 11.9 10.0 7.8 11.4 11.8 5.8 4.4 3.8 4.0 3.0 1.8 9.1 7.2 10.0 15.3 10.7 5.7 3.8 3.7 3.6 2.7 1.5 10.3 8.2 7.5 11.0 15.9 17.5 11.1 5.9 3.7 3.4 3.6 2.8 1.5 10.3 8.2 7.6 11.3 16.0 18.0 11.8 6.2 3.9 3.6 3.7 3.1 1.7 10.9 8.8 7.5 10.9 15.7 17.8 11.4 5.9 3.9 3.6 3.7 2.9 1.6 10.5 8.6 bangsi 10.6 14.6 20.6 23.5 14.3 7.7 4.9 4.6 4.9 3.6 1.9 13.3 11.8 10.4 14.4 24.3 5.3 4.5 4.6 3.7 2.1 12.2 9.7 14.6 20.2 22.8 14.6 7.5 5.2 5.0 5.1 3.8 2.6 13.5 12.0 9.0 13.0 19.5 22.0 14.3 7.2 5.1 4.5 4.6 3.5 2.0 13.0 11.2 9.0 12.6 18.8 21.0 13.7 7.3 4.8 4.4 4.5 3.4 1.8 12.0 10.5 9.5 13.3 14.4 7.9 4.8 4.4 4.4 3.5 1.8 11.2 9.0 13.0 19.5 22.0 14.3 6.9 4.6 4.5 4.5 3.5 1.9 13.4 11.0 9.1 13.3 19.0 21.6 13.6 7.2 4.7 4.3 4.5 3.4 2.0 12.8 11.1 9.5 13.2 20.2 22.8 14.3 7.2 4.9 4.7 4.7 3.5 2.1 12.5 11.2 9.9 14.6 19.6 22.6 15.0 7.1 5.2 4.7 4.8 3.7 2.0 13.3 11.5 9.3 13.2 19.7 22.0 13.8 7.6 5.1 4.5 4.7 3.7 2.0 13.0 11.1 10.0 13.5 24.7 14.6 7.3 5.3 4.6 4.8 4.0 2.1 11.8 9.6 13.6 19.7 22.7 14.3 7.4 5.0 4.6 4.7 3.6 2.0 13.0 11.4 9.1 13.1 19.3 21.6 14.4 7.2 4.7 4.3 4.4 3.4 1.9 12.7 10.8 9.8 14.2 20.5 22.8 15.3 8.0 5.1 4.4 4.6 3.6 2.0 14.0 11.7 8.5 12.2 18.0 20.8 12.4 6.3 4.3 4.1 4.1 3.1 1.7 12.0 10.0 7.5 10.9 16.6 18.4 11.7 5.9 4.2 3.7 3.8 2.8 1.6 11.2 9.3 11.0 15.9 17.3 12.2 5.6 3.9 3.8 3.8 2.9 1.6 10.7 8.5 7.4 11.3 15.8 16.8 12.3 6.2 3.8 3.6 3.6 2.8 1.4 10.0 8.3 7.6 12.2 15.7 17.1 11.9 5.7 4.0 3.6 3.7 3.0 1.6 9.6 8.9 8.1 11.3 16.8 18.3 11.8 6.4 4.0 3.8 4.0 2.9 1.7 10.5 9.2 7.7 11.3 16.2 17.6 12.0 6.0 4.0 3.7 3.9 2.9 1.6 10.4 8.8 7.7 10.8 15.8 17.4 11.2 5.6 3.8 3.5 3.7 2.6 1.4 10.4 8.5 7.2 11.4 15.7 16.7 11.6 5.7 4.2 3.8 3.8 2.8 1.6 9.6 8.9 7.8 11.7 16.9 18.9 12.2 6.4 4.1 3.8 3.8 3.2 1.5 11.3 9.7 7.5 11.8 16.7 18.0 12.8 6.1 4.4 3.8 3.8 3.0 1.7 10.8 9.0 7.4 11.2 15.9 17.5 12.4 5.8 4.0 3.6 3.8 3.0 1.6 11.4 9.2 7.5 11.4 16.2 17.7 12.0 5.9 4.1 3.7 3.8 2.9 1.6 10.7 9.1 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS--_Continued_ ================================================================================= Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela erminea average} {37.0 12.8 11.4 maximum} [M] ad. 5 Idaho Co {39.8 14.1 13.0 minimum} {35.8 12.2 10.6 M. V. Z. 90763 [F] ad. Pilot Creek, Idaho 31.6 10.8 9.2 average} {32.2 10.6 9.0 maximum} [F] ad. 1 and Idaho Co {32.8 11.2 9.2 minimum} sad. 4 {31.6 10.8 8.5 Mustela erminea average} {37.5 13.1 11.5 maximum} [M] ad. 8 Windham {38.9 13.7 12.3 minimum} {36.5 12.3 11.0 U. S. N. M. 74422 [F] ad. Juneau 33.2 11.4 10.5 M. V. Z. 995 [F] ad. Juneau 33.1 11.3 9.4 M. V. Z. 473 [F] ad. Helm Bay 32.9 11.2 9.5 U. S. N. M. 74773 [F] ad. Wrangel 32.2 11.3 9.2 M. V. Z. 78243 [F] sad. Windham 31.9 11.1 10.1 av. 5 32.7 11.3 9.7 Mustela erminea average} {37.8 13.0 11.9 maximum} [M] ad. to sad. 12 Mole Harbor {39.5 13.7 13.0 minimum} {36.4 12.5 10.7 average} {33.0 11.3 9.9 maximum} [F] ad. 2 and Mole Harbor {33.6 11.9 10.2 minimum} sad. 4 {32.0 10.9 9.5 Mustela erminea M. V. Z. 289 [M] ad. Saook Bay 40.5 13.9 12.8 M. V. Z. 286 [M] ad. Saook Bay 39.6 13.5 13.1 Mustela erminea average} {39.5 14.0 13.6 maximum} [M] ad. 5 Prince of Wales Id {40.7 14.4 14.5 minimum} {38.9 13.9 13.1 average} {38.7 13.6 13.2 maximum} [M] ad. 5 and Prince of Wales Id {40.9 14.4 14.5 minimum} sad. 15 {36.7 13.0 11.8 M. V. Z. 31223 [F] sad. Prince of Wales Id 12.2 11.5 Mustela erminea M. V. Z. 31232 [M] ad. Suemez Id 34.3 12.6 12.6 Mustela erminea U. S. N. M. 94430 [M] ad. Massett 36.7 13.4 12.7 average} {36.7 13.4 12.7 maximum} [M] ad. 7 Graham Id {37.5 13.6 12.9 minimum} {35.6 13.0 12.2 M. V. Z. 31209 [F] ad. Massett 34.2 12.5 11.3 U. S. N. M. 100624 [F] ad. Cumsheva Inlet 34.2 12.3 11.5 Mustela erminea average} {34.0 11.7 10.8 maximum} [M] 13 ad. Vancouver Id {35.6 12.2 11.3 minimum} {32.5 11.0 10.1 average} {31.5 10.9 9.8 maximum} [F] 5 ad. Vancouver Id {31.8 11.1 10.0 minimum} {30.9 10.5 9.6 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- invicta 9.1 13.1 19.0 21.3 13.6 7.0 4.5 4.1 4.2 3.2 1.7 11.7 10.5 10.0 14.2 19.7 22.6 14.2 7.1 4.9 4.3 4.5 3.5 1.9 12.3 11.3 8.6 12.0 18.2 20.5 13.3 6.8 4.2 4.0 4.0 3.1 1.4 10.9 9.7 7.0 10.5 15.6 16.5 10.9 5.6 4.0 3.6 3.7 2.9 1.4 9.0 8.2 7.1 11.1 16.3 17.2 12.0 5.9 3.9 3.7 3.7 2.8 1.4 9.5 8.3 7.2 12.2 17.0 17.8 12.7 6.5 4.3 3.9 3.9 2.9 1.5 10.0 8.7 7.0 10.5 15.6 16.5 10.9 5.6 3.5 3.6 3.6 2.7 1.3 9.0 8.0 alascensis 9.4 13.2 19.4 21.9 13.2 6.9 4.8 4.2 4.4 3.5 1.9 12.5 10.7 10.1 14.3 20.5 23.7 13.7 7.4 5.0 4.4 4.7 3.9 2.2 13.8 11.6 8.6 12.0 18.5 20.4 12.9 6.6 4.5 4.1 4.2 3.3 1.8 11.8 10.4 8.3 10.5 16.2 18.3 11.5 5.7 3.9 3.5 3.7 2.9 1.6 10.0 8.7 7.8 11.3 16.3 17.8 12.0 5.8 3.9 3.7 3.8 2.9 1.7 8.7 8.5 11.6 16.3 17.6 11.9 6.0 4.0 3.7 3.9 2.6 1.4 10.5 9.3 7.5 16.0 17.6 11.9 5.8 4.0 3.8 4.0 3.2 1.7 11.5 8.7 7.7 11.5 16.8 18.0 11.5 5.7 4.0 3.6 3.8 3.1 1.7 10.6 8.8 8.0 11.2 16.3 17.9 11.8 5.8 4.0 3.7 3.8 2.9 1.6 10.6 8.8 salva 9.6 13.3 19.2 22.0 12.8 6.8 4.6 4.3 4.4 3.5 1.8 11.7 10.7 10.8 14.2 20.0 23.2 13.8 7.2 5.0 4.6 4.8 3.9 2.0 13.1 11.4 8.4 12.4 18.0 20.4 12.0 6.2 4.4 4.0 4.0 3.1 1.7 11.2 10.0 8.1 11.6 16.5 18.2 11.5 5.8 4.0 3.8 3.8 3.0 1.5 10.1 9.1 8.7 12.3 17.1 18.7 12.0 6.2 4.2 3.9 3.9 3.2 1.6 10.9 9.4 7.5 11.1 15.4 17.1 11.0 5.3 3.8 3.6 3.6 2.9 1.5 8.9 8.4 initis 10.6 14.4 22.1 24.5 14.8 7.6 5.2 4.7 5.0 4.1 1.9 12.8 11.0 11.4 15.0 21.0 24.3 13.6 7.6 5.0 4.7 4.9 3.6 2.1 12.3 12.0 celenda 11.5 14.7 20.9 24.2 13.6 7.5 5.1 4.7 4.8 3.7 1.9 12.9 11.6 12.1 15.6 21.7 25.8 14.2 7.9 5.1 4.9 4.9 3.9 2.2 13.6 12.5 10.9 13.8 19.9 23.2 13.2 7.0 5.0 4.6 4.6 3.6 1.7 12.3 10.8 11.2 14.4 20.3 23.3 13.2 7.3 5.0 4.6 4.7 3.6 1.8 12.9 11.4 12.1 15.6 21.7 25.8 14.2 7.9 5.3 5.0 4.9 3.9 2.2 13.6 12.5 10.2 13.4 19.0 21.3 12.3 6.8 4.6 4.3 4.2 3.3 1.6 12.1 10.8 9.8 12.6 4.5 4.2 4.2 3.2 1.5 10.0 seclusa 10.6 13.9 20.2 22.7 12.7 6.9 5.1 4.7 5.0 3.8 1.8 12.3 11.5 haidarum 10.5 13.9 19.3 22.6 12.4 6.4 5.0 4.3 4.5 3.3 1.9 12.4 11.4 10.9 14.3 18.9 21.8 12.6 6.8 5.0 4.3 4.6 3.4 1.7 12.6 11.3 11.2 14.8 19.6 22.4 13.0 7.1 4.8 4.4 4.7 3.4 1.9 13.1 11.7 10.5 14.0 18.0 21.1 12.3 6.4 5.1 4.2 4.4 3.3 1.6 12.1 10.8 9.8 13.3 17.3 19.8 11.5 6.1 4.7 4.1 4.2 3.0 1.5 11.5 10.2 9.8 13.1 17.0 19.8 11.8 6.1 4.6 4.0 4.3 3.2 1.7 11.2 10.0 anguinae 9.0 12.0 17.1 19.3 11.9 6.1 4.3 3.8 4.0 3.1 1.7 11.6 10.0 9.6 12.5 17.9 20.6 12.5 6.7 4.6 4.0 4.1 3.3 1.9 12.5 10.5 8.5 11.3 16.5 18.8 11.2 5.7 4.0 3.6 3.7 2.9 1.6 10.7 9.8 8.2 11.5 15.8 17.5 10.8 5.5 4.0 3.6 3.8 2.9 1.6 10.5 9.3 8.8 12.4 16.1 17.8 11.1 5.7 4.2 3.8 4.0 3.0 1.6 11.5 10.0 7.9 10.6 15.6 17.3 10.4 5.4 3.8 3.5 3.6 2.8 1.5 10.0 8.9 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS--_Continued_ ================================================================================= Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela erminea average} {35.7 12.6 11.1 maximum} [M] ad. 7 Topotypes {38.2 13.1 11.6 minimum} {34.3 12.0 10.5 N. M. C. 7284 [F] ad. Topotype 29.4 10.1 9.1 N. M. C. 7516 [F] ad. Topotype 31.1 10.1 9.6 M. C. Z. 6852 [F] ad. Sumas 31.3 10.3 9.2 M. C. Z. 3645 [F] ad. Sumas 29.4 10.2 8.6 M. C. Z. 10728 [F] ad. Sumas 31.7 10.2 9.1 Mustela erminea U. S. N. M. 90738 [M] ad. Type 31.9 11.6 10.0 U. S. N. M. 241941 [M] ad. N. Fk. Quinault River 32.5 11.7 10.2 U. S. N. M. 231829 [M] ad. Duckabush 30.6 10.9 9.2 U. S. N. M. 231830 [M] ad. Duckabush 32.1 11.1 10.0 M. Z. 53700 [M] ad. Lake Cushman 32.0 11.4 9.8 av. 5 31.8 11.3 9.8 C. R. C. M. 96 [F] ad. Elwha River 27.5 9.4 8.3 C. R. C. M. 1164 [F] ad. 12 mi. S Port Angeles 26.7 9.0 8.1 U. S. N. M. 242133 [F] ad. Hayes Creek 27.2 9.2 8.4 av. 3 27.1 9.2 8.3 Mustela erminea average} {33.2 11.7 10.5 maximum} [M] ad. 12 Tillamook Co {33.8 12.1 11.1 minimum} {32.5 11.3 10.0 average} {28.5 9.9 8.9 maximum} [F] ad. 7 Tillamook Co {29.5 10.2 9.2 minimum} {27.6 9.6 8.7 Mustela erminea U. S. N. M. 82177 [M] ad. Trout Lake 32.0 11.3 10.1 U. S. N. M. 64768 [M] ad. Trout Lake 33.3 12.0 9.9 average} {32.3 11.5 10.0 maximum} [M] ad. 2, sad. 13 Trout Lake {33.4 12.0 10.7 minimum} {30.9 10.8 9.0 U. S. N. M. 232741 [F] ad. Reflection Lakes 28.4 9.6 8.7 U. S. N. M. 90727 [F] ad. Mt. St. Helens 28.0 9.7 8.1 U. S. N. M. 81919 [F] ad. Trout Lake 28.1 9.7 8.8 U. S. N. M. 87039 [F] ad. Trout Lake 28.4 9.8 8.7 U. S. N. M. 77370 [F] ad. Trout Lake 27.8 9.6 8.6 av. 5 28.1 9.7 8.6 Mustela erminea U. S. N. M. 231397 [M] ad. Donovan, Mont *31.2 10.5 9.5 U. S. N. M. 206991 [M] ad. Mill Creek, Oreg *30.9 10.8 9.0 M. V. Z. 34746 [M] ad. Black Butte, Calif 30.8 11.1 9.4 M. V. Z. 41501 [M] ad. Wheeler Peak, Nev 29.8 10.4 9.3 E. R. W. 3050 [M] ad. Crested Butte, Colo. *30.4 11.1 9.8 av. 5 30.6 10.8 9.4 M. Z. 62111 [F] ad. Teton Co., Wyoming 28.0 9.7 8.3 M. Z. 62112 [F] ad. Teton Co., Wyoming 27.3 9.7 8.1 M. V. Z. 13776 [F] ad. Rush Creek, California 28.1 9.5 8.8 M. V. Z. 13777 [F] ad. Castle Lake, California 29.4 9.9 8.8 M. V. Z. 41502 [F] ad. Wheeler Peak, Nev 27.3 9.3 8.0 F. M. N. H. 11440 [F] ad. Camp Albion, Colo 27.8 9.4 8.4 av. 6 28.0 9.6 8.4 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- fallenda 9.2 12.5 18.3 20.8 13.1 6.8 **4.7 **4.2 **4.4 **3.4 **1.9 11.7 10.5 9.9 13.0 19.6 22.8 14.1 7.6 5.1 4.6 4.7 3.6 2.1 12.4 11.0 8.3 12.0 17.0 19.4 12.2 6.2 4.3 3.9 3.9 3.2 1.7 11.0 10.0 7.1 10.5 15.4 17.4 11.1 5.5 3.7 3.5 3.6 2.8 1.5 10.5 8.6 8.0 11.0 16.0 18.5 11.5 5.6 4.1 3.7 3.8 2.9 1.5 10.0 9.0 7.3 10.1 15.8 17.2 11.0 5.3 3.8 3.5 3.7 2.7 1.5 11.0 8.7 7.3 10.7 14.7 15.4 10.5 5.2 3.8 3.5 3.8 2.7 1.5 9.5 8.3 7.1 10.7 15.7 17.4 11.5 5.5 3.8 3.4 3.7 2.6 1.2 9.3 8.2 olympica 7.9 11.9 15.3 17.9 11.6 5.3 4.0 3.6 3.9 2.9 2.1 9.9 8.9 8.2 12.0 16.3 18.2 11.7 5.6 4.2 3.6 3.7 2.9 1.8 10.0 9.2 7.4 10.3 15.0 17.2 10.7 5.2 4.2 3.5 3.7 2.7 1.7 10.0 8.6 8.2 12.3 16.6 18.6 11.2 5.9 4.0 3.7 3.9 3.0 1.7 10.2 9.3 8.0 11.0 16.9 18.8 11.4 6.3 4.3 3.8 3.9 3.1 1.7 10.3 9.2 7.9 11.5 16.0 18.1 11.3 5.7 4.2 3.7 3.9 2.9 1.8 10.1 9.0 6.9 9.3 13.2 15.3 10.2 4.6 3.4 3.0 3.3 2.5 1.3 8.5 7.2 6.7 9.0 13.1 14.4 9.7 4.8 3.4 3.1 3.4 2.3 1.3 9.0 7.3 7.2 9.2 13.7 15.4 9.5 4.8 3.3 3.0 3.1 2.1 1.2 8.3 7.2 6.9 9.2 13.3 15.0 9.8 4.7 3.4 3.1 3.3 2.3 1.2 8.6 7.2 streatori 8.5 11.7 17.0 19.2 11.8 6.4 4.3 3.8 3.9 3.1 1.8 10.8 9.8 9.1 12.5 18.0 19.8 12.6 6.9 4.4 4.0 4.1 3.5 2.1 11.4 10.3 8.2 11.1 16.1 18.5 11.1 6.0 4.1 3.6 3.8 2.9 1.6 10.3 9.5 7.3 10.1 14.3 15.9 10.6 5.2 3.6 3.2 3.5 2.6 1.6 9.4 8.1 7.6 10.2 14.8 16.3 11.2 5.4 3.7 3.3 3.6 2.7 1.7 10.0 8.4 7.0 9.8 14.1 15.5 10.0 5.0 3.5 3.1 3.3 2.5 1.5 9.2 7.9 gulosa 8.5 11.2 16.3 18.3 11.3 5.9 4.2 3.8 4.1 2.9 1.6 10.5 9.4 8.3 12.2 16.9 18.5 11.8 5.9 4.2 3.7 3.7 2.8 1.8 10.6 9.4 8.3 11.5 16.4 18.4 11.5 5.9 4.2 3.7 3.9 2.9 1.7 10.3 9.2 8.8 12.4 17.2 19.3 12.1 6.3 4.5 3.8 4.1 3.2 2.0 11.2 9.7 7.4 10.8 15.6 17.8 10.8 5.5 3.9 3.5 3.6 2.7 1.6 9.6 8.5 7.4 9.3 14.1 15.8 10.9 5.4 3.7 3.2 3.5 2.7 1.6 8.4 7.4 6.9 9.5 13.6 15.6 10.0 4.8 3.6 3.3 3.5 2.5 1.6 9.0 7.6 7.0 10.0 13.8 15.4 10.1 4.9 3.6 3.2 3.3 2.3 1.4 8.1 7.3 7.1 *10.8 14.5 15.6 10.0 5.0 3.5 3.2 3.4 2.5 1.4 8.6 7.5 6.6 *9.3 13.6 15.2 9.7 4.7 3.8 3.4 3.5 2.7 1.5 8.1 7.2 7.0 9.8 13.9 15.5 10.1 5.0 3.6 3.3 3.4 2.5 1.5 8.4 7.4 muricus 8.0 11.3 *16.0 17.5 5.7 4.0 3.6 3.7 2.8 1.6 11.2 8.8 7.2 11.0 17.4 11.3 5.6 4.3 3.7 4.0 3.0 1.6 8.7 7.7 11.1 15.9 17.5 10.8 5.6 4.2 3.5 3.6 2.8 1.8 9.6 8.4 7.2 10.6 15.1 17.1 10.7 5.4 4.0 3.5 3.5 2.7 1.5 9.8 8.0 7.7 11.2 16.2 18.3 10.8 5.7 4.3 3.6 3.9 2.9 1.6 8.5 7.6 11.0 15.8 17.6 10.9 5.6 4.2 3.6 3.7 2.8 1.6 10.2 8.5 6.7 10.0 14.9 16.0 10.9 5.3 3.6 3.2 3.3 2.7 1.7 8.8 7.2 6.5 9.2 14.0 15.6 10.1 5.0 3.5 3.2 3.3 2.5 1.4 8.3 7.2 7.4 9.7 14.3 16.5 10.2 4.7 3.6 3.2 3.4 2.7 1.5 9.1 7.8 7.3 10.8 15.2 17.1 10.0 5.3 3.6 3.1 3.4 2.6 1.5 8.2 6.3 9.5 13.9 15.8 10.0 5.0 3.4 2.9 3.1 2.4 1.3 8.8 7.2 6.9 9.5 14.1 15.5 10.5 5.1 3.6 3.2 3.3 2.6 1.4 8.9 7.5 6.9 9.8 14.4 16.1 10.3 5.1 3.6 3.1 3.3 2.6 1.5 8.8 7.5 TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS--_Concluded_ ================================================================================= Key: A Basilar length (of Hensel) B Length of tooth rows C Breadth of rostrum Catalog Sex and Collection Number age Locality A B C --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mustela erminea A. M. N. H. 12432 [F] ad. Conard Fissure, Ark 35.1 12.7 10.4 A. M. N. H. 12433 [F] ad. Conard Fissure, Ark 12.6 9.9 A. M. N. H. 12435 [F] ad. Conard Fissure, Ark *32.5 12.4 10.0 A. M. N. H. 11766 [F] ad. Conard Fissure, Ark 34.5 12.3 10.7 av 34.0 12.5 10.3 A. M. N. H. 12437 [M] sad. Conard Fissure, Ark 39.2 14.5 11.7 A. M. N. H. 12441 [M] ad. Conard Fissure, Ark 38.5 13.9 11.3 A. M. N. H. 12436 [M] ad. Conard Fissure, Ark 13.5 11.7 A. M. N. H. 12444 [M] ad. Conard Fissure, Ark 14.3 11.6 A. M. N. H. 11769 [M] sad. Conard Fissure, Ark A. M. N. H. 12438 [M] yg. Conard Fissure, Ark 36.6 13.5 12.2 av 38.1 13.9 11.7 Mustela rixosa average} {29.5 10.1 9.1 maximum} [M] ad. 6 Point Barrow {30.1 10.6 9.9 minimum} {27.6 9.3 8.6 average} {27.8 9.3 8.3 maximum} [F] ad. and sad. 4 Point Barrow {28.5 9.5 8.5 minimum} {27.0 9.0 7.9 Mustela rixosa average} {29.5 10.1 8.2 maximum} [M] ad. 2, and Shaunavon {30.4 10.5 9.0 minimum} sad. 4 {28.4 9.6 7.4 average} {26.1 8.9 7.2 maximum} [F] ad. 3, and Regina and Shaunavon {27.0 9.2 7.5 minimum} sad. 1 {24.7 8.5 6.9 Mustela rixosa Swenk, Mr. 5 [M] ad. 1 mi. E Inland 11.6 8.8 Swenk, Mr. 8 [M] ad. Inland 30.7 10.5 8.2 Swenk, Mr. 10 [F] ad. Inland 28.0 9.8 7.6 U. S. N. M. 171490 [F] ad. Type 28.8 7.7 Mustela rixosa U. S. N. M. 249285 [M] sad. Finleyville, Pa 29.7 10.2 U. S. N. M. 203173 [M] sad. Waynesburg, Pa 28.6 9.5 7.7 U. S. N. M. 206340 [M] ad. Huttonsville, W. Va 28.5 9.9 8.5 C. M. 7543 [F] ad. Pymatuning Swamp 28.0 9.2 8.1 A. N. S. P. 11279 [F] ad. Beallville, Pa 28.0 9.5 7.5 U. S. N. M. 245843 [F] ad. near Marshall, N. C 27.5 9.4 7.3 ================================================================================= D Interorbital breadth E Orbitonasal length F Mastoid breadth G Zygomatic breadth H Length } J Breadth }Tympanic Bulla K Depth } L Length m1 M Lateral } N Medial }P4 P Breadth }M1 Q Length } R Depth of Skull at Ant. margin of basioccipital S Depth of Skull at posterior borders of Msl |-Tympanic Bulla-| |----P4---| |----M1---| D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- angustidens 8.1 12.1 18.7 12.1 6.2 4.5 4.4 3.3 1.65 11.0 9.6 8.3 11.4 4.2 4.5 3.4 1.5 9.9 *7.5 12.2 17.1 *19.0 11.4 5.8 3.8 4.0 2.9 1.4 8.6 8.4 11.8 18.2 12.5 6.6 4.1 4.3 3.2 1.5 10.0 9.5 8.1 11.9 18.0 12.0 6.2 4.2 4.3 3.2 1.5 10.5 9.4 9.6 13.6 20.4 13.0 6.7 4.6 4.9 3.8 2.1 13.2 11.0 9.1 13.0 20.0 13.5 6.9 4.7 4.9 3.6 1.5 12.1 10.7 8.9 13.5 4.0 4.3 3.2 1.6 10.4 9.2 13.8 4.7 4.6 3.2 1.8 10.8 4.5 4.9 3.9 1.9 9.3 12.8 13.0 6.6 4.4 4.6 3.5 1.7 13.7 10.9 9.2 13.3 20.2 13.2 6.7 4.5 4.7 3.5 1.8 13.0 10.8 eskimo 7.4 10.1 15.6 17.8 11.3 5.4 3.8 3.6 3.6 2.7 1.4 9.5 8.4 7.8 10.6 16.3 18.0 11.9 5.8 4.2 3.9 3.9 2.9 1.6 10.0 8.7 7.1 9.3 14.5 17.0 10.1 5.0 3.5 3.2 3.3 2.5 1.1 8.5 7.7 6.9 9.6 14.1 15.7 10.5 5.1 3.4 3.2 3.2 2.5 1.2 9.5 7.7 7.2 9.7 15.0 16.5 11.1 5.6 3.7 3.3 3.4 2.6 1.3 10.0 8.0 7.0 9.5 13.6 15.0 10.2 4.8 3.2 3.0 3.0 2.3 1.1 9.2 7.4 rixosa 6.6 9.9 15.1 16.4 11.0 5.2 3.7 3.3 3.6 2.6 1.4 10.0 8.4 6.9 10.5 16.1 17.1 11.5 5.5 3.9 3.5 3.8 2.7 1.5 10.4 8.8 6.3 9.2 14.0 15.2 10.7 5.0 3.5 3.1 3.3 2.4 1.3 9.4 8.0 5.5 8.9 13.1 14.1 9.7 4.9 3.3 3.0 3.2 2.3 1.2 8.6 7.1 5.9 9.5 13.6 14.6 10.0 5.0 3.5 3.1 3.3 2.4 1.3 9.0 7.2 5.2 8.3 12.3 13.7 9.5 4.7 3.1 2.8 2.9 2.3 1.1 8.2 7.0 campestris 7.6 11.1 16.1 18.0 4.1 3.6 3.8 2.7 1.6 11.5 9.7 7.0 10.5 15.9 17.9 10.9 5.7 3.8 3.4 3.5 2.6 1.5 8.6 5.8 9.4 14.2 10.3 5.4 1.7 3.5 3.1 3.3 2.5 1.5 9.3 7.8 6.1 9.1 14.1 15.0 10.2 5.1 1.6 3.8 3.2 3.4 2.5 1.5 9.3 7.7 allegheniensis 10.1 15.0 16.5 10.5 5.2 4.1 3.4 3.7 2.7 1.5 9.6 8.1 6.7 9.5 14.7 16.1 10.5 5.4 3.4 3.5 3.2 2.5 1.3 10.2 8.0 7.1 10.3 15.1 16.7 10.2 5.1 3.3 3.0 3.2 2.4 1.3 10.5 8.4 9.5 13.6 10.0 5.2 3.4 3.0 3.1 2.4 1.3 6.2 9.7 13.5 14.6 10.0 5.1 3.7 3.3 3.5 2.6 1.4 8.7 7.8 6.4 9.4 15.0 9.3 5.0 3.6 3.2 3.4 2.5 1.3 7.7 ================================================================================= (Abbreviations used for names of collections in the table of measurements of Mustela) A. M. N. H. American Museum of Natural History A. N. S. P. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia Baylor U. Baylor University B. M. British Museum of Natural History B. S. N. Boston Society of Natural History B. Z. M. Berlin Zoological Museum C. A. C. California Academy of Sciences C. M. Carnegie Museum C. R. C. M. Charles R. Conner Museum, Washington State College C. Z. M. University Zoological Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark Cornell Cornell University Cowan Ian McTaggart-Cowan, private collection Dickey Donald R. Dickey (deceased), private collection E. R. W. Edward R. Warren, private collection F. M. N. H. Field Museum of Natural History F. S. M. Florida State Museum Kans. U. University of Kansas, Museum of Natural History M. C. Z. Museum of Comparative Zoölogy M. P. H. N. Musée Polonais d'Histoire Naturelle (Warsaw, Poland) M. V. Z. Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, University of California M. Z. Museum of Zoölogy, University of Michigan N. H. R. S. Naturhistoriska Riksmuseum N. M. C. National Museum of Canada S. D. M. San Diego Society of Natural History Snyder W. E. Snyder, Beaver Dam, Wisconsin Stan. U. Leland Stanford Junior University Stephens Frank Stephens, private collection Swenk, Mr. Myron H. Swenk, private collection U. O. University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon U. S. N. M. United States National Museum Walker Alex Walker, private collection Wisc. U. University of Wisconsin * Approximate ** Average of 14 LITERATURE CITED ABBOT, C. C. 1884. A naturalist's rambles about home. D. Appleton and Co., New York, 485 pp. ADDY, E. 1939. A weasel trails a rabbit. Jour. Mamm., 20:372-373, August 14, 1939. ALDOUS, S. E., and MANWEILER, J. 1942. The winter food habits of the short-tailed weasel in northern Minnesota. Jour. Mamm., 23:250-255, August 13, 1942. ALLEN, D. L. 1938. Notes on the killing technique of the New York weasel. Jour. Mamm., 19:225-229, May 14, 1938. 1940. Two recent mammal records from Allegan County, Michigan. Jour. 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Minnesota Dept. Conservation, Div. Game and Fish, Saint Paul, Minnesota, pp. 1-84, illustrated. SUTTON, G. K. 1929. The Alleghenian least weasel in Pennsylvania. Jour. Mamm., 252-254, 1 fig. in text, August 10, 1929. SVIHLA, A. 1931. Habits of the New York weasel in captivity. Jour. Mamm., 12:67-68, February 12, 1931. SWANSON, G., and FRYKLUND, P. O. 1935. The least weasel in Minnesota and its fluctuation in numbers. Amer. Midland Nat., 16:120-126, figs. 1-6, 1935. SWENK, M. H. 1926. Notes on Mustela campestris Jackson, and on the American forms of least weasels. Jour. Mamm., 7:313-330, 1 fig. in text, November 23, 1926. TACZANOWSKI, L. 1874. Description d' une nouvelle espéce de _Mustela_ du Pérou central. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1874:311-312, pl. 48, May 19, 1874. 1881. Description d' une nouvelle belette du Pérou septentrional. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1881:647-649, May 17, 1881. 1881. Description d' une nouvelle espéce du genre _Mustela_ du Pérou nord-oriental. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1881:835-836, November 15, 1881. TATE, G. H. H. 1931. Random observations on habits of South American mammals. Jour. Mamm., 12:248-256, August 24, 1931. THOMAS, O. 1911. The mammals of the tenth edition of Linnaeus; an attempt to fix the types of the genera and the exact bases and localities of the species. Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, 1911:120-158, March, 1911. 1920. Report on the Mammalia collected by Mr. Edmund Heller during the Peruvian expedition of 1915 under the auspices of Yale University and the National Geographic Society. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 58:217-249, pls. 14-15. THURBER, W. A. 1940. A weasel attacks a varying hare. Jour. Mamm., 21:356, August 14, 1940. TSCHUDI, J. J. 1844. Untersuchungen über die Fauna Peruana. Therologie. Druck und verlag von Scheitlin und Zollikofer, St. Gallen, xxx + 262 pp., 18 pls. VESTAL, E. H. 1937. Activities of a weasel at a wood rat colony. Jour. Mamm., 18:364, August 14, 1937. 1938. Biotic relations of the wood rat (Neotoma fuscipes) in the Berkeley Hills. Jour. Mamm., 19:1-36, figs. 1-4, February 14, 1938. WARREN, E. R. 1924. Ground squirrels and weasels. Jour. Mamm., 5:265-266, November 15, 1924. 1932. When do weasels mate? Jour. Mamm., 13:71-72, February 9, 1932. WIGHT, H. M. 1932. A weasel attacks a man. Jour. Mamm., 13:163-164, May 11, 1932. WILLIS, J. C. 1922. Age and Area: A study in geographic distribution and origin of species. University Press, Cambridge, England, x + 259 pp., illustrated. WINECOFF, T. E. 1930. Least weasel in Pennsylvania. Jour. Mamm., 11:312-313, August, 1930. WOLDRICH, J. N. 1884. Diluviale Fauna von Zuzlawitz bei Winterberg im Bohmerwalde. Dritter Theil.... Sitzungsberich. d. K. Akad. d. Wissen. Math.--Natur.--Classe, 88(heft 3, erste abth.):978-1057, 3 pls., 2 figs. in text. WRIGHT, P. L. 1942A. Delayed implantation in the long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata), the short-tailed weasel (Mustela cicognani), and the marten (Martes americana). Anat. Rec., 83:341-353, 2 pls., July, 1942. 1942B. A correlation between the spring molt and spring changes in the sexual cycle in the weasel. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., 91:103-110, October, 1942. 1947. The sexual cycle of the male long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata). Jour. Mamm., 28:343-352, 1 pl., 3 figs. in text, November 19, 1947. 1948A. Breeding habits of captive long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata). Amer. Midland Nat., 39:338-344, March, 1948. 1948B. Preimplantation stages in the long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata). Anat. Rec., 100:595-607, 2 pls., April, 1948. 1950. Effects of gonadotropic hormone on the pelage of white winter long-tailed weasels; abstract. Anat. Rec., 106(no. 2):130, February, 1950. ZIMMERMANN, K. 1943. Zur Kenntnis deutscher Maus-und Zwerg-Wiesel. Zeitschr. fur Säugetierkunde, 15(3):289-298, 2 pls., 2 figs. in text, 3 tables, January 11, 1943. _Transmitted May 22, 1950_. [Illustration: PLATE 2. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in dorsal view of nine subspecies of _Mustela erminea_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela erminea arctica_, [M] ad., 178405, U. S. Nat. Mus., Tanana, Alaska. _b._ _Mustela erminea semplei_, [M] sad., 6499, Carnegie Mus., Southhampton Island. _c._ _Mustela erminea kadiacensis_, [M] ad., 107496, U. S. N. M., Kodiak Island, Alaska. _d._ _Mustela erminea richardsonii_, [M] ad., 133847, U. S. N. M., Ft. Franklin, MacK. _e._ _Mustela erminea cicognanii_, [M] ad., 53788, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Lopez, Pennsylvania. _f._ _Mustela erminea bangsi_, [M] ad., 18130, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Aitkin, Minn. _g._ _Mustela erminea invicta_, [M] ad., 90759, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Pilot Creek, Idaho. _h._ _Mustela erminea alascensis_, [M] ad., 74665, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Windham, Alaska. _i._ _Mustela erminea salva_, [M] ad., 74641, M. V. Z., Mole Harbor, Admiralty Id., Alaska.] [Illustration: PLATE 3. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in ventral view of nine subspecies of _Mustela erminea_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela erminea arctica_, [M] ad., 178405, U. S. Nat. Mus., Tanana, Alaska. _b._ _Mustela erminea semplei_, [M] sad., 6499, Carnegie Mus., Southampton Island. _c._ _Mustela erminea kadiacensis_, [M] ad., 107496, U. S. N. M., Kodiak Island, Alaska. _d._ _Mustela erminea richardsonii_, [M] ad., 133847, U. S. N. M., Ft. Franklin, MacK. _e._ _Mustela erminea cicognanii_, [M] ad., 53788, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Lopez, Pennsylvania. _f._ _Mustela erminea bangsi_, [M] ad., 18130, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Aitkin, Minn. _g._ _Mustela erminea invicta_, [M] ad., 90759, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Pilot Creek, Idaho. _h._ _Mustela erminea alascensis_, [M] ad., 74665, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Windham, Alaska. _i._ _Mustela erminea salva_, [M] ad., 74641, M. V. Z., Mole Harbor, Admiralty Id., Alaska.] [Illustration: PLATE 4. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in lateral view of ten subspecies _Mustela erminea_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela erminea arctica_, [M] ad., 178405, U. S. Nat. Mus., Tanana, Alaska. _b._ _Mustela erminea semplei_, [M] sad., 6499, Carnegie Mus., Southampton Island. _c._ _Mustela erminea kadiacensis_, [M] ad., 107496, U. S. N. M., Kodiak Island, Alaska. _d._ _Mustela erminea richardsonii_, [M] ad., 133847, U. S. N. M., Ft. Franklin, MacK. _e._ _Mustela erminea cicognanii_, [M] ad., 53788, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Lopez, Pennsylvania. _f._ _Mustela erminea bangsi_, [M] ad., 18130, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Aitkin, Minn. _g._ _Mustela erminea invicta_, [M] ad., 90759, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Pilot Creek, Idaho. _h._ _Mustela erminea alascensis_, [M] ad., 74665, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Windham, Alaska. _i._ _Mustela erminea salva_, [M] ad., 74641, M. V. Z., Mole Harbor, Admiralty Id., Alaska. _j._ _Mustela erminea initis_, [M] ad., 289, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Saook Bay, Alaska.] [Illustration: PLATE 5. Photos, retouched, of skulls of 9 subspecies of _Mustela erminea_, × 1. _a._ _Mustela erminea initis_, [M] ad., 289, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Saook Bay, Alaska. _b._ _Mustela erminea celenda_, [M] ad., 1053, Los Angeles Mus., Craig, Alaska. _c._ _Mustela erminea seclusa_, [M] ad., 31232, M. V. Z., Port Santa Cruz, Alaska. _d._ _Mustela erminea haidarum_, [M] ad., 230777, U. S. N. M., Graham Island, B. C. _e._ _Mustela erminea anguinae_, [M] ad., 13508, Nat. Mus. Canada, Cape Scott, V. I., B. C. _f._ _Mustela erminea fallenda_, [M] ad., 7096, Nat. Mus. Canada, Huntingdon, B. C. _g._ _Mustela e. olympica_, [M] ad., 90738, U. S. N. M., near head of Soleduc Riv., Wash. _h._ _Mustela erminea streatori_, [M] ad., 133, Coll. of Alex Walker, Blaine, Oregon. _i._ _Mustela erminea gulosa_, [M] ad., 82177, U. S. Nat. Mus., Trout Lake, Wash.] [Illustration: PLATE 6. Photos, retouched, of skulls of 9 subspecies of _Mustela erminea_, × 1. _a._ _Mustela erminea initis_, [M] ad., 289, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Saook Bay, Alaska. _b._ _Mustela erminea celenda_, [M] ad., 1053, Los Angeles Mus., Craig, Alaska. _c._ _Mustela erminea seclusa_, [M] ad., 31232, M. V. Z., Port Santa Cruz, Alaska. _d._ _Mustela erminea haidarum_, [M] ad., 230777, U. S. N. M., Graham Island, B. C. _e._ _Mustela erminea anguinae_, [M] ad., 13508, Nat. Mus. Canada, Cape Scott, V. I., B. C. _f._ _Mustela erminea fallenda_, [M] ad., 7096, Nat. Mus. Canada, Huntingdon, B. C. _g._ _Mustela e. olympica_, [M] ad., 90738, U. S. N. M., near head of Soleduc Riv., Wash. _h._ _Mustela erminea streatori_, [M] ad., 133, Coll. of Alex Walker, Blaine, Oregon. _i._ _Mustela erminea gulosa_, [M] ad., 82177, U. S. Nat. Mus., Trout Lake, Wash.] [Illustration: PLATE 7. Photos, retouched, of skulls, of subspecies of _Mustela erminea_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela erminea celenda_, [M] ad., 1053, Los Angeles Mus., Craig, Alaska. _b._ _Mustela erminea seclusa_, [M] ad., 31232, M. V. Z., Port Santa Cruz, Alaska. _c._ _Mustela erminea haidarum_, [M] ad., 230777, U. S. N. M., Graham Island, B. C. _d._ _Mustela erminea anguinae_, [M] ad., 13508, Nat. Mus. Canada, Cape Scott, V. I., B. C. _e._ _Mustela erminea fallenda_, [M] ad., 7096, Nat. Mus. Canada, Huntingdon, B. C. _f._ _Mustela erminea olympica_, [M] ad., 90738, U. S. N. M., near head of Soleduc Riv., Wash. _g._ _Mustela erminea streatori_, [M] ad., 133, Coll. of Alex Walker, Blaine, Oregon. _h._ _Mustela erminea gulosa_, [M] ad., 82177, U. S. Nat. Mus., Trout Lake, Wash. _i_, _j_, _k_. _Mustela erminea muricus_, [M] ad., 41501, M. V. Z., Baker Creek, 8675 ft., Nev. _l_, _m_. _Mustela erminea angustidens_, [M]?, sad., 12437, A. M. N. H., Conard Fissure, Ark. _n._ _Mustela erminea angustidens_, [M]?, ad., 12441, A. M. N. H., Conard Fissure, Ark.] [Illustration: PLATE 8. Photos, retouched, of _Mustela erminea angustidens_. All in Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., from Conard Fissure, Arkansas. Pleistocene in age, × 1. _a._ Adult, probably male, 12441. _b._ Subadult, probably male, 12437. _c._ Adult, probably male, 12444. _d._ Adult, probably male, 12441. _e._ Subadult, probably male, 12437. _f._ Young, probably male, 12438. _g_, _h_. Adult, type, probably female, 12432. _i._ Adult, probably female, 12433.] [Illustration: PLATE 9. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in dorsal view of 9 subspecies of _Mustela erminea_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela erminea arctica_, [F] ad., 35895, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Point Barrow, Alaska. _b._ _Mustela erminea semplei_, [F] ad., 6600, Carnegie Mus., Southhampton Island. _c._ _Mustela erminea kadiacensis_, [F] ad., 98042, U. S. Nat. Mus., Kadiak, Alaska. _d._ _Mustela erminea richardsonii_, [F] ad., 129703, U. S. N. M., Fort Resolution, MacK. _e._ _Mustela erminea cicognanii_, [F] ad., 7460, Carnegie Mus., Pymatuning Swamp, Pa. _f._ _Mustela erminea bangsi_, [F] ad., 8679, Univ. Wisconsin, T. 61N, R. 26W, Minn. _g._ _Mustela erminea invicta_, [F] ad., 90820, M. V. Z., 1-1/2 mi. W Iron Mtn., Idaho. _h._ _Mustela erminea alascensis_, [F] ad., 74422, U. S. Nat. Mus., Juneau, Alaska. _i._ _Mustela erminea salva_, [F] ad., 74655, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Mole Harbor, Alaska.] [Illustration: PLATE 10. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in dorsal view of 9 subspecies of _Mustela erminea_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela erminea arctica_, [F] ad., 35895, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Point Barrow, Alaska. _b._ _Mustela erminea semplei_, [F] ad., 6600, Carnegie Mus., Southhampton Island. _c._ _Mustela erminea kadiacensis_, [F] ad., 98042, U. S. Nat. Mus., Kadiak, Alaska. _d._ _Mustela erminea richardsonii_, [F] ad., 129703, U. S. N. M., Fort Resolution, MacK. _e._ _Mustela erminea cicognanii_, [F] ad., 7460, Carnegie Mus., Pymatuning Swamp, Pa. _f._ _Mustela erminea bangsi_, [F] ad., 8679, Univ. Wisconsin, T. 61N, R. 26W, Minn. _g._ _Mustela erminea invicta_, [F] ad., 90820, M. V. Z., 1-1/2 mi. W Iron Mtn., Idaho. _h._ _Mustela erminea alascensis_, [F] ad., 74422, U. S. Nat. Mus., Juneau, Alaska. _i._ _Mustela erminea salva_, [F] ad., 74655, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Mole Harbor, Alaska.] [Illustration: PLATE 11. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in lateral view of twelve subspecies of _Mustela erminea_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela erminea arctica_, [F] ad., 35895, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Point Barrow, Alaska. _b._ _Mustela erminea semplei_, [F] ad., 6600, Carnegie Mus., Southhampton Island. _c._ _Mustela erminea kadiacensis_, [F] ad., 98042, U. S. Nat. Mus., Kadiak, Alaska. _d._ _Mustela erminea richardsonii_, [F] ad., 129703, U. S. Nat. Mus., Fort Resolution, MacK. _e._ _Mustela erminea cicognanii_, [F] ad., 7460, Carnegie Mus., Pymatuning Swamp, Pa. _f._ _Mustela erminea bangsi_, [F] ad., 8679, Univ. Wisconsin, T. 61N, R. 26W, Minn. _g._ _Mustela erminea invicta_, [F] ad., 90820, M. V. Z., 1-1/2 mi. W Iron Mtn., Idaho. _h._ _Mustela erminea alascensis_, [F] ad., 74422, U. S. Nat. Mus., Juneau, Alaska. _i._ _Mustela erminea salva_, [F] ad., 74655, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Mole Harbor, Alaska. _j._ _Mustela erminea haidarum_, [F] ad., 100624, U. S. Nat. Mus., Moresby Island, B. C. _k._ _Mustela erminea anguinae_, [F] ad., 13673, Nat. Mus. Canada, Cape Scott, V. I., B. C. _l._ _Mustela erminea fallenda_, [F] ad., 7284, Nat. Mus. Canada, Huntingdon, B. C.] [Illustration: PLATE 12. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in dorsal view of eight subspecies of _Mustela erminea_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela erminea haidarum_, [F] ad., 100624, U. S. N. M., Moresby Island, B. C. _b._ _Mustela erminea anguinae_, [F] ad., 13673, N. M. Canada, Cape Scott, V. I., B. C. _c._ _Mustela erminea fallenda_, [F] ad., 7284, Nat. Mus. Canada, Huntingdon, B. C. _d._ _Mustela erminea olympica_, [F] ad., 242133, U. S. Nat. Mus., Hayes Creek, Wash. _e._ _Mustela erminea streatori_, [F] ad., 9040, D. R. Dickey Coll., Blaine, Oregon. _f._ _Mustela erminea gulosa_, [F] ad., 77370, U. S. Nat. Mus., Trout Lake, Wash. _g._ _Mustela erminea muricus_, [F] ad., 41502, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Baker Creek, Nevada. _h._ _Mustela erminea angustidens_, [F]?, ad., 12435, A. M. N. H., Conard Fissure, Ark. _i._ _Mustela erminea angustidens_, [F]?, ad., 11766, A. M. N. H., Conard Fissure, Ark.] [Illustration: PLATE 13. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in ventral view of eight subspecies of _Mustela erminea_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela erminea haidarum_, [F] ad., 100624, U. S. N. M., Moresby Island, B. C. _b._ _Mustela erminea anguinae_, [F] ad., 13673, Nat. Mus. Canada, Cape Scott, B. C. _c._ _Mustela erminea fallenda_, [F] ad., 7284, Nat. Mus. Canada, Huntingdon, B. C. _d._ _Mustela erminea olympica_, [F] ad., 242133, U. S. Nat. Mus., Hayes Creek, Wash. _e._ _Mustela erminea streatori_, [F] ad., 9040, D. R. Dickey Coll., Blaine, Oregon. _f._ _Mustela erminea gulosa_, [F] ad., 77370, U. S. Nat. Mus., Trout Lake, Wash. _g._ _Mustela erminea muricus_, [F] ad., 41502, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Baker Creek, Nevada. _h._ _Mustela erminea angustidens_, [F]?, ad., 12435, A. M. N. H., Conard Fissure, Ark. _i._ _Mustela erminea angustidens_, [F]?, ad., 11766, A. M. N. H., Conard Fissure, Ark.] [Illustration: PLATE 14. Photographs, retouched, of _M. erminea_ and _M. minuta_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela erminea olympica_, [F] ad., 242133, U. S. Nat. Mus., Hayes Creek, Wash. _b._ _Mustela erminea streatori_, [F] ad., 9040, D. R. Dickey Coll., Blaine, Oregon. _c._ _Mustela erminea gulosa_, [F] ad., 77370, U. S. Nat. Mus., Trout Lake, Wash. _d._ _Mustela erminea muricus_, [F] ad., 41502, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Baker Creek, Nevada. _e._ _Mustela erminea angustidens_, adult, probably female, type, 12432, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., with lower jaw, Conard Fissure, Ark. _f._ _M. e. angustidens_, [F]?, ad., 12435, A. M. N. H., Conard Fissure, Ark. _g._ _Mustela rixosa eskimo_, [M] sad., 43288, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Barrow, Alaska. _h._ _Mustela rixosa eskimo_, [F] sad., 40059, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Barrow, Alaska. _i._ _Mustela rixosa rixosa_, [M] ad., 11743, Nat. Mus. Canada, Shaunavon, Sask. _j._ _Mustela rixosa rixosa_, [F] ad., 12679, Nat. Mus. Canada, south of Shaunavon, Sask. _k._ _Mustela r. allegheniensis_, [M] ad., 35381, Field M. N. H., Portage Twp., Ohio. _l._ _Mustela rixosa allegheniensis_, [F] ad., 33021, Field M. N. H., Stryker, Ohio.] [Illustration: PLATE 15. Photographs, retouched, of _Mustela rixosa_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela rixosa eskimo_, [M] sad., 43288, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Barrow, Alaska. _b._ _Mustela rixosa rixosa_, [M] ad., 11743, Nat. Mus. Canada, Shaunavon, Saskatchewan. _c._ _Mustela rixosa allegheniensis_, [M] ad., 33581, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Portage Township, Wood County, Ohio. _d._ _Mustela rixosa campestris_, [M] ad., 261830, U. S. Nat. Mus., shore of Sand Lake, South Dakota. _e._ _Mustela rixosa eskimo_, [M] sad., same specimen shown in _a_. _f._ _Mustela rixosa rixosa_, [M] same specimen shown in _b_. _g._ _Mustela rixosa allegheniensis_, [M] ad., same specimen shown in _c_. _c_. _h._ _Mustela rixosa campestris_, [M] ad., same specimen shown in _d_. _i._ _Mustela rixosa eskimo_, [F] sad., 40059, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Barrow, Alaska. _j._ _Mustela rixosa rixosa_, [F] ad., 12679, Nat. Mus. Canada, south of Shaunavon, Saskatchewan. _k._ _Mustela rixosa allegheniensis_, [F] ad., 33021, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Stryker, Ohio. _l._ _Mustela rixosa allegheniensis_, [F] ad., same specimen shown in _k_. _m._ _Mustela rixosa eskimo_, [F] sad., same specimen shown in _i_. _n._ _Mustela rixosa rixosa_, [F] ad., same specimen shown in _j_. _o._ _Mustela rixosa campestris_, [M] ad., same specimen shown in _d_ and _h_.] [Illustration: PLATE 16. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in dorsal view of nine subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_, [M] ad., 77112, U. S. Nat. Mus., Wilmington, Massachusetts. _b._ _Mustela frenata occisor_, [M] ad., 7267, Mus. Comp. Zool., Moosehead Lake, Maine. _c._ _Mustela frenata primulina_, [M] ad., 3325, Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas, Clinton, Kansas. _d._ _Mustela frenata arthuri_, [M] sad., 37515, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., type, Remy, Louisiana. _e._ _Mustela frenata olivacea_, [M] ad., 180802, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Biological Surveys Collection, Autaugaville, Alabama. _f._ _Mustela frenata peninsulae_, [M] ad., 49387, Florida State Mus., Apopka, Florida. _g._ _Mustela frenata spadix_, [M] ad., 53745, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Elk River, Minnesota. _h._ _Mustela frenata longicauda_, [M] ad., 15875, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Red Deer, Alberta. _i._ _Mustela frenata oribasa_, [M] ad., 43817, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Isaacs Lake, British Columbia.] [Illustration: PLATE 17. Photos, retouched, of skulls of males, in ventral view, of 9 subspecies of _Mustela frenata_, × 1. Data for _a_ to _i_ are given on Plate 18. _a._ _M. f noveboracensis_ _b._ _M. f. occisor_ _c._ _M. f. primulina_ _d._ _M. f. arthuri_ _e._ _M. f. olivacea_ _f._ _M. f. peninsulae_ _g._ _M. f. spadix_ _h._ _M. f. longicauda_ _i._ _M. f. oribasus_] [Illustration: PLATE 18. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in lateral view of ten subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_, [M] ad., 77112, U. S. Nat. Mus., Wilmington, Mass. _b._ _Mustela frenata occisor_, [M] ad., 7267, M. C. Z., Moosehead Lake, Maine. _c._ _Mustela frenata primulina_, [M] ad., 3325, Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas, Clinton, Kans. _d._ _Mustela frenata arthuri_, [M] ad., 37515, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., type, Remy, Louisiana. _e._ _Mustela frenata olivacea_, [M] ad., 180802, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Biological Surveys Collection, Autaugaville, Alabama. _f._ _Mustela frenata peninsulae_, [M] ad., 49387, Florida State Mus., Apopka, Florida. _g._ _Mustela frenata spadix_, [M] ad., 53795, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Elk River, Minnesota. _h._ _Mustela frenata longicauda_, [M] ad., 15875, Amer. Mus. N. H., Red Deer, Alberta. _i._ _Mustela frenata oribasus_, [M] ad., 43817, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Isaacs Lake, B. C. _j._ _Mustela frenata alleni_, [M] ad., 7440/9136, A. M. N. H., Hill City, S. D.] [Illustration: PLATE 19. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in dorsal view of nine subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata alleni_, [M] ad., 7440/9136, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Hill City, South Dakota. _b._ _Mustela frenata arizonensis_, [M] ad., 55211, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Government Prairie, Arizona. _c._ _Mustela frenata nevadensis_, [M] ad., 22116, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Chinquapin, California. _d._ _Mustela frenata effera_, [M] ad., 33637, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Ironside, Oregon. _e._ _Mustela frenata washingtoni_, [M] ad., 226758, U. S. Nat. Mus., Gotchen Creek, Washington. _f._ _Mustela frenata saturata_, [M] ad., 65930, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Siskiyou, Oregon. _g._ _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_, [M] ad., 391, Coll. Alex Walker, Blaine, Oregon. _h._ _Mustela frenata oregonensis_, [M] sad., 43828/32019, U. S. Nat. Mus., Grants Pass, Oregon. _i._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [M] ad., 5459, Mus. Comp. Zool., type, Point Reyes, California.] [Illustration: PLATE 20. Photos, retouched, of skulls of males in ventral view of 9 subspecies of _Mustela frenata_, × 1. Data for a to i on Plates 18 and 21. _a._ _M. f. alleni_ _b._ _M. f. arizonensis_ _c._ _M. f. nevadensis_ _d._ _M. f. effera_ _e._ _M. f. washingtoni_ _f._ _M. f. saturata_ _g._ _M. f. altifrontalis_ _h._ _M. f. oregonensis_ _i._ _M. f. munda_, 5459.] [Illustration: PLATE 21. Photographs, retouched, of skulls, in lateral view, of nine subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata arizonensis_, [M] ad., 55211, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Government Prairie, Ariz. _b._ _Mustela frenata nevadensis_, [M] ad., 22116, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Chinquapin, California. _c._ _Mustela frenata effera_, [M] ad., 33637, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Ironside, Oregon. _d._ _Mustela frenata washingtoni_, [M] ad., 226758, U. S. Nat. Mus., Gotchen Creek, Wash. _e._ _Mustela frenata saturata_, [M] ad., 65930, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Siskiyou, Oregon. _f._ _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_, [M] ad., 391, Coll. Alex Walker, Blaine, Oregon. _g._ _Mustela frenata oregonensis_, [M] sad., 43828/32019, U. S. N. M., Grants Pass, Ore. _h._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [M] ad., 5459, M. C. Z., type, Point Reyes, Calif. _i._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [M] ad., 19722, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Point Arena, Calif. _j._ _Mustela frenata xanthogenys_, [M] ad., 1440, Coll. Alex Walker, 5 mi. W Fresno, Calif.] [Illustration: PLATE 22. Photographs, retouched, of skulls, in dorsal view, of nine subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [M] ad., 19722, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Point Arena, California. _b._ _Mustela frenata xanthogenys_, [M] ad., 1440, col. Alex Walker, 5 mi. W Fresno, California. _c._ _Mustela frenata nigriauris_, [M] ad., 487, Stanford Univ., Palo Alto, California. _d._ _Mustela frenata latirostra_, [M] ad., 52702, U. S. Nat. Mus., El Cajon, California. _e._ _Mustela frenata pulchra_, [M] ad., 16668, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., type, Buttonwillow, California. _f._ _Mustela frenata inyoensis_, [M] ad., 25907, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., 2 mi. N Independence, California. _g._ _Mustela frenata neomexicana_, [M] ad., 1485, Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ., Kansas, Liberal, Kansas. _h._ _Mustela frenata texensis_, [M] ad., 14821, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Kerr County, Texas. _i._ _Mustela frenata frenata_, [M] ad., 50826, U. S. Nat. Mus., Tlalpam, México, D. F.] [Illustration: PLATE 23. Ventral views of same skulls shown in Plate 22. _a._ _munda_; _b._ _xanthogenys_; _c._ _nigriauris_; _d._ _latirostra_; _e._ _pulchra_; _f._ _inyoensis_; _g._ _neomexicanus_; _h._ _texensis_; _i._ _frenata_.] [Illustration: PLATE 24. Photographs, retouched, of skulls, in lateral view, of ten subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata nigriauris_, [M] ad., 487, Stanford Univ., Palo Alto, California. _b._ _Mustela frenata latirostra_, [M] ad., 52702, U. S. Nat. Mus., El Cajon, California. _c._ _Mustela frenata pulchra_, [M] ad., 16668, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., type, Buttonwillow, Calif. _d._ _Mustela frenata inyoensis_, [M] ad., 25907, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., type, 2 mi. N Independence, California. _e._ _Mustela frenata neomexicana_, [M] ad., 1485, M. N. H., Univ. Kansas, Liberal, Kansas. _f._ _Mustela frenata texensis_, [M] ad., 14821, A. M. N. H., Kerr County, Texas. _g._ _Mustela frenata frenata_, [M] ad., 50826, U. S. Nat. Mus., Tlalpam, México, D. F. _h._ _Mustela frenata leucoparia_, [M] ad., 125972, U. S. N. M., Los Reyes, Michoacán. _i._ _Mustela frenata macrophonius_, [M] ad., [14063,] Field Mus. N. H., type, Achotal, Veracruz. _j._ _Mustela frenata goldmani_, [M] ad., 77519, U. S. Nat. Mus., Pinabete, Veracruz.] [Illustration: PLATE 25. Photographs, retouched, of skulls, in dorsal view of nine subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural Size. _a._ _Mustela frenata leucoparia_, [M] ad., 125972, U. S. Nat. Mus., Los Reyes, Michoacán. _b._ _Mustela frenata macrophonius_, [M] ad., 14063, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Achotal, Veracruz. _c._ _Mustela frenata goldmani_, [M] ad., 133253, U. S. Nat. Mus., 20 mi. SE Teopisca, Chiapas. _d._ _Mustela frenata tropicalis_, [M] ad., 54994, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Jico, Veracruz. _e._ _Mustela frenata perda_, [M] sad., 100041, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Teapa, Tabasco. _f._ _Mustela frenata nicaraguae_, [M] sad., 30754, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Matagalpa, Nicaragua. _g._ _Mustela frenata costaricensis_, [M] ad., 3.2.1.6., British Mus. Nat. Hist., San José, Costa Rica. _h._ _Mustela frenata panamensis_, [M] ad., 18848, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Boquete, Panamá. _i._ _Mustela frenata meridana_, [M] ad., 123341, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Mérida, Venezuela.] [Illustration: PLATE 26. Ventral views of same skulls shown in Plate 25. _a._ _leucoparia_; _b._ _macrophonius_; _c._ _goldmani_; _d._ _tropicalis_; _e._ _perda_; _f._ _nicaraguae_; _g._ _costaricensis_; _h._ _panamensis_; _i._ _meridana_.] [Illustration: PLATE 27. Photographs, retouched, of skulls, in lateral view of ten subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata tropicalis_, [M] ad., 54994, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Jico, Veracruz. _b._ _Mustela frenata perda_, [M] sad., 100041; U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Teapa, Tabasco. _c._ _Mustela frenata nicaraguae_, [M] sad., 30754, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Matagalpa, Nicaragua. _d._ _Mustela frenata costaricensis_, [M] ad., 3.2.1.6., British Mus. Nat. Hist., San José, Costa Rica. _e._ _Mustela frenata panamensis_, [M] ad., 18848, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Boquete, Panamá. _f._ _Mustela frenata meridana_, [M] ad., 24309, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Mérida, Venezuela. _g._ _Mustela frenata aureoventris_, [M] yg., 34677, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Gualea, Ecuador. _h._ _Mustela frenata helleri_, [M] ad., 24133, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Rio Chinchao, Perú. _i._ _Mustela frenata macrura_, [M] ad., 561, Mus. Polonais d' Hist., Nat., type, Junín, Perú. _j._ _Mustela frenata agilis_, [M] ad., 8.1.10.1., British Mus. Nat. Hist., Lima, Perú.] [Illustration: PLATE 28. Photographs, retouched (except _f_), of skulls, in dorsal view of nine kinds (species and subspecies) of _Mustela_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata aureoventris_, [M] yg., 34677, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Gualea, Ecuador. _b._ _Mustela frenata helleri_, [M] ad., 24133, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Rio Chinchao, Perú. _c._ _Mustela frenata macrura_, [M] ad., 561, Mus. Polonais d' Hist. Nat., type, Junín, Perú. _d._ _Mustela frenata agilis_, [M] ad., 8.1.10.1., British Mus. Nat. Hist., Lima, Perú. _e._ _Mustela frenata boliviensis_, [M] ad., 72587, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Nequejahuira, Bolivia. _f._ _Mustela frenata xanthogenys_, [M] ad., 43.6.4.55., British Mus., Nat. Hist., type, California. _g._ _Mustela frenata costaricensis_, [M] yg., 37149, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, San José, Costa Rica. _h._ _Mustela frenata panamensis_, [M] yg., 178970, U. S. Nat. Mus., Mt. Pirre, Panamá. _i._ _Mustela africana africana_, [M] yg., 37475, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Pará, Brazil.] [Illustration: PLATE 29. Photographs, retouched, of skulls, in ventral view, of nine kinds (species and subspecies) of _Mustela_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata aureoventris_, [M] yg., 34677, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Gualea, Ecuador. _b._ _Mustela frenata helleri_, [M] ad., 24133, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Rio Chinchao, Perú. _c._ _Mustela frenata macrura_, [M] ad., 561, Mus. Polonais d' Hist. Nat., type, Junín, Perú. _d._ _Mustela frenata agilis_, [M] ad., 8.1.10.1., British Mus. Nat. Hist., Lima, Perú. _e._ _Mustela frenata boliviensis_, [M] ad., 72587, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Nequejahuira, Bolivia. _f._ _Mustela frenata leucoparia_, [M] ad., 47179/34914, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Pátzcuaro, Michoacán. _g._ _Mustela frenata costaricensis_, [M] yg., 37149, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, San José, Costa Rica. _h._ _Mustela frenata panamensis_, [M] yg., 178970, U. S. Nat. Mus., Mt. Pirre, Panamá. _i._ _Mustela africana africana_, [M] yg., 37475, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Pará, Brazil.] [Illustration: PLATE 30. Photographs, retouched (except _e_ and _q_) of skulls and lower jaws of _Mustela_. _a._ _Mustela frenata boliviensis_, [M] ad., 72587, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Nequejahuira, Bolivia. _b._ _Mustela frenata xanthogenys_, [M] ad., 43.4.6.55, British Mus. Nat. Hist., type, California. _c._ _Mustela frenata costaricensis_, [M] yg., 37149, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, San José, Costa Rica. _d._ _Mustela frenata panamensis_, [M] yg., 178970, U. S. Nat. Mus., Mt. Pirre, Panamá. _e._ _Mustela frenata affinis_, [M] ad., 54.6.3.4, British Mus. Nat. Hist., type, New Granada [=Colombia]. _f._ _Mustela africana africana_, [M] yg., 37475, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Pará, Brazil. _g._ _Mustela frenata saturata_, [M] ad., 65930, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Siskiyou, Oregon. _h._ _Mustela frenata oregonensis_, [M] ad., 43828/32019, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Grants Pass, Oregon. _i._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [M] ad., 5459, Mus. Comp. Zool., type, Point Reyes, California. _j._ _Mustela frenata leucoparia_, [M] ad., 47179/34914, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Pátzcuaro, Michoacán. _k._ _Mustela frenata macrophonius_, [M] ad., 14963, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Achotal, Veracruz. _l._ _Mustela frenata goldmani_, [M] ad., 77519, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Pinabete, Chiapas. _m._ _Mustela frenata tropicalis_, [M] ad., 54994, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Jico, Veracruz. _n._ _Mustela frenata perda_, [M] sad., 100041, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, Teapa, Tabasco. _o._ _Mustela frenata nicaraguae_, [M] sad., 30754, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Matagalpa, Nicaragua. _p._ _Mustela frenata costaricensis_, [M] yg., 37149, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, San José, Costa Rica. _q._ _Mustela frenata affinis_, [M] ad., 54.6.3.4, British Mus. Nat. Hist., type, New Granada [=Colombia]. _r._ _Mustela frenata macrura_, [M] ad., 561., Mus. Polonais d' Hist. Nat., type, Junín, Perú.] [Illustration: PLATE 31. Photos, retouched, of skulls of 9 subspecies of _M. frenata_, x 1. _a._ _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_, [F] ad., 64687, U. S. N. M., Wilmington, Mass. _b._ _Mustela frenata occisor_, [F] ad., 9101, Mus. Comp. Zool., Bucksport, Maine. _c._ _Mustela frenata primulina_, [F] ad., 3638, U. K. M. N. H., 7 mi. SW Lawrence, Kans. _d._ _Mustela frenata olivacea_, [F] ad., 41024, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Sinkola Plantation, Ga. _e._ _Mustela frenata spadix_, [F] ad., 188410, U. S. Nat. Mus., Elk River, Minn. _f._ _Mustela frenata longicauda_, [F] ad., 75483, U. S. Nat. Mus., Wingard, Sask. _g._ _Mustela frenata oribasus_, [F] ad., 9058, M. C. Z., type, source of Kettle River, B. C. _h._ _Mustela frenata alleni_, [F]?, ad., 7441, A. M. N. H., Black Hills, S. D. _i._ _Mustela frenata arizonensis_, [F] ad., 1886, A. M. N. H., type, S. F. Forest, Ariz.] [Illustration: PLATE 32. Photos, retouched, of skulls of 9 subspecies of _M. frenata_, × 1. _a._ _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_, [F] ad., 64687, U. S. N. M., Wilmington, Mass. _b._ _Mustela frenata occisor_, [F] ad., 9101, Mus. Comp. Zool., Bucksport, Maine. _c._ _Mustela frenata primulina_, [F] ad., 3638, U. K. M. N. H., 7 mi. SW Lawrence, Kans. _d._ _Mustela frenata olivacea_, [F] ad., 41024, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Sinkola Plantation, Ga. _e._ _Mustela frenata spadix_, [F] ad., 188410, U. S. Nat. Mus., Elk River, Minn. _f._ _Mustela f. longicauda_, [F] ad., 75483, U. S. Nat. Mus., Wingard, Sask. _g._ _Mustela frenata oribasus_, [F] ad., 9058, M. C. Z., type, source of Kettle Riv., B. C. _h._ _Mustela frenata alleni_, [F]?, ad., 7441, A. M. N. H., Black Hills, S. D. _i._ _Mustela frenata arizonensis_, [F] ad., 1886, A. M. N. H., type, S. F. Forest, Ariz.] [Illustration: PLATE 33. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in lateral view of ten subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata noveboracensis_, [F] ad., 64687, U. S. N. M., Wilmington, Mass. _b._ _Mustela frenata occisor_, [F] ad., 9101, Mus. Comp. Zool., Bucksport, Maine. _c._ _Mustela frenata primulina_, [F] ad., 3638, Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist., 7 mi. SW Lawrence, Kansas. _d._ _Mustela frenata olivacea_, [F] ad., 41024, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Sinkola Plantation, Ga. _e._ _Mustela frenata spadix_, [F] ad., 188410 (2196), U. S. Nat. Mus., Elk River, Minn. _f._ _Mustela frenata longicauda_, [F] ad., 75483, U. S. Nat. Mus., Wingard, Sask. _g._ _Mustela frenata oribasus_, [F] ad., 9058, Mus. Comp. Zool., type, source of Kettle River, British Columbia. _h._ _Mustela frenata alleni_, [F]?, ad., 7441, Amer. Mus. N. H., Black Hills, S. D. _i._ _Mustela frenata arizonensis_, [F] ad., 1886, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., type, San Francisco, Forest, Arizona. _j._ _Mustela frenata nevadensis_, [F] ad., 41503, M. V. Z., type, 3 mi. E Baker, Nev.] [Illustration: PLATE 34. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in dorsal view, of eight subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata nevadensis_, [F] ad., 41503, M. V. Z., type, 3 mi. E Baker, Nevada. _b._ _Mustela frenata washingtoni_, [F] sad., 81953, U. S. N. M., Trout Lake, Wash. _c._ _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_, [F] ad., 392, coll. of Alex Walker, Blaine, Oregon. _d._ _Mustela frenata oregonensis_, [F] ad., 244520, U. S. Nat. Mus., Medford, Oregon. _e._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [F] ad., 91764, U. S. Nat. Mus., Point Reyes, California. _f._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [F] ad., 19723, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Point Arena, California. _g._ _Mustela frenata xanthogenys_, [F] ad., 2626, coll. of W. E. Snyder, Selma, California. _h._ _Mustela frenata nigriauris_, [F] ad., 3761, M. V. Z., San Francisco, California. _i._ _Mustela frenata neomexicana_, [F] ad., 36482, U. S. N. M., Tombstone, Arizona.] [Illustration: PLATE 35. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in ventral view, of eight subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata nevadensis_, [F] ad., 41503, M. V. Z., type, 3 mi. E Baker, Nevada. _b._ _Mustela frenata washingtoni_, [F] sad., 81953, U. S. N. M., Trout Lake, Wash. _c._ _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_, [F] ad., 392, coll. of Alex Walker, Blaine, Oregon. _d._ _Mustela frenata oregonensis_, [F] ad., 244520, U. S. Nat. Mus., Medford, Oregon. _e._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [F] ad., 91764, U. S. N. M., Point Reyes, California. _f._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [F] ad., 19723, M. V. Z., Point Arena, California. _g._ _Mustela frenata xanthogenys_, [F] ad., 2626, coll. of W. E. Snyder, Selma, Calif. _h._ _Mustela frenata nigriauris_, [F] ad., 3761, M. V. Z., San Francisco, California. _i._ _Mustela frenata neomexicana_, [F] ad., 36482, U. S. N. M., Tombstone, Arizona.] [Illustration: PLATE 36. Photographs, retouched, of skulls in lateral view, of eight subspecies of _Mustela frenata_. Natural size. _a._ _Mustela frenata washingtoni_, [F] sad., 81953, U. S. N. M., Trout Lake, Wash. _b._ _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_, [F] ad., 392, coll. of Alex Walker, Blaine, Oregon. _c._ _Mustela frenata oregonensis_, [F] ad., 244520, U. S. N. M., Medford, Oregon. _d._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [F] ad., 91764, U. S. N. M., Point Reyes, California. _e._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [F] ad., 19723, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Point Arena, Calif. _f._ _Mustela frenata xanthogenys_, [F] ad., 2626, coll. of W. E. Snyder, Selma, Calif. _g._ _Mustela frenata nigriauris_, [F] ad., 3761, Mus. Vert. Zoöl., San Francisco, Calif. _h._ _Mustela frenata neomexicana_, [F] ad., 36482, U. S. N. M., Tombstone, Ariz. _i._ _Mustela frenata frenata_, [F] ad., 58685, U. S. Nat. Mus., Brownsville, Texas. _j._ _Mustela frenata frenata_, [F] ad., 991, Berlin Zool. Mus., type, México City, D. F. _k._ _Mustela frenata leucoparia_, [F] ad., 26153, Amer. Mus. N. H., Artenkiki, Jalisco. _l._ _Mustela frenata perotae_, [F] ad., 54278, U. S. Nat. Mus., type, 12500 ft., Cofre de Perote, Veracruz.] [Illustration: PLATE 37. Photos, retouched, of skulls of 8 subspecies of _Mustela frenata_, × 1. _a._ _Mustela frenata frenata_, [F] ad., 58685, U. S. Nat. Mus., Brownsville, Texas. _b._ _Mustela frenata frenata_, [F] ad., 991, Berlin Zool. Mus., type, México City, D. F. _c._ _Mustela frenata leucoparia_, [F] ad., 26153, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Artenkiki, Jalisco. _d._ _Mustela f. perotae_, [F] ad., 54278, U. S. N. M., type, Cofre de Perote, Veracruz. _e._ _Mustela frenata macrophonius_, [F] ad., 132528, U. S. Nat. Mus., Pérez, Veracruz. _f._ _Mustela frenata tropicalis_, [F] ad., 54993, U. S. Nat. Mus., Jico, Veracruz. _g._ _Mustela frenata perda_, [F] sad., 65422, U. S. Nat. Mus., Catemaco, Veracruz. _h._ _Mustela frenata meridana_, [F] ad., 143665, U. S. N. M., Mérida, Venezuela. _i._ _Mustela f. macrura_, [F] ad., 564, M. P. H. N., type of Mustela jelskii, Cutervo, Perú.] [Illustration: PLATE 38. Photos, retouched, skulls in ventral view, 8 subspecies of _M. frenata_, × 1. _a._ _Mustela frenata frenata_, [F] ad., 58685, U. S. Nat. Mus., Brownsville, Texas. _b._ _Mustela frenata frenata_, [F] ad., 991, Berlin Zool. Mus., type, México City, D. F. _c._ _Mustela frenata leucoparia_, [F] ad., 26153, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Artenkiki, Jalisco. _d._ _Mustela f. perotae_, [F] ad., 54278, U. S. N. M., type, Cofre de Perote, Veracruz. _e._ _Mustela frenata macrophonius_, [F] ad., 132528, U. S. Nat. Mus., Pérez, Veracruz. _f._ _Mustela frenata tropicalis_, [F] ad., 54993, U. S. Nat. Mus., Jico, Veracruz. _g._ _Mustela frenata perda_, [F] sad., 65422, U. S. Nat. Mus., Catemaco, Veracruz. _h._ _Mustela frenata meridana_, [F] ad., 143665, U. S. N. M., Mérida, Venezuela. _i._ _Mustela f. macrura_, [F] ad., 564, M. P. H. N., type of _Mustela jelskii_, Cutervo, Perú.] [Illustration: PLATE 39. FIGS. _a_-_h_. Photos, retouched, of 10 kinds _Mustela_, × 1. _a._ _Mustela frenata macrophonius_, [F] ad., 132528, U. S. Nat. Mus., Pérez, Veracruz. _b._ _Mustela frenata tropicalis_, [F] ad., 54993, U. S. Nat. Mus., Jico, Veracruz. _c._ _Mustela frenata perda_, [F] sad., 65422, U. S. Nat. Mus., Catemaco, Veracruz. _d._ _Mustela frenata meridana_, [F] ad., 143665, U. S. Nat. Mus., Mérida, Venezuela. _e._ _Mustela f. macrura_, [F] ad., 564, M. P. H. N., type of _Mustela jelskii_, Cutervo, Perú. _f._ _Mustela frenata agilis_, [F] sad., 21147, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Macate, Perú. _g._ _Mustela frenata gracilis_, [F]?, ad., 12431, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., type, Conard Fissure, Arkansas, Pleistocene. _h._ _Mustela a. stolzmanni_, [F] sad., 24.12.12.24, Brit. M. N. H., Myobamba, Perú. FIGS. _i_-_l_. _Mustela frenata nevadensis_, all males, from Colorado, showing seasonal change in color, × approximately 1/9. Note the sharply marked molt line in the pelage of spring and the absence of any definite molt line in autumn. _i._ No. 151415 U. S. Nat. Mus., Coventry, December 27, 1907. _j._ No. 202741 U. S. Nat. Mus., Pierce Place, April 18, 1913. _k._ No. 201681 U. S. Nat. Mus., Jefferson, June 23, 1913. _l._ No. 41997 Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Navajo River, October 29, 1913.] [Illustration: PLATE 40. Photos, retouched, of skulls and lower jaws of _Mustela_, × 1. _a._ _Mustela frenata agilis_, [F] sad., 21147, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Macate, Perú. _b._ _Mustela frenata gracilis_, [F]?, ad., type, 12431, A. M. N. H., Conard Fiss., Ark. _c._ _Mustela africana stolzmanni_, [F] sad., 24.12.12.24, Brit. M. N. H., Myobamba, Perú. _d._ _Mustela frenata agilis_, [F] sad., 21147, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Macate, Perú. _e._ _Mustela frenata gracilis_, [F]?, ad., type, 12431, A. M. N. H., Conard Fiss., Ark. _f._ _Mustela africana stolzmanni_, [F] sad., 24.12.12.24, Brit. M. N. H., Myobamba, Perú. _g._ _Mustela africana stolzmanni_, [F] ad., 563, Mus. Polonais d' Hist. Nat., type, Yurimaguas, Perú. The palate is broken longitudinally and the two maxillae are slightly out of normal position. _h._ _Mustela frenata oribasus_, [F] ad., 9058, M. C. Z., type, source of Kettle Riv., B. C. _i._ _Mustela frenata munda_, [F] ad., 91764, U. S. Nat. Mus., Point Reyes, Calif. _j._ _Mustela frenata frenata_, [F] ad., 991, Berlin Z. M., type, México City, D. F. _k._ _Mustela f. macrura_, [F] ad., 564, Mus. Polonais d' Hist. Nat., type of _Mustela jelskii_. _l._ _Mustela africana stolzmanni_, [F] ad., 563, Mus. Polonais d' Hist. Nat., type, Yurimaguas, Perú. Right half of lower jaw reversed.] [Illustration: PLATE 41. Photographs, approximately 1/2, of stuffed study-skins of the four species of American weasels. For each pair the male is at the left and the female at the right. Photo. by W. C. Matthews. _Mustela erminea arctica_, both in U. S. B. S., from Mts. near Eagle, Alaska, [M] 131256 and [F] 131245. _Mustela erminea invicta_, both in U. S. B. S., from Tungsten Mine, Washington, [M] 235236 and [F] 235235. _Mustela erminea muricus_, both in M. V. Z., from Baker Creek, 8675 ft., Nevada, [M] 41501 and [F] 41502. _Mustela frenata nigriauris_, both in M. V. Z., from California, [M] 51666 from Concord and [F] 73109 from Berkeley. _Mustela africana africana_, [M] 37475 A. M. N. H., from Pará, Brazil. _Mustela rixosa allegheniensis_, both in M. Z. U. M., from Michigan, [M] 83260 Swan Creek Farm and [F] 88079 from Unadilla.] INDEX TO VOLUME 4 Principal references are in boldface type aequatorialis, Mustela, 75 Putorius, 75, 341, 387 aestuarina, Mustela, 82 affinis, Mustela, 75, 375, 379, =384=, 398, =409= Putorius, 372, 375, 379, 384 africana, Mustela, 73, 406, =409= agilis, Mustela, 74, =393= Putorius, 74, 222 alascensis, Mustela, 75, =131= Putorius, 75, 131 albigula, Neotoma, 208 allegheniensis, Mustela, 77, =187= Putorius, 77, 187 alleni, Mustela, 76, =274= Putorius, 76, 274 altifrontalis, Mustela, 79, =300= americana, 74, 75 americanus, Lepus, 93, 201, 210, 212, 216 anguinae, Mustela, 79, =145= angustidens, Mustela, 78, =165= Putorius, 78, 165 Annelida, 93 arctica, Mustela, 76, 96 arcticus, Putorius, 76 arizonensis, Mustela, 75, =276=, 280, 291, 323 Putorius, 75, 276, 280 armatus, Citellus, 200 arthuri, Mustela, 78, =241= audax, Mustela, 77 Putorius, 77 aureoventris, Mustela, 74, =387=, 398 Aves, 93 bachmani, Sylvilagus, 213 bangsi, Mustela, 80, =124= barn owl, 173 Belding ground squirrel, 205 beldingi, Citellus, 205 big jumping mouse, 210 birds, small, 216 wild, 93, 213 Blarina, 91, 205, 209, 210 brevicauda, 205 bobwhite, 213 boccamela, Mustela, 170 boliviensis, Mustela, 79, =402= bottae, Thomomys, 207 boylii, Lampropeltis, 213 brasiliensis, Mustela, 73, 341, 372, 375 Putorius, 280, 300, 315, 319, 323, 384, 387, 398, 409 brevicauda, Blarina, 91, 205 brush rabbit, 213 bull snake, 213 Bunaelurus, 11 campestris, Mustela, 78, 190 cat, domestic, 174 celenda, Mustela, 80, =139= chicken, 93, 213, 216 chipmunk, 92, 196, 201, 206, 210, 216 cicognanii, Mustela, 73, 110, =118=, 124, 222 Putorius, 118, 124, 128, 145, 155, 161 cinereus, Sorex, 205 Citellus, 216 armatus, 200 beldingi, 205 franklini, 205 lateralis, 206 richardsonii, 205 townsendii, 205 tridecemlineatus, 205 Clethrionomys, 92 gapperi, 175, 181 Colaptes, 213 comadreja, 7 Condylura, 210 costaricensis, Mustela, 78, =372=, 379, 387 cotton rat, 208 cottontail, 202, 203, 205, 212 Mearns, 208 coyote, 200 Cratogeomys, 65, 207 culbertsoni, Mustela, 75 Putorius, 75 deer mouse, 208, 209, 216 domestic cat, 174 donnola, 7 drummondi, Microtus, 175 earthworm, 93 effera, Mustela, 79, 291 energumenos, Mustela, 82 ermine, 87 erminea, Mustela, 71 Putorius, 222 eskimo, Mustela, 77, 181 Putorius, 77, 181 evagor, Mustela, 82 evergladensis, Mustela, 82 Evotomys, 175 fallenda, Mustela, 80, 148 Felis, 9 ferrets, 43 fish, 91, 93 flickers, 213 floridana, Neotoma, 208 flying squirrel, 206, 216 Franklin ground squirrel, 205 franklini, Citellus, 205 frenata, Mustela, 73, 232, 252, 280, 309, 338, 341 frenatus, Putorius, 280, 300, 315, 319, 323, 341, 351, 363, 366, 372, 384, 398 frog, leopard, 93 fulvus, Vulpes, 200 furo, Mustela, 43 fusca, Mustela, 222 fuscipes, Neotoma, 208 fuscus, Putorius, 74, 222 Gallus, 93, 213 gapperi, Clethrionomys, 175, 181 Geomyidae, 216 getulus, Lampropeltis, 213 Glaucomys, 206, 216 golden-mantled ground squirrel, 206 goldmani, Mustela, 76, 355 Putorius, 76, 355 gracilis, Mustela, 78, 404 Putorius, 78, 404 Grammogale, 407 grasshopper, 208 grasshopper mouse, 207, 216 great-horned owl, 173 ground squirrel, 210, 216 Belding, 205 Franklin, 205 golden-mantled, 206 Richardson, 205 thirteen-lined, 205 Townsend, 205 gulosa, Mustela, 80, 159 haidarum, Mustela, 76, 142 Putorius, 76, 142 hare, varying, 210, 216 harvest mouse, 208, 216 helleri, Mustela, 79, 391 hispidus, Sigmodon, 208 horned lark, 209 house mouse, 216 hyemalis, Junco, 213 imperii, Putorius, 77, 110 ingens, Mustela, 82 initis, Mustela, 80, 136 insects, 176, 209, 216 intergrades, 45 invicta, Mustela, 80, 128 inyoensis, Mustela, 79, 331 javonica, Mustela, 72 jelskii, Mustela, 75, 398 jumping mouse, 216 big, 210 Junco hyemalis, 213 kadiacensis, Mustela, 76, 108 Putorius, 76, 108 king-snake, 213 labiata, Mustela, 79 lacustris, Mustela, 82 Lampropeltis, boylii, 213 getulus, 213 lark, horned, 209 lateralis, Citellus, 205 latimanus, Scapanus, 205 latirostra, Mustela, 79, 323 least weasel, 168, 209 lemming, 92 Lemmus, 92 Leopard frog, 93 lepida, Neotoma, 208 lepta, Mustela, 161 leptus, Mustela, 161 Putorius, 78, 161 Lepus americanus, 93, 201, 210, 211, 212, 216 letifera, Mustela, 82 leucoparia, Mustela, 76, 347 Putorius, 76, 347 lizards, 216 longicauda, Mustela, 73, 232, 252, 262 Putorius, 280 long-tailed weasel, 193 lutensis, Mustela, 82 Lutra minor, 170 Lutreola, 84 lutreola, Mustela, 170 Lyncodon, 407 macrodon, Mustela, 82 macrophonius, Mustela, 78, 360 Putorius, 78, 360 macrura, Mustela, 75, 387, 393, 398, 402 macrurus, Putorius, 379 maniculatus, Peromyscus, 175 Martinogale, 11 meadow mice, 92, 208, 209, 216 Mearns cottontail, 208 melampelus, Mustela, 82 melodia, Melospiza, 213 Melospiza melodia, 213 meridana, Mustela, 78, 379 Mexican pocket gopher, 207 mexicanus, Putorius, 341 mice, meadow, 92, 208, 209, 216 microtis, Mustela, 110 Putorius, 77, 110 Microtus, 65, 91, 92, 174, 179, 181, 208, 209, 210, 216, 220 drummondi, 175 minor, 175 montanus, 209 ochrogaster, 179 pennsylvanicus, 175 minimus, Tamias, 206 mink, Mustela, 82 minor, Lutra, 170 Mustela, 169 minor, Zapus, 210 minuta, Mustela, 169 Palaeogale, 169 minutus, Putorius, 169 Miomustela, 11 mole, 210 moles, 216 montanus, Microtus, 209 mortigena, Mustela, 110 mouse, deer, 208, 209, 216 grasshopper, 207, 216 harvest, 208, 216 house, 208, 216 jumping, 210 meadow, 208, 209, 216 red-backed, 92 munda, Mustela, 77, 304, 309 mundus, Putorius, 77, 309 murica, Mustela, 161 muricus, Mustela, 77, 161 Putorius, 77, 161 Mus, 216 muskrat, 216 Mustela, 83 aequatorialis, 75 aestuarina, 82 affinis, 75, 375, 379, 384, 398, 409 africana, 73, 406, 409 agilis, 74, 393 alascensis, 75, 131 allegheniensis, 77, 187 alleni, 76, 274 altifrontalis, 79, 300 americana, 74, 75 anguinae, 79, 145 angustidens, 78, 165 arctica, 76, 96 arizonensis, 75, 276, 280, 291, 323 arthuri, 78, 241 audax, 77 aureoventris, 74, 387, 398 bangsi, 80, 124 boccamela, 170 boliviensis, 79, 402 brasiliensis, 73, 341, 372, 375 campestris, 78, 190 celenda, 80, 139 cicognanii, 73, 118, 222 cigognanii, 118 costaricensis, 78, 372, 379, 387 culbertsoni, 75 digna, 100 effera, 79, 291 energumenos, 82 erminea, 72, 87, 103 eskimo, 77, 181 evagor, 82 evergladensis, 82 fallenda, 80, 148 furo, 43 frenata, 73, 193, 232, 252, 280, 309, 338, 341 fusca, 224 goldmani, 76, 355 gracilis, 78, 404 gulosa, 80, 159 haidarum, 76, 142 helleri, 79, 391 ingens, 82 initis, 80, 136 invicta, 80, 128 inyoensis, 79, 331 javonica, 72 jelskii, 75, 398 kadiacensis, 76, 108 kaneii, 99 labiata, 79, 105 lacustris, 82 latirostra, 79, 323 lepta, 161 leptus, 161 letifera, 82 leucoparia, 76, 347 longicauda, 73, 232, 252, 262 lutensis, 82 lutreola, 170 macrodon, 82 macrophonius, 78, 360 macrura, 75, 387, 393, =398=, 402 melampelus, 82 meridana, 78, =379= microtus, 77, 110 mink, 82 minor, 169 minuta, 169 munda, 77, 304, =309= murica, 161 muricus, 77, =161= neomexicana, 76, 333 neomexicanus, 333 nesolestes, 82 nevadensis, 79, =280= nicaraguae, 78, =370= nigriauris, 79, 319 nigripes, 74 nivalis, 72 notius, 77 noveboracensis, 74, =222=, 252 numidica, 170 occisor, 77, =230= olivacea, 78, =244= olympica, 80, =153= oregonensis, 76, =304= oribasa, 270 oribasus, 77, =270= orientalis, 100 panamensis, 78, =375= paraensis, 76, 409 peninsulae, 75, =250= perda, 77, =366= perotae, 79, 351 polaris, 77, 103 primulina, 78, =232= pulchra, 79, =328= pusilla, 74, 118 putorius, 43 richardsonii, 73, =110= rixosa, 76, 153, 155, 161, 168, =184= salva, 80, =135= saturata, 76, 297 seclusa, 80, =141= semplei, 78, =105= spadix, 76, =252= stolzmanni, 75, 409, =413= streatori, 76, =155= texensis, 79, 338 tropicalis, 76, =363=, 367 vison, =82= vulgivaga, 82 washingtoni, 76, =294= xanthogenys, 74, =315=, 331 neomexicana, Mustela, 76, =333= neomexicanus, Mustela, =333= Putorius, 76, 333 Neotamias, 206 Neotoma, 208, 216 albigula, =208= floridana, =208= fuscipes, 208 lepida, 208 nesolestes, Mustela, 82 nevadensis, Mustela, 79, =280= nicaraguae, Mustela, 78, =370= nigriauris, Mustela, 79, 319 nigripes, Mustela, 74 Putorius, 74 nivalis, Mustela, 72, 169 northern pocket gopher, 206 notius, Putorius, 77, 222 noveboracensis, Mustela, 74, =222=, 252 Putorius, 74, 222 numidica, Mustela, 170 numidicus, Putorius, 170 occisor, Mustela, 77, =230= Putorius, 77 Ochotona, 92 ochrogaster, Microtus, 179 olivacea, Mustela, 78, =244= olympica, Mustela, 80, =153= Ondatra, 210, 216 Onychomys, 207, 216 oregonensis, Mustela, =304= Putorius, 304 oribasa, Mustela, 270 oribasus, Mustela, 77, =270= Putorius, 77 Orthogeomys, 65 owl, barn, 173 great-horned, 173 snowy, 90 Palaeogale, 11 minuta, 169 panamensis, Mustela, 78, =375= paraensis, Mustela, 76, 409 Putorius, 76, 409 peninsulae, Mustela, 75, =250= Putorius, 75, 250 pennsylvanicus, Microtus, 175 perda, Mustela, 77, 366 perdus, Putorius, 77, 366 Peromyscus, 91, 92, 173, 196, 208, 209, 210, 216 maniculatus, 175 perotae, Mustela, 79, =351= pheasant, 209 ring-necked, 202 pigmy weasel, 216 pika, 92 pikas, 201 pipiens, Rana, 93 Pisces, 93 Pituophis sayi sayi, 213 Pliogale, 11 pocket gopher, 209, 216 Mexican, 207 northern, 206 Shaw, 208 polaris, Mustela, 77, 103 Putorius, 77 polecats, 43 porcupine, quills of, 200 primulina, Mustela, 78, 233 pulchra, Mustela, 79, 323 pusilla, Mustela, 74, 118 pusillus, Putorius, 118, 155, 184, 190 Putorius, 76, 294, 300 aequatorialis, 75, 341, 387 affinis, 372, 375, 379, 384 agilis, 74, 222 alascensis, 75, 96, 131 allegheniensis, 77, 187 alleni, 76, 274 angustidens, 76, 165 arcticus, 76, 96 arizonensis, 75, 276, 280 audax, 77, 96 brasiliensis, 280, 300, 315, 319, 323, 384, 387, 398, 409 cicognanii, 96, 110, 118, 124, 128, 145, 155, 161 culbertsoni, 75 erminea, 96, 110, 222 eskimo, 77, 181 frenatus, 280, 300, 315, 319, 323, 341, 347, 351, 363, 366, 372, 384, 398 fuscus, 74, 222 goldmani, 76, 355 gracilis, 78, 404 haidarum, 76, 142 imperii, 110 kadiacensis, 76, 96, 108 kaneii, 100 leptus, 78, 161 leucoparia, 76, 347 longicauda, 262, 270, 280 macrophonius, 78, 360 macrotis, 77 macrurus, 370 mexicanus, 341 microtus, 100 minutus, 169 mundus, 77, 309 muricus, 77, 161 neomexicanus, 76, 333 nigripes, 74 notius, 77, 222 noveboracensis, 74, 222, 232 numidicus, 170 occisor, 77, 230 oregonensis, 304 oribasus, 77, 270 paraensis, 76, 409 peninsulae, 75, 250 perdus, 77, 366 polaris, 77, 103 pusillus, 118, 155, 184, 190 richardsonii, 96, 110 rixosus, 76, 181, 184 saturatus, 76, 294, 300 spadix, 76, 252 stolzmanni, 145, 148, 155, 159 streatori, 76 tropicalis, 76, 363, 370 vulgaris, 118, 155, 181, 184 washingtoni, 76, 294 xanthogenys, 315, 319, 323, 331 putorius, Mustela, 43 quail, 209, 213 rabbit, brush, 213 snowshoe, 93, 201 racer, red, 213 Rana pipiens, 93 rat, brown, 202 cotton, 208, 216 wood, 208 Rattus, 91, 92, 210, 216 rattlesnake, 200 red-backed mouse, 92 red racer, 213 squirrel, 206 Reithrodontomys, 175, 216 reptiles, 213 Richardson ground squirrel, 205 richardsonii, Citellus, 205 Mustela, 73, 110 Putorius, 222 ring-necked pheasant, 202 rixosa, Mustela, 76, 153, 155, 161, 168, 184 rixosus, Putorius, 76, 181, 184 Rodentia, 216 russet-backed thrush, 204 salva, Mustela, 80, 135 saturata, Mustela, 76, 297 sayi, Pituophis, 213 Scalopus, 209 Scapanus latimanus, 205 Schönthierlein, 7 Sciurus, 210 seclusa, Mustela, 80, 141 semplei, Mustela, 78, 105 short-tailed shrew, 208, 209 short-tailed weasel, 87 shrews, 216 Sigmodon, 216 Sigmodon hispidus, 208 slate-colored junco, 213 snake, bull, 213 king, 213 snakes, 216 snowshoe rabbit, 93, 210 snowy owl, 90 song sparrow, 201, 213 Sorex, 91, 209 cinereus, 205 Soricidae, 216 spadix, Mustela, 76, 252 Putorius, 76, 252 sparrow, song, 201, 213 tree, 208, 209 spermophile, Uinta, 200 squirrel, flying, 206 red, 206 tree, 216 stolzmanni, Mustela, 75, 409, 413 streatori, Mustela, 76, 155 Putorius, 76, 145, 148, 155, 159 striatus, Tamias, 206 Sylvilagus, 91, 93, 209, 210, 216 bachmani, 213 Talpidae, 216 talpoides, Thomomys, 207 Tamias, 91, 92, 206, 210, 216 minimus, 206 striatus, 206 Tamiasciurus, 206, 216 texensis, Mustela, 79, 338 thirteen-lined ground squirrel, 205 Thomomys, 206, 219 bottae, 207 talpoides, 207 thrush, russet-backed, 204 towhee, 201 Townsend ground squirrel, 205 townsendii, Citellus, 205 tree sparrow, 208, 209 tridecemlineatus, Citellus, 205 tropical weasel, 406 tropicalis, Mustela, 76, 363, 367 Putorius, 76, 363, 370 Uinta spermophile, 200 varying hare, 210, 216 vison, Mustela, 82 Lutreola, 84 vulgaris, Mustela, 73 Putorius, 118, 155, 181, 184 vulgivaga, Mustela, 82 Vulpes fulvus, 200 washingtoni, Mustela, 76, 294 Putorius, 76, 294 weasel, least, 168, 209 long-tailed, 193 Pigmy, 216 short-tailed, 87 tropical, 406 wild birds, 93, 213 wood rat, 208, 210, 216, 219 xanthogenys, Mustela, 74, 315, 331 Putorius, 315, 319, 323, 331 Zapus, 216 minor, 210 FOOTNOTES: [1] Acad. Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia [2] American Mus. Nat. History [3] Baylor University [4] Berlin Zoological Museum [5] Boston Society of Natural History [6] Brigham Young University [7] British Museum of Natural History [8] California Academy of Sciences [9] Carnegie Museum [10] Charles R. Conner Museum [11] Charleston Museum [12] Coe College [13] Collection of A. H. Miller [14] Collection of Alex Walker [15] Collection of Arthur Peake [16] Collection of D. D. Stone [17] Collection of Donald V. Hemphill [18] Collection of E. J. Koestner [19] Collection of Edward R. Warren [20] Collection of Frank Stephens [21] Collection of Ian McTaggart-Cowan [22] Collection of J. A. Munro [23] Collection of J. Arnold [24] Collection of J. E. Law [25] Collection of J. M. Edson [26] Collection of Jack C vonBloeker [27] Collection of Joe and Dean Thiriot [28] Collection of John Cushing [29] Collection of John Fitzgerald, Jr. [30] Collection of John Tyler [31] Collection of Kenneth Racey [32] Collection of L. M. Huey [33] Collection of Lloye H. Miller [34] Collection of Mr. Green [35] Collection of Myron H. Swenk [36] Collection of O. J. Murie [37] Collection of O. P. Silliman [38] Collection of R. D. Moore [39] Collection of R. H. Coleman [40] Collection of R. W. Jackson [41] Collection of Ralph Ellis [42] Collection of Robert T. Orr [43] Collection of Rollin H. Baker [44] Collection of Ross Hardy [45] Collection of Stanley C. Arthur [46] Collection of Stanley G. Jewett [47] Collection of Stuart Criddle [48] Collection of T. C. Stephens [49] Collection of Victor B. Scheffer [50] Collection of W. E. Snyder [51] Collection of Walter W. Dalquest [52] Collection of William B. Davis [53] Collection of William B. Richardson [54] Collection of William Bebb [55] Collection of William T. Shaw [56] Collection Rocky Mt. Spotted Fever Lab. [57] Colorado Museum of Natural History [58] Cornell University [59] Donald R. Dickey Collection [60] Field Museum of Natural History [61] Florida State Museum [62] Fresno State Junior College [63] Humboldt State Teachers College [64] Illinois Natural History Survey [65] Iowa State College [66] Iowa Wesleyan College [67] Kansas State Agric. College [68] Leland Stanford Junior University [70] Los Angeles Mus. Hist. Art and Sci. [71] Louisiana State University [72] Mt. Rainier Nat'l Park Collection [73] Mus. Polonais d'Hist. Nat., Warsaw [74] Mus. Vert. Zoöl., Univ. California [75] Museum of Comparative Zoölogy [76] Museum of Zoölogy, Univ. Michigan [77] National Museum of Canada [78] Naturhistoriska Ricksmuseum, Sweden [80] New York State Museum [81] Ohio State Museum [82] Oklahoma Agric. and Mech. College [83] Ottawa University, Kansas [84] Paris Museum [85] Provincial Museum of British Columbia [86] Royal Ontario Museum of Zoölogy [87] San Diego Society of Natural History [88] State Hist. and Nat. Hist. Soc. Colo. [89] State Normal School, Cheney, Wash. [90] Texas Cooperative Research Collection [91] United States National Museum [92] Univ. California Mus. Palaeo. [93] Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. History [94] Univ. Washington Museum of Zoölogy [95] Univ. Zool. Mus., Copenhagen [96] University of Arkansas [97] University of Idaho [98] University of Minnesota [99] University of Notre Dame [100] University of Oklahoma [101] University of Oregon [102] University of South Dakota [103] University of Utah [104] University of Wisconsin * * * * * Transcribers Notes: Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. Simple typographical and spelling errors were corrected. P. 162 changed Tahoma Creek, [72] to Tahoma Creek, 1[72]. P. 418 moved last two columns of "TABLE OF CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS" part a to the begining of part b. Plate 24 added [14063,] for missing specimen number.